bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Rhetorical Style
Authors: Fahnestock Jeanne 
Published: January 2012

AbstractRhetorical Style promotes a renewed appreciation of the persuasive potential of the English language by demonstrating how language choices argue. It combines advice about effective style from the rhetorical tradition with insights from stylistics and discourse analysis to provide a full spectrum of methods for text analysis. Using examples from political speeches, nonfiction works, and newspaper reports, it emphasizes the continuing relevance of rhetorical principles of stylistic analysis and their usefulness in understanding effective arguments. Rhetorical Style is comprehensive in its coverage. Part I reviews the historical layers of English, its methods of word formation, its registers and varieties. Part II covers sentence basics in a brief and accessible way, noting how sentence forms serve persuasion, especially those optimal “iconic” forms that epitomize their content. The interactive dimension of texts is covered in part III in accounts of how speakers, audiences, other voices, and even situations and occasions can be selectively presented to serve an arguer's purposes. Finally, part IV goes beyond the sentence level to passage construction, explaining how a coherent string of sentences can build into a sustained argument. The final chapter explains Amplification, the tour de force rhetorical performance that draws on features from all the levels. Throughout, the explanations and the examples from actual texts provide evidence linking language choices to argument forms and persuasive purposes. Rhetorical insights into how language argues have survived for centuries. Rhetorical Style was written to give these enduring principles wider circulation.
New Words and Changing Uses
Authors: Fahnestock Jeanne 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe English lexicon changes constantly as users coin new words and press existing words into new uses. Novel English words are formed by a variety of methods, including compounding existing words, adding affixes, clipping, blending, creating acronyms, and converting from one part of speech to another. Many of these word-morphing and coining options were discussed in rhetorical manuals, and understanding these methods of word formation leads to an appreciation of English morphology. Coined words are often rhetorical “hot spots”; they indicate an arguer's attempt to convey a novel content/form pairing, and they often argue for “newness” in themselves. This chapter offers examples of each form of coinage, some from arguments where the new word trenchantly delivers an argument. The chapter also covers the inevitable processes of users changing meanings over time, and of losing words as they fall out of current if not potential usage. The process of change and loss is illustrated with an extended case study of the variable meanings of the word junk, beginning with its use by Darwin in a passage from The Voyage of the Beagle where the sense is difficult to recover.
Tropes
Authors: Fahnestock Jeanne 
Published: January 2012

AbstractWhile discussions of style in the rhetorical tradition lack the basic language categories (e.g., lexical field) that twentieth-century analysts have created, they did discriminate high-profile choices in their extensive catalogs of figure of speech. The manuals named tropes as figures involving substitutions of predictable words with terms that deliver nuanced meanings serving an argument. (Trope is now used in cultural studies in a much broader sense as a recurring cultural signifier; the sense used in this chapter is the narrower one of a category of word-level figures.) The characterization of individual tropes reveals rhetorical principles of word formation, reference, and meaning. This chapter discusses the four “master” tropes (synecdoche, metonymy, metaphor, irony) in addition to related less-known figures. A synecdoche replaces a term with a part of its referent or switches singulars and plurals. A metonymy substitutes according to other principles (e.g., source, cause, physical proximity), while the related trope antonomasia replaces a proper noun with an attribute. Metaphor, a substitution from a disjunct lexical field, epitomizes the argument from analogy; the dramatic, novel rhetorical metaphor is stressed here over the conceptual metaphor described by cognitive linguists. Established metaphors and metaphors extended to the point of allegory are also covered, as is the simile, though it is not strictly a trope. The final trope, irony, which requires cues of intention for construal, has a partner in the more easily decoded antiphrasis. In the same category of deliberate “misstatements” are hyperbole, litotes, amphiboly, paradox, and paralepsis (praeteritio), all word or phrase substitutions that serve evaluative purposes. The tropes covered in this chapter are illustrated with passages from arguments that demonstrate their persuasive effects.
Figures of Word Choice
Authors: Fahnestock Jeanne 
Published: January 2012

