bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Origins of Life Studies
Authors: Griesemer James 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article provides insights on emerging discipline of origins of life studies. It answers various questions such as the logics behind scientific concepts and the scope and limit of biological science. It is now generally accepted that life existed around 3.5 billion years ago on earth. If life began elsewhere, then the time window for life's origin might be wide open. Narrowing the gap puts the idea that there is room for God to explain the gaps in nature left by scientific uncertainty. Some fundamental heuristic principles are discussed based on continuity, microreversibility, actualism. The origin of life appeared to be a problem, when it was realized how complex the interrelations between DNA as the carrier of genetic information and protein were. Origins of life researchers use biological, chemical, and physical laboratories to challenge how life might have emerged in the harsh conditions of early Earth.
Animal Behavior
Authors: Crowley Stephen J. , Allen Colin 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article focuses on comparative psychology, ethology, and cognitive ethology which explain animal behaviour. The same old questions raised by ancient Greek are discussed by scientists today. Morgan's pioneer work show that a quantitative approach to the physical features of animals and their behavioral products was not beyond imagination. He believed that a scientific understanding of the mental states of animals depends on a “double inductive” process, combining inductive inferences based on observation of animal behavior with knowledge of our own minds. The ethological work concentrated on non-mammalian species. Later “cognitive ethology” was used to describe the research program which combines both cognitive science and classical ethology. The fact that emotion plays a more significant role in animal behaviour was inferred. There have been various attempts to develop a fully integrative approach to animal behavior, but the study of behavior moves in different directions.
The Concept of Race in Medicine
Authors: Andreasen Robin O. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article focuses on ethical issues of biomedical research. The ethical concerns raised maintain that potential benefits outweigh potential harms. The benefit is that collecting and reporting race data will help pharmacologists gain a better understanding of health, disease, and response to drug treatment. This, in turn, may help to eliminate many racial disparities in health outcomes. While there are some legitimate concerns associated with the use of race in medicine, these problems can be overcome. Answers to questions about the origins of racial variation in health outcomes are likely to vary from disease to disease and is likely to involve interactions among multiple environmental and social factors. The question of whether genetic factors are likely to play an important role in explaining race—associated health differences is largely unanswered—and can be answered only by future research.
Ecology and the Environment
Authors: Plutynski Anya 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Ecology is the study of the interactions of organisms and their environments. The methods of ecology fall roughly into three categories: descriptive surveys of patterns of species and resource distribution and abundance, theoretical modeling, and experimental manipulations. Ecological systems are “open” systems, and patterns and processes are products of a huge number of interacting forces. Ecology and the environmental sciences have made enormous advances since the mid-twentieth century in the understanding of ecological systems, as well as in the human impact on the environment. Theory in ecology usually centers on the development of models. Environmental outcomes are uncertain and when making decisions under uncertainty, there are a variety of options available. One option is to carry out a cost benefit analysis based upon expected utilities and other is to adopt the precautionary principle. Uncertainty and under determination of theory by evidence is a fact of life in science.
Lyric
Authors: Stewart Susan 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article looks at the historical interrelation of philosophy and lyric poetry. It explains that philosophers and lyric poets are alike because they both convey intelligible statements, employ formal structures and incorporate a social view from the outset. Despite these shared materials and aims, philosophy and poetry have some important differences. Philosophy strives for clarity and singularity in reference while lyric is always overdetermined. In addition, philosophy should be paraphrasable and translatable if its truth claims are universal, but poetry has finality of form, and to paraphrase it is a heresy; to translate it, a betrayal.
Comedy
Authors: Gould Timothy 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines the literary genre of comedy. It suggests the possible roots of comedy in drama and argues that while the roots of the festive and the festival may account for some forms of comedy, not all forms of humor are festive and not all forms of the festive become embodied in forms of drama or the dramatic. It describes the works of Aristophanes and discusses Plato and Friedrich Nietzsche's thoughts about comedy.
Autobiography and Biography
Authors: Mulhall Stephen 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article looks at the relevance of biography and autobiography to philosophy. It suggests that the key to understanding the philosophical nature of biography and autobiography is to acknowledge the distinctive way in which the human subject's presence takes the form of a certain kind of absence. It explains that in order to understand the reality of selfhood it is important to recognize that it is beyond the grasp of any narrative account that might be given of it. It also argues that if autobiographical and biographical exercises can be genuinely authoritative or authentic in the way they make present the self's absence, then biography and autobiography must be considered forms of spiritual exercise, and engaging in such exercises must be inherent to becoming a person.
