bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Laws and Divine Volitions
Authors: Ott Walter 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Some commentators, such as Leibniz and Steven Nadler, think that, for Malebranche, God must will each and every physical event as such. Others, such as Nicholas Jolley (and perhaps Arnauld), hold that Malebranchean divine volitions are conditional in form, so that God need not meddle directly in each event that occurs. This chapter settles the controversy. It emerges that Leibniz is indeed correct. And yet this does not mean that God is continuously active, constantly adjusting his will to new situations; instead, he can timelessly will an indefinitely long string of individual states of affairs. A corresponding difficulty arises when we try to see how Malebranche can claim that the divine laws are efficacious. This chapter argues that Malebranche offers two analyses of laws — a conditional analysis, whereby laws have the logical form of conditionals, and a summary analysis, whereby laws are nothing more than convenient ways of speaking about God's individual volitions. It is only in the latter sense that Malebranchean laws can be efficacious.
A Scholastic Mechanism
Authors: Ott Walter 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn sharp contrast to Malebranche, Pierre‐Sylvain Régis tries to reconcile Descartes's ontology with scholastic concurrentism. Rather than embrace occasionalism, Régis attempts to hold onto the notion that bodies have genuine powers by reducing these powers to the intrinsic qualities of bodies. Even though God is the ultimate source of motion, how that motion is directed depends directly on created beings and not on the divine will.
Régis Against the Occasionalists
Authors: Ott Walter 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Drawing on scholastic sources such as Aquinas, Régis argues that occasionalism cannot account for the diversity of effects in the natural world. Moreover, Régis argues, motion cannot exist without being diversified, and so the very presence of motion in the world guarantees that bodies are causally efficacious. Régis addresses Malebranche's “no necessary connection” argument head‐on, arguing that there is in fact a logically necessary connection among bodies, one guaranteed by their geometrical properties.
Relations and Powers
Authors: Ott Walter 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe Cartesian rejection of powers was built on a rejection of the view of relations that underpinned them. One clear way, then, to “sanitize” powers — to make them acceptable within a mechanist ontology — would be to begin by treating relations and then move on to their subset, powers. This is what Locke and Boyle, with varying degrees of success, attempt. This chapter argues that Locke and Boyle use some familiar scholastic arguments to show that relations supervene on their relata and hence do not constitute an extra element in one's ontology. The case is more complicated, however, when it comes to Boyle.
Locke on Relations
Authors: Ott Walter 
Published: September 2009

AbstractLocke follows Boyle's basic strategy of reconciling causal powers and ontological mechanism by treating powers as relations and then offering some version of a reductive account of those relations. But this chapter argues that Locke departs from Boyle in a crucial way: on Locke's view, there is nothing for God to contribute over and above the initial source of motion. Bodies, for Locke, have passive powers to affect one another, and these powers are reducible to sets of their intrinsic qualities. This makes sense, however, only if Locke endorses a kind of conceptual foundationalism about relations, rather than relativism or pure reductivism.
Locke's Mechanisms
Authors: Ott Walter 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe previous chapters establish that Locke is an ontological mechanist. The question remains, however, whether he is also a course‐of‐nature mechanist: does Locke hold that bodies necessarily behave as they do, given their intrinsic natures? Or does he instead collapse into some form of Cartesian or Boylean voluntarism? This chapter argues that any account of Locke's commitment to course‐of‐nature mechanism must respect his views on relations. Since powers are relations, and relations, considered as mind‐independent, are nothing but the intrinsic qualities of bodies, Locke cannot be a voluntarist. The passages that make it appear otherwise are purely epistemic in their intent, and reflect Locke's doubts about the corpuscular version of mechanism, not the ontological or course‐of‐nature mechanisms of which it is a species. Further, this chapter shows that Locke does not take gravity to threaten either of these last two forms of mechanism, and that his thoughts on gravity run precisely counter to Newton's brand of occasionalism.
