bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Existential Theology
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Existentialism is generally regarded as having its modern origins in the thought of Danish Lutheran lay theologian Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855). In reaction both to “dead orthodoxy” in the state church and even more to Hegelian “essentialism” (one can rationally come to understand the cosmos), Kierkegaard argued that it is in fact impossible to get beyond one's own finite and sinful “existence.” In Kierkegaard's celebrated aphorism, “truth is subjectivity.” To think that one is capable of setting forth a necessarily true universal metaphysic is to misunderstand the human condition of estrangement and angst and to fall into egoistic hubris. The only hope for fallen mankind is to recognize one's fall from essence to existence and to seek personal, existential salvation through Jesus Christ.
Exorcism
Authors: Abate Eshetu 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The English term “exorcism” comes from the Latin
exorcismus
, and from Greek
exorkizo
— which means “to adjure or charge under oath.” Exorcism in the New Testament is the driving out of demons or evil spirits from a possessed person by commanding them in the Name of Jesus Christ. Other religions and cultures also use exorcism but largely as magical or superstitious means.
Feminist Biblical Interpretation
Authors: Köstenberger Margaret E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Feminism finds its roots in the women's movements of 17th century Europe and the United States. Becoming more entrenched from the 1960s onwards, it includes today: 1) secular feminists; 2) radical or goddess feminists; 3) reformist or liberationist feminists; and 4) evangelical or biblical feminists (Cottrell 1992). Feminists' use of Scripture ranges from: 1) non‐use (secular feminists); to 2) the rejection of Scripture as irredeemably patriarchal (radical feminists); to 3) a selective use of passages highlighting the positive contributions of women in Scripture (reformist) that can be used to advocate women's liberation from male oppression (liberationist); and 4) the comprehensive use of Scripture understood as teaching the full equality of women and men in both personhood and ecclesiastical and familial roles (evangelical or biblical feminists; M. E. Köstenberger 2008).
Fifth Century
C
hristianity
Authors: Smith David E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Four major dynamics of 5th century Christianity were to affect Christian civilization permanently. At the start of the century, the church experienced a major theological dispute. Called the Pelagian controversy, it involved a serious disagreement between Pelagius, a British monk, and Augustine, Bishop of Hippo in north Africa. The debate concerned the nature of sin: was sin something that people inherited from Adam and Eve and their descendants, something that compelled people to commit acts contrary to the will of God, or were people born neutral, with no predisposition toward evil at all? Upon his arrival in Rome in 400, Pelagius was troubled by his perception of the low moral state of the Christians there. He then encountered the famous prayer of Augustine in his
Confessions
: “Command what You will and grant what You command.” Pelagius thought this kind of theology was inspiring moral laziness, for the prayer implied that people were incapable of obeying God.
First Century
C
hristianity
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Jesus Christ rose from the dead on Easter Sunday in about
ad
28. Forty days after his resurrection he ascended to heaven (Acts 1:3), and ten days later, or fifty days after Easter, the Christian church was born in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost. According to Acts 2, it was on this day Christ's chosen disciples and some other followers received the Holy Spirit. And it was also on this day that Peter preached his sermon moving 3,000 individuals to repent and be baptized, making them members of Christ's church (Acts 2:41).
F
rederick the
W
ise (1463–1525)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
This pious duke, who insisted on having daily Mass, even when he was away hunting or traveling, was born in 1463 and became Elector of Saxony in the Holy Roman Empire when his father died in 1486. In 1493, he went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, posing as a commoner to obtain special absolution. By 1520, he had reportedly amassed a collection of more than 1,700 religious relics.
F
ry,
E
lizabeth (1780–1845)
Authors: Brunmeier Tess 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Elizabeth Gurney Fry was a Quaker woman who worked for prison reform in her native British Isles and beyond. She was born on May 21, 1780 in Norwich, England to wealthy Quaker parents John and Catherine Gurney, the third of 12 children. Her parents educated her in both scholastics and philanthropy. In 1800, Elizabeth married Quaker Joseph Fry (1777–1861). Together they had 11 children, yet Elizabeth tirelessly campaigned for prison reforms.
