bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cerium and Cerium Compounds
Authors: Kilbourn Barry T. 
Published: July 2011

AbstractCerium, Ce, at. no. 58, is the most abundant member of the series of elements known as the lanthanides.There are few principal lanthanide deposits, and there are no minerals that are sources for cerium alone. Bastnasite and monazite are the two minerals that supply the world's cerium. Production of cerium derivatives begin with ore benefication and production of a mineral concentrate. Depending on the mineral market, there is either direct production of a cerium‐rich material or separation of the mixed lanthanide precursor into individual lanthanide compounds. Moderately pure cerium compounds can be made from rare‐earth chloride through oxidation. In bulk form, cerium is a reactive metal. In general lanthanides, including cerium, have a low toxicity rating. Uses include metallurgical applications, glass and ceramics, catalysts, emission control, phosphors, and electronics.
Polyamides
Authors: Weber Joseph N. 
Published: July 2011

AbstractPolyamides are high polymers that contain the amide repeat linkage in the polymer backbone. Some common terms used with polyamides are nylon, aramid, and polyphthalamide. Nylon is defined as any polyamide having less than 85% of the amide group directly connected to two aromatic groups. Aramid is a polyamide having 85% or more of the amide groups directly connected to two aromatic groups. Polyphthalamide is a polyamide in which the residues of terephthalic acid or a combination comprise at least 55 mol% of the dicarboxylic acid portion of two repeating units in the polymer chain. This article is a general overview of polyamides, with emphasis on technology developed since 1980. There is an extensive coverage of properties including chemical reactions. Manufacturing for most of the important polyamides is discussed. Commercial polyamides incorporate three classes of additives: endcappers; branching agents; and chain couplers. Because of economic advantages and governmental regulations, there has been a substantial increase in recycling of the starting materials for polyamides and energy, most often as steam.
Methylamines
Authors: Roose Peter , Turcotte Michael G. , Mitchell John W. 
Published: July 2011

AbstractMethylamines are derivatives of ammonia with one, two, or all three of the hydrogen atoms replaced by methyl groups. Methylamines are harmful, colorless gases or compressed liquids, highly flammable, and have very strong fishy or ammonia‐like odors. They are water soluble and are sold as either aqueous solutions or in pure form. Due to their high reactivity, the range of possible applications for methylamines is vast. Products manufactured from methylamines include solvents, crop protection agents, pharmaceuticals, surfactants, rubber chemicals, ion‐exchange resins, explosives, animal feed, building blocks for the paper industry, and water treatment materials.
Shape‐Memory Polymers
Authors: Behl Marc , Lendlein Andreas 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
Shape‐memory polymers (SMP) are an emerging class of active materials, which are able to change their shape in a predefined way upon appropriate stimulation. SMP, which can switch from a temporary to their permanent shape, are dual‐shape materials. Here fundamental aspects concerning the design of suitable polymer architectures as well as of tailored programming processes are presented. Furthermore, the influence of various physical parameters on the shape recovery is discussed. Shape‐memory research initially was focused on the thermally induced dual shape‐effect. Presently, this research field is rapidly developing in two major areas. On the one hand other stimuli are being realized by either indirect thermal actuation or direct actuation by addressing stimuli‐sensitive groups on the molecular level. On the other hand the programmed shape changes are getting more complex. Triple‐shape materials are able to perform two subsequent on‐demand shape changes and multishape materials are extending this to even more steps.
Trace and Residue Analysis
Authors: Ahuja Satinder 
Published: July 2011

