bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Roman Catholic Church
Authors: Hayes Patrick J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Roman Catholic Church is a Christian community of believers who center themselves on the person and teachings of Jesus Christ and who, by the power of the Holy Spirit, carry his teachings into every corner of the earth and transmit them from generation to generation, for the salvation of all. The designation “Roman” refers to the adherence of those Catholics in the Latin Rite churches who maintain communion with the Bishop of Rome, presently Pope Benedict XVI, the 265th pontiff. Eastern Rite Christians may also hold communion with the Roman pontiff, but for historical, geographical, or liturgical reasons they are not given the designation “Roman.”
R
omanian Christianity
Authors: McGuckin John Anthony 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christianity in Romania today, one of the most flourishing Christian populations from the old Soviet satellite countries, is represented predominantly by the Romanian Orthodox Church, with a smaller representation of Roman Catholics, Byzantine rite Catholics, and a small minority of a few Protestant groups (the largest of them being the Baptists). Modern Romanian Christianity is the heir of the ancient church that was rooted in the imperial Roman province of Dacia. This was a province of the Empire established by Trajan for his veterans, in the 2nd century. The Romanian language and culture, to this day, are marked by a deep basis in Latin, though with many later Slavic elements added, making it, arguably, the only Latin Orthodox culture in the world. There are archaeological remains of 2nd century Christian settlements, especially in the Black Sea region, where proto‐Christian martyr shrines have been discovered; all of which give testimony to the great antiquity of Christianity in these lands. Church tradition looks to the planting of the gospel here by the missionary efforts of the apostle Andrew around the Black Sea shores. By the 3rd century Christians were so strong in the region that they attracted the attention of the Emperor Diocletian, and several were victims of the Great Persecution which he initiated at the dawn of the 4th century. One of the Romanian (or then “Dacian”) church's great patristic theologians was John Cassian, who traveled throughout the ancient church, settling in the west after years spent among the Egyptian ascetics. He became a foundational figure in ascetical theology: having an equally marked influence on the eastern as well as the western Christian monastic culture.
Romanticism, Christianity and
Authors: Masson Scott 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Christianity developed as Jesus had prophesied, like a vast tree from a mustard seed. What had once appeared to be a Jewish sect in a backwater of the Roman Empire became a global religion with vast cultural influence over the course of two millennia. Romanticism appeared some 18 centuries later. The organic motif was a favorite one for it, but no longer because it was ensured an automatic resonance with an agrarian society. On the contrary, as the English poet William Wordsworth noted in his 1802
Preface to Lyrical Ballads
, in his day there was an “increasing accumulation of men in cities,” and with them and their uniformity of occupation, a subsequent “craving for extraordinary incident which the rapid communication of intelligence hourly gratifies” to which “life and manners” have sadly conformed. William Blake's poem “London” wrote of the “mind‐forg'd manacles” he heard everywhere in that city's “chartered streets”; and in the Preface to his prophetic book
Milton
, now immortalized in the popular hymn “Jerusalem,” he wrote of “England's mountains green” beset with “dark Satanic mills.”
R
ome
Authors: Quantz Amanda D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Roman foundation legend traces the origins of the city to April 21, 753
bce
, although the history of the Roman people may go as far back as 1184, a date believed to coincide with the fall of Troy. The Romans claimed that the city was founded by the twins Romulus and Remus; descendants of the Trojan prince Aeneas. Soon after the founding of the city, the Romans launched major building projects, including numerous religious institutions. The Roman Senate was also established, which throughout its history consisted of a body of anywhere between 100 and 900 men of considerable means and high social standing. For more than two centuries Rome was ruled by a series of seven kings until, in 509
bce
, it was transformed into a republican government ruled by consuls. Over the next 500 years, the Romans conquered nearly all of Italy and much of the Mediterranean, as well as North Africa and Britain.
