bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Anti‐DNAVirus Agents
Authors: Holý Antonin , De Clercq Erik 
Published: September 2010

AbstractAnti‐DNA virus agents that are inhibitory to the replication of DNA viruses have been reviewed by Tim Middleton and Rockway in Burger's Medicinal Chemistry, 6th ed., volume 5. Here we will address the various agents effective against these different viruses. For each of the (classes of) compound(s), we will, where applicable, specifically focus on (i) the antiviral compounds that are clinically available; (ii) the antiviral compounds that are under (pre)clinical development; (iii) the mechanism of action of the compounds; (iv) their structure–activity relationship (SAR); (v) resistance that may have arisen; (vi) recent clinical data obtained with the compounds while under development. Previous reviews on antiviral agents have been dealing with “looking back in 2009 at the dawning of antiviral therapy now 50 years ago: an historical perspective,” highlighting the discovery of acyclovir [9‐(2‐hydroxyethoxymethyl)guanine] as a specific antiherpetic agent, “the design of drugs for HIV and HCV,” “HIV drug development: the next 25 years,” “interferons at age 50: past, current, and future impact on biomedicine,” “the way forward in HCV treatment‐finding the right path,” “antiviral treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus infections: the past, the present, and the future,” “antiviral agents active against influenza A viruses,” “the war against influenza: discovery and development of sialidase inhibitors,” “antivirals and antiviral strategies,” and “clinical potential of the acyclic nucleoside phosphonates cidofovir, adefovir, and tenofovir in treatment of DNA virus and retrovirus infections.”
Chemical Perspective on Neurotransmission and Drug Discovery for the Central Nervous System
Authors: Mailman Richard B. , Vrana Kent E. 
Published: September 2010

AbstractIn this chapter, we review the evolution of approaches that have influenced the drug discovery and medicinal chemistry of agents active in the central nervous system (CNS). While Ehrlich's century‐old concept of the magic bullet governed the theory of discovery, the reality was driven for decades by what might be termed exploited serendipity. This changed markedly when, first, radioreceptor assays became widely available, and soon thereafter, when molecular biology gave the field first cloned receptors, and later the whole‐genome. Although of immense scientific use, these advances did not yield a pipeline flooded with novel drugs. They have, however, provided the tools needed for truly innovative drug discovery. Several newer concepts have now been shown to offer future directions for drug discovery. First, it is clear that drugs that target several receptors (magic shotguns) can sometimes provide CNS clinical profiles not achievable by magic bullets. Second, the use of allosteric ligands that target sites of receptors or proteins distant from the binding site of their endogenous ligands or substrates has opened new horizons for modulation, activation, or blockade of difficult targets. Finally, the definitions of agonist or antagonist have become complicated by the concept of functional selectivity, the phenomenon where a single ligand acting at the same molecular target can differentially affect the signaling pathways mediated by the receptor. These newer ideas make the importance of collaboration between biologist and chemist even more crucial, and while complicating our concepts of drug action, provide a future richness of discovery opportunity.
Non‐amyloid Approaches To Alzheimer's Disease
Authors: Veng Lone , Savage Mary J. , Barrow James C. , Zerbinatti Celina V. 
Published: September 2010

AbstractAlzheimer's disease (AD) brain is defined by extracellular amyloid plaques and intracellular Tau aggregates that are believed to cause the neurodegeneration and devastating cognitive dysfunction of AD patients. AD therapies have focused primarily on intervening at brain amyloid levels; however, since both small molecule and immunotherapy approaches to reduce amyloid have yet to show cognitive improvement in AD patients, interest in new interventions that can provide additional benefits is on the rise. This review focuses on therapeutic approaches addressing metabolic risk factors and development of targets that reduce Tau pathology.
Polymer Adsorption
Authors: Pavlukhina Svetlana , Sukhishvili Svetlana 
Published: September 2010

Abstract
Adsorbed polymers at interfaces are used to control interactions between surfaces in a wide range of applications such as lubrication, adhesion, food processing, and paints. Recent developments have enabled new applications using adsorbed polymers to create surfaces capable of regulating cell adhesion and proliferation. This article summarizes the current theoretical understanding of polymer adsorption and the experimental techniques used to study adsorption of neutral and charged polymers.
Cryogenic Properties
Authors: Hartwig G. 
Published: September 2010

