bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Disorders associated with high blood pressure
Authors: Swiet Michael de , Leck Ian 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses measurement of blood pressure as a means of screening for pregnancies that would have adverse outcomes and specifically considers pre-eclampsia. It is not possible to determine the efficacy of blood pressure screening and treatment in preventing all such outcomes, but there is evidence that perinatal mortality falls when women with raised blood pressure are given additional care (mainly an early elective delivery).
Continuous electronic fetal monitoring during labour
Authors: Leck Ian , Thacker Stephen B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes electronic fetal monitoring (EFM) during labour. EFM during labour involves recording the fetal heart rate by means of an electrode on the fetal scalp or an ultrasound probe on the mother's abdomen. The aim is to identify fetal hypoxia at an early enough stage in labour to carry out a Caesarean or instrumental delivery before the hypoxia can lead to perinatal death or lasting neuropsychiatric disability.
The objectives of preventive medicine
Authors: Rose Geoffrey 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the scope and reasons for preventive medicine. It argues that the knowledge that we already possess is sufficient, if put into practice, to achieve great health gains for all and to reduce our scandalous international and national inequalities in health. Factors that impede its translation into action include widespread ignorance and lack of understanding of the issues and possibilities, and the deliberate opposition of powerful vested interests.
What Is a Cause?
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractRisk factor designs are still the most fully developed methods for the investigation of causes. Although new approaches are emerging in the current era, these approaches retain the risk factor paradigm as the basis for epidemiologic investigation in some very important contexts. This chapter discusses the underlying principles that have guided the era of risk factor epidemiology.
Choosing Controls
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter sharpens the focus to a central pitfall of case-control studies in psychiatric research: selecting valid controls. It revisits the logic of control selection and the guideline of balancing the odds. It proposes that this guideline can be used to operationalize the selection of controls in almost any context. It shows a practical application by taking up the problem of control selection in the context of comorbid disorders, a central dilemma for psychiatric case-control studies.
Comparability and the Case-Control Study
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe validity of a case-control study depends upon sampling controls from the noncases in an unbiased way, that is, independent of exposure status. Although this safeguard will prevent introducing bias when the controls are selected, any bias already present in the underlying cohort will still be reflected in the case-control study. When the exposed and unexposed groups in the underlying cohort are not fully comparable, the resulting odds ratio will not reflect the causal effect of the exposure. It will be biased. In general, bias are handled in parallel fashion for cohort and case-control studies. But the logical connections between the problem and its resolution are more difficult to see in the context of the case-control design. This chapter explains these connections and their practical implications for the selection of controls. It discusses in turn the main sources of noncomparability: confounding, unequal attrition, and differential misclassification. It uses the nested case-control study to portray a logic that in large part also applies to the ordinary case-control study.
Choosing Cases in Biologic Psychiatry
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The previous chapter proposed that biologic studies comparing cases with controls often correspond well to the case-control design. This chapter shows how this perspective can be useful for advancing biological psychiatry, focusing on the selection and the definition of cases in biologic studies. It argues that in biological studies comparing cases and controls, the principles developed by epidemiologists for the selection of cases in ordinary case-control studies can often be put in practice and substantially strengthen the design. However, these practices would impose unnecessary constraints on some biological studies in psychiatry, and their application must always be tailored to yield a net advantage.
Modern Family History Studies
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractFamily history studies are now used for a much wider range of purposes than in the past. This chapter discusses their usefulness for refining phenotype definitions, targeting preventive interventions, characterizing genetic effects, and exploring gene-environment interaction. These are in addition to their original role in genetic research, which was to examine whether diseases aggregate in families. The chapter also elaborates on their relationship to the risk factor designs described in previous chapters.
Causal Explanation within a Risk Factor Framework
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on construct validity and external validity. Causal explanation enhances research endeavors both by increasing researchers' confidence in the causal effect of their risk factors and by delineating the extent to which the results of their study applies to other populations. Within the risk factor paradigm, construct validity and external validity form the basis of causal explanation.
Dependent and Dynamic Processes
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractAlthough critiques of current epidemiologic methods frequently invoke concepts derived from a complexity framework, applications of these approaches to epidemiologic problems are scarce. Broader application awaits both conceptual and methodological development. This chapter describes the broad outlines of this approach to explore and envision its potential for psychiatric epidemiologic research. It also draws attention to some nascent examples on the horizon.
