bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
W
hitman,
M
arcus (1802–1847), and
N
arcissa
P
rentiss
W
hitman (1808–1847)
Authors: Buss Dietrich Gotthilf 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Whitmans were pioneer Protestant missionaries to the Cayuse in Oregon Country from 1836 to 1847. By their example, corres‐pondence, and labors, they encouraged emigration to the far west. Both Marcus Whitman and Narcissa Prentiss were born in New York state, Whitman in Rushville on September 4, 1802, and Prentiss in Prattsburg on March 14, 1808. Both had Puritan English ancestors who landed in Massachusetts before 1640, and both were converted during the Second Great Awakening, became members of Presbyterian churches, and committed their lives to missionary service. Prentiss enrolled in Franklin Academy in Prattsburg, attended the Female Seminary in Troy, and became a teacher. In 1825 Whitman enrolled in the College of Physicians at Fairfield, New York and received his M.D. Thereafter, he practiced medicine in Canada and New York.
W
ilberforce,
W
illiam (1759–1833)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

William Wilberforce was born in 1759 in Yorkshire, England. As a young man, he enjoyed life and soon gained the reputation of being a worldly, likeable individual. He was elected as a Member of Parliament in 1780, at age 21, and again in 1784. In 1785, he experienced “a deep conversion to Christianity,” prompted in part by reading Philip Doddridge's book
The Rise and Progress of Religion
and later by reading the New Testament in Greek with his friend Isaac Milner. Previously, he hesitated becoming a serious Christian because he felt he would have to forfeit invitations to elite social gatherings.
W
illard,
F
rances
E
lizabeth (1839–1898)
Authors: Miller John R. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Frances E. Willard is prominent for her leadership in the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). She propelled the WCTU to its apex, culminating in the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment (United States Constitutional Amendment forbidding the sale or transportation of alcohol) 20 years after her death. She also championed the rights of women and lent her support to the suffrage movement.
W
illiams,
R
oger (1603?–1683)
Authors: Pratt J. Kristian 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Roger Williams is best known as the founder of Rhode Island colony and an early champion of religious liberty in the American colonies. His date of birth is uncertain, but he was born in London during the early years of King James' reign. Williams received his B.A. from Pembroke College (Cambridge University) in 1627. In 1629 he was ordained into the Church of England, and shortly thereafter joined the Puritan party.
W
ittgenstein,
L
udwig (1889–1951)
Authors: Ashford Bruce Riley 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Austrian‐born philosopher Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein is known as the leading analytic philosopher of the 20th century, but his influence on 20th century Christian theologians is also pervasive. Wittgenstein entered Manchester University where he studied engineering. His work with airplane propellers brought him into contact with mathematical theory, in particular the work of Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell. Wittgenstein was particularly interested in Russell's
Principia Mathematica
and eventually left Manchester to pursue studies in philosophy under Russell's supervision at Trinity College, Cambridge.
Women in Pentecostal Ministries
Authors: Rybarczyk Edmund J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The opportunity for women's ministry in Pentecostalism has a twofold basis. First, Pentecostals believe the coming of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost initiated an eschatological season of empowerment for ministry. Foundational to the Pentecostal worldview is Acts 2:17–18, “And in the last days it shall be, God declares, that I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh, and your sons
and daughters
shall prophesy … yea, and on my menservants and my
maidservants
in those days I will pour out my Spirit; and they shall prophesy” (italics for emphasis). The Lukan text itself thus secures and promotes women's ministry. Second, Pentecostals, having their historical foundations in late 19th century American culture, are consistently very pragmatic. They evince a “whatever it takes” kind of attitude in their service and mission. Everyone is called to participate in Christ's great commission. Indeed, this “get it done” mentality working in concert with an expectation of the imminent return of Christ saw women outnumbering men in Pentecostal foreign missions work in the first several decades of the 20th century. These women missionaries made astounding sacrifices. Many sold all their possessions and forsook the comforts of western civilization to go to countries where they did not speak the local language, all in order to present the gospel in the power of the Spirit.
