bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
On the Occurrence of Silurian [?] Rocks in Forfarshire and Kincardineshire along the Eastern Border of the Highlands
Authors: Barrow George 
Published: October 2009

I. The Mode of Occurrence of the Rocks
Along the south-eastern border of the Highlands, between Blair-gowrie and Stonehaven, a remarkable group of rocks has been mapped in the course of the geological survey of that region. They occur as isolated lenticular strips, which intervene between the schistose rocks of the Highlands on the north-west and the boundary-fault that truncates the Old Red Sandstone on the south-east. The first and largest of these lenticular strips is about 20 miles long, extending almost from Cortachy in Forfarshire to about a mile beyond the Clattering Bridge in Kincardineshire. In the valley of the North Esk it is
about ¾ mile broad, but elsewhere much narrower. The second lenticular mass begins at a point about a mile north of Drumtochty Castle, and stretches for 6 miles in a north-easterly direction to the Braes of Bervie. Part of a third strip is shown on the eastern margin of Sheet 66 of the 1-inch Geological Survey Map of Scotland, on the north side of the Highland Fault. The lenticular mode of occurrence of these rocks is due to the alternate approximation and recession of their northern margin from the great fault which everywhere forms their southern boundary.
Notwithstanding the mechanical deformation which these rocks have more or less undergone, we are still able to ascertain their original characters and mutual relations. They may be arranged in two divisions, namely :—(1) the Jasper and Green-Bock Series; and (2) the younger Margie Series.
An almost complete section
On the Geological and Physical Development of Antigua
Authors: Spencer Joseph William Winthrop 
Published: October 2009

I. Introduction and Early Observations
The island of Antigua may be taken as a starting-point for the study of the Windward Islands, as within its area of 100 square miles almost all of the geological and geographical features of the region, except the later volcanic phenomena, are developed in such a way as to be easily understood. The only other island comparable for a base of study is Guadeloupe, which furthermore includes all the recent volcanic features on a grand scale, but some other features less easily distinguishable than in Antigua.
On November 5th, 1819, Dr. Nicholas Nugent, a physician of Antigua, communicated to the Geological Society of London ‘A Sketch of the Geology of the Island of Antigua’; but a ‘Memorandum’ of this had been sent to Benjamin Silliman on April 10th, 1818, and was published two years earlier in America than the fuller London paper. Nugent also sent to the Geological Society large collections of the rocks and fossils, carefully labelled as to their horizons. These remained almost unstudied for over forty years, when P. Martin Duncan made an elaborate study of the corals contained in them, which appeared in 1863–64.
Nugent had a companion in his studies of the island in the person of Dr. Thomas Nicholson, who wrote a short account of the geology of the island in the ‘Antigua Almanac & Register,’ a work forgotten or lost. Prof. S. Hovey visited the island, with Nugent as his guide, and published a sketch of the ‘Geology
On the Geological and Physical Development of Anguilla, St. Martin, St. Bartholomew, and Sombrero
Authors: Spencer Joseph William Winthrop 
Published: October 2009

I. Introduction
The drowned plateau, standing boldly above the great submerged Antillean ridge, now forming the slightly sunken banks, out of which rise Anguilla, St. Martin, and St. Bartholomew, with some small outlying islands, is a repetition of the Antigua-Barbuda mass; in size a little larger, drowned a little deeper, more broken, and with its marginal declivities strikingly indented. Sombrero is an isolated feature.
Apart from the excellent contribution of Mr. P. T. Cleve, there appears to be no geological account of the islands; but the discovery of mammalian remains by Edward Cope, among the bones obtained in Anguilla by Mr. Wager Ray, of that island and the study of fossil echinoderms of the same island by Mr. K. J. Lechmere Guppy, are important additions to our knowledge of the region.
The south-eastern extension of the St. Martin plateau, with its surface covered by only about 200 feet of water, is separated from the Antigua-Barbuda platform by a depression 18 miles across, but its depth beyond 858 feet has not been determined. The valley between the sunken tableland and Saba, to the south, is 20 miles wide and reaches a depth of 2934 feet; while that separating it, on the west, from Sombrero is scarcely wider, with the depth to the ridge crossing it reduced to 1800 feet. Beyond Sombrero is a channel of phenomenal depth, the only one of its kind, dissecting the Antillean chain, entirely cutting off the sunken plateau of the Virgin Islands to the westward.
The
Note on a Submerged and Glaciated Rock-Valley recently exposed to view in Carmarthenshire
Authors: Codrington Thomas 
Published: October 2009

