bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Instrumenta Studiorum: Tools of the Trade
Authors: Kelly Joseph F. , Saint‐Laurent Jeanne‐Nicole 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article introduces scholars and students to the study of early Christianity by acquainting them with some of the more important tools of research. Since the primary reading audience is Anglophone, English-language titles predominate. From the mid-first to the mid-second century, the New Testament books came into being, along with a number of other texts. For centuries, the study of early Christianity actually meant patristics, the study of theologians whose authority earned them the honorific title of ‘fathers of the church’. The discussion notes that early Christianity encompasses anything related to the history of Christianity in the first six centuries. To understand how ‘early’ Christianity earned that title, the scholar must have some sense of how this period fits into the larger history of Christianity. A good one-volume history of Christianity is The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity.
The Origins of Organization Theory
Authors: Starbuck William H. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article argues that contemporary organization theory owes its existence to social and technological changes that occurred during the last half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century. These changes created both a basis for theorizing and an audience for theories about organizations. They stimulated an explosion in the numbers of large, formalized organizations, they made organizations relevant to many more people, and they made many more people interested in and capable of understanding theoretical propositions. This article follows a loosely chronological itinerary. It begins by taking note that theoretical writing about management began more than 4,000 years ago, and that some organizations had the essential properties of bureaucracy more than 3,000 years ago. It also reviews the developments that made organization theory possible and interesting.
Meta-theoretical Controversies in Studying Organizational Culture
Authors: Martin Joanne 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
To understand the contemporary state of organizational culture theory and research, it is necessary to grapple with some of the major intellectual disputes that have swept through the humanities and social sciences in recent years. Some researchers choose to study a single cultural context, in great detail and depth. This article deals with five controversies which include: objectivity and subjectivity; etic (outsider) and emic (insider) research; generalizable and context-specific research; focus and breadth; and level of depth. These issues are introduced in terms relevant to all branches of organizational studies. Their particular application to cultural studies is also discussed here. These disputes are usually framed as struggles between opposing terms — dichotomies, such as ‘objectivity and subjectivity’ or ‘etic and emic’.
Actionable Knowledge
Authors: Argyris Chris 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The focus of this article is upon producing actionable knowledge. Propositions that are actionable are those that actors can use to implement effectively their intentions. Actionable knowledge requires propositions that make explicit the causal processes required to produce action. Causality is the key in implementation. One of the most powerful inhibitors of effective action is inner contradictions. Inner contradictions exist when the propositions to act are implemented correctly. One cause of inner contradiction is the methodologies used by most normal social scientists to discover problems and to invent solutions. These features cause the degree of seamlessness and the validity of the implementation to be reduced. The focus on describing reality in ways that satisfies the requirements of internal and external validity makes it less likely that attention is paid to the implementable validity of the propositions. This, in turn, leads to propositions that are abstract and disconnected from implementable action.
Managing Organization Futures in a Changing World of Power/Knowledge
Authors: Clegg Stewart 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
All forms of organization are forms of organization of social relations. All social relations involve power relations. Power is evident in these relations as relations not only of ownership and control but also of structuration and design. These relations may take many forms. They may be embodied as financial capital, intellectual capital, or social capital, for instance. Such relations are likely to be both differentially distributed and socially constructed as well as existing in differential demand in differentiated markets. Power is also evident in the various forms of knowledge that constitute, structure, and shape these markets and organizations. It is these power/knowledge relations that this article addresses. The aim of this article is to address analytically the methods of managing and organizing, which members of various organizational bodies and communities find conventional to use.
At Home from Mars to Somalia: Recounting Organization Studies
Authors: Calás Marta B. , Smircich Linda 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article makes a long detour by taking multidisciplinary understandings of ‘development’ and ‘technology’ via Ethiopia and Somalia. It discusses several news items that illustrate the current state of organization studies and its prospects. Organization studies might tell postmodernist tales about these news items. For instance, a postmodern story might engage the contemporary discourse about time/space compression to observe that time and space seem to be compressed only on the side of the powerful — for ‘the other’ of this tale appears to inhabit an ever-moving space in which time travels backward. Foucauldian versions might genealogize the discourses and practices of ‘success’ and ‘development’. Or, perhaps, the discourses of globalization could be deconstructed by reading the binaries embedded in ‘Martian microbes waiting to bloom and blow up in our bellies’ through the blooming bellies of African populations whose life expectancy is going backward.