Relations
Authors: Ott Walter 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Hume's texts present a puzzle: he clearly thinks relations are not the invention of the mind, and yet he claims that all perceptions are separable and independent of one another. This chapter uses conceptual foundationalism to make sense of Hume's view. But it also highlights Hume's departure from that view: rather than holding that the mind can be justified in making these transitions from one perception to another, Hume regards such transitions as the result of a blind faculty, which carries no justificatory weight. By distinguishing two kinds of relations — philosophical and natural — this chapter shows how Hume's view is both consonant with pre‐theoretical intuitions and consistent. It moves on to apply this reading to Hume's own puzzling discussions of necessity.
The Definition of Causation
Authors: Ott Walter 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Hume offers two definitions of causation. These are neither cointensive nor coextensive. This chapter surveys some attempts to reconcile them before dissolving the problem altogether. Since causation is both a philosophical and a natural relation, it has a dual nature; it is, in other words, systematically ambiguous. This is not a fault in Hume's view but a vital element in its plausibility. The chapter goes on to ask whether Hume is a subjectivist or a projectivist about causation: does he think that all causal claims merely report our own reactions, or does he think that we are mistakenly projecting causal connections onto the world? There is no coherent way to conceive of causation as characterizing mind‐independent entities; but neither is there any reason to think that the subjectivity of causal claims robs them of their truth‐evaluable status. Although many of Hume's weapons were forged by his intellectual progenitors — the theory of relations, the argument from nonsense, and the “no necessary connection” argument, most importantly — Hume recasts them, and turns them against their realist inventors.
Conclusion
Authors: Ott Walter 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter returns to one of the questions with which this book began: Why does the conception of causal necessity as logical necessity so outlive the notion of powers on which it was based? The question itself is wrong. For the Aristotelian conception of power was not discarded so much as reinvented during the modern period, issuing in the cognitive and geometrical models of causation and hence in the top‐down and bottom‐up conceptions of laws. It is a mistake to think of the scholastic concept of power as lingering on without justification, long after it was unmoored by the “new” philosophy. Instead, it was adopted and transformed. This chapter draws together the themes of the book and extends its argument to the contemporary debate over laws of nature. Roughly, the argument is that the top‐down conception of laws is unintelligible in the absence of the theological underpinnings moderns like Descartes provide. It should thus be jettisoned in a version of a bottom‐up theory, one which is not hamstrung by Hume's unreasonable limitations on intentionality.
QuickGO: a web-based tool for Gene Ontology searching
Authors: Binns David , Dimmer Emily , Huntley Rachael , Barrell Daniel , O'Donovan Claire , Apweiler Rolf 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Summary: QuickGO is a web-based tool that allows easy browsing of the Gene Ontology (GO) and all associated electronic and manual GO annotations provided by the GO Consortium annotation groups QuickGO has been a popular GO browser for many years, but after a recent redevelopment it is now able to offer a greater range of facilities including bulk downloads of GO annotation data which can be extensively filtered by a range of different parameters and GO slim set generation.
Availability and Implementation: QuickGO has implemented in JavaScript, Ajax and HTML, with all major browsers supported. It can be queried online at http://www.ebi.ac.uk/QuickGO. The software for QuickGO is freely available under the Apache 2 licence and can be downloaded from http://www.ebi.ac.uk/QuickGO/installation.html
Contact: goa@ebi.ac.uk; dbinns@ebi.ac.uk
Dynamic evolution of serum immunoglobulin E to airborne allergens throughout childhood: results from the Multi‐Centre Allergy Study birth cohort
Authors: Matricardi P. M. , Bockelbrink A. , Keil T. , Grüber C. , Niggemann B. , Hamelmann E. , Wahn U. , Lau S. 