In a paper published in the Quarterly Journal for 1898 I gave particulars of submerged rock-valleys in South Wales. Further instances of the same sort have since come to light, one of which is sufficiently remarkable to deserve description. It was discovered in building a bridge across the River Towy, at Drysllwyn, 9 miles above Carmarthen (to which place the tide now flows), and about 18 miles from the mouth of the river. The sources of the Towy are some 40 miles from Drysllwyn, on the borders of Cardiganshire and Radnorshire, at about 1700 feet above the sea; but tributary streams descend from the Black Mountain, 2000 to 2600 feet above sea-level, on the south of the Towy Valley, 12 to 16 miles above Drysllwyn.
At the bridge, the valley is narrowed by a detached hill of Lower Silurian rock rising about 180 feet above the river, which stands out into the valley and contracts the width to half a mile. The river now flows at the foot of the hill, which rises at an angle of 40° with the horizon, and is crowned by the ruins of Drysllwyn Castle.
Near the water’s edge on the north of the river, the rock was laid bare, for the foundation of the abutment of the bridge, over an area of 30 by 20 feet. It sloped down gradually to 23 feet below summer water-level at the western or down-stream side, and it was glaciated in large fullows, a foot and more across,
On the Meteorological Conditions of the Pleistocene Epoch
Authors: Ekholm Nils 
Published: October 2009

In his interesting paper entitled ‘The Influence of the Winds upon Climate during the Pleistocene Epoch,’ Mr. F. W. Harmer has endeavoured to describe the meteorological conditions of that epoch by means of the theories and facts of modern meteorological science. The subject is no doubt one of great interest, but also of great difficulty. We still know too little concerning the nature, origin, and development of the great atmospheric eddies, the cyclones and anticyclones, to be able to reconstruct their average positions and tracks on the globe during a past geological epoch. Furthermore, it is very difficult to estimate the influence of those eddies on climate. As my opinion on this matter differs in some important respects from that expressed in Mr. Harmer's paper, I crave permission to discuss the question briefly. It may be conveniently divided under the following heads:—

(1)
What are the meteorological conditions necessary and sufficient to produce a permanent ice-sheet, or glaciation such as that of the Great Ice-Age?

(2)
What will be the influence of such a glaciation on the meteorological conditions, especially on the cyclones and anticyclones, over the ice-covered land and its neighbourhood?

In order to answer these questions we must consider the present climatic conditions of the earth, and draw our inferences there-from.
On the Origin of the River-System of South Wales, and its Connection with that of the Severn and the Thames
Authors: Strahan Aubrey 
Published: October 2009

I. Introduction.
The Welsh rivers, of which I shall endeavour to trace the history in the following pages, flow through a hilly region composed almost wholly of Palæozoic rocks. The greatest height is attained in the Old Red Sandstone of the Brecknock Beacons, which fall but little short of 3000 feet; but the Coal-Measures also rise into escarpments exceeding 2000 feet, and form large areas of mountain-land with an elevation of 1000 feet or more. This high ground is trenched by a series of valleys, of no great length, but important from their depth and from the fact that they penetrate a busy region, otherwise difficult of access.
A watershed map of Wales presents at first sight the appearance of a meaningless mosaic, and it will be convenient to commence by dis-entangling its leading features. A main water-parting, separating the westward- from the eastward-flowing rivers, runs from the northern coast of Pembrokeshire near Fishguard, through the counties of Cardigan and Montgomery. It will be noticed that it commences with an east-and-west trend, but curves gradually northward in Central Wales, keeping near and almost parallel to the west coast. Westward from this water-parting there runs a series of short streams into the Irish Sea; eastward from it flow the Severn and the Wye, both of which traverse Wales in a south-easterly direction, but then turn south-westward to the Bristol Channel. South of the Wye we come to a group of rivers rising on subsidiary water-partings in the counties of Brecknock, Monmouth,
On a Remarkable Inlier among the Jurassic Rocks of Sutherland, and its Bearing on the Origin of the Breccia-Beds
Authors: Blake John Frederick 
Published: October 2009