R
ubens, Sir
P
eter
P
aul (1577–1640)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Flemish artist, the foremost painter of the grand Counter‐Reformation. He went as a court painter to the Duke of Mantua in 1600. In 1606 he painted the altarpiece of the Sta Maria in Vallicella in Rome. On his return to Antwerp he was appointed court painter to the Spanish governors of the Netherlands. His first great commissions were for Antwerp Cathedral,
The Raising of the Cross
(1610), and the
Descent from the Cross
(1611–1614). For the church at Malines he produced the
Miraculous Draught of Fishes
. For the Medici series he designed the tapestry
Triumph of the Eucharist
, which found a home in the Spanish convent Descalzas Reales. A series of religious paintings followed:
St. Ignatius of Loyola Healing the Possessed
(1619),
Martyrdom of St. Livinus
(1633),
Adoration of the Mag
i (1624), the
Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine
showing the fourteen auxiliary saints (1628),
Assumption
(1626), and
Last Judgment
(1616). He also painted smaller religious works, including
Christ and the Doubting Thomas
(1613),
Flight into Egypt
(1614), and
Lamentation over the Dead Christ
(1614). His decoration for the Jesuit Church in Antwerp consisted of 39 ceiling paintings commissioned in 1620. All but three were burned along with the church in 1718. Many of his compositions were engraved. The series of 15 engravings known as the
Images of the Holy Apostles
was published between 1646 and 1650. Earlier versions of the
Holy Face
,
Mater Dolorosa
, and
Christ as Salvator Mundi
were also engraved. Toward the end of his life he was knighted by King Charles I of Great Britain.
Sacraments, Sacramentals, and Rituals
Authors: Macy Gary 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The English word “sacrament” is a transliteration of the Latin word,
sacramentum
, best translated as “symbol” or “ritual.” More particularly in early Christian usage,
sacramentum
indicates a religious symbol or ritual.
Sacramentum
, then, in Western Christianity, has referred throughout most of its history to any religious symbol or ritual, including the Jewish rituals that preceded the Christian era. In the 12th century, however, the custom grew up of referring to the seven most important Christian rituals as “the sacraments,” although the older usage of the Latin word persisted alongside this newer usage. Those symbols and rituals of lesser importance became know as “sacramentals,” or “little sacraments.” By the 16th century, debates erupted over which rituals should be considered “sacraments” and which should not. In general, Roman Catholics retained the late medieval practice of considering seven, and only seven, rituals as sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation Eucharist, Penance, Marriage, Orders, and Last Anointing. Reformation churches accepted at least two of these rituals as founded in Scripture and therefore true sacraments: Baptism, and Eucharist or Communion.
Saints
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Contrary to common thought, the word “saints” in Holy Scripture does not refer to individuals who are perceived to be virtually sinless or perfect. The word occurs in both the Old and the New Testament where it commonly refers to God's people here on earth, rather than to departed believers in heaven. Thus, Psalm 30:4 says, “Sing praise to the Lord, you saints of his.” In Psalm 34:9 the Psalmist writes, “Oh, fear the Lord, you his saints.” And the first book of Samuel states, “He will guard the feet of his saints” (1 Samuel 2:9).
Salieri, Antonio (1750–1825)
Authors: Hettrick Jane Schatkin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Antonio Salieri was born on August 18, 1750, at Legnago in Italy, and died in Vienna on May 7, 1825. A composer who achieved fame through his more than 40 operas, Salieri turned to sacred music primarily after he became
Hofkapellmeister
(director of the court chapel) in 1788 to the Habsburg court, the highest official position in music in Vienna. The last Italian to hold this position, Salieri owes his importance in the history of church music to his association with and artistic administration of the
Hofmusikkapelle
. During his 36 year tenure (the longest in the history of this institution), he controlled the repertoire, selected and trained members of the ensemble, including choirboys, influenced the appointment of other musical workers (e.g. organ builder), and the acquisition of instruments. He set standards of performance that obtained for decades. His influence extended through his students (Joseph Eybler, Simon Sechter, Joseph Weigl, Ignaz Assmayr, Benedikt Randhartinger), who occupied leading positions in the
Hofmusikkapelle
well into the 19th century. The best‐known of his some 60 students is Franz Schubert, a choirboy and composition pupil under Salieri's tutelage for eight years, whose early Masses reflect his teacher's style.