AbstractIt is generally recognized that trace analysis implies those analyses that are carried out around 0.0001% or ppm level. Ultratrace analysis, ie, what is ordinarily beyond what is called trace analysis, can be then defined as analysis performed below ppm or μg/g level. Residue analysis relates to the analysis of residual materials left from an operation, eg, solvents left in pharmaceutical products or pesticides left in food. Analyses performed at or below ppm level are described. Sampling, sample preparation, sample cleanup, and sample validation are discussed. A number of methods are covered such as atomic absoprtion/emission spectrometry, neutron activation analysis, tlc, gc, hplc, hyphenated methods such as gc/ms and lc/ms, capillary electrophoresis, supercritical fluid chromatography, and immunoassays that allow analysis of both organic and inorganic samples. Applications areas include for example, the environment, explosives, food, pharmaceuticals, and biotechnology,
Opiate Analgesics
Authors: Lednicer Daniel 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
Opiate analgesics comprise a large group of organic compounds that act on the level of the the brain. The propensity for abuse and developing dependence on drugs has led to the search for analogues free of those perils. Compounds that act as central analgesivs range all the way from congeners with complex chemical strutures derived from morphine and thebain to relatively simple organic compounds. This article ilustrates the various classes of central as well as their biological activity.
Turbomachinery
Authors: Peng William 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
The pumping devices classified as turbomachines are discussed in this article. They are extensively used in the petrochemical process industry. The performance parameters and characteristics, including similarity laws, are discussed first. They are commonly employed for the analyses of turbomachines. Emphasis is placed on the application for chemical process plants. The guidelines for properly selecting liquid pumps, fans/blowers, and compressors, including some possible choice of construction materials, are then elaborated. The effects of different fluids characteristics on pump performance also are briefly covered.
Chain‐Reaction Polymerization
Authors: Odian George 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
Chain‐reaction polymerization is one of the two processes for converting monomer to polymer; the other is step‐reaction polymerization. Equivalent terms are either chain polymerization or chain‐growth polymerization for the former and step polymerization or step‐growth polymerization for the latter.
Chain polymerizations require an initiator, which produces an initiator species with a reactive center. The reactive center may be a free radical, cation, anion, or organometallic complex. Polymerization occurs by the propagation of the reactive center through successive additions of large numbers of monomer molecules in a chain reaction.
The utility of chain‐reaction polymerization resides in the wide range of polymer structures that can be obtained through proper choice of monomer and method of initiation, ie, radical, cationic, anionic, and coordination. Further variations in polymer structure are available through copolymerization and stereochemical control.
Belting
Authors: Silvey D. H. , Rugman George 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
A belt is defined as a continuous band of tough, flexible material used for transmitting power or conveying materials. Conveyor belts are tough, flexible, elastomer‐coated, reinforced belts used in mines, overland haulage, factories, processing plants, and warehouses, where they transport almost every type of solid material. Outdoor uses extend to hauling of minerals, earth, and agricultural products. Flat‐belt conveyors carry packages, manufactured goods, and bulk materials horizontally or on inclines. They are used in industrial plants, power plants, bottling plants, textile mills, food plants, post offices, department stores, mail‐order houses, and other establishments. A large portion of converyor belts currently in operation are found in the mining industry, both underground and aboveground.
Early conveyor belts were endless straps of thin leather or canvas that rolled over two pulleys in a wooden trough. Later, rollers replaced the trough and canvas and leather were replaced by rubber‐coated cotton fabrics. This combination is still in use.
Today, the original rubber coating includes a wide variety of elastomers, such as vulcanizable polymers, thermoplastics, and thermoelastomers. The fiber reinforcement encompasses steel cable and high modulus synthetic fibers. Belting materials should exhibit the following properties: wide service temperature range, conduction of static, and resistance to severe outdoor exposure, oil, flames, and chemicals and solvents. FDA clearance is required for food applications.
Osmometry
Authors: Adams E. T. 
Published: July 2011

AbstractOsmometry is the study of osmotic pressure, a colligative property that depends on the number of solute particles. For nonassociating solutes it provides the molecular weight if the sample is homogeneous or the number‐average molecular weight if the sample is heterogeneous. In addition, these measurements provide information about the nature of the solution, whether it is ideal or nonideal, and whether self‐association occurs. It is one of the older methods for studying polymer solutions.
Oxetane Polymers
Authors: Dreyfuss M. P. , Dreyfuss P. 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
Oxetane is a name commonly used for the unsubstituted cyclic ether with a four‐membered ring also known as trimethylene oxide, oxacyclobutane, and 1,3‐epoxypropane. The parent ether polymerizes readily as a result of ring strain associated with the small ring size. A variety of substituted oxetanes have been synthesized and many of them also polymerize readily. Monomer properties, polymerization techniques, and polymer properties are discussed.
Task‐Related Factors that Influence the Spontaneous Use of Diagrams in Math Word Problems
Authors: Uesaka Yuri , Manalo Emmanuel 
Published: July 2011