Temporary Inter‐organizational Projects
Authors: Jones Candace , Lichtenstein Benyamin B. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Inter-organizational projects (IOPs), in which multiple organizations work jointly on a shared activity for a limited period of time, are increasingly used to coordinate complex products/services in uncertain and competitive environments. For some time, project management researchers have examined the structures and processes within intra-organizational projects that lead to their success, and recently some outlines of a ‘theory’ of organizational projects have been offered. This article begins by defining IOPs. It then describes how temporal embeddedness and social embeddedness provide specific mechanisms for managing uncertainty associated with these projects, and facilitating collaboration amongst project actors. Next, it illustrates the insights by combining these two dimensions and exploring them across four contexts within which IOPs are the dominant form of coordination among organizations, including film, architecture, crisis response, and large-scale engineering infrastructure. Finally, it offers suggestions for future research and conclusions.
The Social Network Perspective
Authors: Kenis Patrick , Oerlemans Leon 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The social network perspective refers to a tradition in social science which focuses on the joint activities of, and continual exchanges between, participants in a social system. This perspective is characterized by an interest in the recurrent relationship patterns that connect the actors that make up a system's social structure. This article considers that the social network approach is the relationship among actors, be they individuals or groups such as whole organizations or parts of organizations. Rather than examining actors in isolation, the social network perspective sees actors as embedded within networks of interconnected relationships that provide opportunities for, as well as constraints on, behaviour. This article focuses on the interaction between actors rather than on the attributes of particular actors, their size for example.
Evolutionary Perspectives on Inter‐organizational Relations
Authors: Lomi Alessandro , Negro Giacomo , Fonti Fabio 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article briefly discusses the background and the intellectual context in which evolutionary thinking about organizations and institutions has been growing and developing. It emphasizes the mechanisms through which inter-organizational evolution is assumed to operate and provides examples of how they might be working across levels of organizational analysis. Any characterization of inter-organizational evolution is highly dependent on the principles behind the definition of these aggregate entities. For this reason, this article links this general discussion about the origins of evolutionary thinking in the study of organizations to conceptions of organizational environments. Building on the insight of ecological approaches to the study of organizations, this article presents ways in which inter-organizational relations (IORs) have been examined among members of organizational populations and communities. This article examines studies of IORs that have built more explicitly on network representations, models, and imagery, with reference to organizational fields rather than populations and communities.
Transaction Costs Perspectives on Inter‐organizational Relations
Authors: Hennart Jean‐François 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The goal of transaction cost theory (TCT) is to explain which institution will be chosen to govern a given economic interaction. Such interactions can take place within firms (intra-organizational relations) or between firms (inter-organizational relations, or IORs). The TCT literature has looked at IORs as governance mechanisms, i.e. as institutions charged with generating rents from interdependencies between individuals and between organizations. Generating such rents requires informing parties of their capabilities and needs, reducing bargaining, and enforcing the bargains reached. This article sketches the basic approach and assumptions which are subscribed to by all, or nearly all, TCT theorists. It presents a view on the determinants of the choice between different forms of IORs and contrasts them with those of Williamson. It also provides some examples of how TCT has been used to make sense of real world IORs.
The Social Psychology of Inter‐organizational Relations
Authors: Schruijer Sandra G. L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractSocial psychology is ‘the scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others’. The social psychology of intergroup relations is concerned with understanding the determinants of conflict between groups and concomitant processes. This article discusses the dynamics of conflict and collaboration between multiple parties from a psychological perspective. First, it provides an overview of how social psychologists have traditionally studied relations between groups and the theories that have been formulated to understand their dynamics. Then it discusses the relevance of these social psychological theories for understanding the dynamics of complex inter-organizational relations and point to their weaknesses. It ends with a call to develop a comprehensive theory of the psychological dynamics of inter-organizational conflict and collaboration and to engage in multidisciplinary research.
