bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Art Therapy
Authors: Wadeson Harriet 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
“ ‘ I could draw it,’ a dreamer often says to us, ‘but I don't know how to say it.’ ” So said Sigmund Freud (1963, p. 90). Considering that Freud regarded dreams to be “the royal road to the unconscious,” it is surprising that he did not ask his patients to do so.
Asian Psychologies
Authors: Walsh Roger 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Until recently, most Western mental health professionals usually assumed that their own psychologies and therapies were the only ones worthy of serious consideration, but fortunately this ethnocentric attitude is changing rapidly. Here we will limit discussion to four Asian psychologies—the yogic and Buddhist psychologies of India, and the Taoist and neo‐Confucian systems of China—which despite their differences, also display significant commonalities.
Asperger Syndrome
Authors: Hunter Scott J. , Malzer Valerie 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Asperger syndrome (AS; also identified as Asperger's disorder) is a pervasive developmental disorder thought to be closely related to autism. Although first conceptualized in 1944 by Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger, one year after the independent description of autism by Leo Kanner, AS did not gain wide recognition diagnostically until the early 1980s (Wing, 1981). It has since come to be accepted as a specific neurodevelopmental disorder in its own right within the psychiatric, psychological, and developmental fields (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000). AS is generally conceptualized as one endpoint along the autism disorder spectrum; however, there remains significant debate about where AS falls along the continuum of autism spectrum disorders, and more specifically about its relationship to high‐functioning autism (HFA), with which it is often compared and contrasted (Ghaziuddin, 2008).
Association for Behavior Analysis International
Authors: Critchfield Thomas S. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) is a nonproft membership organization with the mission to develop, enhance, and support the growth and vitality of behavior analysis through research, education, and practice. Behavior analysis is an approach to the science of behavior that emphasizes behaviorist epistemologies and methods. ABAI was founded in 1974 as a result of concerns that this approach to behavior science did not receive adequate consideration from existing professional audiences. Similar concerns gave rise, at around the same time, to the founding of two major behavioral journals,
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
and
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
.
Athletic Coaching
Authors: Smith Ronald E. , Smoll Frank L. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractAt all levels of sport, coaches function as educators, leaders, and strategists. In these roles, they can strongly influence the performance and personal development of the athletes with whom they come in contact. In the United States alone, an estimated 41 million children participate in nonschool programs, and another 6 to 7 million in interscholastic sports. Others participate at more elite levels, in intercollegiate, or professional sports. The teaching techniques coaches employ, the goal priorities they establish, the values they exhibit and reinforce, and the relationships they form with athletes in this important domain of athletic involvement have all been topics that have attracted the attention of psychological researchers.
Attachment Disorders
Authors: Campion Caroline , Zeanah Charles H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Attachment describes the human infant's tendency to seek comfort, support, nurturance, and protection from a relatively small number of preferred caregivers or attachment figures. The capacity to form an attachment is not present at birth, but develops over time. Although infants in the first 6 months are able to distinguish among different interactive partners, they do not express an obvious preference for one caregiver over another. All of this changes at around 7 to 9 months of age. At that point, infants begin to exhibit stranger wariness and separation protest, two behaviors that herald the onset of focused attachment. Stranger wariness varies from mild reticence to outright distress, but it contrasts with the infant's comfort with an attachment figure, from whom the infant seeks comfort, support, nurturance, and protection. Separation protest describes the infant's reaction to actual or anticipated separation from an attachment figure. After these two behaviors appear, infants are attached to one or more caregivers. Once infants have developed the cognitive capacity to exhibit separation protest and stranger wariness, they may form new attachments with any caregivers with whom they have significant interactive experiences.
Attachment Styles
Authors: Reyes Gilbert 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Unraveling the nature of the bonds that form between people and identifying the sources of variation in the relational characteristics observed across groups of people are prominent topics in the social sciences. One approach to explaining and predicting the variations in close personal relationships is to classify individuals based on consistent patterns of interpersonal behavior and emotional reactions to relational partners. A variety of typologies based on Bowlby's (1969) attachment theory have been proposed for classifying interpersonal tendencies according to prototypical categories known as attachment styles. Attachment styles have been classified categorically on the basis of observed behavioral differences in response to controlled situations, by inference from responses to structured interviews, and from scores derived from responses to multiple‐choice questionnaires.
Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Authors: Schweitzer Julie B. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractAttention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by persistent and chronic inattention and/or excessive motor restlessness and impulsivity. Inattentive symptoms include poor organizational skills, making careless errors, forgetfulness, trouble listening, and distractibility. Hyperactive/impulsive symptoms include restlessness, excessive talking, and interrupting. For the purpose of diagnosis, symptom manifestation should be developmentally inappropriate and exhibited in two or more settings (e.g., home and school). Much of the research in the past decade has focused on deficits associated with the disorder in regard to executive function, response inhibition, cognitive control, and motivational dysfunction in response to delayed reinforcers.