AbstractWhile the tropes involve word substitutions hinging on meaning, other figures of speech from the rhetorical tradition cover devices of wordplay that can have surprising argumentative consequences. These devices can be separated roughly into three categories. The first group, schemes of words, includes agnominatio, the pairing of visually and aurally similar words, as in Malcolm X's alternatives of the ballot versus the bullet. Arguers achieve effects similar to the agnominatio when they alter a single word from its typically recognized form (metaplasm). The most important devices among the schemes of words are polyptoton (using derivatives with the same root, e.g., just and justice) and ploce (repeating precisely the same word). These devices spread a concept functionally and give it presence. They in turn are tweaked by puns (antanaclasis). The second group of devices relates words primarily by sound over meaning, resulting in aural patterns that can also have argumentative consequences. Assonance, consonance, and alliteration, often cited in studies of poetry, can support an arguer's creation of inseparable groups. The early rhetorical manuals also emphasized phrase-ending sound similarities (homeoeptoton, homeoeteleuton). The third set of devices has the common attribute of drawing attention to word selection itself. Arguers can string synonyms together in place of a single term (synonymia), displaying alternative versions of a concept. They can also deliberately make a mistake and then correct themselves, thereby lodging two expressions with the audience. They may also use euphemisms or deliberately cloaked words (oddly labeled emphasis in the manuals) to plant the unsayable in the audience's mind. All these devices exploit the brain's sorting routines based on visual, aural, and semantic distinctions among word forms and concepts.
Sentence Construction: Modification
Authors: Fahnestock Jeanne 
Published: January 2012

AbstractOutside of the subject, verb, and object in an independent clause, everything else in a sentence is modification, the specifying detail that often carries or constrains an argument. Patterns of modification depend on the types of modifier used, their placement, and the overall amount of modification. This chapter sorts through the arguer's modifying options first according to the grammatical profile of the unit involved. At the highest level are adverb and adjective clauses (subordinate or relative; noun clauses, though not actually modifiers, are also covered here). Next are phrases divisible into three types: those based on verbs (participial and infinitive phrases), those based on nouns (appositives and absolute, resumptive or summative structures), and prepositional phrases. Finally there are single-word modifiers, sometimes grouped in chains according to how dissociable they are from the word modified. Modifiers can be multiplied or embedded, and individual texts can carry heavy modification in proportion to the predication. The point of this chapter is not simply to review these sentence constituents but to see their potential argumentative consequences as in the epithetical style. For example, an appositive offers, sometimes tendentiously, an apparently equivalent term, and constructions like the absolute phrase allow the arguer to promote a feature of a mentioned noun into attention. Infinitive phrases often attribute purposes for actions and participial phrases subordinate one action to another. Depending on where modifiers are placed in relation to the main predication, they often predispose audiences to the arguer's interpretation of evidence or events.
Sentence Architecture
Authors: Fahnestock Jeanne 
Published: January 2012

AbstractIn antiquity, the basics of predication and modification were covered by the grammarians, who trained students in basic literacy before they moved on to the teacher of rhetoric. The rhetoricians covered the further arts of constructing sentences to create special prosodic effects and to emphasize (foreground) key elements in an argument. Speakers have all the resources of the voice available to create emphasis. In writing, emphasis can be achieved in part by placing words at the end of clauses or sentences, before a pause, or by putting them in a main clause or using them as subjects or verbs. Inversions of normal word order (anastrophe or hyperbaton) may enhance emphasis. The overall architecture of a sentence can also be described in terms of how modifiers are placed in relation to the main sentence elements. Modifiers can branch left, postponing the main predication, or right, trailing it. Modifiers can also interrupt the sentence. Taking the placement of modifiers into account, rhetoricians since antiquity have distinguished loose sentences, which add detail after a complete predication, from periodic sentences, which become grammatically complete at the end. These variations in sentence architecture (or really in how sentences are experienced linearly by listeners or readers) have consequences for the manipulation of meaning in an argument, and rhetoricians such as Vico and Blair could be quite specific on such matters of sentence-level composition The optimal architecture for a sentence is iconic form, when the parts of a sentence are ordered in a way that reinforces or epitomizes the meaning.
Series
Authors: Fahnestock Jeanne 
Published: January 2012