Chapter Twelve The Upper South Debates Slavery and Colonization
Authors: Ford, Jr. Lacy K. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter examines the upper South's political and policy response to the Turner insurrection. In the pensive months following Nat Turner's rebellion, Virginia formally reconsidered its official policy toward both slavery as an institution and the free black population within its borders. Pro-slavery planters from Virginia's Southside region advocated tough new measures to enhance white security, including tighter control over the free black population and greater vigilance over the institution of slavery itself. But with the state's tobacco plantations in relative decline and the comparative return on slave labor diminished, many Old Dominion leaders wanted to use the sense of urgency spawned by the Turner insurrection to take bolder steps toward addressing the problem of slavery.
Regression Models for Proportions
Authors: Holford Theodore R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter considers the problem of fitting binary response models to data in which there are multiple regressor variables that may be either discrete or continuous in nature. The linear logistic model, the most commonly used model for this type of response, provides estimates of parameters that are assumed to have linear effects on the log odds ratio, thus yielding values that can be interpreted as log odds ratios. The more flexible generalized linear models family that can readily be adapted for fitting many alternative forms for the relationship between exposure and disease outcome are considered: the log-linear hazard, the probit model, the linear odds model, and the linear power of the odds model. Exercises are provided at the end of the chapter.
Proportional Hazards Regression
Authors: Holford Theodore R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter relaxed the parametrically restrictive parameterization for time considered in Chapter 8, adopting instead a nonparametric set of models in which the exact form for the effect of time was left as an arbitrary function. This proportional hazards (or Cox) model provides a very rich framework for data analysis, enabling not only the consideration of factors that were measured at the beginning of follow-up but also to update the risk status over time. Exercises are provided at the end of the chapter.
Models of public health genetic policy development
Authors: Wilfond Benjamin S. , Thomson Elizabeth J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins with a history of policy development for genetic services in the United States. It includes a discussion of early genetic screening programs, a review of part policy statements about genetic screening, and a more detailed discussion of the consistent substantive criteria for genetic diagnostic services that have been recommended by various policy-making bodies. The chapter also presents two conceptual models for the development of public policy: the extemporaneous and the evidentiary models.
Newborn screening for cystic fibrosis: A paradigm for public health genetics policy development
Authors: Farrell Philip M. , Kosorok Michael R. , Rock Michael J. , Laxova Anita , Zeng Lan , Hoffman Gary , Laessig Ronald H. , Splaingard Mark L. ,   Wisconsin Cystic Fibrosis Neonatal Screening Study Group
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter illustrates how scientific studies can be used to facilitate public health policy decisions, particularly those concerned with newborn screening programs. More specifically, it reviews the autosomal recessive hereditary disorder cystic fibrosis (CF) and describes how it has become a model disease for policy development in the application of molecular genetics testing to newborn screening. The chapter includes a summary of the salient characteristics of CF, with particular emphasis on epidemiologic and diagnostic considerations; a brief overview of the immunoreactive trypsinogen (IRT) and IRT/DNA tests used to facilitate CF diagnosis in the newborn period through screening; and detailed information on the unique features and results of the Wisconsin CF Neonatal Screening Project, including how and why it was planned, organized, and conducted to access the benefits, risks, and costs of CF neonatal screening.
Measurement and Analysis
Authors: Nelson Lorene M. , Tanner Caroline M. , Van Den Eeden Stephen K. , McGuire Valerie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on measurement of exposures, risk factors, prognostic factors, in addition to statistical analysis methods for assessing the association of those factors with disease outcomes. Separate sections of the chapter are devoted to disease severity measures, general health and quality of life measures, and functional status measures, as well as methods of data collection (medical record abstraction, questionnaires, biological measures). The middle section of the chapter addresses issues regarding measurement error, including types of measurement error (random error, systematic error), misclassification (differential, nondifferential), and the effects of these errors on study validity. Methods for assessing and improving data reliability and validity are discussed. The last section of the chapter provides a concise but informative overview of statistical techniques for analyzing epidemiologic data.