Salvation
Authors: Bertone John A. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe termsalvation(Greek sōtēria) is directly associated with the verbsave(sōzō) and also with the nounsavior(sōtēr). In both the Septuagint (LXX) and secular Greek the first two terms express the general meaning of rescue from danger (i.e. from peril, illness, or death). However, they have been widely used in Christian theology to express the provision of God for salvation from sin, deliverance from God's wrath in the future, and incorporation into God's kingdom. This is the sense in which the concept of salvation is most often understood in the New Testament. The termsaviorissues from the Greco‐Roman world, where the individual gods or emperors, on whose rule and intervention people are dependent, are called “saviors.” In the New Testament the titlesavioris applied to both God and Jesus in that God acted in Jesus to bring salvation.
Salvation Army
Authors: DuPree Sherry Sherrod 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Salvation Army began in 1865 when the Rev. William Booth, a London minister, gave up his pulpit and decided to take his message into the streets, where it would reach the poor, the homeless, the hungry, and the destitute. Booth's original aim was to send converts to established churches, but he soon realized the poor did not feel comfortable or welcome in the pews and chapels of many English churches. The Salvation Army program was directed toward social problems, aiming to aid those hurting because of poverty, illness, or temporary disasters. Booth developed his Holiness church in stages, using a military model, with its ministers designated by titles from the army. The ministers began as lieutenants and rose in rank and responsibility. The name of the organization was the East London Christian Mission.
Sanctification of Intuition,
P
entecostals and
Authors: Rybarczyk Edmund J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Whereas many different Christian traditions emphasize that believers should become attuned morally to the claims of the gospel, Pentecostals maintain that a believer can and should follow the leading of the Holy Spirit on all moral issues. They take as their model for this both Jesus and his apostles. Confronted by unbelieving scribes, Jesus discerned their thoughts and responded with a particular and fitting word (Matt. 9:4). In his writings Paul both listed words of wisdom and words of knowledge as charismatic gifts and prayed that the Ephesians would have a spirit of wisdom and of revelation (Eph. 1:17). Using a rather straightforward and literal biblical hermeneutic, Pentecostals maintain that believers today can similarly discern the voice of the Holy Spirit speaking into specific contexts and situations.
Senses and Sanctification, the
Authors: Harvey Thomas Alan 
Published: January 2012

AbstractEnfolded within a good physical creation, it is not surprising that biblical faith is profoundly sensual and moral. The fecund relation between the senses, knowledge, and virtue is captured by the Psalmist's claim, “taste and see that the Lord is good” in Psalm 34:8 or later, in Psalm 119:66, “teach me goodtastefor I believe in your commands.” For the Psalmist, knowing and loving God and the pursuit of Godly wisdom are not unlike tasting a fine wine. They require refined senses and sound judgment if one is to recognize and enjoy the goodness, wisdom, and presence of God.
v
on Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph (1775–1854)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Schelling is, along with J. G. Fichte and G. W. F. Hegel, one of the greatest of the German Idealist philosophers, although accounts vary concerning the precise nature of Schelling's significance. One interpretation, frequently repeated in histories of philosophy, sees Schelling as a crucial intermediate stage of post‐Kantian Idealism, a bridge between the Subjective Idealism of Fichte and the Absolute Idealism of Hegel, usually regarded as the culmination of German Idealism. This account, while not false, is rather a halftruth, overlooking as it does the importance of Schelling's later philosophy, which in many ways goes beyond Idealism, and represents a bridge to the various anti‐Idealistic philosophies of the late 19th and 20th centuries. Schelling's later philosophy is highly religious in character – taking up in an original way problems such as the nature of God, the essence of human freedom, the problem of evil, and the uniqueness and significance of the Christian revelation and its relation to philosophy – and had a wide influence on 19th and 20th century Christian theology.
