bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Novel Class of Rubber to Steel Tire Cord Adhesion Promoters
Authors: van Ooij W. J. , Biemond M. E. F. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
A series of eight novel rubber-brass adhesion promoter systems are introduced and discussed. They can be divided in four categories, viz., homogeneous inorganic polyborosilicates of cobalt or nickel; inorganic cobalt or nickel ions adsorbed on an inert substrate, e.g., silica or alumina; metal-organic cobalt or nickel salts deposited on a similar substrate; and inorganic ion exchangers loaded with cobalt or nickel. The organic systems have the major advantage that they are much more active than if they were used without support. Because of this effect, they can replace the currently used metal-organic cobalt salts but at reduced levels. The inorganic systems all show an improvement of initial and of aged adhesion which is comparable to that of currently used commercial systems. However, they can be used at much higher levels than metal-organic salts since for the first time, promoters are offered which show virtually no negative effect on physical compound properties. Such promoters are insoluble in rubber and act solely as corrosion inhibitors. At high levels, therefore, the performance of the inorganic promoters is far superior to that of the metal-organic systems. A consequence of such promoters being corrosion inhibitors is that nickel salts generally perform as well as the cobalt-containing materials. Another advantage is that such promoters can also reduce the rate of iron corrosion. This was demonstrated for the polyborosilicates. It is expected that the rate of rust formation in the tire will be reduced because of this propensity and also because the inorganic systems have a long-range action due to a slow-release effect. In the development of these unusual promoter systems, extensive use has been made of liquid low molecular weight model systems. A good correlation is reported between crosslinking of NR and of squalene if the levels of sulfur, DCBS accelerator, or ZnO are varied. If levels of cobalt or antioxidant are varied, squalene does not react as NR. For such studies, dodecene-1 is shown to be a better model molecule. This system further has the advantage that it is amenable to gas chromatography analysis which allows the crosslink distribution to be determined quantitatively.
Mechanisms of Rubber Abrasion in Unsteady State
Authors: Zhang S. W. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Abrasion of rubber under the action of mechanical stress appears to involve two basic processes: micromolecular fracture and macrodelamination. The formation of ridges mainly results from the effect of tearing and tensile rupture, but the production of small particles is mainly due to the effect of microcutting. Ridge and small particle formation are basic characteristics of rubber abrasion. The physical processes during dry wear are gradual tearing leading to crack growth and also rupture of the tongue tip. A new concept of rupture length per revolution has been introduced, which is itself a function of the number of revolutions that have occurred during the unsteady state. Based on this, a quasi-theoretical relation for the rate of wear has been proposed. It reflects the influence of several factors on the rate of wear in a comprehensive way, and, it was verified by the experimental results. In the unsteady state of abrasion, the rate of wear and the spacing of the abrasion pattern not only depend upon the frictional force but also upon the number of revolutions. The relationship between the spacing and the frictional force is exponential. The influence of the rotational speed on the wear rate could be neglected when the speed did not exceed 18 rev/min. Oily wear was found at relatively small frictional forces (kN/F=0.24−0.41 m). The action of microcutting and the decomposition of the rubber are both prerequisites and sufficient conditions for oily wear to be produced. The same rubber shows two different modes of wear under different frictional forces. But a quantitative condition for the change from dry wear to oily wear is not yet clear.
A Mass Spectrometric/Fourier Transform Infrared Study of the Vulcanization of Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene
Authors: Devlin Edward F. , Folk Theodore L. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
This work has confirmed that the thermal decomposition found to occur in a model alkanesulfonylchloride also occurs in an elastomeric CSM at the cure temperature. Therefore, less emphasis should be placed on the existence of ionic sulfonate salt bridges as the mode of crosslinking in cured chlorosulfonated polyethylenes. Though we have not presented any evidence to show that carbon-sulfur crosslinks arc involved in the cure, the need to incorporate sulfur-bearing accelerators in the formulation for practical cures suggests that activated sites adjacent to unsaturated double-bonds may be involved.
Some Factors Influencing the Traction of Radial Ply Tires
Authors: Grosch K. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The radial ply construction is inherently more suited to provide better traction and cornering capability than the older bias construction. Since it also provides a better wear resistance, some of this advantage is traded off to obtain still higher wet traction through a more open tread design. Compounds for high traction require high hysteresis, which in principle means a high rolling resistance. Since, however, the frequency range operative in adhesion friction is much higher than the one responsible for rolling resistance, compounding both for high adhesional friction and low rolling resistance is possible at least in principle, not by changes in glass transition temperature, but by changes in portions of the relaxation spectrum. A cap and base construction is a compromise which is used successfully today. Modern tread pattern design assists traction by sophisticated block and block/rib design combinations. This, in turn, allows more flexibility in compound formulation. By carefully balancing traction, wear, noise, and rolling resistance, modern tire design, both for passenger and commercial tires, has advanced substantially in all these criteria.