AbstractContinuing the attention to options in sentence construction, this chapter focuses on series, the use of three or more consecutive items to fill a single sentence slot, e.g., three or more adjectives or objects or prepositional phrases. By virtue of their grammatical placement, items in a series always become members of an implicit or announced category. Since antiquity, rhetorical style manuals have lavished attention on series, even specifying the kinds of categories and arguments they can construct, whether naming the parts of a whole (partitio), species of a genus (diaeresis), or features and adjuncts (enumeratio; a special exception was the congeries, a series of synonyms). By virtue of categorizing, series have the argumentative effect of bracketing, of equating their items by character and value. The order of items in a series can also be important. A listing can simply follow the principle of end weight, with the longest item last, or a series can order items according to some increasing or decreasing shared aspect (incrementum); sequential item-to-item linkage can even be suggested with overlapping phrasing (gradatio). The role of conjunctions in series is also important; the extreme cases omit all conjunctions (asyndeton) or place conjunctions between each item (polysyndeton). In their length, order, and use of conjunctions, series can serve arguments by suggesting an open-ended set or a complete and final listing.
Prosody and Punctuation
Authors: Fahnestock Jeanne 
Published: January 2012

AbstractRhetoric began as and remains an art of oral communication, but its advice has been adapted to writing since antiquity. Speech and writing as modes of language delivery, and hearing and reading as modes of language consumption, are worth distinguishing. Speakers can easily vary their output in pitch, loudness, sound duration, and pause length; they can realize a distinct prosody in a speech. Furthermore, speakers can add facial expressions and other paralinguistic features. Rhetorical manuals covered these performance elements in the canon of delivery, and advice on style considered prosody as rhythm, even to the point of specifying certain sound units like Aristotle's paean or the medieval cursus. Though transcriptions of spoken texts can never completely capture the immediacy and performance dimensions of speech, writing systems have evolved markers (punctuation) as aids to prosody. Brief attention to earlier punctuation practices suggests that earlier systems segmented written texts with more awareness of the larger argument structures built from smaller units. Even into the eighteenth century, written sentences were constructed according to balanced patterns managed by punctuation. The figures of speech also included attention to dramatic spoken effects, such as breaking off mid-statement (aposiopesis) or crying out (ecphonesis). But more important in argument is the prosodic contour of longer passages. The prosody of such passages can be appreciated by the simple expedient of first listing the various lengths of sentences in order to uncover where arguers have changed the pace with shorter or longer sentences.
Incorporating Other Voices
Authors: Fahnestock Jeanne 
Published: January 2012

AbstractSet in larger, persisting communicative situations, rhetorical discourse often features language attributed to other speakers and texts. Speaking for others was especially important in ancient forensic settings where witness testimony was reported secondhand. The methods described in this chapter for incorporating language from other sources follow those in Leech and Short's Style in Fiction. Other voices can be quoted directly, though always with selection and often with stylization, or they can be quoted indirectly. Indirect quotation invites paraphrase that can wander tendentiously from the original wording, and, as it appears in written texts, indirect quotations often include zones of ambiguous attribution. The words or near-words of others can also be abandoned in favor of reporting the speech act achieved by their words. Written texts may be represented using the same options of direct or indirect quotation, or the reporting of speech acts, each of these options increasing the interpretive control of another text. Speakers, of course, without the benefit of quotation marks, have to rely more on vocal dynamics to mark off another's words. The rhetorical manuals favored the dramatic mimicking of other voices (prosopopoeia), going so far as to recommend that the absent, the dead, and even inanimate entities be given a voice in a speech. Bakhtin noted the extremes of language mixtures as the heteroglossia that can result from the often unattributed incorporation of others’ language, even to the point of the double voicing of a single word. In a new media age of IM and blogs, such multivoicing has in fact become routine.
Situation and Occasion
Authors: Fahnestock Jeanne 
Published: January 2012

