bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Party Structures and Strategies
Authors: Howell David 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The roots of the Labour Party lay not in its parliamentary organization, but in its extra-parliamentary institutions and affiliated bodies. Some basic party structures went back to the formation of the Labour Representation Committee in 1900. The foundation conference formulated the principle of affiliated bodies, their deliberations through a system of delegates in an annual conference, and a national executive whose structure would incorporate the range of affiliations. This party world was revised significantly by the constitution of 1918. Its procedures were subsequently affected by the electoral advances of the twenties, and the unexpected arrival in office. There developed patterns of authority, deference, and criticism; party institutions embodied a set of expectations within which a repertoire of tactical maneuvres became established.
The Miners: Institutions and Styles
Authors: Howell David 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The coal industry's problems cast a sombre shadow over Labour Party politics in Britain throughout the 1920s. The continuing crisis was expressed through the lengthy and ultimately vain resistance of miners in the national disputes of 1921 and 1926. Defeats were the precursors to wage reductions, a longer working day, closures, job losses, short-time working — and a corrosive loss of optimism in many mining communities. The Miners' Federation of Great Britain (MFGB) hoped that a Labour Government would provide a more constructive approach to the industry than the typically ‘hands off’ stance, flavoured with pro-owner sentiments, that characterized Government policy after hasty decontrol in the spring of 1921. Thereafter, the wartime and immediate post-war experience of state involvement in the industry served the MFGB as a benchmark for a desirable policy. This chapter also looks at the controversial appointment of Frank Hodges in April 1925 as Secretary of the Miners' International Federation.
Coal Crises and Labour Governments
Authors: Howell David 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The leaders of the Miners' Federation of Great Britain responded positively to the record of the 1924 Labour Government in their public statements. The administration's minority status could provide a credible explanation for any shortcomings, and the Government's brief period in office was contemporaneous with a temporary improvement in miners' wages. Nevertheless, there were private concerns about the character of the relationship between the Federation and the Government which highlighted broader issues about the appropriate status of trade union priorities within the agenda of a Labour Party administration. The Minister for Mines, Emmanuel Shinwell, was a strong supporter of Ramsay MacDonald, and an acerbic critic of what he regarded as Left-Utopianism. In contrast, two Scottish Miners' Members, Duncan Graham and James Welsh, saw Shinwell's selection as an affront to miners' reasonable expectations. This chapter examines the crises that affected the coal industry in Britain and the politics underlying the Labour Government's response.
Bevin’s Union: Loyalism and Iconoclasm
Authors: Howell David 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
As the Labour Party's political and industrial leaderships moved rapidly to define and to consolidate their position after the August 1931 collapse of the Labour Government led by Ramsay MacDonald, achievement of these objectives was hindered by accumulating tensions between Labour politicians and trade union leaders. Walter Citrine, the Trades Union Congress (TUC) General Secretary, had been central to the bargaining over delicate issues between the Labour Government and the TUC. Increasingly, he had become dismayed about what he saw as Government insensitivity towards legitimate concerns of trade unions. Trade union priorities were central to the post-MacDonald Labour Party and they were expressed most forcibly by Ernest Bevin, the General Secretary of the Transport and General Workers' Union. This chapter looks at Bevin's approach to politics, loyalism, and iconoclasm as a union leader towards the Labour Party.
Conflict and Negotiation
Authors: Howell David 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The first week of the first Labour Government, led by Ramsay MacDonald, saw a national strike by members of the Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen (ASLEF). Most of their footplate colleagues in the National Union of Railwaymen (NUR) did not stop work, a division that produced considerable inter-union acrimony. The senior official of each union had experience in British politics: John Bromley of ASLEF and Jimmy Thomas of NUR. A shared political partisanship did not soften inter-union rivalries, and Bromley's commitment to the Labour Party did not reduce his readiness to protect his members' wage standards in the context of a Labour Government. The 1924 labour disputes occurred in a relatively buoyant economic context, but from 1929 deepening economic depression made industrial action a statement of despair as much as a bargaining tactic. From 1925 to 1930, the Labour leadership was given a backing by the trade unions that was remarkable in both breadth and depth.
Socialism in Our Time
Authors: Howell David 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In April 1926, James Maxton became chairman of the Independent Labour Party (ILP). More than anyone, he would symbolize the party's radicalization. He also evoked affection from many outside and inside the ILP who nevertheless queried his political judgements. Maxton became chairman just as the first fruits of Clifford Allen's drive for a new party were appearing. Six commissions had been appointed to devise new policies, the most important of which acquired its formal authorization at the Gloucester Conference of 1925. Its remit was to develop a programme for the abolition of poverty within the broader context of an advance towards socialism. The commission's membership was impressive, led by J. A. Hobson as chairman and H. N. Brailsford as secretary. This commission epitomized the blend of progressive liberalism and ILP ethical socialism that characterized Allen's hopes for the Left. This chapter looks at the ILP's socialist agenda, economic policy, and politics with regards to its relationship with the Labour Party.