Published: September 2009

SummaryBackground
Allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and asthma evolve dynamically throughout childhood. Yet, data on the evolution of serum levels of IgE antibodies against airborne allergens throughout the first decade of life are scarce.Objective
To describe the patterns of new and persistent sensitization against airborne allergens including remission from birth to 10 years of age and the long‐term clinical outcomes up to the age of 13 years.Methods
In 273 children from the Multi‐Centre Allergy Study, a German birth cohort, IgE levels were determined against airborne allergens (Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, cat and dog dander, birch and grass species pollens) at 2, 5, 7, and 10 years of age (ImmunoCAP, Phadia); allergic rhino‐conjunctivitis and asthma were ascertained at the 13 years of age through a standardized questionnaire (International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood).Results
The prevalence of sensitization to each allergen increased steadily throughout childhood, and a hierarchy of sensitization prevalence (grass>birch>mites>cat>dog) was maintained from 5 years of age onwards. A mono‐sensitization state was relatively short (measurable half‐life=3 years) as additional sensitizations were acquired frequently, and relatively soon after the first one. Remission of weak sensitization (UNICAP classes 1–2) was also quite frequent, especially before 5 years of age. By contrast, stronger IgE responses (>3.5 kU/L) were invariably persistent. Early sensitization was associated with a higher tendency for poly‐sensitization at 10 years of age and allergic rhino‐conjunctivitis and/or asthma at 13 years of age.Conclusions
IgE responses against airborne allergens undergo dynamic changes throughout childhood, with a high frequency of new sensitization or remission. The long‐term persistence and the clinical impact of IgE responses are affected by the intensity of IgE sensitization and the age of its onset.
Cut‐off values and significance of Oil Red O‐positive cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid
Authors: Basset‐Léobon C. , Lacoste‐Collin L. , Aziza J. , Bes J. C. , Jozan S. , Courtade‐Saïdi M. 
Published: September 2009

C. Basset‐Léobon, L. Lacoste‐Collin, J. Aziza, J.C. Bes, S. Jozan and M. Courtade‐Saïdi Cut‐off values and significance of Oil Red O‐positive cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluidObjective:  To evaluate the percentage and predictive value of Oil Red O‐positive macrophages (ORO‐PM) to identify lipid‐laden macrophages in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF) from patients with different pathologies.Methods:  The percentage and absolute numbers of ORO‐PM were evaluated in 305 BALF. The patients were separated into ten groups: corticosteroid treatment (n = 18), amiodarone treatment (n = 8), interstitial fibrosis (n = 11), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)‐positive (n = 25), infectious pneumonia (n = 43), severe haematological disorder (n = 25), interstitial syndrome (n = 109), suspicion of cancer (n = 17), transplant recipients (n = 50) and controls (n = 43). The total and differential cell counts in BALF were recorded. The presence of specific pathogens was also noted. Parametric and non‐parametric tests were used to compare the values between groups. Receiver–operating characteristics (ROC) curves were established in order to determine a cut‐off value.Results:  The percentages of ORO‐PM were (mean ± standard deviation) 21.67 ± 29.12 in the corticosteroid group, 10.00 ± 12.49 in the amiodarone group, 19.45 ± 20.72 in the interstitial fibrosis group, 47.80 ± 30.46 in the HIV group, 19.72 ± 26.26 in the infectious pneumonia group, 27.42 ± 30.04 in the severe haematological disorder group, 25.18 ± 30.63 in the interstitial syndrome group, 17.64 ± 27.76 in the suspicion of cancer group, 22.50 ± 27.27 in the transplanted recipients group and 2.63 ± 3.48 in the control group. Significantly higher values were found in all groups when compared with the control group (P < 0.001). Only the HIV group showed higher numbers of ORO‐PM when compared with the interstitial syndrome group (P < 0.01). According to ROC curves, > 6% ORO‐PM was suggested as the positive cut‐off value.Conclusion:  Significantly increased numbers of ORO‐PM were associated with various lung pathologies. However, the higher numbers observed in HIV patients require further investigations.
Assessment of three vermicomposts as organic amendments used to enhance diuron sorption in soils with low organic carbon content
Authors: Fernández‐Bayo J. D. , Nogales R. , Romero E. 
