bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Difficulty about a Criterion
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter explores the difficulty about a criterion. It first introduces the inapplicability of Carnapian criteria. No familiar criterion of mathematical probability is applicable to the evaluation of juridical proofs. Statistical criteria have already been shown to be inapplicable. Carnapian criteria require a unanimity about range-measure, which cannot be assumed. To suppose that jurors should evaluate proofs in terms of a coherent betting policy is to ignore the fact that rational men do not bet on issues where the outcome is not discoverable otherwise than from the data on which the odds themselves have to be based. In addition, the point here is not that there is anything intrinsically and universally wrong with evaluating mathematical probabilities in terms of statistical frequencies, range-overlap or betting odds. So the onus is on the mathematicist to propose some other criterion, which is not excluded by any of the special circumstances of judicial proof.
Resolution of Six Difficulties for a Mathematicist Account of Judicial Proof
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter shows the resolution of six difficulties for a mathematicist account of judicial proof. It first reports the difficulty about conjunction. It also addresses the difficulty about inference. The non-complementational negation principle for inductive probability ensures that, on an inductivist account, the standard of proof in civil cases does not officially condone a positive probability of injustice. Proof beyond reasonable doubt is proof at the level of inductive certainty. The inductivist analysis elucidates why ordinary juries are competent to assess judicial proofs. Moreover, convergence and corroboration, and their appropriate independence conditions, can be readily explained in terms of inductive probability, with no difficulty arising about prior probabilities.
Criteria of Rational Belief
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter begins by providing the problem of the detachment conditions for dyadic judgements of probability. The study of criteria for rational belief is very largely the study of the detachment conditions for dyadic judgements of probability. The deductive closure condition and the logical consistency condition present difficulties for any acceptance-rule formulated in terms of mathematical probability. The proposals for dealing with these difficulties that have been put forward by Hintikka and Hilpinen, by Kyburg, by Levi, and by Lehrer, are all, for different reasons, unsatisfactory. But a rule of acceptance formulated in terms of inductive probability does not encounter any of these difficulties. Mathematical probability can provide a basis for decision-theoretic strategies, but not for rational belief.
An Epistemological Corollary
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter begins by presenting the prevailing scepticism in the philosophy of science. If a fact that is provable beyond reasonable doubt is inductively certain, the legal assumption that proof beyond reasonable doubt is possible conflicts with the sceptical thesis that knowledge of general truths about the world is impossible. But if it is possible to know that one hypothesis is inductively more reliable than another, it is certainly possible to know also that a hypothesis is fully reliable. Prevalence of the sceptical error is due partly to unawareness of the systematic analogy between the structure of inductive support and the structure of logical truth, partly to a confusion between truth-conditions and justification-conditions, partly to an over-reaction to certain shattering events in the history of science, partly to the mistaken view that a correct assessment of how much one proposition supports another must be regarded as an analytic truth, and partly to the mistaken view that any inductive assessment presupposes certain untestable metaphysical assumptions. When all these points are borne in mind, it becomes clear that on issues of fact proof beyond reasonable doubt, and scientific knowledge, is at least in principle possible.
Divine Commands and Moral Requirements
Authors: Quinn Philip L. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The view that morality in some way depends, at least in part, upon the will of God is an important theme in the history of philosophy. In recent times this idea has not been taken very seriously by prominent moral philosophers. It is often assumed that the view has been refuted or can be shown to be quite implausible in the light of accepted modern doctrine about morality. Based on the belief that this assumption is mistaken, this book takes a fresh look at this issue. It asks whether some version of the claim that human morality depends upon divine commands can be defended against serious and sustained philosophical criticism. It explores whether significantly different versions of divine command theory can be formulated. And, finally, it attempts to discover whether divine command theories are consistent with or can be grafted on to other recent theories of the logic of some of the moral concepts.
Introduction
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis book addresses the philosophical problems of space and time. Roughly speaking, Chapters 1, 2, and 3 deal with space, and Chapters 4, 5, and 6 deal with time. These problems perhaps arise merely by virtue of the way in which the language is constructed. The business of providing means for the elimination of certain expressions from the descriptions of the world is often called reduction. Thus, relationalism is a reductionist programme. Moreover, an overview of the chapters included in the book is provided.
Temporal Asymmetry
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter provides an investigation into the reasons, apart from the intuitions, for believing that the temporal dimension exhibits any asymmetry. It is specifically concerned with the theory that time is fundamentally asymmetrical in some sense that guarantees a profound difference between the past and the future. The chapter argues that even if the notions of ‘cause’ and ‘effect’ are stripped of their directional bias, there is no evidence to suggest that the resulting causal relation is always exemplified asymmetrically in time. It also claims that there is an important difference between knowledge of the past and knowledge of the future, but further argues that this difference is in no way indicative of a qualitative difference between the direction of time from earlier to later and the direction of time from later to earlier. The second law of thermodynamics is addressed. The local and accidental asymmetries within time are then outlined.
