bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A STUDY OF THE BEGINNINGS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PLAY IN INFANCY
Authors: VALENTINE C. W. 
Published: May 2011

RésuméUNE ÉTUDE DES COMMENCEMENTS ET DE LA SIGNIFICATION DU JEU DANS LA PREMIÈRE ENFANCE.Cet article est basé principalement sur les observations faites par l'auteur sur ses cinq enfants, avec une considération comparative des rapports d'autres observateurs. Il décrit le jeu des premiers mois, les commencements du jeu social (avant 12 mois), et la joie produite par des activités nouvelles. Une autre section traite du jeu imaginatif (de 1½ ans à 2½ ans) et l'on cite des témoignages d'un genre de jeu comportant des sensations nouvelles et des émotions et impulsions. L'on prétend que l'interprétation du jeu enfantin comme symbole des idées sous‐conscientes, ou des impulsions reprimées, est superflue, et qu'elle est souvent contradictorie aux faits. L'on démontre que le témoignage en faveur des idées, psychanalytiques et autres, que présuppose ordinairement le traitement par le jeu est insuffisant, et l'on maintient que les guérisons dans les cliniques, attribuées aux jeux adaptés exprès aux conflits de l'enfant, peuvent s'expliquer autrement.ZusammenfassungEINE UNTERSUCHUNG DER ANFÄNGE UND DER BEDEUTUNG DES SPIELES IN DER KINDHEIT.Diese Abhandlung hat zur Grundlage hauptsächlich die Beobachtungen des Verfassers über seine eigenen fünf Kinder zusammen mit einer vergleichenden Behandlung der Aufzeichnungen anderer Beobachter. Sie beschreibt das Spiel der frühesten Monate, die Anfänge des Gemeinschaftsspiels, und die Freude an neuen Tätigkeiten. Ein späterer Abschnitt befasst sich mit dem Rollenspiel (vom 1 1/2 bis zum 2 1/2 Lj.), und es werden Beweise gegeben vom Spiel mit neuen Eindrücken und mit Gemütsbewegungen und Trieben. Man führt Gründe dafür an, dass die Ausdeutung des kindlichen Spieles als Symbol der unbewussten Ideen oder unterdrückten Triebe unnötig ist und oft mit den Tatsachen nicht übereinstimmt. Man weist auf die Unzulänglichkeit der Beweise von psychoanalytischen und anderen der Spieltherapie gewöhnlich zugrundeliegenden Ideen hin, und es wird die Meinung vertreten, dass die Heilungen, die die Kliniken dem Spiel zuschreiben, das den kindlichen Konflikten besonders angepasst sein soll, anders erklärt werden können.
THE DRIVES WHICH DETERMINE THE CHOICE OF A CAREER
Authors: VERNON MAGDALEN D. 
Published: May 2011