Published: September 2009

SummaryVermicomposts from the wine and distillery industry containing spent grape marc (V1), biosolid vinasse (V2) and alperujo (V3) from the olive‐oil industry were investigated as organic amendments to a sandy and a clay soil with low organic carbon (OC) contents (≤1%). The sorption‐desorption process was studied in batch experiments using diuron as a non‐ionic herbicide model. The effect of soil and vermicompost characteristics, the solution's ionic strength and incubation time of amended soils on the sorption process was studied. The addition of vermicompost changed soil properties and enhanced sorption capacity by two‐ to four‐fold. The Koc variability showed that exogenous OC composition influenced diuron sorption. Vermicompost V1, which had the largest OC and lignin content, recorded the largest sorption increment. Vermicompost V3, which had the greatest dissolved organic carbon content and a high degree of humification, made the smallest contribution to sorption. Sorption was also dependent on extraneous calcium in the solution. The incubation of amended soils reduced diuron sorption efficiency except with V3. Pyrolysis‐gas chromatography (Py‐GC) analysis was a useful tool to characterize the vermicomposts and to understand the variation of diuron sorption constants after vermicompost incubation. This research encourages the use of vermicompost from agro‐industrial wastes as a sustainable means to minimize the side effects of neutral herbicides.
Enhanced anti‐predator defence in the presence of food stress in the water flea Daphnia magna
Authors: Pauwels Kevin , Stoks Robby , De Meester Luc 
Published: September 2009

Summary 1.  Many prey organisms show adaptive trait shifts in response to predation. These responses are often studied under benign conditions, yet energy stress may be expected to interfere with optimal shifts in trait values. 2.
We exposed the water flea Daphnia magna to fish predation and food stress and quantified both life history responses as well as physiological responses (metabolic rate, stress proteins, energy storage and immune function) to explore the architecture of defence strategies in the face of the combined stressors and the occurrence of trade‐offs associated with energy constraints. 3.  All traits studied showed either an overall or clone‐dependent response to food stress. The chronic response to predation risk was less strong for the measured physiological traits than for life history traits, and stronger under food stress than under benign conditions for age at maturity, intrinsic population growth rate and offspring performance (measured as juvenile growth). Immune function (measured as phenoloxidase activity) was lower under predation risk but only at high food, probably because minimum levels were maintained at low food. 4.  Overall, food stress induced stronger adaptive predator‐induced responses, whereas more energy was invested in reproduction under benign conditions at the cost of being less defended. Our results suggest that food stress may increase the capacity to cope with predation risk and underscore the importance of integrating responses to different stressors and traits, and show how responses towards one stressor can have consequences for the susceptibility to other stressors.
Support from the underground: Induced plant resistance depends on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Authors: Kempel Anne , Schmidt Antje K. , Brandl Roland , Schädler Martin 
Published: September 2009

Summary 1.  Mycorrhizal symbiosis is thought to affect interactions between plants and herbivores by its influence on plant growth, nutrition and the plants defence system. Moreover, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) may enhance the inducibility of resistance responses. Until now, induction of plant resistance has not been considered to be a mechanism affecting the outcome of mycorrhization for plant‐herbivore interactions. 2.
Here, we test the hypothesis that the resistance of plants against herbivores depends on the induction of plant resistance by previous herbivory and mycorrhization. With a full factorial experiment in a greenhouse, we examined responses in growth of seven herbaceous plant species to AMF and the induction of resistance. To evaluate whether induced resistance is higher in plants with AMF we analyzed the combined effects of AMF and induction on herbivory, using bioassay caterpillars (Spodoptera littoralis). 3.  Across all species, mycorrhization increased growth of plants and performance of the bioassay herbivore feeding on them. If, however, we induced resistance by allowing a caterpillar to feed for a short period on the plants, mycorrhization did not increase plant growth and performance of a subsequent herbivore that fed on the plant. This suggests that the increased plant resistance after induction was dependent on the symbioses with AMF. 4.  Our results indicate that induction interacts with the allocation of the additional resources provided by mycorrhization towards plant growth and plant resistance. Therefore, mycorrhiza may play an important but hitherto overlooked role in the induction of plant resistance against herbivores.