AbstractCryogenic applications of polymers are mainly connected with superconductivity, space technology, and liquefied gases. They include superconducting motors or pulsed magnets for fusion technology, which require materials to fatigue and electrically resistive to eddy currents. Support elements for liquid‐gas containers require low thermal conductivity and good mechanical strength. Polymers are used as potting materials for superconducting magnets, electrical insulation of superconducting cables, optical data storage by selective frequency absorption, and composites for low temperature technology. Frequency selectivity is increased at cryogenic temperatures because of lowered thermal broadening. The high strength or stiffness, thermal and electrical capabilities, and the fatigue endurance limits of fiber composites are the chief reasons for their cryogenic applications. At cryogenic temperatures, interchain interaction governs most polymer properties, as is evident for elasticity and most thermal properties.Below 200 K, dielectric and mechanical loss tangents exhibit the same temperature dependence; their ratio is a constant determined by the polarity of polymers. Most polymers are brittle at low temperatures owing to freezing of intrachain interactions. At very low temperatures, ie, <1 K, quantum‐mechanical effects predominate in phonon interactions.
Ionomers
Authors: Kim Joon‐Seop , Luqman Mohammad , Song Ju‐Myung 
Published: September 2010

AbstractSince the early 1950s, the introduction of ionic groups has been recognized as a tool that can change the polymer properties. Thus, ionomers, polymers that contain a small amount of ionic groups along the polymer backbone chains, have received considerable attention from industrial as well as academic arenas. It has been found that ionomers exhibit unique properties and morphology, such as twoTgs, high melt viscosity, transport behavior, and SAXS “ionomer” peak. In this article, we set out with a introduction on ionomers, and then move on to multiplet/cluster concepts. Subsequently, the glass transition temperatures of ionomers have been discussed. The next section is devoted to a discussion of physical properties of various ionomers, that is, polyethylene‐based ionomers, polytetrafluoroethylene‐based ionomers, polystyrene‐based ionomers, block ionomers, telechelic ionomers, and star ionomers. In the following section, three different types of plasticization using polar, non‐polar, and amphiphilic plasticizers are discussed. Then, various ionic interactions as a tool for miscibility improvement are described. The last section deals with the applications of ionomers briefly.
Graft Rejection: Immunological Suppression
Authors: Afzali Behdad , Lechler Robert , Lombardi Giovanna 
Published: September 2010

AbstractTransplantation of solid organs is the treatment of choice for most patients with end‐stage organ diseases. In the absence of pharmacological immunosuppression, recognition of foreign (allogeneic) histocompatibility proteins expressed on donor cells by the recipient's immune system results in rejection of the transplanted tissue(s). One‐year renal transplant survival is now routinely over 90% in most centres, largely the result of improvements in immunosuppressive drugs. In this article, we review commonly used immunosuppressive medications and discuss their pharmacological modes of action. Given that long‐term graft outcomes remain poor despite improvements in early transplant survival, we discuss, in addition, novel experimental strategies for the induction of tolerance to transplanted tissues that have translational relevance to human organ recipients.Key Concepts:The major limitation of solid organ transplantation is long‐term immunosuppression which either results in excessive mortality and morbidity or is insufficient to prevent chronic rejection of transplanted tissues.An understanding of transplant rejection and pharmacological targets of immunosuppression is key to devising novel strategies of preventing rejection by inducing transplant tolerance.
Kinship Testing
Authors: Krawczak M 
Published: September 2010

AbstractIn kinship testing, the level of genotypic similarity between individuals at suitable genetic markers is utilised to assess their degree of familial relationship. Inference is made either by evaluating the available genotypic information under different hypotheses about kinship, represented by different pedigree structures, or through the direct quantification of kinship coefficients using a statistical approach. One complicating factor in genetic kinship testing, however, is population structure whereby the assumption of statistical independence between genotypes of unrelated individuals, or between genotypes at unlinked markers, may become violated. Similarly, physical linkage between markers can also render the simple, so‐called ‘product rule’ for composite likelihood calculation invalid. In these instances, specific statistical approaches and computer algorithms need to be used that properly adjust the relevant computations for population structure or linkage.Key Concepts:Kinship testing involves evaluation of the level of genotypic similarity between individuals at selected genetic markers.The optimal basis for decision‐making in kinship testing is the likelihood ratio of different hypotheses about kinship, taking the available genetic evidence into account.Posterior odds for given hypotheses about kinship can be calculated from prior odds and likelihood ratios, using Bayes formula.Coancestry as arising, for example, from population structuring renders the calculation of multimarker likelihoods by simple multiplication of single‐marker likelihoods (known as the ‘product rule’) invalid.General kinship testing is equivalent to likelihood calculations of genotypes in pedigrees, which in turn must take physical linkage between markers into account.The degree of kinship between two individuals is quantified by their coefficient of relatedness, which equals the expected number of alleles shared identical‐by‐descent from a common ancestor.The coefficient of relatedness is either calculated for a given type of relationship, and then used to predict genetic similarity, or estimated from observed levels of genetic similarity to infer pair‐wise relatedness.
Life Sciences in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages
Authors: Frampton Michael 
Published: September 2010