World Council of Churches
Authors: Gill Theodore A. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The World Council of Churches (“WCC”) is a global, interconfessional organization based in Geneva, Switzerland. The traditions represented among its more than 340 member churches include African Initiated churches, Anglicans, Baptists, Independents, Old Catholics, Orthodox, Protestants, United and Uniting churches as well as some representatives of Pentecostalism. The total number of communicants claimed by WCC‐affiliated churches is approximately 560 million.
X
iuquan,
H
ong (1814–1864)
Authors: Koh Daniel K. S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Hong Xiuquan (Hung Hsiuch'uan), born January 1, 1814, in Fuyuanshui, near Guangzhou (Canton); died June 1, 1864. The fourth child in a Hakka family of five children, whose father, Hong Jingyang, was a small‐time farmer.
Y
amauchi,
E
dwin
M
asao (b. 1937)
Authors: Morrow Jeffrey L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Edwin Masao Yamauchi was born in Hawaii, USA, in 1937. He was raised nominally Buddhist, and in high school became an evangelical Protestant Christian. He earned a B.A. in Hebrew and Hellenistics from Shelton College (1960) and an M.A. (1962) and Ph.D. (1964) from Brandeis University in Mediterranean Studies. Yamauchi studied 22 languages including Akkadian, Arabic, Aramaic, Egyptian, Italian, Latin, Minoan Linear A, Minoan Linear B, Russian, and Ugaritic. He also participated in archaeological excavations in Israel. Cyrus H. Gordon, the Jewish scholar of the Bible, Mediterranean, and ancient Near East, directed Yamauchi's doctoral work. His doctoral dissertation, “Mandaic Incantation Texts,” considered magic incantation texts written on clay bowls in the Mandaic dialect of Aramaic, which is used by the Mandean Gnostics found in Iran and Iraq. After completing his doctoral work, Yamauchi taught in the History Department of Rutgers University. In 1969 he began teaching in the History Department of Miami University, in Oxford, Ohio, from which he eventually retired in 2005. At Miami, Yamauchi directed master's theses and doctoral dissertations examining such diverse topics as Gnosticism, ancient Rome, and Egyptology. He taught courses in ancient languages including Greek, Coptic, and Syriac, and he taught courses spanning the wide field of ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean history, including ancient Egypt and Africa, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome. While at both Rutgers and Miami, Yamauchi served as an advisor to Inter‐Varsity Christian Fellowship. At Miami University, Yamauchi cofounded the Oxford Bible Fellowship, where he serves as an elder. In 2006 he served as the president of the Evangelical Theological Society. Yamauchi is one of the more prolific evangelical Bible scholars in the US. He has over 430 publications to his name, including 17 books, and continues to publish more. His scholarly articles have appeared in evangelical venues such as
Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society
and
Westminster Theological Journal
, but he has also published widely in the mainstream scholarly world, including
Journal of the American Academy of Religion
,
Journal of Biblical Literature
,
Church History
,
Journal of the American Oriental Society
,
Journal of Near Eastern Studies
, and
Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
.
B
onner,
B
ishop
W
illiam Lee (
b
. 1921)
Authors: Stewart Alexander Constantine 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
William Lee Bonner is the senior prelate of the Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ of the Apostolic Faith, founded by Bishop Robert Clarence Lawson (1883–1961) in 1919. Bonner, known as chief apostle, is the third leader of the denomination following Bishop Lawson (1919–1961) and Bishop Hubert Spencer (1961–1972). Under his leadership, the denomination has experienced phenomenal growth from 155 churches in 1961 to 506 churches in 2007.
Cistercian Architecture
Authors: Davis Thomas X. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Cistercian architecture is a 12th century architectural style arising from the inspiration of St. Stephen Harding, third abbot of Citeaux, and promoted by St. Bernard of Clairvaux. Cistercian monks of this period built their monasteries of smooth, natural‐colored limestone with windows of clear glass and without adornments of color, paintings, or sculpture. The priority of early Cistercians was to build monasteries to provide the community with an environment suited to the monastic way of life as set forth in
The Rule of Saint Benedict.
They translated this
Rule
into spatial terms by the use of architecture.