Clarifications
Authors: Howell David 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Will Lawther, active in the Durham Miners' Association (DMA) since 1907, was a leading and gaoled member of Red Chopwell's Council of Action during the General Strike. Within the DMA in the 1920s, he was associated with the Left; appropriately and controversially the Chopwell Lodge banner was decorated with images of Keir Hardie, Karl Marx, and Nikolai Lenin. As a Left activist, Lawther had political ambitions, and in 1929 he was elected Labour Member for Barnard Castle. Two years later, he addressed a May Day rally in the Durham coalfield. Oswald Mosley's New Party was two months old; the collapse of the second Labour Government was less than four months away. Lawther's speech remembered the 1926 stoppage selectively and developed a contrast that would become central to the Labour Party's political identity.
Contests and Contingencies
Authors: Howell David 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In the Trades Union Congress (TUC) meeting in September 1931, the mood was set by Arthur Hayday in his Presidential address. Hayday, an experienced Labour backbencher, drew the moral of the crisis; ‘courageous and determined action by the national bodies invested with authority in the labour and trade union movement has saved the working class from destruction’. This rhetoric was followed by the calm of Walter Citrine, lucidly chronicling the trade union involvement in the August events. Ramsay MacDonald and Philip Snowden were presented as having capitulated to a deflationary policy resisted by the TUC since the restoration of the Gold Standard. Later in the week delegates debated a report on the financial crisis. The debate was brief; the vote was unanimous. A more emotional passage in the proceedings came with the speech by the Labour Party's fraternal delegate, Arthur Henderson.
Britain, Switzerland, and the Second World War
Authors: Wylie Neville 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This is the first comprehensive study of British policy towards Switzerland during the Second World War. Switzerland occupied an ambiguous place in British belligerency. While epitomizing the kind of political values Britain claimed to uphold in declaring war against Nazi Germany in 1939, its inexorable drift into the Axis orbit after mid-1940 inevitably prevented British officials from isolating Anglo-Swiss relations from Britain's broader diplomatic and strategic objectives. The book situates British policy towards Switzerland within the history of the British blockade and financial warfare campaign, the Holocaust, Anglo-American relations, and the Allied strategic bombing offensive. It argues that Britain was more successful in benefiting from Swiss neutrality than has hitherto been assumed, especially in the acquisition of manufactured goods, secret intelligence and humanitarian services. London retained a stake in the maintenance of Swiss neutrality long after the severance of direct communications in June 1940. At base, however, British policy was shaped by a set of entrenched beliefs about Switzerland and Swiss neutrality that proved resistant to change, despite the growing evidence of Swiss-German economic and financial collaboration. British policy towards Switzerland rested on a view of Swiss neutrality that was forged as much from the preconceptions of British officials as from a dispassionate reading of Switzerland's place in the war.
A Fresh Look at Early Castles
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
To speak of ‘fortresses and society’ is, indeed, a truism. As soon as wealth for survival was accumulated, notably harvested grain and domesticated animals, demarcation and defence were required. For appreciating how natural fortresses were to normal ancient and medieval societies (and how various) a long perspective is essential. This chapter offers a revised perspective on castles during the medieval period by looking at the aesthetic, artistic, symbolic, and demonstrative elements in the design of fortresses rather than their presumed purpose as forms of local defence. It discusses fortresses in transition in medieval England and France; the response of the Carolingian Empire to the impact of internal disintegration and external attacks by the Norsemen penetrating far up the fine navigable river systems (particularly the Somme, Seine, and Loire); and the emergence of fortresses as a form of social reconstruction.
Variety Violated: Some Conceptual Problems
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Until the conflict between the diffuse reality and the narrow perception is resolved, the centrality of castles (in all their manifestations) to society as a whole will remain obscured. The ‘military’ straitjacket falsifies them. Viewing them as adjuncts to the chivalric lifestyle is better, but still insufficient. Without question, the castellated and fortified style of building was aristocratic, and undoubtedly it spread early and fully as widely as the noble ethos itself. Nearly all the forms, from the Gallo-Roman cathedral city of the 5th century to the gun-forts, built to the order of Henry VIII at the end of his reign (1538-1547) along the south and south-east coast of England, were known to contemporaries as castra or castella. This chapter addresses the problems of nomenclature related to castles and fortresses in England and France during the medieval period.