Plasticization by in Situ Grafted Acrylates II—Effect of Graft Structure
Authors: Eldred Roger J. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Grafting of acrylate monomers, such as 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, onto nitrile rubber during the cure cycle leads to improved low temperature flexibility. The effect of graft structure on the improvement was determined by utilizing chain transfer agents to reduce the molecular weight and increase the number of grafts. In every instance, incorporation of a chain transfer agent led to a compound with greater low-temperature flexibility than a control. The amount of improvement was correlated with the effectiveness of each additive in chain transfer reactions. Since there was no evidence of either degradative chain transfer or changes in cure state, it was concluded that the increased low-temperature flexibility was a direct result of alterations in the graft structure. The plasticization achieved with chain transfer agents and 2-ethylhexyl acrylate monomer was better than previously obtained using more effective acrylic monomers without the additives. This means that the structure of the graft is the major factor in determining the effectiveness of in situ grafted acrylate monomers as plasticizers.
Buckling of Viscoelastic Columns. Part I: Constant Load Buckling
Authors: Wang Shau-Chew , Meinecke Eberhard A. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The constant load buckling of viscoelastic columns has been studied extensively in the past and equations have been derived to predict the buckling time from the geometry of the columns and the constitutive equation of the material. These theories restrict themselves to columns loaded with an axial load only. A variety of linear as well as nonlinear creep laws have been utilized. In this study, existing creep-buckling equations have been modified to include the effect of lateral loads on the time to buckle. The constitutive equation used is the power law which applies quite well for well-vulcanized elastomers. Furthermore, the viscoelastic response of the material was assumed to be linear, which can be justified by the extremely small compressive strains found before buckling occurs. The validity of the equations has been compared to experimental data obtained on well-vulcanized elastomeric columns of different slenderness ratios under a variety of loading conditions. An attempt has been made to explain some discrepancies between theory and experimental findings.
Experimental Measurement of Dynamic Bulk Modulus Using Holography
Authors: Holownia B. P. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The results show that the dynamic bulk modulus for NBR at room temperature is about 50% higher than the static bulk modulus in the frequency range of 1–200 Hz. The limiting factor was the servo-valve used which does not give enough dynamic pressure fluctuations above 200 Hz to obtain accurate results of the dynamic bulk modulus. The holographic method discussed here offers a number of advantages over other methods used in measuring dynamic bulk modulus. (i) The samples are of realistic size and any soft spots in the sample which would distort the results can be immediately identified. (ii) Dynamic bulk modulus can be measured accurately in the frequency range of 1 Hz–1000 Hz or higher, provided the hydraulic servo-valve used can respond in the frequency range. Work is already in hand which extends this frequency range to 1200 Hz. (iii) The change of volume of the sample is a direct measurement unlike other indirect methods, therefore, there is more confidence in the results.
Characterization of Ban Copolymers
Authors: Gupta H. K. , Salovey R. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Molar mass and compositional distributions in copolymers of butadiene and acrylonitrile have been analyzed by gel permeation chromatography with multiple detection. In some cases, a third component could not be separated by size-exclusion chromatography and was presumed to be an antioxidant attached to the copolymer chains. The amount of this antioxidant was measured by ultraviolet detection at 280 nm of chromatographic effluents and found to increase in amount with decreasing molar volume. Molar mass and compositional distributions were derived from corrected ultraviolet responses at 254 nm coupled with refractive index detection of BAN solutions separated by GPC. The variation of composition with molecular size depends on the composition of the monomer feed and, presumably, the conversion. For copolymers close the azeotropic composition (36% ACN), the composition was fairly uniform over the entire molecular weight distribution and showed a single Tg by differential scanning calorimetry. Some of the materials showed gel or insoluble fractions which had to be separated from the soluble moieties prior to GPC. Copolymers of composition slightly above azeotropic showed a single Tg but could be separated into sol and gel fractions which differed in composition. Infrared and calorimetric analysis showed that, in these cases, the gel was enriched in acrylonitrile. A sample containing 20% acrylonitrile showed marked deviations from compositional uniformity, and the high molecular weight components were enriched in butadiene. Infrared and calorimetric analysis of the sol and gel fractions showed that they were enriched in acrylonitrile and butadiene, respectively. In fact, the elastomer evidenced two glass transition temperatures. We suggest that gel permeation chromatography with multiple detection, specifically refractive index and ultraviolet absorption at 254 and at 280 nm, permits a fairly complete characterization of BAN elastomers. With computer analysis, a sophisticated raw material quality control is feasible and simple. We plan to reexamine our assumptions using laboratory synthesized BAN copolymers. Moreover, we hope to relate the physical properties of elastomers and rubber compounds with the molecular characterization of BAN copolymers. As an alternative to ultraviolet detection in GPC, it may be possible to get a more complete functional group analysis by infrared spectroscopy.
