bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, raster image correlation spectroscopy, and number and brightness on a commercial confocal laser scanning microscope with analog detectors (Nikon C1)
Authors: Moens Pierre D.J. , Gratton Enrico , Salvemini Iyrri L. 
Published: August 2010

AbstractFluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) was developed in 1972 by Magde, Elson and Webb. Photon counting detectors and avalanche photodiodes have become standards in FCS to the point that there is a widespread belief that these detectors are essential to perform FCS experiments, despite the fact that FCS was developed using analog detectors. Spatial and temporal intensity fluctuation correlations using analog detection on a commercial Olympus Fluoview 300 microscope have been reported by Brown et al. (2008). However, each analog instrument has its own idiosyncrasies that need to be understood before using the instrument for FCS. In this work, we explore the capabilities of the Nikon C1, a low‐cost confocal microscope, to obtain single point FCS, Raster‐scan image correlation spectroscopy (RICS), and Number and Brightness data both in solution and incorporated into the membrane of giant unilamellar vesicles. We show that it is possible to obtain dynamic information about fluorescent molecules from single point FCS, RICS, and Number and Brightness using the Nikon C1. We highlighted the fact that care should be taken in selecting the acquisition parameters to avoid possible artifacts due to the detector noise. However, due to relatively large errors in determining the distribution of digital levels for a given microscope setting, the system is probably only adequate for determining relative brightness within the same image. Microsc. Res. Tech., 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
A facile solvent‐free synthesis of 1‐alkyl/aralkyl‐2‐(1‐arylsulfonyl alkyl) benzimidazoles using “TBAB” as surface catalyst
Authors: Dubey P. K. , Prasada Reddy P.V.V. , Srinivas K. 
Published: August 2010

Abstractmagnified imageReaction 2‐(α‐chloroalkyl)benzimidazoles1with aryl sulphinate sodium salt2under solvent‐free conditions in the presence of tetrabutylammonium bromide as surface catalyst, by simple physical grinding using mortar and pestle, gives 1H‐2‐(α‐arylsulfonylalkyl)benzimidazoles3. The latter on treatment with alkylating agents under solvent‐free conditions results in 1‐alkyl/aralkyl‐2‐(α‐arylsulfonylalkyl)benzimidazoles4. Alternatively,4can also be prepared directly from 1‐alkyl/aralkyl‐2‐(α‐chloroalkyl)benzimidazoles5by reaction with2, which in turn could be prepared by reaction of1with alkylating agents under solvent‐free conditions and all these reactions are free from organic solvents including experimental procedures. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
An efficient protocol for multicomponent synthesis of spirooxindoles employing L‐proline as catalyst at room temperature
Authors: Raghuvanshi Dushyant Singh , Singh Krishna Nand 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image An efficient three‐component one‐pot synthesis of medicinally important spirooxindoles is described by the reaction of isatin, malononitrile/ethyl cyanoacetate, and dimedone/barbituric acid using L‐proline as catalyst in ethanol at room temperature. This approach is convenient, mild, and affords the products in high yields without the use of chromatography. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
Synthesis, characterization, and biological activities of novel (Z)‐3‐((E)‐1‐(alkyloxyimino)ethyl)‐5‐arylidene‐4‐hydroxypyrroline‐2‐one derivatives