Pollinator‐mediated selfing erodes the flexibility of the best‐of‐both‐worlds mating strategy inBulbine vagans
Authors: Vaughton Glenda , Ramsey Mike 
Published: September 2009

Summary1. The best‐of‐both‐worlds hypothesis proposes that delayed autonomous selfing assures reproduction when pollinators are absent, but allows outcrossing when pollinators are present without incurring seed and pollen discounting. However, because self‐compatibility is necessary for delayed selfing, discounting can be incurred if pollinators mediate selfing concurrently with outcrossing. The extent that pollinator‐mediated selfing erodes the best‐of‐both‐worlds mating strategy is largely unknown.2. In this study, we assess how delayed selfing and pollinator‐mediated selfing contribute to reproductive output under contrasting pollination environments inBulbine vagans(Asphodelaceae).3. We manipulated floral phenotype under contrasting weather conditions, plant densities and floral display. We emasculated flowers at early‐flowering (allowing only outcrossing) or late‐flowering (eliminating delayed selfing) stages and compared reproductive output with intact flowers (outcrossing + pollinator‐mediated selfing + delayed selfing).4. During inclement weather, few or no pollinators visited flowers. Reproductive output was severely limited by cross pollen, and delayed selfing provided reproductive assurance. During fine weather, cross pollen was also limiting, but pollinator‐mediated selfing boosted reproductive output before delayed selfing could occur.5. On isolated plants, flowers received fewer pollinator visits and reproductive output was limited more by cross pollen compared with grouped plants. Despite these differences, reproductive output of both isolated and grouped plants was boosted to similar levels by pollinator‐mediated selfing before delayed selfing could occur.6. One‐ and three‐flowered plants were similarly limited by cross pollen. On three‐flowered plants, facilitated and geitonogamous selfing boosted reproductive output before delayed selfing could occur. By contrast, on one‐flowered plants geitonogamy was eliminated, and pollinator‐mediated selfing was reduced. This provided mating flexibility by retaining opportunities for subsequent outcrossing, although delayed selfing boosted reproductive output.7. Reproductive output was consistently limited by cross‐pollination. Yet, delayed selfing provided reproductive assurance only during inclement weather and on one‐flowered plants. Under other conditions, pollinators mediated selfing that could render ovules unavailable for outcrossing as selfing occurred and for outcrossing that might occur subsequently. We conclude that best‐of‐both‐worlds flexibility will often be eroded by pollinator‐mediated selfing that inevitability occurs with outcrossing.
Human peripheral γδ T cells possess regulatory potential
Authors: Kühl Anja A. , Pawlowski Nina N. , Grollich Katja , Blessenohl Maike , Westermann Jürgen , Zeitz Martin , Loddenkemper Christoph , Hoffmann Jörg C. 
Published: September 2009

SummaryDeficiency in γδ T cells aggravates colitis in animal models suggesting that γδ T cells have regulatory properties. Therefore, proliferation, suppression and cytokine secretion of human γδ T cells were determined in vitro. Human peripheral γδ T cells were isolated from the whole blood of healthy donors by magnetic antibody cell sorting technology. The proliferation after CD3/CD28 stimulation was measured by 3[H]thymidine incorporation. Interferon‐γ (IFN‐γ), interleukin‐2 (IL‐2), transforming growth factor‐β (TGF‐β) and IL‐10 concentrations were measured by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay; TGF‐β messenger RNA was also measured by reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction. The expression of latency associated peptide (LAP), a TGF‐β complex component, intracellular cytokine content and T helper cell proliferation were measured by flow cytometry. Human γδ T cells showed poor proliferation upon CD3/CD28 stimulation and suppressed T helper cell growth stronger than CD4+ CD25+ T cells, although γδ T cells were FOXP3 negative. They secreted little IL‐2 but high concentrations of IFN‐γ, IL‐10 and TGF‐β. When looking at LAP expression the Vδ1 subset was found to be the main TGF‐β producer compared to Vδ2 T cells. Taken together, peripheral γδ T cells have in vitro a more potent regulatory potential than CD4+ CD25+ cells regarding T helper cell suppression. This is most likely the result of strong TGF‐β secretion, particularly by the Vδ1 subset.