I. Introduction
The remarkable deposits, consisting of large angular and rounded stones, that skirt the western shores of the Moray Firth, on either side of Helmsdale, have already attracted the attention of two eminent geologists.
Sir Roderick Murchison, who was the first to describe them in 1826, I considered them to be the result of the upheaval of the neighbouring granite. This upheaval of the granite, in his view, broke up the Jurassic rocks along its south-eastern border, and scattered their fragments haphazard in the neighbourhood of the fault. In the phraseology of some modern writers he considered them to be crush-conglomerates, but his own name for them was ‘brecciated beds.’ This name and his explanation assumed the exclusively Jurassic age of the fragments, and both were therefore rendered untenable by the discovery in some of these fragments of Old-Red-Sandstone fish-remains.
Prof. Judd, who, in 1873, first determined the general age of the rocks as Upper Jurassic, and described them in far greater detail, would not bind himself to any definite theory of their origin, but hoped that at some future time the question would be elucidated by the discovery of analogous phenomena elsewhere—a hope which the present communication aspires to fulfil. Meanwhile he suggested as the most probable hypothesis at that time, that the blocks composing the breccia had been carried by floods in a large river that did not reach the sea-shore in the form of a glacier.
At the present time, the only possible
On Pliocene Glacio-Fluviatile Conglomerates in Subalpine France and Switzerland
Authors: Preller Charles S. Du Riche 
Published: October 2009

I.Introductory.
In a paper read before this Society in the year 1896,I described a series of Glacio-Fluviatile deposits which, occurring at varying altitudes in the Limmat Valley above, near, and below Zurich, and being the indirect product of the first general advance of Alpine glaciers in Upper Pliocene times, appeared to show that, at the time of their formation, not only the great Alpine but also the principal Subalpine river-valleys of Switzerland had already been eroded approximately to their present depth, while the lake-basins came into existence at a later period.
The study of a large number of other deposits in the lower parts of the Limmat and Aare Valleys, and along the Rhine above and below its junction with the Aare, and, further, of various deposits of so-called ‘alluvion ancienne’ in the Rhône Valley between Lausanne and Lyons, have, however, led me to modify my conclusions with respect to the configuration of Subalpine Switzerland and France towards the end of Tertiary times ; and the object of the present paper is to lay briefly before the Society the further evidence that I have thus collected, together with some conclusions which it tends to warrant.
II. Deposits in the Limmat,Aare,and Rhine Valleys. (Figs.1–5)

(1)
In the paper already quoted, I showed that, as regards the district immediately above and below Zurich, the deposits of the conglomerate now generally known as ‘Deckenschotter’ form a chain along the summit-line of the range of hills on the left of the present
Overthrusts and other Disturbances in the Braysdown Colliery; and the Bearing of these Phenomena upon the Effects of Overthrust-Faults in the Somerset Coalfield in general
Authors: Steart Frederick Anthony 
Published: October 2009

The Somerset Coalfield is a remarkable one in many respects. Unlike most of the larger coalfields of this country, by far the greater part is concealed by Secondary rocks, consisting of Oolites, Lias, and Trias, which lie almost horizontally upon the disturbed Coal-Measures beneath. Faults in these newer rocks are comparatively few and small. The Coal-Measures, however, present a marked contrast in this respect—for this coalfield is in part the most disturbed and contorted of those known and worked in the United Kingdom. Its area covers about 240 square miles, and it is presumably an isolated basin, bounded on all sides by anticlines of older rocks. On the north, in the Coal-Measures at Kingswood, near Bristol, there is an anticline and overlap-fault, which separates the Somerset Coalfield on the south from the Bristol or Gloucestershire Coalfield on the north, on the borders of which the margin of older rocks is clearly defined. On the south and south-west the great Mendip anticline separates it possibly from a similar coalfield, concealed beneath the thicker Secondary rocks on the farther side of the Mendip Hills; and on the east, the anticline which passes from the far north near Cromhall, in Gloucestershire, through or near Yate, probably continues slightly to the west of Bath and thence to Frome on the south.
The object of this paper is an attempt to describe the overfaults and related phenomena in a single colliery, namely that of Braysdown, near Radstock, and to show how the conclusions that may
The Red Sandstone-Rocks of Peel (Isle of Man)
Authors: Dawkins William Boyd 
Published: October 2009