Gabrieli, Giovanni (1556–1612)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Gabrieli was the outstanding figure in the Venetian High Renaissance and the master of the polychoral style. He succeeded his uncle Andrea as organist at St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice. In 1585 he was appointed organist to the religious confraternity of the Scuola Grande di S. Rocco in addition to his duties at St. Mark's. Here he developed the
cori spezzati
form with the idiomatic use of instruments, increased use of dissonance, and contrasting sound and texture. His works include Masses and motets and also works for Christmas such as
Hodie Christus natus est
and
O Jesu mi dulcissime
. He composed ceremonial music for the cathedral and was the first to compose vocal works with independent instrumental parts. He composed nearly 100 motets, a large number of Mass sections including one complete Ordinary, many works for instrumental ensembles, and some organ pieces. His major vocal works were assembled and published in 1597 and (posthumously) in 1615 as
Sacrae Symphoniae
. Gabrieli cultivated the art of contrast in his music, especially the art of contrasting sonorities. In his earlier works, such as
Magnum Mysterium
and
O Domine Jesu Christe
, he introduced antiphonal choirs in a diatonic idiom. He also relied on thematic brevity and speech rhythms. In his later works he specified the instrumental parts and differentiated their style from the vocal parts and the style of solo vocalists from choral singing. He used tone‐painting through heightened use of dissonance and chromaticism. In his concertato‐like motet
In Ecclesiis benedicite Domino
(In the Congregation, Praise the Lord) he employed two soloists, two four‐part choirs, and a six‐part instrumental ensemble to achieve maximum contrasts of thematic material, texture, meter, and sonority, all unified by a recurring Alleluia chorus.
Gadamer,Hans‐Georg (1900–2002)
Authors: Emerick Christopher C. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractHans‐Georg Gadamer's life spans three centuries. He was born on February 11, 1900, in the same year that Nietzsche (1844–1900) died and precisely 250 years following the death of Descartes (1596–1650), against whom much of Gadamer's philosophy contends. He died in remarkably good health for his age in 2002. His father was a successful chemistry professor and his mother died when Gadamer was only 4 years old. Gadamer benefited from a solid education, completing his doctoral degree in 1922 with his dissertation on Plato. That same year Gadamer was afflicted with polio, which left him with an occasionally considerable limp for the rest of his life. During the many months he spent in bed battling the disease, Gadamer read Edmund Husserl's (1859–1938)Logical Investigations, which piqued his interest in phenomenology.
Gifts of the Spirit
Authors: Lamp Jeffrey S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Various catalogs of gifts of divine origin are specified in the Bible, particularly in the New Testament (Rom. 12:6–8; 1 Cor. 12:8–10, 28–30; Eph. 4:11). The term “gifts” derives from the Greek
charismata
, a cognate term with
charis
(grace), indicating that these spiritual endowments are freely given by God, Christ, or the Holy Spirit on no basis other than divine pleasure. That these manifestations of divine gifting occurred in the apostolic church is a given; what is at issue in subsequent Christian history is whether they are operative in the postapostolic church. Some groups known as “cessationists” see the gifts as appropriate only for the founding of the Christian movement, their operation having ceased with the passing of the original apostolic circle. Other groups, typically of Pentecostal‐Charismatic orientation, believe that they continue to operate at the direction of the Holy Spirit throughout church history. As such, the gifts form an integral part of the spiritual identity and practice of Pentecostal‐Charismatic Christians.
Global Christianity
Authors: Irvin Dale T. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractTwo thousand years ago a small band of followers of a Jewish teacher and healer named Jesus of Nazareth set out from Jerusalem to bring the message of his life, death, and reported resurrection to a wider world. Their charge, as they understood it to be from him, was to preach “in the whole world” (Mt. 24:14), thereby making disciples from among “all the nations” and joining them to the community that was gathered in his name (Mt. 28:19). Although they could not have imagined all that it would eventually entail, their goal was nothing less than to reach “the ends of the earth” (Acts 1:8).
