bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cartels, Private International
Authors: Connor John M. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe emergence of private international cartels is one of the dark sides of globalization. The formation of such cartels began in the late nineteenth century and grew in association with the vast expansion of international investment and international commodity trade that ended in the 1930s. Long believed to have been stamped out by aggressive antitrust prosecutions by the US government in the 1940s, a new and continuing wave of international cartels was discovered in the early 1990s. Because of their insidiously harmful effects on buyers and the competitive process itself, private cartels are now illegal in nearly every corner of the world. The universal adoption of anti‐cartel laws is a rare example of global harmonization of legal‐economic policies.
Casinopolitanism
Authors: Luke Timothy W. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractWithin the full sweep of contemporary globalization processes, casinopolitanism can be understood as an emergent set of urban development and branding practices, which make the niche industries of casino gambling, music entertainment venues, shopping malls, and resort hotels a key engine for economic growth, urban design, and cultural reproduction. While casinopolitanization grew more sporadically and locally in the twentieth century, this mode of urban development has become a very central frame for understanding how certain cities and geographies grow under neoliberal conditions of global commerce (Brenner & Theodore 2002).
Cathedrals of Consumption
Authors: Matusitz Jonathan 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe concept of “cathedral of consumption” was coined by sociologist George Ritzer (1999, 2007). By and large, a cathedral of consumption is a consumption site that is part of a multinational corporation (MNC) with an exceptionally high level of international success. The success of the corporation – and its cathedrals of consumption – is such that it gives rise to a consumer cult and a display of abundance and excess. So are Disney World, the Apple Company Store, and mega‐malls. Besides providing numerous commodified goods and services at their locations that often exist around the globe, the cathedral of consumption often leaves for room for a do‐it‐yourself attitude, a self‐service flair, and an array of strategies that make consumers believe that their newfound shopping attitude will change their lives for good (Ritzer 1999). Cathedrals of consumption are places of hyper‐consumption; their massive size enchants many consumers. They are designed with the anticipation that consumers will gradually develop a passion for acquiring goods and services after experiencing a “spectacle.” Guy DeBord (2005) describes the spectacle as a form of drama, a form of theater, and a craze of information flows, music, entertainment, and other strategies intended to attract consumers from all walks of life. This spectacle also leads people to consume much more than they need. Cathedrals of consumption have been “aggressively exported to the rest of the world” (Ritzer 2007: 12).
Cities
Authors: Sassen Saskia 
Published: March 2012

AbstractLarge cities around the world today are the terrain where some of the novel conditions marking the twenty‐first century hit the ground: Multiple globalization processes assume concrete localized forms, electronic networks intersect with thick environments (whether financial centers or activist meetings), and new subjectivities arise from the encounters of people from all around the world. Thus, today's large cities have emerged as a strategic site for a whole range of new types of operations, some pertaining to the global economy (e.g., Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network [GaWC]; Fainstein & Judd 1999; Scott 2001; Abrahamson 2004; Gugler 2004; Rutherford 2004; Amen et al. 2006; Harvey 2007) and others to political, cultural, and subjective domains (e.g., Abu‐Lughod 1994; Clark & Hoffman‐Martinot 1998; Allen et al. 1999; Glaeser 2000; Cordero‐Guzman et al. 2001; Krause & Petro 2003; Lloyd 2005; Brenner & Keil 2006; Bartlett 2007; Ritzer 2010; Bridge & Watson 2011).
Codex Alimentarius Commission
Authors: Ramsingh Brigit 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) is the international body responsible for creating the
Codex alimentarius
(Latin for “Food Code”), a list of international food standards. The CAC is a joint project of the United Nations' World Health Organization (WHO) based out of Geneva, and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) based in Rome. The
Codex alimentarius
contains information in the form of: standards, codes of practice and guidelines. The Codex standards are characteristic descriptions or parameters that relate specifically to the product or commodity
itself
. Commodity standards are the largest group of standards within this category (a total of over 200), covering the areas of cereals, pulses (legumes) and derived products; fats and oils; fish and fishery products; fresh fruits and vegetables; processes and quick‐frozen fruits and vegetables; fruit juices; meat and meat products, soups and broths; milk and milk products; sugars, cocoa products, chocolates and other related products. The codes of practice are instructions aimed at directing behavior and the process for handling food and food products at all steps along the food production continuum – production, manufacturing, transport, storage. One example of a recommended practice from the area of food hygiene is the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) method that assesses the risk of microbial contamination at key points along the food production system. Finally, guidelines are related to more general areas of policy and the
interpretation
of policies, codes of practice, principles, and standards.
