bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ethics
Authors: Baggett David 
Published: January 2012

AbstractEthics is an important branch of philosophy; it's the study of a particular set of values, though neither aesthetic nor political. Ethical values distinctively pertain to what's right and wrong; morally permissible, forbidden, or obligatory; issues of good and evil; what constitutes moral conduct and the good life. Ethics is usually subdivided into three parts: applied ethics, normative ethics, and meta‐ethics. Applied ethics takes up ethical questions within specialized areas like the medical profession, the business arena, and journalism. It also takes up specific ethical questions, like the moral questions of abortion, homo‐sexuality, and euthanasia. Normative ethics is more theoretical, as it attempts to uncover the basis for the distinction between right and wrong. Meta‐ethics raises yet deeper theoretical concerns: fundamental questions about the connection between rationality and ethics, the meaning of moral terms, how it is we come to know moral truth, and whether there are any moral facts in the first place.
Eucharist
Authors: Vondey Wolfgang 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The word “Eucharist” generally refers to the Christian celebration of the Lord's Supper. Sometimes a substitute for the entire liturgical celebration of the sacrament, the word also relates more specifically to the presence of Jesus Christ in the elements of bread and wine. The word itself derives from the Greek
eucharistein
, a combination of the word
eu
(good) and the word
charis
(gift). Often translated as “thanksgiving,” the term thus refers in the broadest sense to the reception of good gifts from God in an attitude of thankfulness.
Eucharistic Theology
Authors: Macy Gary 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Critical and systematic thought about the Eucharist appeared in western theology in the 9th century when the monk Paschasius Radbertus wrote the first systematic treatment of the Eucharist, “On the Body and Blood of the Lord.” Christian writers had discussed the Eucharist before, but only as part of their explanations of Christian belief to non‐Christians and to the recently baptized. Paschasius wrote to explain how the risen Christ could be present in the bread and wine of communion. His fellow monk, Ratramnus, soon followed with another treatise with the same title. Two centuries later, the questions raised by the theologian Berengar of Tours about the mode of presence of the risen Christ in the Eucharist occasioned a series of treatises on this subject, and, with the attack on the Cathars on the value of communion, the topic remained one of intense interest throughout the Middle Ages. During the Reformation, the Reformers split with the Roman Catholics as well as among themselves over their understanding of that presence. These disagreements produced a flurry of theological activity that continues to the present day. Despite the preponderance of theological writing concerning the mode of presence of the risen Christ in the Eucharist, other equally important issues were addressed by the medieval, Reformation, and modern theologians. The most important of these issues remains how the celebration of the Lord's Supper aids the life of faith. Roman Catholics would stress that reception of communion empowers them (gives them the grace) to live a life of faith and love. Reform theologians are more likely to stress that the Eucharist is a pledge of the salvation already given in baptism. Most recently, Eucharistic theology tends to address how the different Christian understandings of the sacrament might be reconciled or at least mutually respected.
Evolution
Authors: Rios Christopher M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The most popular pre‐Darwinian theories of evolution came from Jean‐Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829), a French naturalist who began publishing his transmutation theories in the first decade of the 19th century. Although Lamarck's ideas failed to attract significant attention during his life, scientists such as Etienne Geoffroy Saint‐Hilaire, Robert Chambers, Richard Owen, and Herbert Spencer advanced various forms of Lamarckian evolution during the middle and late 19th century. Evolution, however, attracted significant attention only after the publication of Charles Darwin's (1809–1882)
Origin of Species
in 1859
.
Darwin introduced the idea of natural selection as the primary mechanism of evolution, arguing that external forces rather than an innate predisposition for progress prompted transmutation.