AbstractIn everyday conversation, speakers and hearers inhabit specific places and times. Languages include deictic terms to refer to these givens of the physical situation. Speakers can choose to refer explicitly to their immediate location and moment, and in fact politicians typically do, even to the point of arranging to give a speech in a location that they can strategically reference. Though written texts seem to transcend the particulars of time and place, writers in some circumstances can use immediate deixis. But more often writers, and even speakers, can construct absent or hypothetical places and times through imaginary deixis. The result is the set description, recommended in rhetorical exercises since antiquity (as descriptio, ekphrasis, etc.). Time and place can also be invoked in broader senses. For example, the time referenced or constructed in an argument can ignore a particular hour or date and focus instead on time in the sense of an occasion, a kairotic moment that the arguer seizes on, such as an anniversary or a “first time.” Campbell in the eighteenth and Chilton in the twenty-first century note the argumentative potential in constructions of time and place, and Bitzer labeled these aspects of the rhetorical situation, calling special attention to the exigence, the immediate need for rhetorical discourse. To Burke, time and place were elements of the arguer's scene whose circumference was malleable. The number of critical terms in rhetoric covering notions of time and place shows the importance of this dimension of speaker/audience interaction.
Passage Patterns
Authors: Fahnestock Jeanne 
Published: January 2012

AbstractA coherent string of clauses, using the connections described in the previous chapter, still has to build in the reader's mind into a hierarchically organized passage. Rhetorical manuals since antiquity have provided advice on building passages as compositional units serving arguments. This chapter reviews prescribed multisentence units, beginning with the enthymeme and syllogism and their expansion through embedded restatements, examples, and comparisons. The resulting structures are combined into full arguments, and they have been rediscovered in critical thinking textbooks. But teachers of rhetoric went further in prescribing the subunits of larger arguments through the series of exercises known as the progymnasmata. How subunits can work at different “grain sizes” is illustrated in the case of comparisons. The rhetoricians’ insights into modular text structure and the basic sequential patterns of parataxis (coordinated sequences) and hypotaxis (subordinated sequences) were lost in the early-twentieth-century decline of rhetoric. Composition teachers in the second half of the twentieth century rebuilt much of this advice in their attention to paragraph structure, and they rediscovered the figures of discourse management now collectively known as metadiscourse. Rhetorical insights into passage patterns bring analysts to the end of “bottom up” constructions and to the point where top-down advice about argument strategies and genre patterns take over.
‘Out‐patient’ albumin dialysis for cholestatic patients with intractable pruritus
Authors: Leckie P. , Tritto G. , Mookerjee R. , Davies N. , Jones D. , Jalan R. 
Published: January 2012

SummaryBackgroundIntractable pruritus is a major problem for some patients with cholestasis. Albumin dialysis has been shown to ameliorate pruritus, but long‐term outcome data are limited.AimTo evaluate the safety and efficacy of ‘out‐patient’ albumin dialysis using the molecular adsorbent recirculating system (MARS) in the treatment of intractable pruritus in cholestatic patients referred for liver transplantation for symptomatic relief.MethodsFifteen patients who failed to respond to standard medical therapy to control pruritus were included. Three MARS (6 h) sessions were performed per admission, and were repeated, if necessary. The intensity and severity of itch was quantified using itch severity and visual analogue scales (ISS and VAS).ResultsMolecular adsorbent recirculating system treatment was safe and associated with immediate and complete response in 11 patients; two patients had a partial response and two patients had no response. Thirty‐four treatments were performed during a follow‐up period of 15.7 months (3–46) with patients requiring a mean of two admissions (1–6). The mean VAS and ISS improved significantly (both P < 0.001) with improvement in the patient's perception of their quality of life. The duration of acceptable relief in responders was 3.3 months (range 2–5). No serious adverse events were recorded, but the platelet count and haemoglobin were reduced significantly.ConclusionMolecular adsorbent recirculating system therapy delivered in an ‘out‐patient’ setting is safe and effective with a high degree of patient acceptability. Albumin dialysis can be considered a viable therapeutic option for patients with severe intractable pruritus, in whom, the only other effective treatment option is liver transplantation.
p63, CK7, PAX8 and INI‐1: an optimal immunohistochemical panel to distinguish poorly differentiated urothelial cell carcinoma from high‐grade tumours of the renal collecting system
Authors: Carvalho Jason C , Thomas Dafydd G , McHugh Jonathan B , Shah Rajal B , Kunju Lakshmi P 
Published: January 2012