Schism
Authors: Laing Jacqueline 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Schism comes from the Greek meaning “fragmentation,” “separation,” or “division” and refers to the act by which a member of the faithful breaks away from the mystical body of Christ, the church. Whereas heresy involves a denial of a fundamental doctrine of the faith, schism involves a separation from the body of the church. In the Roman Catholic tradition an act of schism, like an act of apostasy or heresy, triggers the penalty of excommunication.
S
chlatter,
A
dolf (1852–1938)
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Adolf Schlatter was born on August 16, 1852, in St. Gallen, Switzerland, as the seventh of nine children, son of a Lutheran mother and a baptistic father who had left the Swiss state church. After receiving his education in Basle and Tübingen, he served in the pastorate (1875–1880) before lecturing in Bern (1881–1888), Greifswald (1888–1893), Berlin (1893–1898), and Tübingen (1898–1922). During his time in Tübingen Schlatter suffered the death of his beloved wife (1907) and of his youngest son on the battlefield (1914). Schlatter never remarried. After his mandatory retirement in 1922 at age 70, Schlatter continued to lecture and write. Two of his daughters who remained unmarried cared for their father until his death on May 19, 1938, in Tübingen.
Schleiermacher,FriedrichDanielErnst (1768–1834)
Authors: Hector Kevin W. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractOne way of understanding Schleiermacher's intellectual contribution to Christian civilization is to consider his two most famous works,On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers(1799), andThe Christian Faith, also known as theGlaubenslehre(1820–1821; 1830–1831).
S
chmemann,
A
lexander (1921–1983)
Authors: Kenworthy Scott M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
One of the most influential Orthodox theologians and churchmen in the West during the 20th century, particularly in the field of liturgical theology, Alexander Schmemann was born in Tallinn, Estonia, in 1921 to a family of Russified Baltic Germans. His family moved to Paris, and Schmemann was educated in both French and Russian schools. From 1940 to 1945 he studied at the St. Sergius Theological Institute in Paris, which was the intellectual center for many prominent Russian émigré theologians, such as Sergius Bulgakov. He married Juliana Osorguine in 1943 and in 1946 he was ordained a priest and began teaching church history at St. Sergius. During this formative period he was also profoundly influenced by the liturgical renewal movement of French Roman Catholic theologians such as Louis Boyer and Jean Daniélou. In 1951 he moved to St. Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary in New York; he became dean of the Seminary in 1962 and remained in that office until his death on December 13, 1983.
Scholasticism
Authors: Bruce James E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Scholasticism properly understood is neither a set of beliefs nor a period of time but is, instead, a rigorous method employed principally, but by no means exclusively, by the newly established universities in Western Europe in the High Middle Ages (in the 11th through the 13th centuries). Scholasticism is thus not the admixture of Christian piety and Aristotelian metaphysics its detractors claim. Instead, scholasticism is a method whereby philosophical and theological questions are answered through careful analysis and argumentation. Nor is scholasticism situated exclusively in the High Middle Ages; for example, Francis Turretin's impeccably scholastic
Institutes of Elenctic Theology
was published in the late 17th century. Nevertheless, the most widely known scholastics are from this period: Anselm of Canterbury and Peter Lombard were born in the 11th century, and Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham were all born in the 13th.