Political Perspectives on Inter‐organizational Networks
Authors: Knoke David , Chen Xinxiang 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines political perspectives on inter-organizational relationships, which refer primarily to the disciplines of political science and political sociology and their diverse approaches to theorizing and empirically investigating relationships among organizations. It reviews recent work in both political science and political sociology on a broad range of topics, including political institutions and governance, voting and social movement participation, social capital formation, public policy-making and implementation, and systems of political opportunity and influence. The common thread weaving together these diverse topics is social network analysis, which explains how the structure of interactions connecting political actors affects perceptions, attitudes, and actions, and in turn, how political behaviours transform network structures. Although one can draw ideas from general theories of social networks and organizational behaviour, the specific objective of this article is to demonstrate how those concepts and propositions help in better understanding and explanation of the political relationships among organizations.
Intervening to Improve Inter‐organizational Partnerships
Authors: Gray Barbara 
Published: September 2009

AbstractActors who envision gaining collaborative advantage from aligning with others in an inter-organizational partnership face the often-daunting prospect of trying to integrate their diverse perspectives. The complexity and challenges of initiating and maintaining such partnerships have been chronicled extensively. This article reviews a variety of interventions aimed at improving the quality and the likelihood of alliance success. It defines interventions as deliberate actions taken by an alliance partner or a third party to influence the formation, design, or process of interaction among alliance partners. This article refers to five types of partnerships: strategic alliances, joint ventures, policy planning forums, community forums, and multisector collaborations. Interventions can originate from various sources. Additionally, the interventions have been tested and refined through practical application in numerous contexts and thereby reflect the best of theory-to-practice wisdom. This article reviews the underlying theory behind each intervention and assesses its utility for improving inter-organizational partnerships.
The Field of Inter‐organizational Relations
Authors: Cropper Steve , Ebers Mark , Huxham Chris , Ring Peter Smith 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article concludes that at this point in its development, and from the vantage point of organization science, inter-organizational relations (IORs) seem to constitute an emerging sub-field of organization science focusing on the inter-organizational level of analysis and beginning to develop its own institutional trappings. The empirical and conceptual basis which draws together scholars interested in IORs can be found in a specific focus on questions about the boundaries or identities of inter-organizational entities, including bilateral and multilateral partnerships and alliances, clusters, groups, and networks, their relational structures, contents, and practices. As IOR's perhaps most important mother discipline, organization science, has successfully demonstrated throughout its history, it can be most fruitful if research endeavours draw on, and learn from, concepts, theories, and methods first developed in other disciplines and fields of scientific enquiry.
Normative Methodology
Authors: Hardin Russell 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article shows that one should start social science inquiry with individuals, their motivations, and the kinds of transactions they undertake with one another. It specifically discusses four basic schools of social theory: conflict, shared-values, exchange, and coordination theories. Conflict theories almost inherently lead into normative discussions of the justification of coercion in varied political contexts. Religious visions of social order are usually shared-value theories and interest is the chief means used by religions to guide people. Individualism is at the core of an exchange theory. Because the first three theories are generally in conflict in any moderately large society, coercion is a sine qua non for social order. Coordination interactions are especially important for politics and political theory and probably for sociology, although exchange relations might be most of economics, or at least of classical economics. Shared-value theory may possibly turn into the most commonly asserted alternative to rational choice in this time as contractarian reasoning recedes from center stage in the face of challenges to the story of contracting that lies behind it and the difficulty of believing people actually think they have consciously agreed to their political order.
Concepts, Theories, and Numbers: A Checklist for Constructing, Evaluating, and Using Concepts or Quantitative Measures
Authors: Goertz Gary 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article presents guidance on how to think about the concepts. It proposes to explore some issues in the assessment of concepts and quantitative measures. It presents the basic problem in its general outlines. It then offers a very short example, typically using published research. The structuring and aggregating concepts and measures indicates that one must first consider the theory embodied in the concept. Then one should survey plausible aggregation and structural relationships that could be applied in a quantitative measure. It is noted that one needs to ask about the existence or not of zero points. The gray zone needs to be explored independently of the two extremes. Homogeneity is another aspect of comparing within and between various concepts and measures of the same phenomenon. This article generally highlights that it is the lack of integration of theory and methodology which proves problematic.