Attitudes
Authors: Visser Penny S. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Psychologists use the term
attitude
to refer to a general evaluation that an individual holds regarding a particular entity, such as an object, an issue, or a person. An individual may hold an extremely favorable attitude toward a particular political candidate, for example, and a mildly unfavorable attitude toward another candidate. Thus, attitudes vary in valence as well as extremity, and they reflect an individual's overall summary evaluation of an attitude object. Attitudes toward the countless objects that we encounter in our day‐to‐day lives are stored in memory, and they remain at least somewhat stable over time. In this way, attitudes are different from fleeting, momentary evaluative responses to an object. In addition, attitudes are specific to particular objects, unlike diffuse evaluative reactions like moods or dispositions.
Australia, Psychology in
Authors: Gordon Amanda 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The history of psychology in Australia is relatively well documented. It was highly influenced in its early years by British psychology, and indeed the early psychologists formed an Australian chapter of the British Psychological Society as their learned society and primary professional body. It was only in 1966 that the Australian Psychological Society, with its own charter, Code of Ethics, and accreditation and standards committees came into being, with a resounding vote from the Australian members to become independent. Since those early days, the Australian Psychological Society has grown into a strong peak professional and scientific body in Australia, with more than 17,000 members in 2008 (approximately 60% of all psychologists in the country). The Australian Psychological Society is consulted by government and nongovernment organizations and by the media on the broad range of issues affecting psychologists and the general community, and for expert comment and advice on various psychological issues that arise.
Authoritarianism
Authors: Suedfeld Peter 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Authoritarianism is one of the most studied and most controversial concepts in personality, social, and political psychology. It also has wide usage in political discourse, as, for example, in the distinction between authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. It has entered the general vocabulary: a Google search finds more than one‐and‐a‐half million references to the word.
Behavior Problems of Childhood and Adolescence
Authors: Hinshaw Stephen P. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
During the long process of maturation, nearly all youth have transitory problems of adjustment, behavior, and emotion. Parents of preschoolers often lament their children's tantrums, shyness, and unruliness; families of teenagers worry about rebellion, lack of academic motivation, and temptation for drugs and alcohol. Although such problems typically resolve with further development, when issues related to impulse control, emotion regulation, or behavioral deportment are quite extreme for the child's age and when they interfere with schooling and academic achievement, family life, or the attainment of independence, referrals may be made for diagnosis of a psychological or psychiatric condition. In fact, serious levels of problem behavior are usually not short‐lived. The subject of this entry is the nature, etiology, and treatment of such clinical‐range problems.
Behavioral Assessment
Authors: O'Brien William H. , Oemig Carmen 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Behavioral assessment is an approach to the measurement and understanding of human behavior that is founded on several fundamental assumptions. These assumptions also differentiate behavioral assessment from other assessment approaches such as personality assessment and projective assessment. The first and most important assumption is functional contextualism (Hayes, 2004; Haynes & O'Brien, 2000; O'Brien & Schwetschenau, 2008). This assumption posits that target behaviors (cognitive, emotional, and overt‐motor responses that are the focus of treatment) are not randomly emitted, but occur as a function of context variables that can be thought of as a collection of causal influences. Some of these causal influences arise from internal experiences (e.g., thoughts and feelings) while other causal influences arise from external sources such as interpersonal interactions and nonsocial environmental events (e.g., temperature).
Bem Sex Role Inventory
Authors: Malloy Thomas E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In the early 1970s psychologists questioned the assumption that masculinity (i.e., agency) and femininity (i.e., communion) were opposite ends of a one‐dimensional continuum. Rather, masculinity and femininity were conceptualized as independent dimensions; an individual could have a score on each. The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) is based on the theory that individuals differ in the extent to which masculinity and femininity are the basis for a cognitive schema that affects the processing of information and behavior.