Fellowship
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe New Testament uses several Greek word groups for fellowship. The root word iskoinos(“common”) and indicates the subjective sense of fellowship held in common by Christians. The primary word iskoinōneō(“to share with someone, to take part together”) and its cognates. The verbsmetechō(“to have together, to partake”) andmerizō(“to share”) stress the concept of spiritual partnership (cf. the parallel usage ofkoinōnia,metochē, andmerisin 2 Cor. 6:14–15). Several words have thesyn‐ (“with”) prefix since fellowship is always life “to share with” or “to have with” (in the sense of a partnership). Fellowship as the children of God is the consequence of regeneration (2 Cor. 5:17; 1 John 3:9), and is the practical expression of fellowship “with the Father, and with his Son Jesus Christ” (1 John 1:3, 6; cf. John 17:3). Christians are “partakers of a heavenly calling” and “partakers of Christ” (Heb. 3:1, 14); therefore, there is a community relationship that unites the church together in a spiritual partnership by God's grace and for his glory. The fellowship that regenerated Christians' experience is not limited to the present, but remains eternal and is consummated in heaven (Eph. 2:19–22; Rev. 21:1–4).
Fifteenth Century Christianity
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The expeditions of Marco Polo resulted in a new way of thinking in Europe that cannot be underestimated. The changes in Europe helped foster the Age of Exploration, as Europeans desired to find a direct sea route to the Far East for the purpose of trade. The medieval, feudal institutions were becoming destabilized. Whereas kings formerly relied upon the nobles, they were now becoming dependent upon the bourgeoisie and nation states to support them. The kings now hired armies and navies to maintain peace and order, which led to greater prosperity and the continual growth of nationalism. Society was becoming confident concerning the ability to ascertain answers to the mysteries of the world. The rebirth of learning, characterized by the Renaissance (c.1350–1650), truly changed the world. The decline of medieval society, therefore, was the result of the revival of learning and trade during the Renaissance. The Protestant Reformation would commence and challenge both the role and teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, which resulted in expansion of the civil role of the state and development of Protestant biblical theology. As the result of historical influences throughout the 15th century, the emergence of political national units significantly expanded during the 16th and 17th centuries. Feudal loyalty to a local lord of a manor was replaced with the idea of an enduring nation and identity with a group of people.
Filipino
C
hristianity
Authors: Roxborogh John 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Through over 450 years the Philippines has developed as an Asian Christian civilization. Catholic and Protestant Christianity and international religious movements have interacted with primal spiritualities, ethnic and cultural diversity (there are over 80 identifiable groups and languages), and Islam. Shaped by Spanish and American colonialism and the hazards of postcolonial independence, Christianity plays a major role in a dynamic society. Filipinos defy secularization and wrestle with poverty and corruption. Whatever its problems, society is saturated with Christian language, symbolism, and story. Christianity is the religion by which the majority of the population defines itself.
F
inney,
C
harles
G
randison (1792–1875)
Authors: Knowles Brett 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Charles Finney, Revivalist, began his highly successful evangelistic work in 1824 in upper New York State. His success was due largely to his unorthodox methods, known as “New Measures” revivalism, which contributed to changing religious perceptions in 19th century America. Earlier revivals were viewed (in Calvinist terms) as sovereign acts of God, which could not be predicted or produced — hence Jonathan Edwards' description of the beginnings of the Great Awakening (1735–1743) as “the surprising work of God.” However, by the time of the Second Great Awakening (1797–1835), an emphasis on the systematic promotion of revivals by human instrumentality was beginning to emerge. Finney exemplified — and did much to reinforce — this shift from “revivals” to “revival
ism
.”
Flagellation
Authors: Oderberg David S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Flagellation is the administration of pain by means of whips, rods, or other implements applied with violence to the back. One thinks immediately of the flagellation of Christ with the Roman flagellum, a short whip made of several leather thongs knotted with pieces of metal. It was nearly always used on prisoners before crucifixion, causing massive damage to the body and excruciating pain. In the case of Pilate it seems also that he was prepared to have Jesus chastised as a substitute for crucifixion, which the Jews did not accept as adequate punishment (Luke 23:13–24); whether this would have been a flagellation is unclear. The flagellation is graphically and accurately depicted in Mel Gibson's movie
The Passion of the Christ
.