Measurement
Authors: Jackman Simon 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article shows that the words ‘behavioural’ and ‘behaviour’ turn out to be better measures as judged by tests of criterion and convergent validity. It specifically discusses measurement problems. Further, it pertains to statistical models that link latent variables and their observed indicators as measurement models. The success of measurement — the quality of the inferences provided by a measurement model — is usually assessed with reference to two key concepts: validity and reliability. The distinct uses of measures of latent variables are reported. The article then deals with the costs of ignoring measurement error. Additionally, a quick introduction to factor analysis, item-response models, and a very general class of latent variable models are briefly given. Moreover, it describes the inference for discrete latent variables and the measurement in a dynamic setting.
Counterfactuals and Case Studies
Authors: Levy Jack S. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article shows that counterfactuals can be used along with case studies to make inferences, although strong theories are needed for this. The article also argues that game theory is one approach that provides this kind of theory because a game explicitly models all of the actors' options including those possibilities that are not chosen. The article then indicates that any counterfactual argument requires a detailed and explicit description of the alternative antecedent which is plausible and involves a minimal rewrite of history, and suggests that one of the strengths of game theory is its explicitness about alternatives. The validity of counterfactual arguments is assessed in explaining cases or testing theoretical propositions. Counterfactuals should change as few aspects of the real world as possible in order to isolate their causal effects.
Quantitative Methodology
Authors: Franklin Charles H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article reviews the history of the quantitative methodology institutions, Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR), and the American Political Science Association's Political Methodology Section. It also highlights the role of organizations and institutions in promoting and structuring the development of quantitative methodology in political science. The development of summer programs in quantitative methods is described. There was a market niche for methodology both as a subfield on its own, and as a direct contributor to improving substance through improved methods. The existence of the Society for Political Methodology has increased expectations for graduate training, at least among those who see their careers as methodologists.
Decision Making with Inaccurate, Unreliable Data
Authors: Mezias John M. , Starbuck William H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article reviews some evidence that decision makers often rely on inaccurate or unreliable data. The article also points out ways decision makers react when they realize their data are inaccurate or unreliable. Lastly, it examines some options for coping more effectively with inaccurate, unreliable data. Business and political journalists generally interview people who have participated in decision making. The participants explain their goals, situations faced, and the logic behind their decisions. Likewise, research about decision making and sensemaking usually assumes managers are aware of and understand their organizations and their organizations' environments. Some studies obtain almost all of their data about decision inputs and premises from the decision makers. Other studies correlate data about firms' actions with managers' perceptions of their organizations or business environments. However, almost no research has examined the accuracy of such perceptions.
Making the Decision to Monitor in the Workplace: Cybernetic Models and the Illusion of Control
Authors: Zweig David , Webster Jane , Scott Kristyn A. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article explores the reliance on cybernetic control models by managers and organizations when making decisions by investigating the desire for people to establish and maintain control. Further, it argues that applying cybernetic models of control to decision making might be inappropriate when applied to humans. Establishing control via the application of cybernetic models is illusory and can lead to a repetitive spiral of increased control. In contrast, research on leadership offers a different paradigm of control. It considers how a manager's behavior can trigger the appropriate response in an employee by activating the employee's working self-concept for how he or she should behave in the workplace. That is, this article examines how employees' desired behaviors and performance can be realized without the need to engage in electronic monitoring.
Linking Rationality, Politics, and Routines in Organizational Decision Making
Authors: Royer Isabelle , Langley Ann 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The first section of this article introduces a “static” perspective on decision making that views rationality and politics as alternatives whose appropriateness depends on a key contingency: uncertainty. This section considers classic prescriptions from the literature and shows how and why descriptive decision behavior may diverge from them. The second section takes a more “dynamic” perspective, viewing uncertainty no longer as a fixed contingency, but as a contextual variable that evolves over time. The third section adds consideration of the role of routines from both a prescriptive and a descriptive angle, drawing on recent contributions that discuss their “ostensive and performative” dimensions. The article concludes with implications for future research and practice.