AbstractThe life sciences in late antiquity (ad300–600) and the early Middle Ages (ad600–1000) centre around the study of three primary categories of ensouled or animate creatures, namely, plants (botany), animals (zoology) and man (anthropology). Major subdisciplines within these general areas of study include pharmacology, medicine, agriculture and veterinary science. The ancient Greek and Roman life scientists of the classical period (600bc–ad300) established much of the data and many of the fundamental concepts concerning the nature of the cosmos and its living inhabitants which scholars of the post‐classical period (ad300–1000) would inherit. The history of the late ancient and the early medieval life sciences is essentially the story of the preservation, dissemination and partial elaboration of classical Graeco‐Roman learning within several very different political, linguistic and religious contexts following the dissolution of the political and cultural synthesis that had been established under the Roman Empire (27bc–ad476).Key Concepts:Life science in the classical (ad300–600) and post‐classical (ad600–1000) periods centres around the study of three primary categories of ensouled or animate creatures, plants (botany), animals (zoology) and man (anthropology), and includes the subdisciplines of medicine, pharmacology, agriculture and veterinary science.Soul (Greekpsyche; Latinanima) is the life principle of plants, animals and people, of which there are three broad species: the vegetative, sensitive and rational.Classical anatomy, physiology, medicine, botany and zoology are tacitly accepted in the post‐classical period.The interlocking concepts of (1) teleology, (2) the microcosm‐macrocosm analogy and (3) the great chain of being provide common conceptual ground for the ancient (classical) and the late ancient/early medieval (post‐classical) world views.Classical life science continues to flourish in diverse religious (Jewish, Christian and Muslim) and linguistic (Latin, Greek, Persian, Syriac and Arabic) cultures following the dissolution of the political and cultural synthesis that had been established under the Roman Empire.Greek, Latin, Syriac and Arabic languages are the primary linguistic vehicles in the diffusion of classical knowledge throughout Europe and the Middle East.Linguistic barriers are overcome by a handful of multilingual scholars who live on the borderland of two or more dominant cultures.Christian and Muslim post‐classical scholars use their pagan classical heritage selectively by (1) choosing organisation, conciseness and practicality over theoretical and experimental elaboration, and (2) adapting it to the sacred Scriptures of the Judaeo‐Christian (Old and New Testament) and Muslim (Koranic) cultures.
Elevational Gradients in Species Richness
Authors: McCain Christy M , Grytnes John‐Arvid 
Published: September 2010

Abstract

The abiotic and biotic gradients on mountains have enormous potential to improve our understanding of species distributions, species richness patterns and conservation. Here we describe how abiotic factors change with elevation, how flora and fauna respond to these changes and how elevational species richness patterns have been studied to uncover drivers of biodiversity. There are four main trends in elevational species richness: decreasing richness with increasing elevation, plateaus in richness across low elevations then decreasing with or without a mid‐elevation peak and a unimodal pattern with a mid‐elevational peak. We discuss the history of elevational richness studies and overview the various hypotheses thought to be important in richness trends, including climatic, spatial, biotic and evolutionary factors.

Key Concepts:

Elevational gradients exhibit complex variation in abiotic conditions over short distances.

Patterns of elevational species richness follow four common patterns: mid‐elevation peaks, decreasing, low‐elevation plateaus and low plateaus with mid‐elevation peaks.

Patterns of elevational species richness vary between taxonomic groups.

A combination of water availability and temperature is often found to be related to elevational species richness patterns.

No consistent support is found for the importance of area or mid‐domain effects for elevational species richness patterns.

Support for the various mechanisms underlying elevational richness patterns tends to be related to the ecology and evolutionary history of the taxonomic group of interest.

Elevational gradients are valuable in our task to disentangle the causes behind broad‐scale patterns in biodiversity, and in our quest to understand threats to biodiversity with climatic change.
Seabird Island Ecology
Authors: Mulder Christa PH , Ellis Julie C 
Published: September 2010

AbstractSeabird islands house large colonies of seabirds that spend most of their time at sea but return to land to breed. Seabirds deposit large amounts of nutrients of marine origin on islands; many species also disturb soil and vegetation during the building and maintenance of nests. Physical and chemical disturbance by seabirds alters the chemical composition of soils and vegetation and modifies plant and animal communities. In many cases, the additional nutrients brought in by seabirds subsidise native animal populations, including endemic species frequently found on remote islands. Introduction of predators such as rats, cats and mustelids has resulted in population decreases or local extinction of many seabird species, and this leads to large changes in nutrient cycling and plant and animal populations. Recent efforts at eradication of introduced seabird predators have been successful, but re‐establishment of seabirds and seabird island communities will likely take additional active restoration.Key Concepts:Seabirds deposit nutrients of marine origin in terrestrial environments.Seabirds impose physical disturbance on soils and vegetation in the process of building and maintaining nests.Seabird islands often house endemic and native plants and animals that are no longer found on the mainland.The presence of seabirds selects for plants that are tolerant of high‐disturbance and high‐nutrient conditions.Nutrient subsidies from guano (i.e. nitrogen and phosphorus) can support increased primary and secondary productivity.Introduced mammalian predators have eradicated seabirds and other species on many seabird islands.The reduction of seabird populations by introduced predators alters plant and animal communities and nutrient cycling.Eradication of seabird predators is a necessary first step towards restoration of seabird islands.Restoration of seabird islands often requires active management of seabirds, other animals and plant populations.Protection of seabird islands will require international cooperation on land and at sea.
Ion Chromatography
Authors: Pietrzyk Donald J. , Dicinoski Greg W. 
Published: September 2010