The Philosophy of Nature in 1803 and 1804
Authors: Harris H. S. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe first section of this chapter discusses Hegel's materialism. The second section discusses matter conceived as motion. The third section discusses the fluidity of matter. Hegel called the self-transforming continuity of matter ‘absolute fluidity, the truly real earthy matter’. The fourth section examines terrestrial ‘physics’, an approach detailing the process of the Earth's own life. The last section discusses Hegel's theory of organism.
The Natural Philosophy of 1805/6
Authors: Harris H. S. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe first section of this chapter describes mechanics, or the theory of matter. The physical model of the logic of Understanding was the Newtonian theory of the Solar System. Hegel identified his logic of ‘simple connection’ as the ‘logic of understanding’. But the direct transformation of the aether into space at the beginning of the Philosophy of Nature reflects the simplicity of the connection between understanding and its object. The second section deals with shape and chemism. The third section deals with physics. Much of Hegel's discussion was required for the understanding of the Earth's shaping and chemism. In ‘physics’, he advanced to a higher level of conceptual complexity, and descended to a more immediate level of phenomenal observation. The fourth section deals with the organism. The last section deals with plants and animals.
The Syriac Versions
Authors: METZGER BRUCE M. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the introduction of Christianity into Syria and the translation of the New Testament in that region. Of all the early versions of the New Testament, those in Syriac have raised more problems and provoked more controversies among modern scholars than any of the others. This chapter examines several Syriac versions with the earliest translation of the Gospels. These versions include Tatian's Diatessaron, a harmony of the four gospels prepared about AD 170, the Old Syriac version, the Peshitta Syriac version, and the Philoxenian version. In addition to these several versions, all of which are in the ‘classical’ Syriac dialect of Aramaic used generally throughout Syrian communities, there is also the so-called Palestinian-Syriac version which makes the use of a form of western Aramaic similar to that used by Galilean Jews in the Old Testament Targums.
Enigmatic Hebrews: A Rhetorical Appeal for Steadfast Faith in our Great High Priest and in the Better Covenant
Authors: Reumann John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses some scribes who in later centuries made copies of the epistle called ‘To Hebrews’. They added in a note at the conclusion of the text that the letter had been written by Paul from Italy. These opinions became traditional. Yet, everyone of these points—Paul's authorship, the place of writing, the identity of those addressed, and even whether Hebrews is a letter—has been widely denied in subsequent study. This most rhetorically elegant of all New Testament writings has for good reasons been termed, to paraphrase Winston Churchill, a riddle within a puzzle wrapped up in an enigma. Indeed, all three terms have been used by commentators to describe the book. The major emphasis in Hebrews’ depiction of Jesus is in terms of priesthood and indeed as high priest. No other New Testament writing develops so extensive a Christology along such lines.
Holy Scripture in the Qumran Commentaries and Pauline Letters
Authors: Lim Timothy H. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
What was the ancient exegetes’ attitude to the biblical texts? Did they consider them ‘sacred’ in the sense that the words were the inviolable utterances of God? Alternatively, did they when necessary modify and adapt holy writ for their own purposes? This book examines the question of exegetical modifications from the post-Qumran perspective of textual pluriformity of literalism that runs through ancient exegeses and translations. The Qumran Commentators and Paul complemented their fulfilment-exegeses by paying close attention to the verbal formations of the biblical texts. The hermeneutical principles underlying their exegeses involved a multiplex of competing forces that at the same time sought to make scripture relevant while guarding it from changes. In so far as the label ‘post-biblical exegesis’ describes a clear separation between the written, authoritative texts and its interpretation, the distinction is overdrawn, for the ancients were not merely commentators, but also in some sense authors of the biblical texts.
‘Gathered Under Apostles’
Authors: Flegg Columba Graham 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This book presents the history and theology of a remarkable body of Christians, formed as a result of the revival of interest in the prophetic Scriptures stimulated by the events of the French Revolution. Here is an example of a charismatic renewal within the mainstream Churches, which was rejected by them, and which hence led to a worldwide body, governed by ‘restored apostles’, with its own structure, liturgy, doctrine, and hierarchy of ministers. It was a movement directed towards the reunion of the Churches, uncompromising in its adherence to Scripture, its typological interpretation of the Old Testament, and in its longing for the Parousia. It sought to bring together all that was best in the various Christian traditions, Eastern as well as Western, in preparation for the return of the Church's Bridegroom in glory. The strong ecumenical purpose of this body; its approach to the reunification of Churches and clergy; the breadth and beauty of its liturgy; its resolution of internal tensions between the charismatic and established hierarchical ministries; and its emphasis on eschatology: all these are of especial relevance to Christians today.