Genetic Epidemiology of Neurologic Disease
Authors: Nelson Lorene M. , Tanner Caroline M. , Van Den Eeden Stephen K. , McGuire Valerie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter begins with a discussion of Mendelian versus complex (non-Mendelian) neurological disorders, followed by an overview of the structure of DNA and the molecular basis of disease. It considers the methods of genetic epidemiology, differentiating family-based studies from population-based studies of unaffected individuals. The options for genetic epidemiology study designs are presented, with a discussion of strengths and limitations of each approach. Recent technological developments are discussed, as are the important ethical and social implications of genetic epidemiologic research in the study of neurological disorders.
Evidence-Based Medicine in Neurology
Authors: Nelson Lorene M. , Tanner Caroline M. , Van Den Eeden Stephen K. , McGuire Valerie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes the principals and practice of evidence-based medicine (EBM), its limitations, and future directions for EBM. The goal of EBM is to provide high quality information in “real time” for neurologists to use in practice. Evidence-based medicine provides a set of tools to formulate a clinically important question about a particular patient and to efficiently access and critically evaluate relevant information. Neuroepidemiologic studies provide the groundwork for evidence-based medicine by supplying research about patient risk, prognosis, and harm.
The Examination of Neighborhood Effects on Health: Conceptual and Methodological Issues Related to the Presence of Multiple Levels of Organization
Authors: Diez Roux Ana V. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The investigation of neighborhood effects on health raises a series of conceptual and methodological issues related to the presence of observations at a lower level (e.g., individuals) nested within observations at a higher level (e.g., neighborhoods). Many of these issues are generalizable to a broad set of common situations in epidemiology involving nested data structures. The presence of multiple levels of organization (or nested sources of variability) requires the development of theories about how factors defined at different levels are related to health outcomes, and identifying the most appropriate research design for the question being investigated based on the level about which inferences are to be made and the level (or levels) at which the constructs relevant to the outcome are defined and measured. This chapter reviews the use of group-level variables in epidemiology; summarizes the characteristics of ecological studies, studies of individuals, and multilevel studies; and discusses some of the conceptual and methodological challenges that multilevel analysis faces, using the example of the investigation of neighborhood effects on health.
Multilevel Methods for Public Health Research
Authors: Subramanian S. V. , Jones Kelvyn , Duncan Craig 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter begins by outlining the conceptual motivation behind multilevel analyses and by identifying a core set of research questions that this approach addresses. It then introduces the idea of multilevel structures and discusses simple and complex multilevel models. It emphasizes that the key strength of multilevel models lies in modeling heterogeneity at different levels and shows how multilevel models can be extended to additional contextual levels (e.g., neighborhoods nested within regions). The estimation procedures underlying such models are discussed, showing how a multilevel framework can provide a general, unified approach to data analysis and how this can be achieved by extensions to the basic hierarchical structure of individuals nested within contexts. The chapter concludes with a discussion of issues that researchers should be aware of when applying multilevel methods.
Neighborhood-Level Context and Health: Lessons from Sociology
Authors: Sampson Robert J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractA new generation of neighborhood-level research has emerged in recent years to address the question of why so many health-related outcomes are concentrated ecologically. This chapter highlights the implications of such research for our knowledge about the community-level context of public health and safety. Drawing on recent lessons from sociological research, it identifies what it is about neighborhoods—above and beyond the status and attributes of the individuals who live there—that might lead to various health outcomes.
Area-Based Deprivation Measures: a U.K. Perspective
Authors: Gordon David 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes how the practice of measuring poverty at small area level in Britain differs significantly from that in the United States. In Britain deprivation indexes tend to be used, whereas in the United States low-income thresholds are preferred. The key question for health researchers is which is the most significant for studies of ill health and mortality. Studies in the United States have demonstrated that a clear and continuous gradient exists between mortality and income at ZIP code level. Studies in the United Kingdom, however, have also shown high levels of association between deprivation indexes and morbidity and mortality at various geographical levels.
Putting Asthma into Context: Community Influences on Risk, Behavior, and Intervention
Authors: Wright Rosalind J. , Fisher Edwin B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the contextual factors related to the occurrence and risk of asthma, health behaviors, access to health care, and the design of effective interventions to reduce the burden of asthma. The latter is exemplified through the discussion of a specific community-based approach to asthma management: the Neighborhood Asthma Coalition.