Abstract
Ion chromatography (IC), which is an important technique within high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), is a chromatographic separation/detection strategy that is applied to the determination of inorganic and organic analyte anions and cations. The methodology consists of three main components: (i) an ion‐exchange column of varying capacity, where the separation occurs; (ii) a suppressor system, which reduces conductivity due to the mobile phase electrolyte; and (iii) a conductivity detector, which is used to detect the analyte ions. Anionic analytes are separated on an anion‐exchange column and analyte cations are separated on a cation‐exchange column. IC, which is routinely applied in water, environmental, health, and food analysis, is a rapid, sensitive, and accurate method for the trace determination of complex mixtures of analyte ions, particularly analyte anions, where no other method offers similar advantages and scope of application, especially when suppressed conductivity detection is employed. Modern IC is characterized by the use of electrolytic eluent generation, electrolytic eluent purification and suppression, and eluent recycling options.

Today, the term IC defines a broader group of methodologies applicable to the separation of analyte ions and now also defines the following strategies. Nonsuppressed IC of analyte anions and cations is also possible. In addition, analyte ions can be separated with an ion interaction reagent (ion pair reagent) as a mobile phase additive and a reversed stationary‐phase column rather than an ion‐exchange column; this is often called
ion interaction chromatography
(
IIC
). Ion exclusion chromatography (IEC), which is a separation of weakly dissociated acid and base analytes on an anion exchanger, is also an important methodology within the field of IC. Modern IC can also be employed for the separation of ionogenic organic molecules from simple low molecular weight carboxylic acids and amines to large organic molecules such as DNA.
Capillary Electrophoresis Mass Spectrometry: Theory and Instrumentation
Authors: Bragg William , Shamsi Shahab A. 
Published: September 2010

AbstractSince capillary electrophoresis (CE) coupled to mass spectrometry (MS) was first introduced in 1987, it has continued to prove itself a complementary and/or alternative process to other separation systems coupled to MS. The impressive utility and rapid growth of CE/MS is based on three areas of development, which are covered in this article. The first is the efficient separations that are provided by the CE modes of capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE), capillary electrochromatography (CEC), and micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC). Molecular micelles used in MEKC/MS and packed columns with tapered outlets for CEC/MS are two novel approaches that are contributing to rapid development. The second is the soft ionization sources, such as electrospray ionization (ESI) and atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI), which provide efficient ways to ionize molecules in the gas phase. The third is the use of the commercially available CE instruments, which makes it possible to hyphenate all of the following modern mass analyzers. Examples of these analyzers include quadrupole mass filters, time of flight (TOF), ion traps, and the newest Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FTICR) mass analyzers. The applications and developments of various modes of CE/MS show analysis of a variety of achiral and chiral compounds. In addition, the recent use of multivariate analysis with MEKC/MS and CEC/MS has shown the ruggedness of these hyphenation modes.
Pulsed Methods in Electron Spin Resonance
Authors: Bowman Michael K. 
Published: September 2010

Abstract
This article describes how pulsed electron spin resonance (ESR) signals and spectra are generated. A few basic pulse sequences are introduced, along with a simple vector model and the Bloch equations to explain the signals that are produced and the type of information each signal contains. The major applications of pulsed ESR are described for the measurement of ESR spectra, relaxation times, chemical reaction kinetics, molecular motion, hyperfine interactions, and the distances between radicals. The common pulse sequences used for each of these measurements are described and some of the limitations and drawbacks are discussed. The simple models for pulsed ESR are modified, as needed, to explain unexpected features encountered in some experimental measurements. Double resonance and 2D spectroscopies such as electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR), double electron–electron resonance (DEER), and hyperfine sublevel correlation (HYSCORE) are discussed.
IFORS
: Bringing the World of
or
Together for 50 Years
Authors: del Rosario Elise , Rand Graham 
Published: September 2010

Abstract
In 2009, the International Federation of Operational Research Societies (IFORS), currently with a membership of 50 national societies, celebrated its 50th year since formation. This article provides an overview of the federation's history, its leadership and current composition, initiatives that have been put in place, and current activities.