SummaryDiagrams are effective tools for problem solving. However, previous findings indicate that students generally do not use diagrams spontaneously. This study examined task‐related factors that may influence the spontaneity of diagram use. Experiment 1 compared two possible explanations: the first, that the length‐relatedness of the story context of the problem (i.e. whether it involves the measurement of length) determines the likelihood of diagram use; and the second, that the cognitive cost of transforming the situation described in the word problem to an abstract diagrammatic representation is the more important factor. Four math word problems, differing in their story context and structure, were administered to eighth‐grade Japanese students (n = 125) to solve. The results provide support for the cognitive transformation cost explanation. The results of experiment 2, in which the problems were administered to students in both Japan (n = 291) and New Zealand (n = 323), confirm this finding. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Research with Neutron and Synchrotron Radiation on Aerospace and Automotive Materials and Components
Authors: Kaysser Wolfgang , Esslinger Jörg , Abetz Volker , Huber Norbert , Kainer Karl Ulrich , Klassen Thomas , Pyczak Florian , Schreyer Andreas , Staron Peter 
Published: July 2011

AbstractCharacterization with neutrons and synchrotron radiation has yielded essential contributions to the research and development of automotive and aerospace materials, processing methods, and components. This review mainly emphasises developments related to commercial passenger airplanes and light‐duty cars. Improved and partly new materials for the reduction of airframe weight and joining by laser‐beam welding and friction stir welding are ongoing areas of assessment. Chemical reactions, microstructure development, and residual stresses are frequently measured. Polymers and polymer matrix composites often require special experimental techniques. The thrust‐to‐weight ratio of aero‐engines is increasing due to the improved design of components and the use of innovative materials. Investigations on superalloys, γ‐TiAl, and thermal barrier coatings are described in some detail. A discussion of the use of neutron and synchrotron diffraction in automotive applications covers the analysis of surface effects with respect to lubricants and wear, as well as the investigation of microstructure development, deformation, and fatigue behavior of materials, welds and components. Special steels, Al and Mg alloys are discussed and residual stresses in automotive components such as gears or crankshafts are described. Applications of characterization methods on membranes for polymeric membrane fuel cells and on nanocrystalline metal hydrides for hydrogen storage are shown. The degradation of railway tracks after long‐term use is taken as an example for the application of synchrotron methods to transport systems beyond the commercial aircraft and light duty passenger car.
Coupling Chemical Modification and Immobilization to Improve the Catalytic Performance of Enzymes
Authors: Rodrigues Rafael C. , Berenguer‐Murcia Ángel , Fernandez‐Lafuente Roberto 
Published: July 2011

AbstractChemical modification and immobilization of enzymes have been usually considered unrelated tools to improve biocatalyst features. However, there are many examples where a chemically modified enzyme is finally used in an immobilized form, and that exemplifies how both tools may be complementary resulting in a synergism in the final results. In this review we present some of the strategies that may give that result. For example, the chemical modification of soluble enzymes may be used to improve their immobilization (reinforcing adsorption or improving multipoint covalent attachment), or just to improve enzyme stability and facilitate the selection of the immobilization conditions. Chemical modification of previously immobilized enzymes benefits from solid‐phase chemistry due to the nature of enzymes (e.g., prevention of inactivation, aggregation, etc.). The use of different targets for chemical modifications with small molecules or multifunctional polymers are also discussed: intramolecular or intersubunit cross‐linking, one‐point modification, generation of artificial microenvironments, etc.
World Health Organization‐defined eosinophilic disorders: 2011 update on diagnosis, risk stratification, and management
Authors: Gotlib Jason 
Published: July 2011