Interaction of Tire Material and Design
Authors: Clark S. K. , Dodge R. N. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
An analytical study based on the Halpin-Tsai equations in their complex form has been conducted over a reasonably practical range of variables typical of a composite construction involving steel-cord reinforcement in a rubber matrix. Curves are presented which show the influence of several material properties on the composite characteristics of bias-angle constructions. From these curves, it is possible to deduce the influence of these constituent material properties on the overall composite response. The most significant deductions from these results are: (1). The elastic extension modulus of the composite, E′, is highly dependent on the bias angle and moderately dependent on the volume fraction of cord. On the other hand, E′ is essentially independent of the loss modulus of the matrix E″r. (2). The elastic shear modulus of the composite, G′, is also dependent on the bias angle and volume fraction of cord, but independent of the loss modulus of rubber. Also G′ is symmetric about a 45 degree bias angle. (3). The loss modulus in tension of the composite, E″, is highly dependent on the bias angle and moderately dependent on the volume fraction of cord and loss modulus of the matrix. (4). The loss modulus in shear of the composite, G″, is dependent on the bias angle and volume fraction of cord and nearly independent of the loss modulus of the matrix except at bias angles near zero and 90 degrees. (5). The loss tangent in tension of the composite, tan ΔE′ is highly dependent on the bias angle from 0 to 20 degrees and is approximately a constant for all other bias angles. The magnitude of the constant value is the same as tan δr of the matrix. (6). The loss tangent in shear of the composite, tan ΔG′ is nearly a constant except for very small or very large bias angles. The magnitude of this constant is approximately the small value of the loss modulus of the cord. Also tan ΔG is symmetric about 45 degrees. (7). For most bias angles, the loss tangent of the composite in shear is much less than the loss tangent of the composite in tension.
Mechanism of Degradation of Fluorocarbon Elastomers in Engine Oil
Authors: Abu-Isa Ismat A. , Trexler Harold E. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The loss in properties of fluorocarbon elastomers observed after aging of the polymer in engine oil is the result of interactions of some of the oil additives with elastomer. The degradation in mechanical properties of the elastomer is not due to any extensive dehydrofluorination reaction, but instead it is the result of increased crosslinking and hardening of the surface caused by these additives.
An Improved Adhesive System for Textile-Reinforced Rubber Products
Authors: Lattimer M. B. , Weber C. D. , Hardt Z. R. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Resorcinol Formaldehyde Latex (RFL) adhesive systems have been used for over forty years to bond synthetic fibers to rubber compounds. The original RFL formulation was developed by Charch and Maney. The adhesive was applied primarily to rayon fibers and later extended to nylon and glass fibers. At the same time, the formulation evolved with the introduction of synthetic latexes and preformed resorcinol formaldehyde resin solutions. The RFL treated fibers are used to reinforce rubber products (e.g., tires, conveyor belts, hoses, V-belts). With the commercialization of polyester fibers, it was found that the RFL system did not satisfactorily adhere polyester to rubber compounds. The difficulty in bonding to polyester fibers has been attributed to the lack of reactive sites in the polymer structure, as well as its hydrophobic nature. New adhesive systems were developed which consisted of free isocyanates in solvent solutions. These systems were undesirable due to the associated health and fire risks. As a result, the use of aqueous dispersions of blocked isocyanates was investigated. Blocked isocyanates consist of isocyanate molecules which are chemically reacted with a blocking agent to prevent reactions with other materials at room temperature conditions. At higher temperatures, the blocking materials dissociate to free the reactive isocyanate groups. The blocked isocyanates are generally available in solid form and are chemically stable in water. Common blocking materials include phenols, oximes, and lactams. Shoaf developed a two-step, water based, adhesive system that effectively bonded polyester to rubber. This system consists of a first-step dip application which contains a polyepoxide and blocked aromatic polyisocyanate. In the second step, the treated fiber is overcoated with an RFL mixture. The reaction product of the polyepoxide and polyisocyanate has been identified as a polyurethane structure which physically adheres to polyester. Iyengar attributed this physical interaction to the similarity between the cohesive energy density values for the polyester and polyurethane structures.