S
chütz‐
M
arsauche,
R
oger‐
L
ouis (1915–2005) and
T
aizé
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Founder and prior of the Taizé Community in France, an international and ecumenical monastic community. Born in 1915 in Provence to a Swiss father and a French mother, his father was a Swiss‐Refomed Calvinist but his grandmother was a Roman Catholic and both traditions left a deep imprint on his life. Roger studied theology in Lausanne and Strasbourg. He bought a home in 1940 in the village of Taizé, near the celebrated monastery in Cluny, which he used as a refuge for Jews fleeing Nazi Germany until 1942 when a Nazi raid forced him to find safety in Geneva. When the war ended, he used the same house as a home for German prisoners. In 1949 he converted the place to a monastery with seven brothers committed to a life of contemplation, austerity, and celibacy. All of his initial “monks” were Protestants, but gradually he accepted Roman Catholics and others from Eastern Orthodox backgrounds as well. Within a few years the number of brothers passed 100, from 20 countries. The community supports itself by the brothers' work alone. Some brothers go abroad and establish small groups of Christians separated from the world. Brother Roger himself lived on all continents, especially in countries undergoing civil war and stress. Since 1958 Taizé has welcomed young adults. Summer meetings of young adults draw up to 6,000 participants at a time. During these meetings, members share three communal prayers in the Chapel of Reconciliation. Songs from Taizé are used in churches and parishes around the world. These meetings are replicated in eastern and western Europe as well as Asia and the Americas. Brother Roger was invited to the Second Vatican Council and he also visited the Ecumenical Patriarch at Constantinople. Three archbishops of Canterbury have visited Taizé, and Pope John Paul II visited Taizé as a “pilgrim and a friend of the Community.” Brother Roger received the Templeton Prize and the German Peace Prize in 1974 and Karlspreis in 1989. Brother Roger died tragically on August 16, 2005, during the evening prayer service at Taizé, after an attack in which he was stabbed by a mentally disturbed woman.
S
chwärmerei
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

This concept was frequently used by theologians during the Reformation in Germany, especially by Lutherans. The concept comes from the German word
Schwarm
(swarm in English), as a swarm of bees. When bees swarm, they are engaged in excessive behavior. Thus, theologians used the term
Schwärmerei
to describe excessive sentiment or beliefs on the part of given individuals or groups in regard to some of their theological beliefs. Those who engaged in
Schärmerei
were called
Schwärmer
; the former is commonly translated as “enthusiasm” and the latter as “enthusiasts” or “fanatics” in English. During the Reformation those referred to as
Schwärmer
(enthusiasts) were individuals who said that the Holy Ghost spoke to them directly, a part from the written Word of Holy Scripture.
S
cott,
S
ir
G
eorge
G
ilbert (1811–1878)
Authors: Whytock Jack C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Sir George Gilbert Scott, born in 1811 in Gawcott, Buckinghamshire, and died in 1878 in London, was one of Britain's most noted Victorian architects, a strong advocate of the Gothic Revival style and often remembered for his Gothicization renovations. Scott came from a strong Anglican family; his father was a clergyman and his grandfather was the noted Bible commentator Thomas Scott, a founder together with John Newton of the Church Missionary Society. Scott's father and grandfather represented the evangelical tradition of the Church of England, yet Scott moved into the broad church tradition of Anglicanism, although he was not a true high churchman. He was condemned by the Cambridge Camden Society's journal,
The Ecclesiologist
, for designing a Lutheran church, the St. Nikolaikirche in Hamburg. Thus his Gothic architectural style did not turn him liturgically to Anglo‐Catholicism. His love of architecture began in childhood while sketching medieval churches.
Scottish
C
hristianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christianity was introduced into Scotland in the 5th and 6th centuries. There are Christian monuments in Kirkmadrine and Whithorn (associated with St. Ninian). St. Columba was one of the many saints active in Argyll in the kingdom of Dalriada settled by Irish immigrants. The community of St. Columba established many churches in east Scotland. The famous mission at Iona was instrumental in the conversion of the Northumbrian kingdom of Bernicia where St. Aidan founded Lindisfarne. From here bishops traveled to Whithorn and Abercorn. The Columban Church lost its influence after the Synod of Whitby in 664 at which the Roman Church gained ascendancy.
Secularism and Secularization
Authors: Sharp Douglas R. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The terms
secularism
and
secularization
are related to each other at some social and conceptual levels, but it is important to distinguish between them because they do not refer to the same thing. Both terms can be construed as identifying perspectives, beliefs, and values that are characteristic of a particular society and its cultural history, and each term draws its meaning in part by juxtaposition with the phenomenon of
religion
. Practically everything about secularism and secularization is a matter of dispute among scholars who investigate such matters; hardly any position or perspective passes as uncontested.