Some Social Relations of ‘Castles and Fortresses’
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
It is because a far broader and looser sense of the castle operated in the medieval sphere, whether the period be early, middle, or late, that the social interactions of fortresses were so diffuse and pervasive. These elusive connotations, corrections, and resonances are explored in the present chapter. Although as a tool of analysis, even as a hypothesis, the modern construct of the castle carries with it too many false associations to continue to be useful, its dominance of the modern popular mind is not likely to change. Taking their tone from ecclesiastical denunciations of castles used against the Church, historians have supposed that the dukes of Normandy, and the kings of England, restrictively licensed castle-building on a systematic basis. The sometimes obsessive preoccupation of England and north-west France with earthworks as castles par excellence is not due to a different original ‘military’ culture, but to historical accident.
Noble Military ‘Liberties’, Ethos and Ethics
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
That fortresses were a basic ingredient of the medieval period, rather than an instrument of civil war waged by an anti-social minority, appears more fully by considering the medieval ‘arms ban’. Militant architecture and weaponry of all kinds have much in common as icons of rank and power. But whereas fortifying itself was rarely an act of force and did not ordinarily endanger the peace or jeopardize the public interest, the unrestrained use of weapons might well do both. New castles were peacefully sanctioned by local seignorial authority, with or without royal involvement in France, most often with it in England but preventing the associated noble liberty of arms-bearing from wreaking the havoc occasionally caused by large-scale state-sponsored violence called for constant vigilance. For good and for ill, castles were an integral feature of the noble and larger society which produced them, participating as much in its economic and cultural life as, albeit marginally overall, in its military activities.
Castle-Lords, Castle-Lordships, and Noble Civilization
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Because the lords of castles were public figures involved in local and even ‘national’ government during the medieval period, none of them can be regarded as what today would be a ‘private citizen’. This chapter discusses the more personal aspects of noble architectural ambition in medieval England and France so as to show more of the practical implications and individual vicissitudes, and examines how closely jurisdictional powers were associated with castle-status. It also presents a range of case-studies involving relationships between greater lords in which fortresses were crucial. Some 13th- and 14th-century examples are presented showing that in England, the social, tenurial, and economic eminence of the castle conferred power, but also imposed responsibilities. The chapter also explores castellation and jurisdiction as insignia of nobility.
Colonization and Fortresses
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
What ensured the continual relationship of castles to colonization was not so much the resistance it sometimes had to contend with, but rather the stamp of new lordship that fortresses set upon the whole transformation. In the British Isles, next to Wales, the largest-scale working out of such changes, apart from the Norman Conquest itself, occurred in Ireland from the late 12th century. This chapter provides some comparative illustrations, chiefly drawn from French records. Because castles with dependent townships are so common, entire fortress-town complexes being called the castle, or the walled-town itself having the title castrum or castellum, the plantation of new towns is an essential part of the picture and is accordingly dealt with in the present chapter. The term bastide, although naturalized to some extent in English, characterizes town-colonization in south-western France so effectively that it has been retained as a French borrowing from the late Latin bastida or building.
Epilogue
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book has focused on the human and social aspects of castle-building in England, France, and Ireland during the medieval period, to reconcile the civilized with the violent aspects of medieval society, as they are perceived today. Writing about the glories of late-medieval architecture, Wim Swaan saw the problem as summed up by Johan Huizinga's remark that medieval life ‘bore the mixed smell of blood and roses’. Perhaps the main contribution to knowledge to be made by studying castles and fortresses in proper breadth is to shed some light on the aspirations and adversities of noblemen and ladies, ecclesiastics, townspeople, and of the great rural majority, and on their civilized achievements, institutional as well as architectural, in the western European middle ages.
5 The Pre-Reform Community
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
A look at Gorze's lay patrons has revealed a religious community surrounded by a host of nobles and landowners who came to the abbey to make donations, seek grants, and perhaps be feted by their relations within the community on the great feast days. The habit of granting out lands for limited periods was always pregnant with inherent dangers. Yet the fact that families as powerful as the Bosonids made successive donations to retain Gorze's estates suggests that these estates were not easily transformed into the hereditary possessions of such families. Indeed in some cases, the opposite process occurs wherein hereditary possessions were gradually transformed into lands held as precariae from the monastery. Gorze's charters attest both to the replacement of regular abbots by priors acting under the orders of lay abbots or the bishops of Metz, and to the apportionment of incomes between abbot or overlord and the monks.