Florensky,PavelAlexandrovich (1882–1937)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractPavel Alexandrovich Florensky was one of Europe's greatest polymaths, and for this reason he is often compared to Leonardo, Pascal, and Leibniz. He is also likely to emerge as Russia's most important philosopher. Although not yet widely known in English‐speaking circles, his work is being read by an increasingly large and appreciative audience in the West, especially in Germany where hisCollected Worksare currently being translated in ten volumes. Of Russian and Armenian ancestry, Florensky grew up in the Caucasus Mountains where he developed a mystical affinity for nature that never left him, and which may be taken as a key to his writings, as he suggests in the posthumously published work,To My Children: Recollections of a Youth in the Caucasus(1992, in Russian). A brilliant mathematician, physicist, engineer, and inventor, while at the same time a distinguished linguist (who knew more than a dozen languages). art historian, theologian, and philosopher, Florensky graduated with the highest honors from Moscow University in 1904 with a thesis (“On the Peculiarities of Flat Curves as Places of Interrupted Discontinuity”) so extraordinary that he was immediately offered a position on the mathematics faculty. Instead, he chose to enter that same year the Moscow Theological Academy, from which he graduated in 1908, soon accepting a position at the Academy as senior lecturer in philosophy, his first position in what became an illustrious academic career. He was ordained an Orthodox priest in 1911, and insisted on wearing his cassock, cross, and cap while conducting his university lectures and scientific research, even throughout the period of the Stalinist purges. For this, and for his written work, he was arrested and first sent to the labor camps in Siberia in 1933, and eventually to the infamous Solovetsky Islands Gulag on the White Sea, where despite his captivity, he conducted scientific research on the production of agar and iodine from seaweed, while ministering to his fellow prisoners. He was murdered by the KGB in 1937, probably on December 8 at Toksovo, near St. Petersburg, where he was secretly buried in a mass grave, a loss lamented in Solzhenitsyn'sGulag Archipelago.
Forgiveness
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Forgiveness is one of the defining concepts of Christian theology and forms the heart of the Christian message. It is part of a constellation of ideas that serve as road markers in a Christian's life journey. These concepts include: reconciliation, absolution, mercy, justice, repentance, grace, and confession and remission of sins; and their antonyms: transgression, sin, and guilt.
Fourteenth Century
C
hristianity
Authors: Nieuwenhove Rik Van 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
It is a matter for debate whether the 14th century is a period of decline and stagnation, a period of fermentation and burgeoning renewal ultimately leading to the Renaissance and the Modern way, or both. It seems clear that in those regions where early capitalism had made its most incisive inroads we find both the harvest of the old and the beginnings of a new era (northern Italy, Flanders and Rhineland, northern France).
F
ox,
G
eorge (1624–1691)
Authors: Hill Bracy V. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
George Fox was a British Seeker, religious reformer, and founder of Religious Society of Friends (Quakers). Born in Fenny Drayton, Leicestershire, the son of Christopher Fox, a weaver and churchwarden, Fox was reared in a devout Puritan home and his parents were influential in his spiritual formation. He was trained in country business and enjoyed rural life, but became aware of perceived inconsistency and hypocrisy in the lives of observed “Christians.” Fox went on a spiritual journey in 1643, characterized by solitary wandering throughout England, and through various movements, including Baptists, Seekers, Levellers, and Ranters. In 1647, overcome by despair that he could find no resource to guide him to consistent spiritual truth, Fox had a mystical experience of the love of God. Buoyed by his experience outside of any institutionalized authority, Fox spread the message that practices, doctrines, and traditions had separated people from the truth. The truth, which brought a changed life, was personal, immediate, and unmediated in the Inner Light of Christ.