Glossolalia
Authors: Cartledge Mark J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The term “glossolalia” is derived from the Greek phrase “glossais lalein,” which means to speak (in) tongues (literally: “tongues to speak”). It is normally associated with the day of Pentecost and the reception of the Holy Spirit by the 120 disciples (Acts 2:1–4). This language is used most frequently by Paul in 1 Corinthians 14, although variations can be found in the longer ending of Mark's Gospel (16:9–20) and the Acts of the Apostles. In addition, the word xenolalia (or xenoglossa) is sometimes used to refer to the same phenomenon but in terms of speaking unlearned real human languages. It is sometimes contrasted with glossolalia, which is then regarded as a gibberish language or a form of pseudo‐language. However, many commentators on tongues speech now tend to use glossolalia as the most basic term for the phenomenon, and when they wish to construe the linguistic nature of the speech as real unlearned human languages then they use the term xenolalia as a further descriptor.
Great Commission
Authors: Kreider Alan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Great Commission: a modern term designating Jesus' mandate at the end of Matthew's gospel (28:18–20) to his disciples. As they go they must make disciples of all nations, baptizing them and teaching them to observe all that he commanded. In Mark's gospel's longer ending (16:15–18) there is a parallel commission: as Jesus' disciples go they must proclaim the good news to the entire creation, baptizing those who believe; their proclamation will be accompanied by signs — exorcizing demons, speaking in tongues, picking up serpents without hurt, and healing the sick.
P
ratt Green, Fred (1903–2000)
Authors: McElwain Randall D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The English hymn writer Fred Pratt Green was born in Roby, England on September 2, 1903, and died in Norwich, England on October 22, 2000. His obituary offers a fitting summation of his contribution to Christian hymnody: “Prolific hymn writer who put Christianity's social concerns to verse” (
Guardian
, October 31, 2000). He recognized the hymn writer's responsibility to relate Christianity to society and sought to meet this responsibility faithfully.
Gregorian Chant
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Monodic and rhythmically free melody based on one of eight ecclesiastical modes whose nomenclature has come to reference western plainchant, Gregorian chant was a refinement of Roman chant that was developed by Frankish cantors. King Pippin III (r. 751–768), under the influence of Pope Stephen II (pope 752–757), called for the complete abandonment of the diverse Gallican liturgy in favor of a single rite to encourage a uniform worship practice. Pippin and his ancestors Charlemagne (r. 768–814) and Louis the Pious stood in favor of the
cantus romanus.
Gregorian/Julian Calendar
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Gregorian calendar is the commonly used modern method to measure time and to calculate dates in history and for the future. Ancient methods were based upon the naturally occurring lunar phases and the length of the solar year. The disharmony of these two systems, the former with just over 354 days, and the latter with 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds, led various groups to seek a suitable means by which to reconcile the two events. Ultimately, the Egyptians abandoned use of lunar phasing altogether and developed a formula for the cycle of the sun with 12 months of 30 days each, plus five additional days each year, and a “leap” day every four calendar years.
G
regory
I
(Gregory the Great) (
c.
540–604; Pontificate from 590)
Authors: Beiting Christopher J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Pope, theologian, reformer, author, last of the four Latin “Doctors of the Church,” and one of two popes to be surnamed “the Great,” Gregory I was one of the most influential popes of history and arguably one of the creators of the medieval papacy.
G
rotius, Hugo (1583–1645)
Authors: Maclean Iain S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Grotius, born in Delft on April 10, 1583, also known by the name Huig van Groot, was a famed 17th century Dutch jurist and theologian, known as a founder of international law, particularly law governing war, and for proposing criteria for the role of religion in the political sphere.