Résumé.DES IMPULSIONS QUI DÉTERMINENT CHEZ L'INDIVIDU LE CHOIX D'UNE CARRIÈRE.Chez l'individu son choix d'une carrière ou d'un emploi, même s'il est influencé par une connaissance de ses aptitudes et de celles que semble exiger l'emploi, est ordinairement motivé par certaines impulsions, ou tendances à. l'action, fondamentales. Celles‐ci fonctionnent aussi à déterminer chez lui beaucoup d'autres intérêts et occupations. Par des questions appropriées des étudiantes d'université furent encouragées à décrire ces intérêts et occupations et leurs raisons pour les poursuivre, aussi bien que pour leur choix d'une carrière. Les réponses montrent, dans les cas divers, l'influence des impulsions suivantes: la conformité au milieu social, l'activité humaniste ou humanitaire, l'indépendance, le plaisir, le pouvoir, la supériorité, l'admiration. Les étudiantes semblaient se partager en trois groupes principaux: les deux premiers de ceux‐ci étaient dominés presque exclusivement par l'impulsion de la conformité, laquelle, cependant, produisait dans les deux groupes des types assez variés de comportement. Chez les étudiantes du troisième groupe d'autres impulsions étaient aussi fortes, sinon plus fortes, que celle de la conformité; chez quelques unes elles menaient à de vifs conflits avec celle‐ci. Il était moins probable que l'impulsion humaniste luttât avec cella de la conformité. La fréquence et l'importance de ces impulsions, aussi bien que leur façon de fonctionner, furent rapportées au milieu social de l'individu.Zusammenfassung.DIE TRIEBE, DIE DIE WAHL DES BERUFS BESTIMMEN.Im allgemeinen wird die Wahl eines Berufs oder einer Laufbahn im Leben, auch wenn sie von der Kenntnis spezifischer Fähigkeiten und der Veranlagungen, die der Beruf anscheinend verlangt, geleitet wird, durch gewisse zugrundeliegende Haupttriebe oder Tendenzen zur Handlung verursacht. Diese funktioneren dadurch, dass sie gleichzeitig viele andere Interessen und Vorlieben bestimmen. Man regte Universitätsstudentinnen durch passende Fragen an, diese Interessen und Vorlieben und die Gründe, aus denen sie sie verfolgten, und die Gründe ihrer Berufswahl zu beschreiben. Die Antworten zeigten in verschiedenen Fällen die Wirkung folgender Triebe: soziale Anpassung, humanistische oder humanitäre Tätigkeit, Selbständigkeit, Freude, Macht, Überlegenheit, Bewunderung. Die Studentinnen schienen sich in drei Hauptgattungen zu teilen: die beiden ersten wurden fast ausschliesslich vom sozialen Anpassungstrieb beherrscht, der aber ziemlich verschiedene Typen von Benehmen in den beiden Gattungen hervorrief. In jenen der dritten Gattung waren andere Triebe ebenso stark wie oder noch stärker als die soziale Anpassung und kamen in einigen Fällen in scharfen Konflikt mit demselben. Es war weniger zu erwarten, dass der humanistische Trieb mit sozialer Anpassung in Konflikt geraten würde als die anderen Triebe. Die Häufigkeit und die Bedeutung dieser Triebe sowohl wie die Art der Funktion wurden in Beziehung gesetzt zu der sozialen Umgebung des einzelnen Menschen.
A COMPARISON OF TESTS OF ARTISTIC APPRECIATION.1
Authors: DEWAR HEATHER 
Published: May 2011

Résumé.UNE COMPARAISON ENTRE DES TESTS DU GOÛT ARTISTIQUE.Des tests divers du goût artistique furent appliqués à un nombre d'adultes et d'enfants. L'analyse des facteurs suggère qu'un seul facteur général du goût artistique est responsable des classements obtenus. On trouve aussi quelque évidence de facteurs spécifiques indiquant des “types” variés du goût artistique Il semble que le développement de ce goût renferme un changement non seulement d'aptitude mais d'attitude ou de type. Les résultats obtenus par l'analyse statistique sont confirmés par l'introspection.Des corrélations tirées d'un groupe de plus de 300 enfants montrent que le test des images de Burt possède la validité la plus élevée, et que ses résultats correspondent le plus étroitement aux opinions des professeurs sur l'aptitude artistique des enfants. On découvre une légère corrélation positive entre le goût artistique et l'intelligence.Zusammenfassung.EIN VERGLEICH ZWISCHEN TESTS FÜR KUNSTWÜRDIGUNG.Man hat Erwachsenen und Kindern verschiedene Tests für Kunstwürdigung gegeben, Faktorenanalyse weist darauf hin, dass ein einzelner allgemeiner Faktor der Kunstwürdigung für die gegebenen Ordnungen verantwortlich ist. Ein gewisser Beweis ist auch vorhanden für spezifische Faktoren, die verschiedene “Typen” der Kunstwürdigung andeuten. Anscheinend verursacht die Entwicklung der Kunstwürdigung eine Änderung nicht nur im Können, sondern auch im Verhalten oder im Typus. Die durch statistische Analyse erzielten Resultate werden durch Selbstbetrachtung bestätigt.Korrelationen, die man bei einer Gruppe von über 300 Kindern bekam, zeigen, dass Burts Bildertest die höchste Zuverlässigkeit hat und dass dessen Ergebnisse äusserst genau mit den von den Lehrern gegebenen Würdigungen des Kunstkönnens der Kinder übereinstimmen. Man hat eine geringe, aber positive Korrelation zwischen Kunstschätzung und Intelligenz gefunden.
THE SCIENTIFIC INTERESTS OF SENIOR SCHOOL CHILDREN
Authors: RALLISON R. 
Published: May 2011