AbstractDisease overview:The eosinophilias encompass a broad range of non‐hematologic (secondary or reactive) and hematologic (primary, clonal) disorders with potential for end‐organ damage.Diagnosis:Hypereosinophilia has generally been defined as a peripheral blood eosinophil count greater than 1,500/mm3 and may be associated with tissue damage. After exclusion of secondary causes of eosinophilia, diagnostic evaluation of primary eosinophilias relies on a combination of morphologic review of the blood and marrow, standard cytogenetics, fluorescent in situ‐hybridization, flow immunocytometry, and T‐cell clonality assessment to detect histopathologic or clonal evidence for an acute or chronic myeloid or lymphoproliferative disorder.Risk stratification:Disease prognosis relies on identifying the subtype of eosinophilia. After evaluation of secondary causes of eosinophilia, the 2008 World Health Organization establishes a semi‐molecular classification scheme of disease subtypes including myeloid and lymphoid neoplasms with eosinophilia and abnormalities of PDGFRA, PDGFRB, or FGFR1, chronic eosinophilic leukemia, not otherwise specified (CEL, NOS), lymphocyte‐variant hypereosinophilia, and idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES), which is a diagnosis of exclusion.Risk‐adapted therapy:The goal of therapy is to mitigate eosinophil‐mediated organ damage. For patients with milder forms of eosinophilia (e.g. < 1,500/mm3) without symptoms or signs of organ involvement, a watch and wait approach with close‐follow‐up may be undertaken. Identification of rearranged PDGFRA or PDGFRB is critical because of the exquisite responsiveness of these diseases to imatinib. Corticosteroids are first‐line therapy for patients with lymphocyte‐variant hypereosinophilia and HES. Hydroxyurea and interferon‐alpha have demonstrated efficacy as initial treatment and steroid‐refractory cases of HES. In addition to hydroxyurea, second line cytotoxic chemotherapy agents and hematopoietic cell transplant have been used for aggressive forms of HES and CEL with outcomes reported for limited numbers of patients. Although clinical trials have been performed with anti IL‐5 (mepolizumab) and anti‐CD52 (alemtuzumab) antibodies, their therapeutic niche in primary eosinophilic diseases and HES have yet to be established. Am. J. Hematol., 2011. © 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Stroke recurrence in children with sickle cell disease treated with hydroxyurea following first clinical stroke
Authors: Ali Susanna Bortolusso , MooSang Michelle , King Lesley , Knight‐Madden Jennifer , Reid Marvin 
Published: July 2011

AbstractChronic transfusion therapy is the treatment of choice for preventing stroke recurrence in children with sickle cell disease (SCD). The majority of children affected by this devastating complication live in the developing world where access to regular blood transfusions may be impractical. Since 2000, in the absence of regular blood supplies, all children at the Sickle Cell Unit who had experienced a first clinical stroke were offered hydroxyurea (HU) as the only intervention to prevent stroke recurrence. Forty‐four children were identified as having experienced a first clinical stroke between January 1, 2000 and September 30, 2009; one died at that presentation. Forty‐three children were therefore followed for 111 person‐years, of whom 10 (23.3%) agreed to start HU. Only one child in the HU group, incidence rate 2/100 person‐years, had clinical stroke recurrence, compared to 20/33 in the non‐HU group, incidence rate 29/100 person‐years (Hazard ratio (HR) 9.4 [95% Confidence interval (CI): 1.3–70.6];P= 0.03). When the groups were compared, in the non‐HU group, four died (vs. zero), 13 (53% vs. 10%) had moderate–severe physical disability (P= 0.017), and 12 (44% vs. 20%) required special education or were too disabled to attend school. Our data support the role of HU as a useful intervention for prevention of stroke recurrence in SCD when transfusion programs are not available or practical. Am. J. Hematol., 2011. © 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
How do we know if an exposure is actually teratogenic in humans?
Authors: Friedman J.M. 
Published: July 2011