C
yril
L
ucaris (1572–1638)
Authors: Lizorkin Ilya 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born in Crete in 1572, Cyril Lucaris studied in European cities including Venice (1584–1588) and Padua (1589–1593) where he may have been exposed to Protestant theology. At the age of 30, Cyril was elected to the Patriarchal throne of Alexandria, succeeding Meletios Pegas who had earlier ordained him to be a presbyter. He held that post as Cyril III (1601–1620) until he was promoted to become Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople as Cyril I (1621). His life was characterized by ceaseless activity and constant concern for the integrity and safety of the Orthodox Church.
F
rescobaldi,
G
irolamo (1583–1643)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Italian keyboard composer of the Baroque period. He served as an organist of the Ferrarese Accademia della Morte from 1597. In 1604 he moved to Rome where he became an organist in St. Peter's Cathedral in 1608. He remained in that position for the rest of his life except for a four‐year interlude from 1628–1634 when he was in Florence.
T
ruett,
G
eorge
W
ashington (1867–1944)
Authors: Hopkins Jerry B. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
George Washington Truett was born on May 6, 1867, at Hayesville in Clay County, North Carolina. Reared in rural North Carolina, he was converted in 1886, joining the Hayesville Baptist Church. He acknowledged a call to preach and was ordained in 1890 by the Whitewright Baptist Church in Texas.
G
loukharev,
M
acarius (1792–1847)
Authors: Gallagher Robert L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Macarius Gloukharev was a Russian Orthodox missionary who served for 14 years in the Altai Mountains, Siberia. At 25 he became a professor of church history and the German language at the Ekaterinoslov seminary in Poltava, positioning himself for a distinguished academic and ecclesiastical career. He then encountered a group of hesychastic monks who were influenced by the teachings of Paisy Velichkovsky, a Russian elder at Mount Athos, Greece, who had translated the
Philokalia
into Russian. This work concerned the spiritual practice of hesychasm: through silence and continual prayer, scriptural meditation, and the observance of the sacraments, the whole being may be united in fellowship with Christ and the Holy Spirit. This teaching caused a missionary renewal in the Russian Orthodox Church in the 19th century.
Gospel Music
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Protestant music that has been assimilated into popular worship music. The history of gospel music begins in the 19th century when hymnody was introduced into camp meetings. Simple, melodic, and harmonic songs, often in strophic form with the use of refrains, were part of the evangelistic crusades. The revival meetings led by the evangelist Dwight L. Moody and the musician Ira D. Sankey made the term gospel music a part of the lexicon of Christian music. As gospel songs won wider acceptance musicians introduced even more popular elements into revival music. Charlie Alexander was the first to issue a collection of gospel songs. Homer Rodeheaver, an associate of Billy Sunday, established the first successful publishing house for gospel music and his own record company. He also introduced into his revival services large choirs and orchestral instruments, an innovation that was soon picked up by radio evangelists.
H
am,
M
ordecai
F
owler,
Jr
. (1877–1961)
Authors: Hopkins Jerry B. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Mordecai Fowler Ham Jr., was born April 2, 1877 in Allen County, Kentucky to Tobias James Ham and Lady Oliver McElray Ham. He was educated in the public schools of that rural Kentucky county and later attended Ogden College in Bowling Green, Kentucky. This school was later absorbed by Western Kentucky State Teachers' College. During this same time period he studied law under Attorney B. F. Proctor of Bowling Green. He was too young to take the state bar examination when he finished studying with Proctor; instead he took a sales position with a grocery chain. After working for a time with that business, Ham quit to join a man in commercial sales. From 1897 to the end of 1900 Ham was employed as a crew manager for a picture‐enlarging business in Chicago. Before he left this business he organized a commercial club for investment. He invested in a business in Chicago, Illinois, which was the primary source of his income in the years closing the nineteenth century. Upon the death of his elderly grandfather, Mordecai Ham Sr., Ham felt called to the ministry. He studied for several months, reading 26 books and the Bible to prepare himself for the ministry to which he was called.