Beauty and Revelation in the Thought of Saint Augustine
Authors: Harrison Carol 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This book places Saint Augustine's theology in a new context by considering what he has to say about beauty. It demonstrates how a theological understanding of beauty revealed in the created, temporal realm enabled Augustine to form a positive appreciation of this realm and the saving power of beauty within it. It therefore reintroduces aesthetics alongside philosophy and ethics in Augustine's treatment of God. The book shifts emphasis away from Augustine's early and most theoretical treatises to his mature reflections as a bishop and pastor on how God communicates with fallen man. Using his theory of language as a paradigm, it shows how divine beauty, revealed in creation and history, serves to inspire fallen man's faith, hope, and most especially his love – thereby reforming him and restoring the form or beauty he had lost.
Clement of Alexandria
Authors: SCOTT ALAN 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter examines the views of Clement of Alexandria, who had a similar theological approach to Origen. Clement was an uncompromising opponent of the Hellenistic religion of the heavens, particularly in his Protreptikos, which is addressed to pagans. In this, he attacked Alcmaeon of Croton for believing that the stars are gods and alive, and Xenocrates for suggesting that the planets are in fact eight gods. Many Coptic gnostic texts, which have survived both persecution and time, confirm the power of gnostic speculation in early Christian Egypt. This influence was evident in Clement, who habitually used gnostic terminology and called himself a ‘gnostic’ more than any other Christian writer of his era. Most importantly, he saw the opportunity to incorporate contemporary lore on the stars into the Christian doctrine of life after death.
The Background to the First Proposal of the Prelapsarian Covenant in Reformed Theology
Authors: Weir David A. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Previous Reformed theologians had spoken of the doctrine of the covenant as one doctrine among many. With the rise of the federal theology historians have noted how the idea of covenant began to have a controlling influence in the systematic ordering of doctrine. The importance of the Fall is again emphasized in this schema. However, there was one controversy agitating the Reformed theology which serves as the backdrop against which the idea of a prelapsarian covenant developed: the problem of reconciling God's providential sovereignty and the Fall of Adam. It is the contention of this book that the doctrine of a foedus with Adam developed in response to this problem as a ‘milder’ orthodox elaboration and explanation of the seemingly harsh decretal doctrines of Theodore Beza.
Introduction
Authors: LYMAN J. REBECCA 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the early Christian cosmologies. It begins by describing the ancient theological and philosophical perspectives. The traditional opposition between biblical voluntarism and philosophical rationality contrasts not only different cultural world-views, but also the distinct approaches to reality found in religious and philosophical reflection. The philosophical effects on Justin's theology have been studied extensively. As a philosopher and a Christian, Justin's account of divine immanence and power rests on the activity of the Son as Logos. The originality and integrity of Christian responses to religious issues of transcendence and fatalism in the 2nd century lay in a reworking of both scriptural and philosophical categories. The Christian world-view was distinguished by the shape and confidence in divine power accessible through the incarnate Logos, Jesus Christ, the Son of God.
Early Christian Cosmologies
Authors: LYMAN J. REBECCA 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The purpose of this study is to reconstruct the religious significance of various ancient models of divine activity and soteriology by re-examining the transitions of Logos Christology in the 3rd and 4th centuries. It also employs a particular social and ecclesiastical setting to help illuminate the force, challenges, and intention of his work. The examination of three Alexandrian theological models may thereby help to sharpen the understanding of ancient Christian identity and thought in light of both answers and unresolved questions regarding the nature and shape of salvation.
Eusebius of Caesarea: Power and Progress
Authors: LYMAN J. REBECCA 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The most recurrent description of Eusebius' theology is ‘old-fashioned’; it is usually summarized as a mixture of biblical exegesis, simplified Origenism, and uncritical Platonism. From his earliest apologies to his final summation, The Theophany, Eusebius celebrated the miraculous will of God in history, which, through the teaching and incarnation of the Logos, altered human society and life for ever. Discussion on Eusebius as apologist is provided. Theologically, Eusebius organized his historical and literary defence around a fundamental conviction of God's power as active and discernible at all levels of reality. Eusebius uses a combination of terms from Scripture, Judaeo-Christian Platonism, and contemporary philosophy in order to describe divine being and activity. He also modifies the traditional images of generation from Wisdom so as to accentuate the choice of the Father, rather than implying any sort of automatic causality. As an apologist, Eusebius presents an optimistic and universal account of divine power and human progress founded on the historical evidence of Jesus' life and the triumph of the church.