Authors: Zhu Zhao‐Yong , Wang Xian‐Feng , Meng Fan‐Gui , Li Qing‐Bin , Zheng Xiao‐Qian , Qiang Sheng , Yang Chun‐Long 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image Twenty‐four novel tetramic acid derivatives (Z)‐3‐((E)‐1‐(alkyloxyimino)ethyl)‐5‐arylidene‐4‐hydroxypyrroline‐2‐ones 6a, 6b, 6c, 6d, 6e, 6f, 6g, 6h, 6i, 6j, 6k, 6l, 6m, 6n, 6o, 6p, 6q, 6r, 6s, 6t, 6u, 6v, 6w, 6x were synthesized by the reaction of (Z)‐3‐acetyl‐5‐arylidene‐4‐hydroxypyrroline‐2‐ones 4 with O‐alkyl hydroxylamines 5 under reflux conditions in good yields (77.2–92.4%). Their structures were confirmed by IR, 1H‐NMR, MS, and elemental analysis. The preliminary bioassays showed that most of the title compounds exhibited noticeable fungicidal activities against Colletotrichumorbiculare and a certain degree of fungicidal activities against Fusarium gramineaum and Rhizoctonia cerealis at a concentration of 100 μg/mL. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
Oxidation of substituted imidazolidin‐4‐ones: New alternative method preparation of 4,5‐dihydro‐1H‐imidazol‐5‐ones
Authors: Panov Illia , Drabina Pavel , Padělková Zdeňka , Hanusek Jiří , Sedlák Miloš 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image The reaction of aldehydes (pentanal, benzaldehyde, 4‐methoxybenzaldehyde, 4‐nitrobenzaldehyde, salicylaldehyde, pyridin‐2‐carbaldehyde) with 1‐aminocyclopentancarboxamide or (S)‐2‐amino‐2,3‐dimethylbutanamide has been used to prepare substituted imidazolidin‐4‐ones 1a, 1b, 1c, 1d, 1e, 1f, 1g (a: R1 = CH3(CH2)3; b: R1 = C6H5; c: R1 = 4‐CH3OC6H4; d: R1 = 4‐NO2C6H4; e: R1 = 2‐HOC6H4; f: R1 = 2‐pyridyl; for R2 = R3 = (CH2)4), and g: R1 = 2‐pyridyl; for R2 = CH3; R3 = CH(CH3)2) in the yields of 53–83%. Subsequent oxidations with various reagents gave the corresponding 4,5‐dihydro‐1H‐imidazol‐5‐ones 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d, 2e, 2f, 2g: Pd/C (72–93%), DDQ (25–80%), and MnO2 (30–77%). Structure of the prepared compounds 1a, 1b, 1c, 1d, 1e, 1f, 1g and 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d, 2e, 2f, 2g was verified by 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectroscopy, EI‐MS and elemental analysis. X‐ray diffraction was performed in the case of compounds 1e and 2e. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
Toward a novel approach to bis‐β‐lactam synthesis using Vilsmeier reagent as an efficient entity via Staudinger cycloaddition reaction
Authors: Meshram Jyotsna , Ali Parvez , Tiwari Vandana 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image A facile synthesis of bis‐β‐lactams has been executed using chloromethylenedimethylammonium chloride (Vilsmeier reagent), prepared easily from N,N‐dimethylformamide and phosphorus oxychloride. It works out as a versatile acid activator reagent for the direct [2 + 2] ketene–imine cycloaddition of substituted acetic acid and bis‐imines in one‐pot synthesis under mild conditions. Thus, this method has been proved as a high yielding, efficient, and cheap protocol for bis‐β‐lactam synthesis. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
Synthesis and antiviral activities of some heteroaryl‐substituted triarylmethanes
Authors: Mibu Nobuko , Yokomizo Kazumi , Miyata Takeshi , Sumoto Kunihiro 
Published: August 2010

Abstractmagnified imageSome molecular modifications were attempted to find antiviral active compounds in the class of triarylmethanes against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV‐1). All the synthesized compounds were evaluated for antiviral activity with HSV‐1 by a plaque reduction assay. Some of the compounds showed significant antiviral activities. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
A simple and efficient synthesis of some novel thiazolidine‐4‐one derivatives
Authors: Porshamsian Khalil , Montazeri Naser , Rad‐Moghadam Kurosh , Ali‐Asgari Safa 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image Reaction of 4‐phenylthiosemicarbazide with dialkyl acetylenedicarboxylate in CH2Cl2 at 0°C lead to construction of alkyl 3‐amino‐2‐phenyliminothiazolidine‐4‐one‐5‐ylidene acetate in a few minutes and good yields. Alternatively, the use of thiosemicarbazide has given the corresponding 3‐amino‐2‐iminothiazolidine‐4‐one‐5‐ylidene acetate, while application of di‐t‐butylacetylenedicarboxylate in these reactions has not entailed with cyclization. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