Experimental Writing
Authors: Berry R. M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article looks at the relation of experimental writing to philosophy. It discusses Theodor Adorno's thoughts about experimental literature as contained in his Aesthetic Theory. It explains that Adorno believed that there is a deep bond between the topic of artistic experimentation, especially in literature, and the possibility of conducting philosophy. It suggests that if the modern tendency toward aesthetic nominalism is not an accidental result of historical misunderstandings but originates in a universal of art, then experimental writing would seem to mark conceptualization's limit. It also discusses György Lukács and Samuel Beckett's opinion about experimental literature.
Idealism
Authors: Moi Toril 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines the impact of idealism on the history of philosophy and literature. It considers idealism as a historically and culturally significant intersection of philosophy and literature, and as a set of ideas about art that profoundly affected both literature and the way people thought about literature in the nineteenth century. It shows the importance of idealism to nineteenth-century debates about art, literature, and culture and argues that when idealism is placed alongside realism and modernism it changes the meaning of these terms. The article also discusses the gender norms embedded in idealist aesthetics and suggests that the demise of idealism furthered the autonomization of art and literature. When idealism disappeared, ethical and religious claims on art lost their legitimacy.
Modernism
Authors: Weinstein Philip 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines the impact of modernism on philosophy and literature. It proposes two defining dimensions of modernist texts: their initial difficulty and their experimental departure from earlier conventions of thinking. It considers in some detail the practice of novelists Marcel Proust, Franz Kafka, and William Faulkner with the aim of shedding light on central strategies and powers of modernism. It shows that the formal practices of my novelists enact a philosophic stance through their particular way of deploying materials.
Imagination
Authors: Pillow Kirk 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article considers the role of imagination in literary production. It explains that imagination allows us to make present through images what is absent from the present world before us and to reconfigure that world through the image-layering interpretive practice of seeing-as. In literature, imagination richly realizes its capacity to revise the present world by layering a transfiguring other world over it. This article also discusses the ethical imperatives of imagining and suggests that imagination in literature can be considered as a transgressive expression of freedom and as the cultivation of a double vision that not merely shapes fictional worlds but also reshapes our own.
Plot
Authors: Singer Alan 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article looks at the importance of plot in literature. It discusses Frank Kermode's expansive analysis of narrative plot making throughout human history, The Sense of an Ending, and twentieth-century narratologists' opinion on the specific arranging or rearranging of discrepant events that plot entails. It suggests that plot is ethos driven and that it is the means by which human agents negotiate the obstacles that time and worldliness put in the path of our desire to sustain purposeful action.
Literature and Politics
Authors: Rush Fred 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article considers the relationship between literature and politics. It focuses on the idea that literary form itself is political and investigates claims that literature can criticize and alter political belief by being experienced in terms of its form. It discusses the view of Theodor Adorno on this issue and suggests that the idea that there is an important connection between formal aesthetic properties of art and political belief merits further investigation and that the claim that art is uniquely political because it is useless deserves philosophical attention.
Plato on the Soul
Authors: Lorenz Hendrik 
Published: September 2009

AbstractPlato's central contribution to psychology is his theory of the tripartite soul. This is at once a theory about the nature of the embodied human soul and a theory of human motivation. This article emphasizes on the importance and immortality of the soul. Plato does say that perceptible particulars derive their names from the forms they partake of their souls. One of his arguments against the harmonia theory of the soul, put forward by Simmias, relies on the occurrence of conflicts between desires and also of conflicts between how one decides to act and how anger or fear incline one to act. Among other things, he points out that people who are thirsty may nonetheless be averse to drinking.
Plato on Education and Art
Authors: Kamtekar Rachana 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe article resonates Plato's ideas on education and art. In the Apology, Socrates describes his life's mission of practicing philosophy as aimed at getting the Athenians to care for virtue; in the Gorgias, Plato claims that happiness depends entirely on education and justice; in the Protagoras and the Meno, he puzzles about whether virtue is teachable or how else it might be acquired; in the Phaedrus, he explains that teaching and persuading require knowledge of the soul and its powers, which requires knowledge of what objects the soul may act on and be acted on by which, in turn, requires knowledge of nature. The article also looks at musical and gymnastic education's effects on the soul using images from metallurgy and dyeing wool, saying that prerational souls are “most malleable and take on any pattern one wishes to impress on them.”