Résumé.LES INTÉRÊTS SCIENTIFIQUES DES ÉLÈVES DES ÉCOLES PRIMARIES SUPÉRIEURES.L'on recueillit et analysa des feuilles, sur lesquelles les élèves avaient écrit des questions sur des sujets sur lesquels ils voulaient se renseigner. Ces feuilles provenaient d'Écoles Primaires supérieures dans une grande ville, dans des communes, et à la campagne. L'on résume les 170 thèmes principaux de l'intérêt scientifique qui émergèrent des données ainsi rassembleés.Le sexe exerce une influence puissante à déterminer la distribution des intérêts entre les sciences et les autres sujets, et pourtant il n'a qu'une faible influence sur les intérêts principaux en dedans du champ scientifique. Les thèmes principaux de l'intérêt scientifique appartiennent également aux deux sexes.Le milieu a une influence non seulement sur le choix des garçons entre la science et le reste mais aussi sur le choix de la branche de la science à laquelle l'enfant s'intéresse, et pourtant il ne s'associe qu'à un petit groupe de thèmes typiques. L'âge auquel les principaux intérêts scientifiques se manifestent est également déterminé par le milieu.Il y a relativement peu de sujets qui sont charactéristiques d'un certain âge. La biologie, la chimie, la mécanique et l'électricité sont les intérêts scientifiques les plus importants chez les deux sexes.Zusammenfassung.DIE WISSENSCHAFTLICHEN INTERESSEN VON SCHÜLERN AN SENIORSCHULEN (DER OBERN HÄLFTE DER ENGLISCHEN VOLKSSCHULE).Kinder aus grosstädtischen, städtischen, und ländlichen Gegenden wurden aufgefordert, Fragen über Dinge zu schreiben, die sie wissen wollten.Die Knaben hatten zum grössten Teil Interesse für wissenschaftliche Angelegenheiten; die Interessen der Mädchen waren verschiedenartiger. Doch übte das Geschlecht wenig Einfluss auf die Hauptinteressen, die auf wissenschaftlichem Gebiet lagen, aus. Die Hauptthemen wissenschaftlichen Interesses sind der gemeinsame geistige Besitz beider Geschlechter.Die Umgebung beeinflusst nicht nur die Verteilung der Interessen der Knaben zwischen Nichtwissenschaft und Wissenschaft; sie beeinflusst auch die Zweige der Wissenschaft, wofür die Kinder Interesse haben; und doch ist sie mit nur einer geringen Zahl typischer Gegenstände verbunden. Das Alter, in dem die hauptsächlichen wissenschaftlichen Interessen auftreten, wird auch teilweise durch die Umgebung bedingt.Verhältnismässig wenige Themen sind charakteristisch für ein bestimmtes Alter.
SYMPOSIUM: THE USE OF ESSAYS IN SELECTION AT 11+
Authors: PIDGEON D. A. , YATES ALFRED 
Published: May 2011

Summary.

A number of essay‐type English examination papers were administered on different occasions to groups of eleven‐year‐old children. Seven examiners were employed in marking the scripts, and a complex experimental design enabled a variety of statistical analyses to be carried out.
In another area the validity of similar papers was investigated by comparing the results with a criterion of success in secondary schools after the children concerned had completed two years of their course. The correlations obtained were also compared with those between an objective test of English and the criterion.
The results of the reliability investigation indicated that:

There are differences between examiners with respect to the mean mark and the variance of marks awarded for English papers of the essay type.
The seven papers given varied in their level of difficulty, as judged by the mean mark awarded.
English papers of the type described are subject to practice effects.
There is clear evidence from this experiment that examiners and children have idiosyncrasies which interact.
The error variance attributable to examiners is greatly reduced on the more objective English question paper (Part II) compared with the essay (Part I), although the amount of fluctuation due only to the children is relatively of almost the same size.
There were significant differences between examiners regarding their consistency of marking.
Compared with the figures of ·980 for the strictly objective Moray House English tests and ·970 for the slightly less objective National Foundation English tests, the reliability of the ‘old type’ English paper considered here was found to be approximately 0·88.
The equivalent test, re‐test reliabilities for the essay alone were ·766 if the same examiner re‐marked, and ·719 if a different examiner re‐marked.
The upper limit to the reliability of the ‘older type’ of English paper, including an essay, is set by the figure of 0·923 calculated on the assumption of perfect marking.
Slightly over half the children opted to write on a different essay topic when attempting the same paper a second time. An analysis of the children's choices, however, showed that for some of the papers their choice was severely limited by the inclusion of one or more unpopular topics.

The results of the validity investigation indicated that the ‘old type’ English examination provides a significantly less satisfactory forecast of subsequent success in secondary schools than is obtained from the results of an objective test.
The introduction of new types of item into objective tests is suggested as a means of creating a less undesirable ‘backwash’ on the primary school curriculum. Tests of this kind, it is claimed, could maintain the high reliability and validity of the more conventional objective tests.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE VIEWS OF SUPERVISORS ON THE ATTRIBUTES OF SUCCESSFUL GRADUATE STUDENT TEACHERS
Authors: ROBERTSON J. D. C. 
Published: May 2011

Summary.