An efficient synthesis and biological testing of novel 3‐chloro‐4‐aryl‐1‐(4‐(phenyldiazenyl)phenyl)azetidin‐2‐ones
Authors: Chopde Himani N. , Pagadala Ramakanth , Meshram Jyotsna S. , Jetti Venkateshwarlu 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified imageN‐Benzylidene‐4‐(phenyldiazenyl)aniline (Ia, Ib, Ic, Id, Ie, If, Ig, Ih, Ii, Ij) has been prepared from p‐aminoazobenzene with different aromatic aldehydes under microwave irradiation, which on further treatment with chloro acetic acid and POCl3 in the presence of triethyl amine gave the title compounds. The structure of the compounds has been confirmed by spectroscopic techniques (IR and 1H NMR) and elemental analysis. These azetidinones analogues were screened for their antimicrobial activities against strains of different microorganisms. Some of the compounds displayed the promising antibacterial activities against some bacterial strains. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
Synthesis of benzopyran[2,3‐b]quinolinone derivatives
Authors: Han Guangfan , Cui Bin , Chen Lizhuang , Jin Yan 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image A series of novel 11‐amino‐3,3‐dimethyl‐8‐substituted‐12‐aryl‐3,4,7,8,9,12‐hexahydro‐2H‐benzopyran[2,3‐b]quinoline‐1,10‐dione derivatives 4 were synthesized by 2‐amino‐3‐cyano‐4‐aryl‐5,6,7,8‐tetrahydro‐7,7‐dimethyl‐5‐oxo‐4H‐benzopyran 2 with 5‐substituted‐1,3‐cyclohexanedione using p‐toluenesulfonic acid, K2CO3, and Cu2Cl2 as catalysts. The compounds 2 as easily accessible precursors were obtained from 5,5‐dimethyl‐1,3‐cyclohexanedione by Michael addition with β‐dicyanostyrenes 1, prepared by Knoevenagel condensation of different aromatic aldehydes and malononitrile. The synthesis of the title compounds 4 completed by one‐pot reaction of 4‐aryl‐4H‐benzopyran derivatives with 5‐substituted‐1,3‐cyclohexanediones by refluxing in toluene using TsOH as catalyst. The structures of all compounds were characterized by elemental analysis, IR, MS, and 1H NMR spectra. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
A facile and efficient synthesis of bis(oxazoline)s
Authors: Li Wei Jie , Qiu Sheng Xiang 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image Thiophene‐2,5‐dicarboxylic acid, benzene‐1,3‐dicarboxylic acid, or furan‐2,5‐di‐carboxylic acid, respectively, reacted with various β‐amino alcohols in toluene under reflux within 24 h, to form nine bis(oxazoline)s (1, 1a, 1b, 1c, 1d, 1e, 2, 2a, 2b, 2c, 3) in good yields through water deprivation via a one‐pot reaction. The synthetic method is facile and efficient and deserves great application potentials in the research and development in the area of bis(oxazoline)s. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
Reaction of pyrano[3,4‐b]indolones with aliphatic amines and N,N‐dimethylhydrazine
Authors: Livadiotou Despina , Hatzimimikou Dimitra , Tsoleridis Constantinos A. , Stephanidou‐Stephanatou Julia 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image The synthesis of a number of indolylacetamides and indolylacetohydrazides in very good yields from the reaction of pyranoindolones with aliphatic amines and N,N‐dimethylhydrazine, respectively, is described. The reactivity difference with aromatic amines but also with methylhydrazine and aromatic hydrazines is discussed. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
Syntheses of potentially bioactive [1,2,4]oxadiazolo[5,4‐d]benzothiazepines by 1,3‐dipolar cycloaddition