F
rancis of Assisi,
St
. (1181/2–1226)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The founder of the Franciscan Order, Francis was born in Assisi, the son of a wealthy cloth merchant, and joined his family business. In 1202, in the Battle of Collestrada between Assisi and Perugia, he was taken prisoner. On his return home, he found himself disillusioned with life after a long illness and increasingly drawn to a life of penance and prayer. On a pilgrimage to Rome, he was moved to compassion by the beggars outside St. Peter's; he gave his possessions to one of them and as a result had to beg for alms. Returning to Assisi he broke with his old companions and his father. He overcame the fear of disease by embracing lepers, and began spending his resources in repairing churches, beginning with St. Damiano. One morning in 1208 while attending mass in the Church at Portiuncula in the plain below Assisi, he had a vision in which he was called to renounce everything and follow the Lord as commanded in Matthew 10:7–19. He discarded his shoes and staff, put on long, dark raiment girded with a cord and entered into his lifelong ministry. He renounced his patrimony in a dramatic scene before the Bishop of Assisi. Soon he gathered a band of people and began preaching publicly. Within a year he had 12 brothers and he wrote down a brief statement that would serve as their Rule, known as
Regula Primitiva
. Francis journeyed to Rome and secured the approval of Pope Innocent II for his group, now known as Lesser Brothers or Friars Minor. With the rural chapel of Portiuncula as their headquarters, they spread out in small bands through central Italy devoting themselves to contemplative prayers even while working as laborers and preaching. In 1212 Clare, a young aristocratic Assisian, joined the movement and with several other companions founded the community called the Poor Ladies of San Damiano. Around the same time, Francis founded his Third Order, known as Brothers and Sisters of the Penance. Francis' ministry soon spread beyond the borders of Italy. In 1215 he was at the Fourth Lateran Council and obtained from Pope Honorius III the Portiuncula Indulgence giving special dispensation for his Order. In the same year he sent missions beyond the Alps and even to the Middle East, then under the grip of the Muslims. Francis was in Egypt in 1219 where the Crusaders were mounting an attack on the Muslim forces of Sultan Al‐Kamil. He was present at the siege of Damietta and engaged the sultan in a discussion but was unable to convert him. He returned to Italy where he was faced with serious dissensions in the Franciscan Order. Francis resigned the day‐to‐day administration of the order and placed Cardinale Ugolino da Segni, the future Gregory XI, at its head. In 1223 Francis obtained papal approval for codifying his Rule known as
Regula Prima
into
Regula Bullata
, the first rule to receive papal sanction. Under the new Rule, Francis resigned as minister general of the order but remained its spiritual head. Also in 1223 Francis created the first Christmas crib in history when celebrating Christmas at the hermitage in Greccio.
Franciscans
Authors: McAlhaney Timothy M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
This reform movement was founded by Francis of Assisi (1181/82–1226) in 1209 following papal approval. Francis had, however, begun his movement three years earlier when he withdrew from society to live a life of solitude and poverty. Eventually a group of like‐minded individuals congregated, leading to formal organization. In reality three orders formed from the vision of Francis: the first order known as Friars Minor (Ordo Fratrum Minorum — Order of Lesser Brothers), a second order founded by Clare of Assisi (d. 1253) known as the Poor Clares, and a third order for laypersons known as the Brothers and Sisters of Penance.
Free Will
Authors: Emerick Christopher C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

It seems intuitive that human beings are free and that this freedom supports responsibility. But in exactly what sense humans are free remains contentiously debatable. In the history of the debate, there have emerged essentially two options: the liberty of spontaneity and the liberty of indifference. The liberty of spontaneity maintains that humans make choices and engage in actions consistent with human character or nature, which results from antecedent factors and conditions largely outside of one's control. In short, humans choose various courses of action because they
want
to do so. The liberty of indifference holds that agents may have chosen differently under the same set of circumstances. That is, no antecedent conditions and causal laws determine an agent's choices and actions.
Fruit of the Spirit
Authors: Spiegel James S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The “fruit of the Spirit” is traits of Christian character which serve as outward signs of grace. Nine of these are listed by the Apostle Paul in Galatians 5:22–23: love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self‐control. These qualities are essentially moral virtues, which Paul contrasts with the “acts of the sinful nature,” viz. impurity, debauchery, idolatry, hatred, discord, jealousy, selfish ambition, envy, etc. (Gal. 5:19–21). Persons who display such vices, says Paul, “will not inherit the kingdom of God” (Gal. 5:21), while those who exhibit the fruit of the Spirit “will reap eternal life” (Gal. 6:8).