Eighteen supervisors of graduate students ranked fifty student attributes associated with successful practice teaching. The rankings were correlated and the matrix of correlations was factorised by the technique of Correlation of Persons.
The lines of reference indicated among the participating supervisors showed:

That there was limited agreement among them, amounting to 39 per cent, of the variance of their rankings, and
That there was a number of subsidiary viewpoints among the supervisors, accounting for at least 17 per cent, of the variance. Groups holding these viewpoints appeared to vary in the emphasis placed upon the cognitive, affective (or personal) and conative aspects of teaching ability, and each group was divided again into:

Those whose view was complex and analytical, concerned with adaptive aspects of personality, and
Those whose view was simpler and more intuitive, concerned with expressive aspects.

Weighted average rankings of the attributes were obtained, and provide material for further research into an agreed scheme or system of student attributes. Groupings of the attributes made by the supervisors assisted in the interpretation of the factors, and were comparable in some respects with current theories of personality structure.
The findings supported the conclusion of earlier researches that there is a need for an agreed scheme or system in the assessment of students' practice teaching. The limited amount of agreement found among the supervisors indicated a weakness in researches which have used uncontrolled assessments as criteria of teaching ability.
The attribute group—Attitude and Insight in Dealing with Others was found, from the rankings of this group of eighteen experts, to represent for them the most important aspects of teaching ability.
V.—An Experiment on Practice, Coaching and Discussion of Errors in Mental Testing
Authors: HEIM A. W. , WATTS K. P. 
Published: May 2011

Summary.— An experiment was conducted in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting results reported on coaching and practice effects in mental testing. Parallel and identical (spatial) tests were administered weekly, to 13‐ and 14‐year‐old boys and girls, drawn from six schools. On the basis of first test score, every form was divided into five equated sub‐groups each of which subsequently received different treatment. Two sub‐groups took the same test (Test 1) for six consecutive weeks, one of these receiving coaching but not the other. The remaining three sub‐groups took a different (parallel) test each week, receiving between sessions either coaching or discussion of previous week's errors or neither. At the final session, every sub‐group took Test 7.The experimental results are confused by the fact that inter‐school differences equalled or exceeded inter‐group differences. The conclusions which follow are, therefore, offered tentatively: (a) Discussion of errors is the most effective improver of performance on a new test, (b) Coaching plus practice is more efficacious than practice alone, whether the practice task be the re‐taking of identical or of parallel tests, (c) Coaching plus practice‐on‐the‐same‐test produces better performance on a new test than does practice alone on different tests, (d) Practice alone on the same test yields the poorest result, on the criterion of performance on a new test. Personality differences among individuals and groups are found to contribute materially to the results.
THE FACTORIAL NATURE OF ABILITY IN ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS
Authors: WRIGLEY JACK 
Published: May 2011

Summary.— The structure of mathematical ability in grammar and technical schools was investigated by factorial analysis. The following conclusions were drawn:

There is a close connection between mathematical and general ability; high intelligence is the most important single factor for success in mathematics.
In addition, there exists a clearly identifiable mathematical group factor. The different branches of mathematics are linked together more closely than they would be if a general factor only were in operation.
Verbal, spatial, and numerical group factors were isolated.
Performance in geometry is connected with spatial ability as measured by the spatial factor.
Performance in arithmetic (especially mechanical arithmetic), and to a lesser extent performance in algebra, is in part dependent upon numerical ability as measured by a number factor.
When the influence of general ability is eliminated, verbal ability has little connection with mathematical ability.
No marked differences in factor pattern were observed between different types of school ‘grammar and technical) or between different countries (England and Northern Ireland).
The attainment tests of mathematics, constructed specially for this research, proved to be highly reliable and valid measures of mathematical ability.
SYMPOSIUM: THE DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL VALUES IN CHILDREN
Authors: CRANE A. R. 
Published: May 2011

Summary. Information was collected from Teachers' College students in Australia and England about gangs to which they had belonged during their pre‐adolescence. Of all students asked, about 90 per cent, of the men and almost 40 per cent, of the women had belonged to at least one such gang.In this way data about 326 boys' and 54 girls' gangs were collected and analysed. These data revealed that all boys' gangs were at times occupied in some form of socially unacceptable (‘delinquent’) behaviour.In discussing these facts, it is argued that belonging to such a gang is not necessarily an indication of future delinquent behaviour. On the contrary, gang membership can be an important bridge between the kinship‐based status conferred on the child by the family and the achievement‐based status conferred by society at large.
THE LONG‐TERM FOLLOW‐UP OF ASSESSMENTS AT AGE ELEVEN
Authors: NISBET JOHN , BUCHAN JIM 
Published: May 2011

Summary.