AbstractThe only way we can be certain that an exposure is teratogenic in humans is to recognize that it causes birth defects in babies. The goal of clinical teratology research is, therefore, to identify when a teratogenic exposure has harmed babies as quickly and effectively as possible. We use several kinds of human data to characterize teratogenic effects—case reports, case series, pregnancy registries, cohort studies, case–control studies, and record linkage studies. Each approach can be helpful, but each has limitations as well. Drawing a causal inference requires analysis of all available data, their consistency, and their biological plausibility. © 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Influencing clinical practice regarding the use of antiepileptic medications during pregnancy: Modeling the potential impact on the prevalences of spina bifida and cleft palate in the United States
Authors: Gilboa Suzanne M. , Broussard Cheryl S. , Devine Owen J. , Duwe Kara N. , Flak Audrey L. , Boulet Sheree L. , Moore Cynthia A. , Werler Martha M. , Honein Margaret A. 
Published: July 2011

AbstractSelected antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) increase the risk of birth defects. To assess the impact of influencing AED prescribing practices on spina bifida and cleft palate we searched the literature for estimates of the association between valproic acid or carbamazepine use during pregnancy and these defects and summarized the associations using meta‐analyses. We estimated distributions of the prevalence of valproic acid and carbamazepine use among women of childbearing age based on analyses of four data sets. We estimated the attributable fractions and the number of children born with each defect that could be prevented annually in the United States if valproic acid and carbamazepine were not used during pregnancy. The summary odds ratio estimate for the association between valproic acid and spina bifida was 11.9 (95% uncertainty interval (UI): 4.0–21.2); for valproic acid and cleft palate 5.8 (95% UI: 3.3–9.5); for carbamazepine and spina bifida 3.6 (95% UI: 1.3–7.8); and for carbamazepine and cleft palate 2.4 (95% UI: 1.1–4.5) in the United States. Approximately 40 infants (95% UI: 10–100) with spina bifida and 35 infants (95% UI: 10–70) with cleft palate could be born without these defects each year if valproic acid were not used during pregnancy; 5 infants (95% UI: 0–15) with spina bifida and 5 infants (95% UI: 0–15) with cleft palate could be born without these defects each year if carbamazepine were not used during pregnancy. This modeling approach could be extended to other medications to estimate the impact of translating pharmacoepidemiologic data to evidence‐based prenatal care practice. Published 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Genetic basis of susceptibility to teratogen induced birth defects
Authors: Wlodarczyk Bogdan J. , Palacios Ana M. , Chapa Claudia J. , Zhu Huiping , George Timothy M. , Finnell Richard H. 
Published: July 2011

AbstractBirth defects remain the leading cause of infant death in US. The field of teratology has been focused on the causes and underlying mechanisms of birth defects for decades, yet our understanding of these critical issues remain unacceptably vague. Conclusions from years of animal and human studies made it clear that the vast majority of birth defects have multifactorial origins, with contributions from environmental and genetic factors. The environment comprises not only of the physical, biological, and chemical external environment surrounding the pregnant woman, but it also includes the internal environment of the woman's body that interact with the developing embryo in a complex fashion. The importance of maternal and embryonic genetic factors consisting of countless genetic variants/mutations that exist within every individual contribute to birth defect susceptibility is only now being more fully appreciated. This great complexity of the genome and its diversity within individuals and populations seems to be the principal reason why the same teratogenic exposure can induce severe malformation in one embryo, while fail to do so to other exposed embryos. As the interaction between genetic and environmental factors has long been recognized as the first “Principle of Teratology” by Wilson and Warkany [1965. Teratology: Principles and techniques. Chicago: University of Chicago Press], it is only recently that the appropriate investigative tools have been developed with which to fully investigate this fundamental principle. The introduction of high throughput technologies like whole genome sequencing or genome‐wide association studies are promising to deliver an enormous amount of new data that will shed light on the genomic factors that contribute susceptibility to environmental teratogens. In this review, we attempt to summarize the epidemiological and experimental literature concerning birth defects whose phenotypic expression can be clearly related to the interactions between several select environmental factors and those genetic pathways in which they are most likely to have significant modifying effects. © 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.