Communism
Authors: Ray Larry 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
For much of the twentieth century around half the world's population lived under regimes whose social systems were officially “communist” and which claimed to be guided by Marxist–Leninist theory. The system had its origins in the 1917 Russian Revolution and creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922. Following the end of World War II in 1945 communist governments came to power across much of Eastern Europe and in China, and the world divided into hostile camps of “Western capitalism” and “Soviet communism.” Major wars were fought on the Asian borders of the systems, in Korea (1950–1953) and Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia between 1955 and 1975. The United States and USSR competed for hegemony over non‐aligned regions of what was known as the “Third World” in Asia, Africa, and South America, which often took the form of local military conflicts, civil wars and regime destabilization, such as the military coup that overthrew Salvador Allende's socialist government in Chile in 1973. This bipolar global division was known as the “Cold War” since outside these conflict zones it took the form of a conventional and nuclear armed stand‐off between the United States and the USSR and their allies. This came to an end during the later 1980s, beginning with arms reduction negotiations and a general thawing of East–West relations initiated by the USSR's reforming General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachov. This process was rapidly followed by the dramatic collapse of European and Soviet variants of communism in 1989–1991. The end of the bipolar world arguably signaled the period of the maturity of the concept of “globalization” in both academic and everyday discourse (Ray 2007: 3). Communism remains the official ideology of Cuba, North Korea and the People's Republic of China, although China is now one of the world's fastest growing capitalist economies. The Chinese public sector now employs only 32 percent of industrial and service workers and accounts for 37 percent of gross domestic product (GDP), whereas in 1995 it accounted for 78 percent (National Bureau of Statistics in China 2009). One can therefore speak of communism as a twentieth‐century and largely historical form of social and political organization.
Consumer movements
Authors: Handelman Jay M. , Kozinets Robert V. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
A global consumer movement is a particular type of social movement. A social movement is an effort, that is led by activists seeking a particular state of the world, to mobilize other people into the collective effort to change the current social order so as to bring about that particular state of the world (Kozinets & Handelman 2004; Den Hond & Bakker 2007). Because they relate specifically to global consumption, global consumer movements are intentional efforts by activists to alter a consumption‐related state of the world. In particular, many global consumer movements attempt, in one form of another, to stop the global spread of a marketplace ideology of consumption. These social movements tend to manifest locally and resist what is seen as a global infiltration of marketplace ideologies that deteriorate local cultures and community relations.
Cross‐Atlantic Relationships: Europe and the United States
Authors: Kroes Rob 
Published: March 2012

AbstractAmerica, that is, the United States, has been called the “first new nation.” It won its independence from Britain's colonial empire. Two centuries later it finds itself described as an empire, by Americans and non‐Americans alike. The irony of this transformation comes out most clearly in the trans‐Atlantic relationship, in particular with the former mother‐country Britain, but more generally with Europe as well. After all, alongside Britain, other European countries, such as Spain, France, and the Netherlands, were among the first to colonize and settle the North American continent.
Department of Homeland Security
Authors: Mabee Bryan 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created on November 25, 2002, as a means to better protect the US homeland from security threats. The creation of the DHS was the biggest restructuring of the US government since the 1947 National Security Act, which had created the National Military Establishment, the precursor to the 1949 Department of Defense. It brought together 22 government agencies, and as of 2010 had 216 000 employees, making it the third‐biggest Cabinet Department. The DHS amalgamated numerous government agencies under one bureaucratic body, including the Secret Service, Coast Guard, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Customs Service, and the Immigration and Nationality Service (in March 2003). The creation of the DHS was mainly a response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, which were seen partly as a problem of the organization of government, and the mandate of the DHS was primarily to provide counter‐terrorism measures, along with critical infrastructure protection, emergency disaster response, and border and immigration control (and enforcement).
Depeasantization
Authors: McMichael Philip 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Depeasantization involves the erosion of peasant practices and the substitution of market rationality in agriculture. Represented as the expulsion of small producers from the land, it is a premise of theories of capitalist modernity. Both liberal and Marxist narratives of development view depeasantization as a precondition for liberal democracy or collective socialism, respectively. Peasantries are considered obstacles to change given the modern view of “tradition” as pre‐social, and given an assumed resistance to technological change. Modernization trajectories follow the rise of urbane, industrial orders, and the relocation of peasants into the urban proletariat as industrial production systems expand. Such expansion involves the global elaboration of factory systems, post‐industrial service sectors, and industrialization of food systems from farming to retailing. Agro‐industrialization and agro‐exporting have been decisive in displacing peasants in Southern agrarian societies by the organized dumping of cheapened Northern food surpluses via World Trade Organization (WTO) liberalization rules, and land‐grabbing for agro‐exporting and industrial biofuels to supply distant consumer markets. At the same time, rural–urban migration has proceeded apace, as rural conditions have deteriorated, urban jobs have outpaced rural employment, and farming and farm‐work have been devalued in a modern market context. In the early twenty‐first century the urbanized proportion of the world's population finally surpassed rural populations. There remain about 1.2 billion peasants; 40 percent of humanity lives in small‐farm households.