The careers of 102 students who entered Aberdeen University from Aberdeen City schools in 1953, were traced from the end of primary school to fourth year at university.
Of those who entered Aberdeen County secondary schools in 1950, 153 sat the Leaving Certificate at the end of secondary education, and forty‐six entered Aberdeen University; their careers were traced from primary school to first‐year university.
In both investigations scores in tests at the age of eleven‐plus were compared with subsequent performance in Leaving Certificate and university examinations, as a check on the accuracy of the tests in predicting high scholastic achievement six to ten years later.
The results show that even in this highly selected group, the tests at age eleven‐plus are not without validity; but the agreement between test scores and university performance is not high, particularly in science courses.
Correlations between five primary school assessments in the City group and fourth‐year university performance ranged from +0·05 to +0·28.
In the County group, out of 77 who gained university entrance qualifications, 19 had scored below I.Q. 110 in the test at the end of primary school.
Examples of poor subsequent performance by high scorers in the selection tests at eleven plus, and of excellent performance by low scorers, indicate that, within this group and over this interval of years, accurate prediction of scholastic attainment is not possible.
PERSONALITY FACTORS IN THE FORMATION OF OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE
Authors: CHOWN SHEILA M. 
Published: May 2011

Summary.

Ninety‐six boys and ninety‐six girls selected from the third to seventh forms of eight grammar schools were given a questionnaire about their interests, behavioural traits, and reasons for choosing their desired occupation. Intelligence test scores were available for half the group.
Interests were compared where possible with the type of jobs desired; practical spare time interests were related to job choices which involved these interests.
Intelligence was found to have a limiting effect on choice; the most intelligent in this group made a free choice, but those of low intelligence tended to choose office work.
The answers to the personality questionnaire were factor analyzed, giving two unrelated factors of confidence and sociability. Choice of office work was related to low confidence scores in the case of girls, and high sociability scores in the case of boys.
The reasons for choice given by the subjects were factor analyzed; two unrelated factors were isolated. Vocation was related to the choice of occupations requiring further training, and unadventurousness to choice of office work.
The importance of these results in relation to choice of occupation is discussed.
A FOLLOW‐UP STUDY OF SOME FORMER GRADUATE STUDENT TEACHERS
Authors: COLLINS MILDRED 
Published: May 2011

Summary. A follow‐up study was made of 115 former graduate student teachers of one education department and assessments by heads of schools were compared with teaching grades awarded during training. There was a 75 per cent. correct forecast as to which students were likely to have, or not to have, difficulties and a biserial correlation of +0·566 was obtained between heads' and tutors' assessments.A study of discrepancies in assessments (‘over’ or ‘under’ achievement) was used as a check on conclusions derived from an enquiry concerned with. teaching practice assessments only. ‘Under’ or ‘over’ achievement in schools seemed to indicate the importance of type of school, academic achievement, physical and mental health, family problems and length of professional experience among former students who had shown rather limited practice teaching ability. Case histories demonstrated how difficult it is in individual cases to distinguish the ‘late‐developer’ from the ‘non‐starter.’
THE VALUE OF TEACHERS' RATINGS OF THE ADJUSTMENT OF THEIR PUPILS*
Authors: THORPE J. G. 
Published: May 2011

Summary. The present experiment was designed to test the relationship between teachers' ratings of adjustment and maladjustment, and more objective estimates obtained by psychological testing. Three groups of thirty‐six children were built up—a group of most adjusted, a group of least adjusted, and a group selected at random.Objective tests of neuroticism which had been shown previously to distinguish between neurotic and normal children were found, with the exception of the Sociometric test, not to differentiate between these three groups.The results indicated that, if the battery of neuroticism tests is an acceptable criterion of neuroticism, the teachers' ratings of adjustment bore no relation to this criterion. It may be argued, however, that the criterion was an inadequate indicator of psychiatric abnormalities and, therefore, that it did not follow that teachers were unable to detect these abnormalities.The teachers in this study appeared to be leaning heavily upon the Sociometric status of their pupils for their judgments, a knowledge of which they were bound to have from everyday observation. It is argued that the Sociometric test discriminated between the groups of children selected by the teachers probably by virtue of its projection on to some dimension other than neuroticism. This dimension is possibly that of introversion‐extraversion.