Holy See
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Holy See is the supreme ecclesiastical organ of the Roman Catholic Church and it is also used in a juridical and political sense to describe Vatican City. The latter definition dates from the Lateran Treaty of 1929, by which the Holy See is a sovereign state accepted as such by all nations as well as by the United Nations. However, unlike in other nations, citizenship is not a permanent bond between citizen and state acquired through birth or naturalization but rather is a functional tie in which the individual continues to retain his or her nationality. Further, there is no permanent population base.
Eriugena,JohnScottus (c.815–877)
Authors: Duclow Donald F. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractIrish philosopher, theologian, grammarian, and poet. John's name Eriugena (or Erigena) proclaims that he was born in Ireland, but he emigrated to the court and school of King Charles the Bald in northern France. Here he taught the liberal arts, and composed glosses on Martianus Capella'sMarriage of Mercury and Philology. His poetry in Latin and Greek includes theological poems and several honoring Charles. Commissioned to refute Gottschalk's doctrine of “double predestination” to heaven and hell, John'sOn Predestination(851) was itself condemned as heretical for focusing so intently on God's eternity and goodness that it rejected the notions ofpre‐destination and divine punishment. At a time when few in the west knew Greek, John translated into Latin writings by the Greek Fathers Gregory of Nyssa, Pseudo‐Dionysius the Areopagite, and Maximus the Confessor. These translations immersed John in theology of the Eastern Church and transformed his speculative vision. The outcome wasOn Nature(Periphyseon) orOn the Division of Nature(864–866), his vast synthesis of Dionysius and Augustine, East and West. Eriugena also wrote aCommentaryon Dionysius'Celestial Hierarchy, and two works on the Gospel of John: an incompleteCommentaryand a beautifulHomilyon the Gospel's prologue.
K
assatkin of
J
apan,
N
icholas (1836–1912)
Authors: Gallagher Robert L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Nicholas Kassatkin, in keeping with Russian Orthodox tradition, respected the traditional language and culture of the Japanese people among whom he served for 51 years. His work was largely free from Russian political interests as it stressed evangelization of the family, the raising of national workers, and the indigenization of the church.
R
amm,
B
ernard
L
. (1916–1992)
Authors: Gabriel Andrew K. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Bernard Ramm was an evangelical Baptist theologian and apologist. Born August 1, 1916, in Butte, Montana, he became a Christian two months before starting his university studies. Ramm studied at the University of Washington, Eastern Baptist Seminary, and the University of Southern California, where he received his PhD in 1950, having written a dissertation in philosophy of science. Ramm later spent a sabbatical year studying in Basel, Switzerland (1957–1958) with Karl Barth, whose influence is evident throughout Ramm's writings. Ramm was a pastor from 1942 to 1944 and began teaching in 1943. The majority of his academic career was as a faculty member of the American Baptist Seminary of the West (1959–1974, 1978–1986).
Areopagus Speech
Authors: Pardigon Flavien 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The apostle Paul's address before Athens' Areopagus court is the
locus classicus
of the interaction of the Christian faith with the non‐Christian culture and religion. Luke included this episode in his Acts of the Apostles to give his readers an example, indeed an exemplar, of the apostolic apologetic for cultured unbelievers. The speech has been interpreted mostly in ways echoing the apologetical thought of either Justin Martyr (
logos spermatikos
) or Tertullian (“What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?”).
Dogma
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Dogma means a propositional truth that is taught authoritatively through the magisterium of the church as revealed by God and as binding on all believers. In the Greek and Roman worlds dogma was an opinion which people believed in or which they professed in public. In Greek it means an ordinance or edict. In New Testament times, dogma alluded to a particular decision by the community as a whole (Acts 16:14) or to a distinction between a Christian and non‐Christian belief. In the early church, it meant a conciliar decree that had binding force. In the medieval church it meant a tenet. The Council of Trent distinguished between a dogmatic decree pertaining to faith and a reform decree pertaining to morals and practice.