Nondestructive Evaluation of Tires
Authors: Trivisonno N. M. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The application of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods to tires is a growing field. Increasingly more stringent demands have been placed on tire performance as vehicles have become more refined, roads have become better, fuel economy has become an important consideration, and the customer has become more critical. In addition, radial tires have become increasingly dominant, and the performance of radial tires is much more sensitive to the placement of components than is true for bias-ply or belted-bias tires. Therefore, it has become necessary to develop several different types of NDE equipment for tires. Quality-control instruments are needed to monitor production to keep tires within specifications. Inspection equipment is needed for retread candidate tires to cull out tires with unacceptable anomalies. Research and development equipment is needed to measure the effects of material, construction, and production variations on tire performance. NDE methods are being used to improve the efficiency of tire testing by separating out tires with pretest anomalies and by monitoring tires during testing. Increasing efforts are being made to use NDE methods to identify anomalies and material and construction factors which can be related to tire durability and other performance factors. At this time, x ray, holography, ultrasonics, and infrared are the most important NDE methods for tires. As NDE technology continues to evolve, more techniques will be developed, instrumentation will become more reliable and more automated, and more knowledge will be developed to relate tire performance to the features which NDE methods can detect.
Systems for Tire Cord-Rubber Adhesion
Authors: Solomon T. S. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The last comprehensive review of tire-cord adhesion to rubber was reported by T. Takeyama and J. Matsui in Rubber Reviews for 1969. They covered this subject in depth from its scientific beginnings and dealt mostly with rayon, nylon, and polyester tire-cord adhesion. The objective of this present review will be to up-date the 1969 review. The resorcinol-formaldehyde-latex (RFL) adhesive system developed as a fiber adhesive in the early 1940's is still in use throughout the rubber industry at the present time. No other resin has replaced the resorcinol-formaldehyde resin and no other latex has replaced 2-vinylpyridine-butadiene-styrene latex as components in adhesive dip recipes. This will probably be true into the foreseeable future. There was really no need to improve the adhesion of rayon and nylon to rubber, so very little development work was done with the adhesion of these two fibers. However, a considerable amount of work was done with polyester adhesion and this coincided with the expanded use of poly(ethylene terephthalate) fibers in passenger tires. Much of this effort was concerned with single-step adhesive dips where the adhesion activating ingredients were added to a standard RFL mixture.
Applications of Mass Spectrometry to Synthetic Polymers
Authors: Lattimer Robert P. , Schulten Hans-Rolf 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Mass spectrometry has earned its rightful place as one of the three principal spectroscopic methods (along with magnetic resonance and infrared) for the analysis of polymeric materials. It is clear that a large and efficient arsenal of mass spectrometric techniques has been developed to examine these complex and intractable materials. Improved pyrolysis methods, soft ionization modes, higher mass analyzers/detectors, and sophisticated chemometric treatment of the spectral data appear to be the main lines of future development.
Elastomer Modification of Structural Adhesives
Authors: Pocius Alphonsus V. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
An attempt has been made to review the highlights of the chemistry and physical properties of the rubber modification of structural thermosetting polymers that are used as adhesives. The elastomers are added in order to improve the characteristics of these structural thermosets such that they would be more useful as structural adhesives. The addition of an elastomer acts to increase the resistance of the structural thermoset to crack propogation. The resistance to crack propogation is obtained either by plasticization to increase the ductility of the thermoset or by generation of a two-phase system where the structural polymer forms a matrix in which the phase-separated elastomeric particles are imbedded. In the case of flexibilization by plasticization, the increase in peel strength (fracture toughness) is accompanied by a decrease in shear strength (modulus) at high temperatures. In the case of the two phase system, the matrix properties are unaffected for the most part, and increases in peel strength are not accompanied by significant decreases in high-temperature shear strength. In the case of flexibilization, the increase in fracture toughness is accomplished by increasing the ductility of the resin while in the case of the two-phase system, the rubber particles act as stress concentrators to cause conditions of exceeding the yield stress of the matrix near the particles. Exceeding the yield stress increases the amount of plastic deformation of the matrix. We have briefly reviewed the chemistry and physical properties of phenolic, epoxy, acrylic, and polyimide structural adhesives and their modification with vinyl, nitrile, acrylic, siloxane, and other types of elastomers.