Developmental idealism
Authors: Thornton Arland 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
For centuries, the related systems of modernization theory and developmentalism have dominated scholarship by giving scholars models for understanding social change. This model has specified the elements considered to be modern and has indicated that high levels of development and the good life were located in Northwest Europe and its diasporas. With its causal theories, the model specified both the factors that produced development and the consequences of development for various aspects of life.
Distanciation
Authors: Stones Rob 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

In his grand summation of structuration theory,
The Constitution of Society
, Anthony Giddens defines time‐space distanciation as “(t)he stretching of social systems across time‐space, on the basis of mechanisms of social and system integration” (1984: 377). System integration here can be seen as the ways in which the various “parts” of the social system are combined and coordinated. These parts can be anything from the spatially dispersed but coordinated units of a multinational company such as McDonald's or Starbucks, to the ways in which the global financial system or the international configuration of military power is coordinated. The emphasis on distanciation draws attention to the ways in which the coordination of these parts typically takes place at a distance rather than in situations of co‐presence.
Division of Labor
Authors: Herod Andrew 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The term
division of labor
refers to how the tasks associated with completing an economic activity — manufacturing a car, selling stocks, growing corn — are organized. Perhaps one of the most famous historical examples of this was outlined in Adam Smith's 1776
Wealth of Nations
, in which he detailed how pin manufacturing was broken into 18 different operations, including drawing out the wire, straightening it, cutting it, pointing it, making the pin's head, and even putting the pin in its paper holder. Each of these operations was conducted as a separate, though interlinked, part of the larger process of turning rough metal into a finished product. For Smith, breaking the operation down into such specialized activities allowed a more efficient production system than if the process were organized so that each individual worker conducted all 18 activities. Such increased efficiency, Smith argued, resulted from three factors: (i) breaking up the production process allowed workers to specialize in particular activities and so become more effective in conducting them; (ii) workers could avoid wasting the time typically lost by having to switch from using tools appropriate for one part of the operation to tools more appropriate for a different part; and (iii) such specialization allowed for and encouraged the invention and deploying of a large number of machines which could make each individual worker more productive (Smith 1961/1776).
Ecological problems
Authors: J. Antonio Robert , J. Brulle Robert 
Published: March 2012

AbstractHuman activities have long impacted the environment in substantial ways. For example, some scientists hypothesize that humans were a contributing cause of the mass extinction of megafauna (large mammals) in late Pleistocene, North America (roughly 13 000–14 000 years ago), and had parallel impacts in other parts of the world. During the Holocene epoch (past 10 000 years) relatively stable, moderate climate provided favorable conditions for development of powerful productive forces, elaborate material cultures, and complex civilizations. Human impacts grew gradually with incremental increases in population and production. Starting in the mid seventeenth century, more rapid population growth, emergent markets, and other precursory social conditions for capitalist development accelerated these impacts. By the late eighteenth century, capitalist industrial revolution increased already explosive population growth, stirred massive expansion of new urban build environments, and greatly elevated resource consumption and the scope, variety, and severity of human impacts. The impacts have continued to accelerate, and threaten to destabilize the climatic and ecological foundations of human civilization. Later twentieth‐centuryglobalizationincreased transnational resource usage and waste production exponentially at a meteoric pace, causing widespread environmental damages, eviscerating ecological services, producing human development setbacks in poor regions of the world, and generating catastrophic risks. Early twenty‐first century scientists proposed and deliberated about formally recognizing a new Anthropocene epoch, coeval with capitalist industrialism, in which human activities have emerged as the primary force animating overall ecological change.
Education Policy
Authors: Rizvi Fazal 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The notion of educational policy refers to a set of prescriptive statements designed to guide action in the field of education. Such statements embody not only the purposes of education but also the ways in which education should be funded, organized, and governed. Issues relating to the purposes of education have long been a topic of intense philosophical debates, concerned with the question of how education might serve various moral, social, political, and economic values. Winch and Gingell (2004) have reviewed some of these debates, noting that while some educational scholars have suggested, in the Kantian tradition, that education is intrinsically worthwhile, designed to produce knowledgeable, responsible, and serious‐minded people, others, in the functionalist traditions, have articulated educational purposes in more instrumental terms.