Hadewijch (Mid 13
th
Century)
Authors: Roberts Michelle Voss 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Flemish beguine Hadewijch was one of the loveliest flowers of the beguine movement in northern Europe in the 13th century. Very little is known about the historical Hadewijch. Her dialect and the location of her manuscripts place her near Brabant. Her mastery of Dutch and Latin, her apparent familiarity with French, and her facility with the customs and genres of the court suggest aristocratic descent. She was likely the leader of an early community of beguines, pious laywomen who committed to contemporary ideals of apostolic renewal (poverty, chastity, service, and contemplation), but without taking formal or permanent vows. She contributed to the late medieval flourishing of vernacular literature by writing visions, spiritual letters, and poetry (
Poems in Stanzas
and
Poems in Couplets
) in her native Middle Dutch. According to Paul Mommaers, Hadewijch “created a new genre — [she] is the first in Western European literature to write mystical love lyric” (Mommaers and Dutton 2004).
Hagiography
Authors: Hevelone Suzanne 
Published: January 2012

AbstractHagiography (or hagiology) refers to a meta‐genre of literature regarding the lives of the saints. The word hagiography comes from the Greekhagios(holy) andgraphe(writings). A misuse of the word hagiography sometimes refers exclusively to the lives of the saints (vitae), but the scholars now recognize the lives of the saints as just one of many genres comprising hagiography. Other subgenres which fall into the category of hagiography include miracle accounts, sermons, poetry, autobiography, romantic legend, accounts of the translation of relics, and bulls of canonization. Some scholars also consider visual art commemorating the saints to be hagiography.
Handel, George Frederick (1685–1759)
Authors: Whytock Jack C. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractOne of the greatest Christian composers of the Baroque age, George Frederick Handel is regarded as the originator of the English oratorio. In contrast to Bach, who was born the same year, Handel came from a nonmusical family, and his father wanted him to pursue law. However, the young Handel's musical genius was soon recognized. He received his early training from the noted Halle organist and composer Zachow. He studied organ, harpsichord, violin, and oboe; his ability on the organ was regarded by many as supreme. He performed and wrote for the Hamburg opera house.
H
arnack,
A
dolf
V
on (1851–1930)
Authors: Adams Sean A. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Adolf von Harnack was born in Dorpat, the son of Theododius Harnack, who was an orthodox theologian teaching at Dorpat and Erlangen. Although he began his studies at Dorpat, Harnack soon transferred to Leipzig to complete his doctoral dissertation on the history of gnosticism. He began his teaching career in Leipzig in 1874 and became a professor at Giessen in 1879. In 1886, Harnack accepted a position at Marburg; however, after a bitter controversy he moved to Berlin to become the professor of Church History there in 1888. From 1905 until 1921 Harnack was the director of the Royal Library. He was elevated to the German nobility in 1914, and was the last scholar to whom this honor was given.
Healing
Authors: King Paul L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Claims of healing have taken place throughout church history. Although some accounts of healing may involve superstition and exaggerated legend, many reports of healing are still accepted at face value by church historians. The Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches have always believed in the miraculous, while after the Reformation some Reformed groups embraced a cessationist position, believing that the miraculous was only for the early church.
Hell
Authors: Oderberg David S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Hell is defined as the place and state of eternal punishment reserved for those, and only those, who reject God. The two broad categories of inhabitants are, first, Satan and his demons — angels who rejected God before the creation of the material world — and, secondly, human beings who die in a state of unrepented, personal mortal sin. This article considers first the exist‐ence of hell, then the nature of the punishments therein inflicted, and finally the eternity of those punishments.
H
enry
VIII
,
K
ing (1491–1547)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
When Arthur, born in 1486, the first son of Henry VII, died in 1502 at not quite 16 years of age, it meant his brother Henry, born in 1491, was next in line for the throne, and when his father died in 1509, Henry VIII became England's king at the young age of 18. The same year Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon, the auburn‐haired widow of his brother Arthur who had married her when he was 15 and she was 16. Catherine was six years older than Henry.