Altarpiece
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

A decoration attached to an altar, also called retable. An altarpiece is an image or images, painted or carved in the round or relief, of a titular saint. It is distinguished from a reredos, which contains elaborate carved figures. An altarpiece may hang on the wall behind the altar or above it, and may range from a single picture to a large polyptych, such as the Ghent altarpiece by Hubert and Jan Van Eyck. A large altarpiece with several panels is called an
ancona
in Italian, while a
pala
is usually a single picture. Altarpieces may also be made of metal, such as the Pala d'Oro of St. Mark's Venice, which is made of gold, silver, and jewels.
Gerson,JeanDeCharlierDe (1363–1429)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

AbstractFrench churchman, theologian, and spiritual writer, known to his peers as Doctor Christianissimus. Born in the village of Gerson, near Ardennes, Jean rose to become one of the most respected figures in the later Middle Ages. He studied under Pierre d'Ailly at the College of Navarre in Paris, earning a doctorate in theology in 1394 and succeeding d'Ailly as chancellor of Notre Dame in 1395. In 1397 he retired to Bruges as dean of the Church of St. Donatian. While there he wrote his treatise, “On the Manner of Conducting Oneself in a Time of Schism.” He was instrumental in the return of Pope Benedict VIII to the throne of St. Peter. Gerson returned to Paris in 1401 as chancellor of the university and was responsible for bringing back the Dominicans, who had been expelled because of their teachings on the Immaculate Conception. He was one of the leading figures in the Council of Constance (1414–1418), where he represented the university, the archdiocese of Sens, and the kingdom of France, and he shares the blame for the death of John Hus and Jerome of Prague who were burned as heretics. He encouraged the Council to continue its sessions after the flight of John XXIII. He asserted the superiority of the General Council over the pope and called for the doctors of theology to play a greater role in the Council. He helped to draw up the Four Articles of Constance, which later became the charter of Gallicanism. After the accession to the throne of the Duke of Burgundy, the enemy of his patron, the Duke of Orleans, he went into exile in the Benedictine abbey of Melk in Austria where he wrote his famous book, theConsolations of Theology, modeled on Boethius. In 1419 he returned to France on the death of the Duke of Burgundy and spent the last years of his life in seclusion in the Celestine Monastery in Lyons, where he died in 1429.
B
uchman,
F
ranklin
N
athan
D
aniel (1878–1961)
Authors: Hopkins Jerry B. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Frank Buchman was born to Franklin and Sarah Buchman in Pennsburg, Pennsylvania on June 4, 1878. He earned his undergraduate degree from Muhlenberg College in 1899, continuing his theological training at Mt. Airy Seminary in 1899 to 1902. After seminary and ordination he served as a Lutheran minister in Overbrook, Pennsylvania from 1902 to 1905. From 1905 to 1909 he served as the founding director of the first Lutheran settlement house in Philadelphia. A disagreement with the governing board led to his resignation and an extended trip to Europe that led to a major change in his life's work.
Healing and Prosperity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christianity is not only a necklace of beliefs, but also a covenantal relationship between God and man signed in blood at Calvary. It posits mutual commitments and obligations. On the part of the believer there is the obligation to believe and to act on that belief within the context of biblical injunctions and commands. On the part of God there are equally binding and irrevocable obligations. Salvation is first and foremost. Among the others, two of the most important are provisions (“bread for the journey”) and health and healing, also called faith healing or divine healing.
Poverty and Social Justice
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The gospel focuses primarily on personal salvation but there are subtexts that undergird the message. Among the most radical is its concern for the poor. The gospel is good news for the destitute, despised, downtrodden, disadvantaged, and oppressed of the earth. Among those most directly touched by the earthly ministry of Jesus were prostitutes, convicts, thieves, publicans, and other flotsam and jetsam cast aside and disenfranchised by society. Christ's mission included empowerment of the powerless, giving voice to the voiceless, being father to the fatherless, and protecting widows and victims. The poor are the wards of God and exploiting them is a sin. In the New Testament there is also a powerful indictment of the rich as in the parable of Lazarus. “It is harder,” Jesus said, “for a rich man to enter heaven than it is for a camel to enter through the eye of the needle.” The four goals of the kingdom of God are justice, peace, mercy, and truth, known together as the social virtues. Without justice, the other three would be unattainable.