F
austina,
M
aria (1905–1938)
Authors: Praetorius Regina T. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

St. Maria Faustina Kowalska, commonly known as an apostle of the Divine Mercy, was canonized by Pope John Paul II in 2000, making her one of the first saints of the new millennium. Though her life was a short 33 years lived entirely in her native Poland, her impact on Christianity is widespread. Born Helena Kowalska, she entered a Polish convent in 1925 and received the name Maria Faustina. While in the convent, between 1931 and 1938, St. Faustina received numerous apparitions of the resurrected Christ. Acquiescing to Christ's request, she was his secretary and reluctantly recorded his messages in her diary. Her reluctance can be attributed to her concern for recording the message perfectly; St. Faustina was of a poor family and had only three years of formal education. Yet, when reviewed by the Catholic Church for her canonization, all of the information in the
Diary
was found to be congruent with church doctrine. This diary,
The Diary of St. Maria Faustina Kowalska: Divine Mercy in My Soul
, is now available in numerous languages.
F
uller,
C
harles
E
dward (1887–1968)
Authors: Streett R. Alan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Charles Edward Fuller, Baptist evangelist and radio broadcaster who founded Fuller Theological Seminary (Pasadena, CA), was born on April 25, 1887, the fourth and last son of Henry and Helen Day Fuller, prosperous owners of a furniture store and fruit orchard in Los Angeles. Charles grew up in privilege. Both parents were strong Christians and had set up a trust fund to support overseas missionaries. After graduating
magna cum laude
from Pomona College in 1910 with a bachelor's degree in chemistry, he married Grace Leone Payton, the daughter of a prominent physician. A year later she was converted. Charles headed to northern California to dredge for gold, a business his father heavily underwrote. After a near‐death experience while panning for gold, Charles promised to live for God. He and Grace moved to Placentia and began a fruit‐packing business. With their profits they bought a ten acre orange orchard, a purchase that would eventually make them wealthy when oil was discovered on the property. They also joined the Placentia Presbyterian Church. Despite his promise to serve God, Charles rarely attended Bible study. In 1914 the couple lost a child at birth, and the following year Grace was infected with tuberculosis. She returned home to her parents, who for the next two years nursed her back to health.
Fundamental Theology
Authors: Bain‐Conkin Jeffrey L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Not to be confused with fundamentalism, which is a movement in several faith traditions, fundamental theology is a Catholic intellectual and public tradition. It delves deeply into both the form and content of theology. In other words, some scholars have called it a “pre‐theology.” This theological position argues for the rationality of several “fundamental” truths: God's existence, God's revelation, the biblical Christ event. (Exploring the foundations of Christianity, sometimes this theology is called “foundational theology.”)
Gertrude ofHelfta,Saint (1256–c.1301/1302)
Authors: Harrison Anna 
Published: January 2012

AbstractGertrude of Helfta was a nun at the noble monastery at Helfta in Saxony, located in the diocese of Halberstadt. Although not formally incorporated into the Cistercian Order, the convent appears to have been one of many women's houses that followed some Cistercian customs, tailoring them to their particular needs and circumstances. Gertrude entered Helfta at the age of 5; we know nothing about her family or the circumstances of her entry. Raised in a bookish environment, Gertrude had a precocious intellectual appetite and was a disciplined student of the liberal arts. She was a young woman when she received her first vision, that of a beautiful adolescent she recognized as her Lord. She began, thereafter, to be regularly privy to revelations suffused with vivid imagery and dense with spiritual teachings.
Gnosticism
Authors: Smith Jay E. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractGnosticism is the modern term used to designate a variety of religious movements more or less contemporary with early Christianity. These movements emphasized salvation through a secret, transcendent gnosis (Greekgnōsis, knowledge) of one's nature and origin. Such knowledge was thought to have salvific power, freeing the soul from the evil, material world and the cosmic forces that ruled it.