H
erbert,
G
eorge (1593–1633)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The British priest and poet George Herbert was born in Montgomery, Wales, on April 3, 1593. His father was Richard Herbert, of a promin‐ent English family. His mother, Magdalene, was the patron of John Donne. Though sometimes in the shadow of that metaphysical poet, to whom he has stylistic affinities, George Herbert became one of the greatest religious poets in the English language.
H
esychasm
Authors: Foltz Bruce V. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Greek word
hesychia
means stillness, rest, quietness, and tranquility. Thus, in its broadest sense, Hesychasm as the characteristic spiritual orientation of the Eastern Church refers to the quieting of thoughts, passions, and desires — especially employing
nepsis
, mindfulness or watchfulness, toward them — in order to draw near to God in a prayerful, contemplative manner, consonant with the admonition in Psalm 46 (45, LXX): “Be still and know that I am God.” Though often associated with the spirituality of Mt. Athos, it has earlier origins in the monastic domains of Egypt, the Sinai Peninsula, and Cappadocia; it received some of its most import‐ant formulations in the monastic centers of Russia and other Slavic lands; and it is readily identifiable throughout the whole of Orthodox spirituality to this day. Its great compendium is the five‐volume
Philokalia
, a collection of spiritual writings from the 4th to the 15th centuries, first compiled in 1782 by SS. Macarius of Corinth and Nicodemus of the Holy Mountain, and later translated into Slavonic by St. Paisy Velichkovsky (1792) and into Russian by St. Theophan the Recluse (1876–1890).
H
ilton,
W
alter (
d
. 1396)
Authors: Condict Ellen 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Walter Hilton was a late 14th century Augustinian canon who settled in his later years at the Priory of Thurgarton in Nottingham, England. Little is known of the life of Hilton, but it seems he was first a layman, trained as a canon lawyer, then a solitary recluse before joining the religious community under ecclesiastical rule. The obscurity of Hilton's personal life is a reflection of the major themes of his work; his humility and gentle self‐effacement are products of the maturing of faith he calls his readers to, a process of recognizing the truth of the soul's condition and replacing its innate self‐centeredness with an interior resting in the truth of Christ. Conveying his personal spiritual experience is not Hilton's intent. He goes so far as to assert that he did not practice the art of contemplation himself, though his writing makes evident that he had experience with the deep spiritual joy he describes.
Historiography, Christian
Authors: Bain‐Conkin Jeffrey L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Not only written by the winners, history also usually demonstrates the winning. The early examples of Christian historiography revealed such an approach. The first historical accounts of the church — besides canonical and extra‐canonical works — were written during Constantine's attempt to unite Christianity into a public religion for his Roman Empire. These histories recounted forgotten heresies and defeated sects. Church history would remain a tool of institutional Christianity for centuries.
H
odge,
C
harles (1797–1878)
Authors: Rios Christopher M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A conservative Presbyterian theologian and enduring figure at Princeton Theological Seminary, Charles Hodge's staunch defense of Reformed theology shaped a significant portion of American religion well into the 20th century. Hodge was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to Hugh Hodge and Mary Blanchard. In 1812 he moved to Princeton and entered the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University), graduating in 1815. Hodge entered Princeton Seminary in 1816, graduating in 1819.
Holiness Movement
Authors: Lay Robert F. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Holiness is the central attribute of God and fundamental to a relationship with God, a requirement fulfilled only in Christ (Lev. 11:44; 1 Pet. 1:15–16). As a way of Christian living, “holiness” describes a worldwide movement with millions of adherents who strive to live according to the biblical pattern, and who testify to Christ's redeeming power over sin. Marked by varying degrees of separation from the world, Holiness believers also hold that guidance by the Holy Spirit supersedes ecclesiastical control. This way has been promoted by camp meeting organizations, institutionalized in church denominations, and conveyed by independent Holiness teachers and evangelists.