Beta and Gamma Rhythms
Authors: Leung L. Stan 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Beta and gamma rhythms were first studied in the human electroencephalogram (EEG) recorded from the scalp. Beta waves of >13 Hz appear in the occipital EEG when the eyes are open, as first reported by Hans Berger who also named the 8–12 Hz alpha rhythm (Niedermeyer, 2005). As used by neuroscientists, beta typically designates 13 to ∼30 Hz and gamma describes ∼30 to 100 Hz, including the 40‐Hz oscillations, while higher frequency activities are called ripples (∼100–500 Hz). Beta, gamma, and ripple EEGs are of relatively low amplitude (<30 μV) in the EEG, and quantification normally requires computer analysis, with careful separation from muscle and 50–60 Hz electrical power artifacts. Other than in the EEG, gamma and beta activities can be found in the magnetoencephalogram (MEG), local field potentials, extracellular neuronal unit firings, and intracellularly recorded membrane potentials. Spontaneous (steady‐state), evoked, and induced gamma rhythms are distinguished. Spontaneous rhythm occurs without stimulation, evoked gamma activity is time‐locked to the stimulus, and induced gamma is increased by the stimulus but not time‐locked to it.
Bibliotherapy
Authors: Febbraro Greg A. R. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractBibliotherapy is a self‐help technique presented in the written format of a book or track. Although the term bibliotherapy can refer to the use of any literary work, including fiction and inspirational forms of literature, it typically involves the use of nonfiction books, manuals, or pamphlets that provide information while encouraging or guiding the person to make some type of change (Campbell & Scott, 2003). Bibliotherapy is currently the primary type of media‐based (e.g., books, manuals, audiotapes, or some combination of these formats) self‐help approach (Watkins, 2008).
Bioenergetic Therapy
Authors: Friedman Harris , Glazer Robert 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Bioenergetic therapy combines bodywork with psychoanalysis. Also known as bioenergetic analysis or simply bioenergetics, this therapeutic system was created by Alexander Lowen (2004), a protégé of Wilhelm Reich (see Sharaf, 1994), who in turn was Freud's student; as such, it stems from the Freudian psychoanalytic tradition. It is seen as a humanistic psychotherapy for its holistic mind‐body approach and is also sometimes grouped with gestalt, orgonomy, and radix as a neo‐Reichian therapy. Bioenergetics is a way to understand and therapeutically intervene both psychologically and physically. Diagnoses focus on both understanding psychological issues through traditional psychoanalytic concepts (e.g., defense mechanisms) and physical issues through observing bodily form (e.g., posture) and function (e.g., qualities of movement during respiration) stemming from Reich's (1980) insights into the role of chronic muscular tension patterns (body “armoring”) in shaping “character.”
Biofeedback
Authors: Greene William A. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractBiofeedback is best understood as a closed feedback loop consisting of a person or animal, a response, a means to detect the response, and a mechanism for displaying the response to the person or animal—the response is thus fed back. For example, a person can be instructed to increase his or her heart rate; the heart rate is displayed by a monitor and fed back to the person; a feedback loop is thereby established. Biological systems have numerous, reflexive feedback loops to maintain homeostatic integrity: body temperature, blood sugar, blood pressure, endocrine levels, etc. Fluctuations are kept within narrow limits by such feedback loops. However, biofeedback learning is not reflexive—it is more closely associated with higher‐order learning processes.
Biographical Data
Authors: Farmer Richard F. , Sundberg Norman D. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Biographical data of one sort or another are shared in most day‐to‐day social encounters. When meeting new people, for example, some exchange of biographical data often occurs (e.g., the disclosure of one's occupation or place of employment). Professionals who work with people in a variety of contexts (e.g., physicians, government workers, potential employers) frequently obtain histories of health‐related events, education, and employment. In applied clinical settings, for example, therapists will often assess aspects of a client's life history (e.g., family history; school and occupational history; social history; health, medical, and psychiatric history), and evaluate the potential relevance of this information in relation to the client's stated reasons for entering into therapy and for the selection of appropriate therapies. Several methods or resources can be used for the collection of biographical data, including informal interviews, semi‐structured interviews (von Zerssen, Pössl, Hecht, Black, Garczynski, & Barthelmes, 1998), “memory books” (Thomson & Holland, 2005), institutional records, documents, and specially designed biographical inventories and checklists.
Bisexuality
Authors: Smith Nathan Grant 
Published: January 2010

AbstractBisexuality is a sexual orientation characterized by attraction to members of more than one sex. Often, bisexuality is thought of as attraction to both men and women; however, neither sex (i.e., biological and chromosomal traits that determine whether a person is male or female) nor gender (i.e., socially constructed behaviors and traits associated with femininity and masculinity) are always dichotomous. As with other sexual orientations (i.e., heterosexual, lesbian, gay), a bisexual orientation is an enduring pattern of attraction, sexual behavior, emotional affection, social contacts, and personal identity oriented toward individuals of more than one sex.