ThePhilebus
Authors: Meinwald Constance C. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractPlato's brainchild, the Philebus discusses the good human life and the claims of pleasure on the one hand and a cluster containing intelligence, wisdom, and right opinion on the other in connection with that life. The article talks about the notions of good human life and the pleasures surrounding it. Plato includes extended treatment of metaphysics and methodology: this is his typical supplement to the procedure of his own Socratic dialogues, which considered human questions in isolation from other issues. Despite several interpretations, the text remains largely elusive. After a long discourse, both Socrates and Philebus arrive at a conclusion that a mixed life, containing both reason and pleasure is what we all should desire and it is the best option for all.
The Problem of the Criterion
Authors: Fumerton Richard 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines the problem of the criterion in relation the issue of skepticism. It explains that the problem of the criterion in epistemology raises certain fundamental questions concerning the methods a philosopher ought to use in arriving at both analyses of epistemic concepts and conclusions concerning legitimate principles of reasoning and justification. It explores the connections between metaepistemological views and the approach one would most naturally take to the problem of the criterion and suggests that the implication of the positions one takes on skepticism is a complicated issue.
Skepticism about Induction
Authors: Weintraub Ruth 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article considers two arguments that purport to show that inductive reasoning is unjustified: the argument adduced by Sextus Empiricus and the (better known and more formidable) argument given by Hume in the Treatise. While Sextus’ argument can quite easily be rebutted, a close examination of the premises of Hume’s argument shows that they are seemingly cogent. Because the sceptical claim is very unintuitive, the sceptical argument constitutes a paradox. And since attributions of justification are theoretical, and the claim that they are never (or seldom) true isn’t preposterous, the correct response to the paradox may well be to admit that the sceptic has exposed our error in making them.
Moral Realism, Quasi Realism, and Skepticism
Authors: Cuneo Terence 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article describes the relationship of skepticism with moral and quasi realism. It discusses the main reason why quasi realists believe that they can explain and justify the realist-seeming appearances of ordinary moral thought and discourse. It explains the distinction among the three different varieties of quasi realism and argues that none of them provide a more satisfactory job of explaining the acquisition of moral knowledge than robust realism. It concludes that some varieties of quasi realism fail to comport with platitudes central to our ordinary understanding of knowledge, while others do comport but fail to explain the acquisition of moral knowledge in a way that is more illuminating than robust realism.
Religious Skepticism
Authors: Moser Paul K. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines the philosophical validity of religious skepticism. The findings indicate that there is easily generalizable support for religious skepticism about the reality of God and that even if an individual were to lack adequate evidence for God's reality, this individual would have no ready way to generalize the truth of religious skepticism for people in general. It discusses volitional knowledge of God and argues that salient evidence of God's reality possessed by nonskeptics is not challenged at all by the fact that there is an individual (or even a group) lacking such evidence.
Reid's Response to the Skeptic
Authors: Van Cleve James 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article describes philosopher Thomas Reid's view against skepticism. According to Reid, a major source of skepticism about the external world is the theory of ideas or the view that the direct or immediate objects of perceptual acquaintance are not objects in the external world but only ideas, images, or representations in the perceiver's own mind. In his Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man Reid portrays the theory of ideas as engendering epistemological skepticism and in In An Inquiry into the Human Mind he portrays the theory of ideas as engendering a different kind of skepticism that we might call semantic skepticism as opposed to epistemological skepticism, or skepticism about understanding as opposed to skepticism about knowledge.
Closure and Alternative Possibilities
Authors: Kvanvig Jonathan L. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines the application of the closure principle in responding to skepticism. It discusses the nature of mathematical closure and its application in the context of contemporary epistemology and examines the dispute about the truth of closure principles in epistemology and the role alternative possibilities play in a proper understanding of the nature of knowledge. It also discusses the history of denials of closure and the defenses of closure in relevant-possibilities epistemology.