Authors: Wu Xiao‐Long , Liu Fang‐Ming , Shen Song‐Wei 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image The chalcones, 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d, 2e, 2f, 2g, 2h, 2i, 2j, 2k, 2l reacted with o‐aminobenzenthiol to give a series of 1,5‐benzothiazepines, 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d, 3e, 3f, 3g, 3h, 3i, 3j, 3k, 3l. The [3+2] 1, 3‐dipolar cycloaddition reactions of 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d, 3e, 3f, 3g, 3h, 3i, 3j, 3k, 3l with ethyl chlorooximidoacetate in the presence of Et3N afforded the target compounds, 4a, 4b, 4c, 4d, 4e, 4f, 4g, 4h, 4i, 4j, 4l possessing an additional 1,2,4‐oxadiazole ring fused to the heptaatomic nucleus. The structures have been elucidated by spectral methods and X‐ray crystallographic analysis. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
Synthesis of 2‐(N‐benzylpyrrolyl)‐benzimidazoles using polyphosphoric acid prompted cyclocondensation
Authors: Mochona Bereket , Le Laine , Gangapuram Madhavi , Mateeva Nelly , Ardley Tiffany , Redda Kinfe K. 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image Synthesis of a series of 2‐substituted benzimidazoles was carried out for screening anti‐inflammatory activities. 2‐(N‐benzylpyrrolyl)‐benzimidazoles 9a, 9b, 9c, 9d, 9e, 9f, 9g, 9h, 9i, 9j, 9k were synthesized from N‐benzyl‐2‐pyrrole carboxylic acids 8a, 8b, 8c, 8d and 4‐substituted‐1,2‐phenylenediamines by cyclocondensation utilizing polyphosphoric acid (PPA) as condensing agent. The N‐benzyl‐2‐pyrrole carboxylic acids were prepared by standard method of N‐benzylation of 2‐pyrrole carboxylate using NaH/DMF and appropriately substituted benzyl halides followed by alkaline hydrolysis. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
Synthesis of some new pyrazole and pyrazolopyrimidine derivatives
Authors: Ghozlan Said A. S. , Abdelrazek Fathy M. , Mohamed Mona H. , Azmy Khaled E. 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image A series of pyrazolo [3,4‐d] pyrimidine, pyrazolo [1,5‐a] pyrimidine, and pyrazolyl triazoles have been prepared via reaction of ethyl 5‐amino‐3‐phenylpyrazole‐4‐carboxylate with isothiocyanic esters, α,β‐unsaturated nitriles, and some active methylene reagents. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
Chemoselective synthesis of quinoline N‐oxides from 3‐(2‐nitrophenyl)‐3‐hydroxypropanones
Authors: Okuma Kentaro , Seto Jun‐ichi , Nagahora Noriyoshi , Shioji Kosei 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image The reaction of 3‐(2‐nitrophenyl)‐3‐hydroxypropanones with Zn/NH4Cl gave the corresponding quinoline N‐oxides in 80–90% yields. The reaction initiated the reduction of nitro group to afford the corresponding hydroxylamine, which intramolecularly condensed and followed by dehydration to give quinoline N‐oxide. Although treatment of 2‐nitrochalcone with Zn/NH4Cl in EtOH/H2O resulted in the formation of quinoline N‐oxide in low yield, the reaction of 2‐nitrochalcone with Sn/NH4Cl in refluxing EtOH/H2O afforded quinoline N‐oxide in 80% yield. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
Phenylselenoetherification of some Δ4‐alkenols facilitated by pyridine and some Lewis acids
Authors: Šmit Biljana M. , Bugarčić Zorica M. 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image Studies on the phenylselenoetherification of some Δ4‐alkenols in the presence of pyridine and some Lewis acids are described. All alkenols underwent intramolecular cyclization yielding corresponding tetrahydrofuran or tetrahydropyran derivatives. Yield and diastereomeric ratio of the cyclic products depend on counterion of selenylating reagent used. We found that external additives, such as pyridine and some Lewis acids coordinating to the electrophilic and/or nucleophilic species are used to control the course of cyclizations with high degrees of efficiency and improve the level of stereoinduction. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
Synthesis of substituted 1,3‐oxazines using sulfamic acid as an efficient and eco‐friendly catalyst
Authors: Damodiran M. , Perumal Paramasivan T. 