I. Introductory.
The Red Sandstone Series, ranging along the coast eastward from Peel to Will's Strand, is faulted into the Ordovician massif of the Isle of Man, and so covered with Drift that the only clear sections are to be found along the line of cliff, and in the quarries at Ballaquane. There is, therefore, little reason for surprise that it; should have been assigned to various geological horizons. It has been referred to the Old Red Sandstone by Cumming, to the Calciferous Sandstones by Mr. Horne, and to the Permian by myself (in a paper read before the Manchester Geological Society in 1894), and by Mr. Lamplugh in 1896 to the Basement Carboniferous. It is so described by him in his Appendix to the British Association Handbook for 1896 (Liverpool), and is so represented in the Geological-Survey map of the island, and in the ¼-inch Geological Map of England and Wales, both published in that year. Since 1894, in continuation of my work in mapping the island on the 6-inch scale, I have collected further evidence as to its geological age, and have refreshed my memory by a visit to the most important localities in the Lake District where the Permians can be studied. The results of this enquiry are embodied in the following paper.
II. The Lower Red Sandstones and Brockrams of Ballaquane and Creg Malin.
The Red Sandstones exposed in the cliffs at Creg Malin, and in the quarry at Ballaquane, dip at
The Point-de-Galle Group (Ceylon): Wollastonite-Scapolite Gneisses
Authors: Coomáraswámy Ananda K. 
Published: October 2009

I.Introduction.
Prof. A. Lacroix has recorded the existence of wollastonite- and scapolite-bearing rocks in Ceylon. The specimens examined by him can hardly, however, have come from Galle, as they contain garnet, a mineral never found in the rocks of the Galle Group described below. It seems therefore probable that rocks allied to those of Galle, but differing from them in petrological details, will be found elsewhere in Ceylon.
I have on a former occasion given a short description of the Galle rocks, and am now able to supply a more detailed account of the rocks and to describe their field-relations. There are excellent exposures at Galle, within the Fort on the western side, between the Signal flagstaff and the north-western bastion ; outside the Fort below the north-western bastion ; and south-west of the Victoria Park near the remains of an old powder-magazine. All these exposures can be easily visited in the course of one whole day spent at Galle.
II. General Description.

The Galle rocks differ from normal types belonging to the Charnockite Series in the following ways :—

(1)
The presence of wollastonite, scapolite, and sphene.

(2)
The existence of definite dykes and segregation-veins crossing the foliation.

(3)
The absence of garnet, hypersthene, mica, and original hornblende, and bands of ‘granular quartz-rock’.

(4)
Somewhat coarser grain.

But resemble them closely in

(5)
The variability of chemical and mineralogical composition.
Tin and Tourmaline
Authors: MacAlister Donald A. 
Published: October 2009

Abstract
Cassiterite hardly ever occurs without tourmaline, although the latter is found without the former; hence it appears that tourmaline-producing constituents and influences are of wider range than are those of cassiterite. Boron-trioxide is an extremely common accompaniment of volcanic action, and there can be no doubt that it has acted powerfully in changing such original minerals as the micaceous and felspathic ingredients of crystalline rocks. From a comparison of formulæ representing tourmaline and felspar, it is evident that the act of tourmalinization has been accompanied by a loss of soda (which alone is capable of action on tin). The excess of boric acid (which is over and above that required for tourmalinization) will combine with this soda, forming metaborate and pyroborate of soda. The former, acting on disseminated tin-ore, might result in the production of sodium-metastannate and borax. The soluble metastannate is capable of being leached out of the magma, and, by a new reaction, tin-oxide may be precipitated and concentrated, sodium-metaborate being liberated. According to the principle underlying the cooling-curves of solutions, in all probability deposition of cassiterite would take place more rapidly at a certain stage in the process of cooling than at others.
Observations on the Tiree Marble, with Notes on others from Iona
Authors: Coomáraswámy Ananda K. 
Published: October 2009