Integrating the Dynamics of Multiscale Economic Agency
Authors: Ross Don 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article is about the relationship between people, as modeled by the economist's concept of agency, and other entities modeled as agents in economics—in particular, sub-personal interests, as in models descended from Schelling (1978, 1980, 1984), and functional parts of people's brains, as modeled in neuroeconomics. This subject would not be very interesting if people and subpersonal interests reduced to or were simple additive functions of functional parts of their brains. However, for reasons that unfold here, it is thought that this common idea is untenable. The relationship between people, subpersonal interests, and brain systems is complicated, not simple. The objective of this article is to shed some light on it, on the basis of recent empirical research. It does not aim at stating a comprehensive theory of the relationship, which would be a premature ambition at this point in our collective knowledge.
Progress in Economics: Lessons from the Spectrum Auctions
Authors: Alexandrova Anna , Northcott Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article begins by surveying existing work on scientific models, with an eye to the specific case of economics. It reviews four accounts in particular—the satisfaction-of-assumptions account, the capacities account, the credible-worlds account, and the partial-structures account. It tells the detailed story of the 1994 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) spectrum auction in the United States, highlighting the crucial role of experiment as well as theory. In the light of this case study, this article presents its own open-formula account of economic models. It then turns to the issue of economic progress. Finally, it concludes that empirical progress in economic theory might not be discussed here, or at least that the success of the spectrum auction provides no warrant for doing so. Rather, progress is better seen as more akin to the worthy but piecemeal variety typical of engineering.
The Miracle of the Septuagint and the Promise of Data Mining in Economics
Authors: du Plessis Stan 
Published: September 2009

AbstractData mining could compromise the believability of econometric models. And yet there might not be an alternative to data mining if economics is going to be an empirical science practiced with the joint constraints of incomplete economic theory and non-experimental data. The organizing principle for this discussion of data mining is a philosophical spectrum that sorts the various econometric traditions according to their epistemological assumptions about the underlying data-generating process (DGP), starting with instrumentalism at one end and reaching claims of encompassing the DGP at the other; call it the DGP-spectrum. In the course of exploring this spectrum, this article discusses various Bayesian, specific to general (S–G) as well as general to specific (G–S) methods. A description of data mining and its potential dangers and a short section on potential institutional safeguards to these problems set the stage for this exploration.
Segmented Labor Market Models in Developing Countries
Authors: Fields Gary S. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article is about labor-market models. Its aim is to construct models that are as simple as they can be but as complicated as they need to be. Such models, if carefully done, can contribute to an understanding of observed labor market phenomena and to the formulation of sound labor market policies. Some branches of economics work with models that assume that everybody who works participates in a single, undifferentiated labor market. This article regards such models as grossly unrealistic. The notion of labor market segmentation can be stylized most simply by maintaining that there are two labor market segments. In this article, labor markets should be thought of as consisting not only of wage and salaried employment but also of self-employment. All who work or seek to work in labor markets are termed workers.
The Sources of Knowledge
Authors: Audi Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article identifies the sources from which one acquires knowledge or justified belief. It distinguishes the “four standard basic sources”: perception, memory, consciousness, and reason. A basic source yields knowledge or justified belief without positive dependence on another source. This article distinguishes each of the above as a basic source of knowledge, with the exception of memory. Memory, while a basic source of justification, plays a preservative rather than a generative role in knowledge. This article contrasts basic sources with nonbasic sources, concentrating on testimony. After clarifying the relationship between a source and a ground, or “what it is in virtue of which one knows or justifiedly believes,” this article evaluates the basic sources' individual and collective autonomy as well as their vulnerability to defeasibility. It examines the relationship of coherence to knowledge and justification, noting the distinction between a negative dependence on incoherence and a positive dependence on coherence.
Internalism and Externalism
Authors: Bonjour Laurence 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article suggests that the contemporary epistemological debate over internalism and externalism concerns the formulation of the justification or warrant condition in an account of knowledge. The internalist requires that for a belief to meet this condition all of the necessary elements must be cognitively accessible to the believer. The externalist, on the other hand, claims that at least some such elements do not need to be accessible to the believer. This article gives an overview of this dispute, beginning with internalism and then considering the main reasons offered by externalists for rejecting the more traditional epistemological approach. It investigates the externalist alternative by looking at the most popular version, reliabilism, and at the main objections that have been raised against reliabilism. This article suggests that the opposition between the two views is less straightforward than has usually been thought.