Published: August 2010

Abstract
magnified image Sulfamic acid catalyzed the synthesis of substituted 1,3‐oxazines by one‐pot three‐component reaction of aniline, alkynoates, and formaldehyde in excellent yields. The catalyst possesses distinct advantages shows ease of handling, good yields, cleaner reactions, nonhygroscopic, noncorrosive, and high activity. Sulfamic acid is a green alternative for metal‐containing acidic materials, which are toxic and deleterious for human health and environmental protection. J. Heterocyclic Chem., (2010).
Clinical and economic outcomes in patients with community‐acquired Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia
Authors: Taneja Charu , Haque Nadia , Oster Gerry , Shorr Andrew F. , Zilber Sophia , Kyan Paola Osaki , Reyes Katherine C. , Moore Carol , Spalding James , Kothari Smita , Zervos Marcus 
Published: August 2010

AbstractBACKGROUND:While the clinical and economic consequences of S. aureus pneumonia in healthcare settings have been well documented, much less is known about community‐acquired S. aureus pneumonia (CAP).METHODS:We retrospectively identified all patients admitted to a large US urban teaching hospital between January 2005 and May 2008 with pneumonia and positive blood or respiratory cultures for S. aureus within 48 hours of admission. Patients with suspected healthcare‐associated pneumonia (HCAP) were excluded from the study sample, using established criteria (eg, recent hospitalization, admission from nursing home, hemodialysis). Patients were designated as having methicillin‐resistant (MRSA) or methicillin‐susceptible (MSSA) CAP based on initial S. aureus isolates. Initial therapy was designated “appropriate” vs. “inappropriate” based on expected susceptibility of the organism to the regimen received.RESULTS:We identified a total of 128 CAP patients with S. aureus isolates; mean (standard deviation [SD]) age was 60 (17) years. A total of 55 patients (43%) had initial cultures positive for MRSA. Patients with MRSA CAP were more likely to receive inappropriate initial therapy (24 [44%] vs. 13 [18%] for MSSA; P = 0.002). Approximately 25% of all patients underwent surgery for pneumonia, 69% received mechanical ventilation, 79% were admitted to intensive care unit (ICU), and 24% died in hospital. Mean (SD) length of stay was 17.0 (15.7) days, and total hospital charges averaged $127,922 ($154,605) per patient; there were no significant differences between patients with MRSA vs. MSSA CAP.CONCLUSION:Outcomes are poor, hospital stays are long, and costs of care are high in patients with S. aureus CAP, and do not differ between those with MRSA vs. MSSA. Journal of Hospital Medicine 2010. © 2010 Society of Hospital Medicine.
Hospitalizations with healthcare‐associated complicated skin and skin structure infections: Impact of inappropriate empiric therapy on outcomes
Authors: Zilberberg Marya D. , Shorr Andrew F. , Micek Scott T. , Chen Joyce , Ramsey Andrew M. , Hoban Alex P. , Pham Victor , Doherty Joshua A. , Mody Samir H. , Kollef Marin H. 