Carvalho J C, Thomas D G, McHugh J B, Shah R B & Kunju L P  (2012) Histopathology 60, 597–608 p63, CK7, PAX8 and INI‐1: an optimal immunohistochemical panel to distinguish poorly differentiated urothelial cell carcinoma from high‐grade tumours of the renal collecting systemAims:  High‐grade, poorly differentiated, infiltrative carcinomas involving the renal sinus region often pose challenging differential diagnostic considerations, specifically differentiation of urothelial carcinoma (UC) from renal cell carcinoma (RCC) subtypes. Accurate classification, especially the distinction of UC from RCC, is critical, as therapeutic approaches differ.Methods and results:  Cluster analysis was performed on immunohistochemical data from 18 invasive UCs, six CDCs, two RMCs, 18 type 2 papillary renal cell carcinomas (PRCCs) and 20 high‐grade clear cell renal cell carcinomas (CRCCs) using a broad panel of traditional and novel immunohistochemical markers. The initial analysis with all antibodies segregates almost all the RCCs (45 of 46, 98%) from all the UCs based on the lack of expression of p63 in all (100%) RCCs, along with predominant strong expression of paired box gene 8 (PAX8) and vimentin, predominant lack of expression of high molecular weight cytokeratin (HMCK) and CK7 and variable expression of RCC, CD10, CA1X and PAX2. All the UCs cluster together with strong, diffuse reactivity for p63, predominant reactivity for CK7 and high molecular weight kininogen (HMWK), and absent to minimal staining with PAX8, RCC antigen, PAX2, alpha‐methylacyl‐CoA racemase (AMACR), carbonic anhydrase IX (CAIX) and vimentin. After removing antibodies with significant overlap and/or minimal impact, a second analysis with a limited panel including p63, CK7, vimentin, integrase interactor 1 (INI‐1) and PAX8 was performed. Again, the majority of UCs cluster into one group and p63 positivity separates all UCs from RCCs.Conclusions:  Lack of INI‐1 expression, noted exclusively in RMCs, segregates RMCs into a separate cluster. PAX8 is rarely positive (17%) in UC, is commonly expressed in CDC, RMC, PRCC and CRCC and is superior to PAX2.
The complement C1qA enhances retinoic acid‐inducible gene‐I‐mediated immune signalling
Authors: Wang Yetao , Tong Xiaomei , Zhang Junjie , Ye Xin 
Published: January 2012

SummaryThe cellular innate immune response is essential for recognizing and defending against viral infection. Retinoic acid‐inducible gene‐I (RIG‐I) and virus‐induced signaling adaptor (VISA) mediated immune signalling is critically involved in RNA‐virus‐induced innate immune responses. Here we demonstrate that the complement C1qA interacts with different RIG‐I pathway components and enhances RIG‐I‐VISA‐mediated signalling pathway as well as TBK1‐mediated activation of interferon‐β (IFN‐β) promoter. Our data show that over‐expression of C1qA up‐regulates RIG‐I‐mediated activation of IFN‐stimulated responsive element (ISRE) and nuclear factor‐κB reporters and IFN‐β transcription, but not IFN regulatory factor‐3‐mediated and inhibitor of κB kinase‐mediated activation of ISRE and nuclear factor‐κB promoter. In addition, C1qA can counteract the function of the C1q receptor gC1qR in RIG‐I‐mediated signalling. Our results reveal the important role of complement C1qA in the innate immune response.