Bogardus Social Distance Scale
Authors: Geisinger Kurt F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Bogardus Social Distance Scale was an early technique for measuring attitudes toward racial and ethnic groups. The basic concept behind the Bogardus scale is that the more prejudiced an individual is against a particular group, the less that person will wish to interact with members of that group (R. M. Dawes, 1972). Thus, the items that compose a Bogardus scale describe relationships into which a respondent might be willing to enter with a member of the specified cultural group (e.g., spouse, friend, neighbor, co‐worker, citizen, visitor to our country). Items are worded in terms of inclusion or exclusion. “Would you accept an ‘X' as a spouse?” is an example of an inclusion question and “Would you keep all ‘Ys' out of America?” is an example of an exclusion question. The attitude or esteem with which the respondent holds the specified group is defined as the closeness of relationship that the respondent reports as being willing to accept with a member of that group.
Borderline Personality Disorder
Authors: Sherry Alissa 
Published: January 2010

AbstractBorderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is one of 10 personality disorders listed in theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual‐Text Revision(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000), the manual used by mental health professionals to diagnose mental disorders. BPD is considered a “cluster B” personality disorder. The cluster B identifier signifies a general pattern of behavior characterized by deficiencies in impulse control and affect regulation and is also known as the “dramatic‐erratic” cluster. The diagnostic criteria listed in the DSM‐IV‐TR specific to BPD are as follows:A pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self‐image, and affects, and marked impulsivity beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the following:frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonmenta pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships characterized by alternating between extremes of idealization and devaluationidentity disturbance: markedly and persistently unstable self‐image of sense of selfimpulsivity in at least two areas that are potentially self‐damaging (e.g., spending, sex, substance abuse, reckless driving, binge eating)recurrent suicidal behaviors, gestures, or threats, or self‐mutilating behavioraffective instability due to a marked reactivity of mood (e.g., intense episodic dysphoria, irritability, or anxiety usually lasting a few hours and only rarely more than a few days)chronic feelings of emptinessinappropriate, intense anger or difficulty controlling anger (e.g., frequent displays of temper, constant anger, recurrent physical fights)transient, stress‐related paranoid ideation or severe dissociative symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2000, p. 710)
B
oring,
E
dwin
G
. (1886–1968)
Authors: Staff  
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Edwin G. Boring studied psychology at Cornell University under the Structuralist, E. B. Titchener, and he received his doctorate in 1914. He went to Clark University in 1919 and moved to Harvard in 1922; he remained there for the rest of his career as a general experimental psychologist. He influenced many generations of students through his teaching of the introductory course in psychology at Harvard.
B
owlby,
J
ohn (1907–1990)
Authors: Staff  
Published: January 2010

Abstract
John Bowlby is known for his work on the ill effects of maternal deprivation on personality development and for formulating attachment theory as a way of conceptualizing a child's tie to the mother. The son of a London surgeon, he studied medicine and psychology at Cambridge, completed his medical training in London (1933), and specialized in child psychiatry and psychoanalysis. After five years as an Army psychiatrist, he joined the Tavistock Clinic and Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, where he worked full time (1946–1972) as a clinician, teacher, and researcher in child and family psychiatry.
Buffering Hypothesis
Authors: Farmer Richard F. , Sundberg Norman D. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The buffering hypothesis suggests that under some conditions social support protects (or “buffers”) individuals from the harmful effects of stressful situations. Two important conditions must be satisfied to demonstrate the buffering effect: (1) individuals must experience relatively high levels of stress in response to a stressful situation, and (2) social support is defined in terms of the availability of interpersonal resources that can potentially offset needs occasioned by the stressful event. This specific type of social support is sometimes referred to as “instrumental support” (Cohen, 1988; Cohen & Wills, 1985), examples of which include financial aid, material resources, and needed services. The buffering hypothesis has been evaluated in a variety of areas of human functioning (e.g., depression, substance abuse, physical health) and in studies of immune response functioning among monkeys.
Bulimia Nervosa
Authors: Becker Carolyn Black 
Published: January 2010

AbstractBulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by three primary symptoms: recurrent episodes of binge eating, inappropriate compensatory behaviors, and extreme concern about body weight and shape. Binge eating involves the consumption of a large amount of food in a relatively short period of time along with a perception of loss of control over eating. Binge eating may be triggered by a number of factors including hunger, negative mood, interpersonal stressors, and thoughts about weight and shape. Inappropriate compensatory behaviors are strategies aimed at controlling body weight and shape, including self‐induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives and/or diuretics, excessive exercising, and fasting.
Caffeine‐Related Disorders
Authors: James Jack E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The widespread consumption of caffeine is a relatively recent phenomenon in human history. European colonization in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries led to coffee and tea being transported around the world, and this process of dissemination proved to be extraordinarily successful. Caffeine has come to be the most widely used psychoactive substance in history, with more than 80% of people worldwide now consuming the drug daily (James, 1997).