Published: August 2010

AbstractOBJECTIVE:Inappropriate empiric therapy worsens outcomes in certain healthcare‐associated infections (HCAI). We studied the association of inappropriate empiric therapy with outcomes in patients with HCA complicated skin and skin structure infections (cSSSI).DESIGN:A single‐center retrospective cohort study.PATIENTS:Hospitalized with a culture‐positive cSSSI.MEASUREMENTS:We defined HCA‐cSSSI as having ≥1 of these risk factors: (1) recent hospitalization, (2) recent antibiotics, (3) hemodialysis, (4) transfer from a nursing home, and inappropriate treatment as no antimicrobial therapy active against the pathogen(s) within 24 hours of obtaining culture specimen. We performed descriptive and multivariate statistics to compute the impact of inappropriate empiric therapy on outcomes. Hospital length of stay (LOS) served as primary and mortality as secondary outcomes.RESULTS:Of the 717 patients with culture‐positive cSSSI, 527 (73.5%) had HCAI, of whom 405 (76.9%) received appropriate treatment. A higher proportion of those receiving inappropriate than appropriate treatment had a decubitus ulcer (29.5% vs. 10.9%, P < 0.001), a device‐associated infection (42.6% vs. 28.6%, P = 0.004), or bacteremia (68.9% vs. 57.8%, P = 0.028). The frequency of methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) did not differ between the groups. The low overall unadjusted mortality rate did not vary based on initial treatment. In a multivariable analysis adjusting for potential confounders inappropriate therapy had an attributable increase in hospital LOS of 1.8 days (95% CI, 1.4–2.3).CONCLUSION:Similar to other populations with HCAI, HCA‐cSSSI patients are likely to receive inappropriate empiric therapy for their infection. This early exposure is associated with a significant prolongation of the hospitalization by nearly 2 days. Journal of Hospital Medicine 2010;. © 2010 Society of Hospital Medicine.
Allowance for antibody bivalence in the characterization of interactions by ELISA
Authors: Winzor Donald J. 
Published: August 2010

AbstractThe objective of this review is to remove empiricism from the characterization of immunospecific interactions by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In place of the original presumption that the absorbance generated by the enzyme‐linked assay could be regarded as a measure of free antibody concentration, the stance is taken that the parameter being monitored is the concentration of antibody complexed with immobilized antigen on the microtiter plate. After the presentation of general binding theory that takes ligand multivalence into account, that theory is adapted to incorporate the simplifying circumstances that prevail in an ELISA study. Validity of the original expressions for characterizing antigen–antibody interactions by competitive ELISA is confirmed, thereby refuting reported concerns about the need for amendment of the theoretical expressions to take into account bivalence of the antibody. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Disruption of shape complementarity in the ribosomal protein L1–RNA contact region does not hinder specific recognition of the RNA target site
Authors: Kostareva Olga , Tishchenko Svetlana , Nikonova Ekaterina , Kljashtorny Vladislav , Nevskaya Natalia , Nikulin Alexei , Sycheva Anna , Moshkovskii Sergei , Piendl Wolfgang , Garber Maria , Nikonov Stanislav 
Published: August 2010

AbstractThe formation of a specific and stable complex between two (macro)molecules implies complementary contact surface regions. We used ribosomal protein L1, which specifically binds a target site on 23S rRNA, to study the influence of surface modifications on the protein−RNA affinity. The threonine residue in the universally conserved triad Thr−Met−Gly significant for RNA recognition and binding was substituted by phenylalanine, valine and alanine, respectively. The crystal structure of the mutant Thr217Val of the isolated domain I of L1 from Thermus thermophilus (TthL1) was determined. This structure and that of two other mutants, which had been determined earlier, were analysed and compared with the structure of the wild type L1 proteins. The influence of structural changes in the mutant L1 proteins on their affinity for the specific 23S rRNA fragment was tested by kinetic experiments using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor analysis. Association rate constants undergo minor changes, whereas dissociation rate constants displayed significantly higher values in comparison with that for the wild type protein. The analysed L1 mutants recognize the specific RNA target site, but the mutant L1−23S rRNA complexes are less stable compared to the wild type complexes. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Opioid system functional regulation in neurological disease management
Authors: Nandhu M.S. , Naijil George , Smijin Soman , Jayanarayanan S. , Paulose C.S. 
Published: August 2010

AbstractThere is increasing evidence to suggest a role for the opioid system in the control of pathophysiology of neurological disorders (Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's diseases, spinal cord injury, epilepsy, hypoxia, and autism). Resuscitation of the altered expression of the opioid system in various neurological disorders is of therapeutic importance. Such treatment may be beneficial in ameliorating the clinical symptoms of the disorder. This Mini‐Review provides a brief update on opioid system regulation in neurological disorders and focuses on the opioids' pharmacological importance. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.