The Task Is a Political One: The Promotion of Fluoridation
Authors: Reilly Gretchen Ann 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn the first fifty years of efforts to fluoridate community water supplies in the United States, profluoridationists in many cities found their efforts thwarted by a vocal opposition able to convince local elected officials and voters to reject fluoridation. The antifluoridation movement was a coalition of various groups and individuals whose objections to fluoridation ranged widely. Some questioned the scientific evidence supporting fluoridation, but often their arguments extended beyond the realm of scientific debate to include sweeping philosophical and social concerns. Initially, profluoridationists focused on promoting fluoridation in much the same way that as they would other standard public health campaigns. In the face of continuing failures, however, their tactics evolved over time to include more directly political approaches.
Drivers, Wheels, and Roads: Motor Vehicle Safety in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Dellinger Ann M. , Sleet David A. , Jones Bruce H. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe public health problem of motor-vehicle-related death and injury emerged in the 20th century with the advent of new technology-the automobile. In the past 100 years, more than 2.8 million persons have died and nearly 100 million persons have been injured on U.S. roads and highways. Despite these statistics, substantial gains in driver behavior, vehicle safety, and road design improved the safety of motor-vehicle travel despite increases in motorization, shifting demographics, and changing social patterns. This chapter defines the modern public health problem of motor-vehicle travel. It highlights the leadership of William Haddon in revolutionizing the approach to the prevention of motor-vehicle injuries, the role of community organizations such as Mothers Against Drunk Driving in changing social norms, and outlines governmental and private industry efforts to reduce the incidence of death and injury attributable to motor-vehicles. The chapter looks forward to the challenges of transportation safety in the 21st century.
Heart Disease and Stroke Mortality in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Greenlund Kurt J. , Giles Wayne H. , Keenan Nora L. , Malarcher Ann Marie , Zheng Zhi Jie , Casper Michele L. , Croft Janet B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractHeart disease has been the leading cause of death in the United States since 1921, and stroke has been the third leading cause since 1938. Heart disease and stroke account for most cardiovascular disease (CVD) deaths in the United States. Although heart disease and stroke remain leading causes of death, age-adjusted death rates from all CVD have declined by 55% since 1950. This decline reflects an increased understanding of the causes of CVD, identification of preventable risk factors, improvements in treatment of heart disease and stroke and their antecedents such as hypertension, and implementation of intervention and prevention programs. This chapter summarizes the trends in heart disease and stroke in the 20th century, advances in the understanding of risk factors for these diseases, and development of prevention and intervention programs to reduce the risks of developing and dying from heart disease and stroke.
A Framework for Investigating Change over Time
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes why longitudinal data are necessary for studying change. Section 1.1 introduces three longitudinal studies of change. Section 1.2 distinguishes between the two types of issues these examples address: within-individual change, how does each person change over time? Interindividual differences in change, what predicts differences among people in their changes? This distinction provides an appealing heuristic for framing research questions and underpins the statistical models we ultimately present. Section 1.3 identifies three requisite methodological features of any study of change: the availability of multiple waves of data; a substantively meaningful metric for time; and an outcome that changes systematically.
Examining the Multilevel Model’s Error Covariance Structure
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe previous chapters emphasized the fixed effects in the multilevel model for change. This chapter, in contrast, focuses on the model's random effects as embodied in its error covariance structure. Section 7.1 begins by reviewing the “standard” multilevel model for change, expressed in composite form. Section 7.2 examines this model's random effects, demonstrating that the composite error term is indeed both heteroscedastic and autocorrelated, as preferred for longitudinal data. Section 7.3 compares several alternative error covariance structures and provide strategies for choosing among them.
Modeling Change Using Covariance Structure Analysis
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes how to conceptualize, postulate, fit, and interpret a latent growth model. Section 8.1 begins by reviewing the general covariance structure model. Section 8.2 maps the multilevel model for change onto the general covariance structure model. Section 8.3 illustrates an invaluable extension of this approach that allows you to investigate whether change in one construct is related to change in another. Section 8.4 concludes by listing additional extensions of the basic approach briefly.