Environment: International Political Economy
Authors: Jorgenson Andrew K. , Clark Brett 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
A new era, the Anthropocene, began in the late eighteenth century, marking the turning point when human actions became the primary driver of environmental change, transforming the structure and functioning of the world's ecosystems. Natural scientists warn that humanity is increasingly transgressing “planetary boundaries” – “the safe operating space for humanity with respect to the Earth system and … the planet's biophysical subsystems and processes” – threatening to undermine the relatively stable, interglacial geological epoch that has supported human civilization (Rockström et al. 2009: 472). The political‐economic organization of societies remains at the nexus of the global ecological crisis, whether it is climate change, biodiversity loss, the overloading of the nitrogen cycle, ocean acidification, deforestation, or the decline in fresh water. Macro‐level perspectives within environmental sociology – such as the treadmill of production, treadmill of destruction, metabolic rift, and ecologically unequal exchange – analyze how specific political‐economic structures and relationships influence environmental and ecological change.
Environmental Concern
Authors: Dunlap Riley E. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
As widespread citizen concern for environmental quality emerged throughout the developed world in the 1970s and 1980s, it was commonly assumed that such concern was limited to residents of wealthy and primarily Northern‐hemisphere nations. The early emergence of environmentalism and green parties in North America and Northern Europe gave credence to this view, as did the wary reaction of poorer nations to the 1972 United Nations Conference of the Human Environment in Stockholm. It thus became conventional wisdom that concern about environmental problems and support for environmental protection was lacking among residents of poor nations (Dunlap & York 2008).
Ethnicity
Authors: Eriksen Thomas Hylland 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe term ethnicity refers to the enduring relationship between more or less bounded groups or social categories that perceive themselves as being culturally different from each other. Ethnic identities are, furthermore, based on widely held notions of shared origin and shared culture, and must be recognized as such by outsiders as well as by the proclaimed members of an ethnic group or category. Ethnicity, it could be said, is a means of rendering cultural differences comparable. There has evolved a global discourse, or “grammar,” about ethnicity which entails a great number of formal commonalities between ethnic groups struggling for recognition everywhere. The emphasis on cultural heritage, shared customs, and a history of oppression is shared by ethnic minorities everywhere. To a great extent, they have learned from each other, even if their battles are in a substantial way local and unique.
Eurocentrism
Authors: Krossa Sophie 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

It appears to be an anthropological constant that people assume
they
are (at) the center of the world – expressed simply as an inevitably specific point of reference for any statement. The question is
how
such a statement is made: neutrally (“the other is different”) or judgmentally (“the other is inferior”)? It is the latter sentiment that forms the basis for Eurocentrism, in which Europe – perceived as the center of the world – is the normative standard against which all things are measured (Delanty 2006: 267f.).
Feminization of Poverty
Authors: Chant Sylvia 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The coining of the term “feminization of poverty” is widely attributed to Diana Pearce (1978), who, on the basis of statistical analysis for the United States between the 1950s and 1970s, reported a trend towards increased concentration of income poverty among women, and especially among Afro‐American female‐headed households. Pearce's terminology began to circulate in studies on gender and poverty in other parts of the world, but it was not until the 1990s that it became definitively etched in the lexicon of international development. At the Fourth United Nations World Conference on Women in 1995 it was famously (if erroneously) announced that women were 70% of the world's poor. This fueled momentum for designation of one of the Beijing Platform for Action's 12 main priorities as the need to “address the persistent and rising burden of poverty upon women.” Since then, the “feminization of poverty” has been generally regarded as a global phenomenon, and associated with three apparently intuitive (if inadequately substantiated) notions. Reflecting the legacies of Pearce's original time‐ and place‐specific concept, these are, first, that women are poorer than men; second, that the incidence of poverty among women is increasing relative to men over time; and third, that growing poverty among women is linked with the “feminization” of household headship (Chant 2007).
Financescapes
Authors: L. Powell Jason 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The term “financescape” derives from the global theorist Arjun Appadurai (1996). He sees it as one of the perils of economic globalization, defined as “cross‐border movements” of loans, equities, direct and indirect investments, and currencies that transcend the power of the nation‐state. Appadurai (2006) further describes financescapes as the imperialism of global flows of finance in which uncontrolled and rapid movements of capital can destabilize national economies.