11 A New Foundation and its Donors: Bouxières-aux-Dames
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Bishop Gauzelin of Toul founded a community of nuns at Bouxiêres-aux-Dames in the early 930s to resound to his own future well-being. Bouxiêres's actual possession lists reveal that episcopal donations were swamped by those of nobles, most notably donations made for daughters and donations made by widows; here, as elsewhere, monastic patronage was driven by the desire and ability of widows to gain a greater degree of security in their otherwise precarious existence. This evidence is worth looking at in considerable detail since it provides the key to Bouxiêres's prosperity, revealing why such a nunnery was patronised and how this patronage gave it close links with a network of important and interrelated families whose interests ranged far beyond those of both the nunnery and its lords, the bishops of Toul. The existence of these rival patrons may well explain why the bishops of Toul continued to be so generous to the abbey.
Introduction
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Saint-Maximin was on a grander scale than Gorze or the episcopal foundations of Toul. However, the destruction of the abbey and its archives by the Norse in 882 and the complex web of Merovingian and Carolingian traditions which the later community elaborated to redress this loss have made its early history far from clear. The abbey does not stand out as a powerhouse of the Carolingian religious and cultural renaissance, but this may simply be due to the loss of manuscripts and treasures in 882. What is not in doubt is the huge scale of Saint-Maximin's early endowment. The abbey's most important estates were of a size which points to their acquisition in the Merovingian and early Carolingian periods. Certainly, by the period of this study, the abbey's importance in the landscape of power is well-attested.
15 The Private Charters
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Saint-Maximin's private charters from before the monastic reform of 934 offer a glimpse into the religious community's internal life, its sense of identity, and its relations with lay patrons. As a group they indicate that Saint-Maximin, like Prum, Stavelot-Malmédy, and Gorze, had a flourishing scriptorium which was served by specialists who produced charters according to long-established patterns. Distinct formulae can be established for the abbey's charters of donation, precaria, and exchange. Not only do the charters pre-dating 934 follow set patterns and employ similar phrases, but several of those from the decades after 934 are directly based on them. All charters of the 920s are drawn up by a single individual, Ogo, who is styled cancellarius in the 923 charter and can be identified with Saint-Maximin's first reform abbot. As with the royal diplomata, the use of traditional formulae did not impose rigid descriptions which could not be altered to reflect new situations.
17 Expansion, Endowment, and Restitution
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Any attempt to account for Saint-Maximin's prominence as a centre of monastic reform expertise in early medieval Lotharingia must look at the abbey's material prosperity as well as its religious practices. Prosperity might be furthered by the reputation of a community's saints and prayers, but equally contemporaries were inclined to see the size of an abbey's buildings and community as evidence of its spirituality. It was Ogo's achievement in reconstructing the abbey and increasing the size of its community which merited entry alongside his obit in Saint-Maximin's necrology. In terms of buildings and membership, Saint-Maximin's reform did not cause a rupture with the past so much as herald a new era of expansion. For all the elements of continuity in the membership of Saint-Maximin's community, it seems clear that the number of monks increased under Ogo. The expansion in buildings and numbers was neither funded by a new endowment nor the result of a far-reaching restitution associated with the reform.
Epilogue
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The narratives of the later monastic reform in early medieval Lotharingia might look back on the activities of their predecessors as worthless and contemptible but, in the absence of a better alternative, the latter had continued to be esteemed. It is for such reasons that this book has looked beyond spiritual and religious roles to consider the wider ways in which monasteries and their landholdings were an inescapable part of aristocratic life, intimately enmeshed in a noble family's inheritance strategies, its prestige, and its very notion of being. To appreciate the vitality and importance of monasteries in the 9th and 10th centuries, it is necessary to focus on land transactions as well as religious roles. Monasteries depended on patrons, but it is also true that patrons depended on the monasteries for the preservation of their chosen heirs' power and inheritance in the face of the claims of rival kin. Here the monasteries were as much patrons as patronised.
Development and Reform in the Irish Church, 1618–1645
Authors: hAnnrachÁin Tadhg Ó 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
An understanding of the development of the Catholic Church in Ireland in the decades prior to GianBattista Rinuccini's nunciature is integral to an understanding of his mission. Despite the revolutionary changes of the 1640s which made it possible, the creation of the Irish nunciature was firmly rooted in previous Roman policy. In certain ways indeed, the provision of a nuncio to Ireland in 1645 was merely the elaboration of the consciously tridentine policy of strengthening the Irish hierarchy which had been applied to the island over the previous thirty years. The aftermath of the Council of Trent saw the emergence of the pastoral bishop as the key figure in the implementation of religious reform in most of Catholic Europe. The major exception to this rule were Catholic communities like those of England, Holland, or Transylvania which were subject to the jurisdiction of a Protestant state.