I. Introduction.
Although so well known, and represented in many mineralogical collections, the Tiree Marble has never been described in detail. Macculloch says that the Tiree flesh-coloured marble
‘resembles the greater number of the primary limestones found in gneiss and mica-slate, and may be considered as a large nodule ... The nodule of limestone ... appears to be an irregular mass of about 100 feet in diameter, and is surrounded on all sides by gneiss.’ [The marble] ‘occasionally contains imbedded lumps of granite or gneiss, similar to those which occur in the limestone of Glen Tilt. These are always visible at the surface, from their superior power of resisting the action of the atmosphere.’
He also describes the exposures of limestone in a field south-east of Balephetrish Hill. He says that
‘it is possible that the masses of limestone thus found in gneiss have once been stratified, and that they have suffered some posterior changes by which the appearances of this disposition have been obliterated.’
Prof. Bonney has given a valuable description of the dynamic phenomena so well illustrated in thin sections of the Tiree Marble.
Prof. Cole & Prof. Sollas have suggested that the Tiree Marble may originally have been a wind-blown coral-sand rock, with abundant rounded crystals of detrital augite, etc., such as was found on the east side of Mér, one of the Murray Islands. This theory appears untenable; for it is impossible to imagine a volcanic origin for the majority of the accessory minerals, which, with
The Granite and Greisen of Cligga Head (Western Cornwall)
Authors: Scrivenor John Brooke 
Published: October 2009

The small mass of granite known as Cligga Head, forming a bold promontory between St. Agnes and Perranporth on the northern coast of Western Cornwall, has long been known, not only to the geologists of that county, but also to others from farther afield.

Conybeare, in 1817, from notes by Buckland, described a small formation at Cligga Point which would ‘probably be considered by the Wernerian school as the newer granite,’ and remarked on tho stratification and the fact that it was worked for tin. A sketch also is given of the headland (
op. cit.
pl. xxiii), which does not, however, show the leading features exactly as they occur.

In 1818, Joseph Carne spoke of granite at Cligga Head, apparently stratified obliquely, but proving, on a nearer view, to be traversed by small veins of ‘blackish quartz, whose contemporaneous formation can scarcely be doubted.’ In a footnote the same author wrote:—

‘The granite at Cligga Point (if it is not a large elvan-coarse) might be called secondary or transition granite, without affecting the age of the granite of other parts of Cornwall, as it is far from the large granite-chain’ (
op. cit.
pp. 74–75).

In 1820 Sedgwick gave a description of the granite, as resembling the common granite of the country, except the ‘intermediate parts,’ which exhibited varied modes of aggregation: the strong folding of the parallel ‘beds’ in the granite was also noticed.
Œynhausen & Dechen, in 1829, noted the ‘numberless veins of granite which interest the granite itself,’
Note on the Occurrence of Keisley Limestone-Pebbles in the Red Sandstone-Rocks of Peel (Isle of Man)
Authors: Gill E. Leonard 
Published: October 2009

In his recent paper on ‘The Red Sandstone-Rocks of Peel,’ Prof. Boyd Dawkins mentions a rock which occurs in a derived form in one of the conglomerates of the Peel Series, and has been identified with the Keisley Limestone. When Prof. Boyd Dawkins was preparing the paper quoted above, he entrusted to me the examination of the pebbles of the rock in question; and as the resulting identification possesses an interest apart from the main issues of his own work, he has kindly offered me the opportunity of giving a separate account of it. The following notes, therefore, contain a brief description of the rock and its fossil contents, with the grounds for believing it to be identical with the Keisley Limestone.
The pebbles which formed the material for the investigation were collected by Prof. Boyd Dawkins from the conglomerates forming the coast-line at Whitestrand, near Peel (Isle of Man). They are composed of a coarsely-crystalline limestone, greyish-white in ground-colour, and as a rule thickly mottled with pink : agreeing, in fact, very closely with those beds of the Keisley Limestone which Mr. F. R. Cowper Reed, M.A., F.G.S., speaking of their lithology in his exhaustive paper on that group, :~ describes as Type 3. The amount of this limestone available for examination was not great; and at first, as no fossils more distinctive than ostracods and some small and indefinite braehiopods had been met with, it was thought, on the strength of other fragments with which it was associated