Festivities, Reform, and Tension in Tradition
Authors: Johansen Julian 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The Arabic mawlid denotes the general celebrations at the actual or supposed birthdate of a Saint. It is one of the most immediate and outwardly obvious of the controversial issues which is discussed, and is a good point of introduction to more theological and speculative questions. The questions of celebration, levity, dignity, public order, and reputation are treated in various combinations. The samā' polemic is illustrated. There is no Islamic legal debate over the legitimacy of the more colourful practices about which al-Jabartī is so forthright and to which Sheikh Muṭammad merely alludes. The contribution of al-Ghazālī is reported. It also emphasizes the main ṭaḍra of the Ḥusayniyya at the mawlid of al-Ḥusayn and the private session (majlis) which immediately followed it. The classical perspective of al-Ghazālī on the variables of time, place and participants, and the Muṭammadiyya Shādhiliyya and the Ḥusayniyya Orders are reviewed as well.
The Prophet
Authors: Johansen Julian 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Muslims look to the Prophet Muṭammad as the supreme example of human dignity, temperance, fortitude, and wisdom. Broadly speaking, there are two conflicting views to consider in this chapter. The first is that the Prophet, although undoubtedly the supreme example of great human qualities, was fallible in his judgement and possessed an incomplete knowledge of worldly affairs. The second view is that the Prophet was infallible in his judgement and preserved from error (ma'sūm), as the only human vessel completely to contain the definitive ‘gathering together’ of truth which is the Qur'ān. Taking up a position against the infallibility of the Prophet has definite implications. A discussion on Aṭmad Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn 'Aṭā Allāh al-Sikandarī is provided.
Temporal Ordering in Genesis 41
Authors: Goldfajn Tal 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter examines the temporal ordering of the biblical Hebrew (BH) narrative text in chapter 41 of the Book of Genesis. It attempts to show that there are two basic temporal sets underlying the more general temporal organization of the BH narrative text. It analyses the distribution of the verb forms within each set and concludes that the primary function of the BH verb forms is to establish the specific temporal relations that exist between the sentences in the text.
Anthropology
Authors: Behr John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
An understanding of Clement's comments on Adam's character helps to establish the orientation of Clement's anthropology. According to Clement, man is a ‘heavenly plant’, a constitution of nature with fellowship with God. Clement also looks into the ‘innate original communion between men and heaven’. Clement stresses how Adam, or man in general, has to grow and realize his full potential to achieve ‘salvation’. Clement sees how living in obedience to the divine Logos is similar to living according to reason and nature; he claims that ‘nature’ is the same as ‘God’. With an anthropocentric viewpoint, Clement also claims that humans act in a way that complies with their moral uprightness or righteousness. This chapter also points out how Clement uses ‘image’ and ‘likeness’ in different ways, making his vocabulary somewhat unstable.
The Higher Christian Life: gnōsis, apatheia, agapē
Authors: Behr John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
One of the main themes of Stromateis is the maturity of a bonafide Gnostic compared with the immaturity of a simple believer. Clement gives emphasis on a twofold faith wherein one believes in the dependence of faith and gnōōsis while developing a common faith. This chapter discusses Clement's view on gnōsis on God and how it functions. Clement also presents the importance of prayer, how this separates the soul from the world, and how this is paralleled with the thankful use of the world. The chapter discusses apatheia and provides a culmination of gnōsis and apatheia. It is said that man cannot attain apatheia without God's help; Clement establishes the asceticism where man makes himself worthy to receive God's grace. Clement's asceticism shows that there is no engagement with man's bodily reality nor with his dependence on God; Clement want his readers to focus on what is under their own control.
Periphrastic Tense Forms
Authors: Evans T. V. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Periphrastic tense forms are a recognized feature of the Greek verbal system from the language of Homer through to the Modern period. Yet their analysis involves both major theoretical difficulties and an inescapable element of subjectivity. The Pentateuchal periphrases are of special interest for their relationship to the underlying Hebrew. This chapter treats the theoretical debate, in particular the contribution of Porter, and establishes the definition of periphrasis which guides the present analysis, before moving to detailed discussion of actual examples. Verbal periphrasis is defined here as the combination of auxiliary verb plus participle or infinitive as near equivalent to or replacement for a synthetic tense form. According to this definition, there are total of sixty-eight examples in the entire Greek Pentateuch. This small quantity displays both independent Greek usage and Hebrew interference. Over 57% of examples closely imitate similar Hebrew expressions.