bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
THE FIRING OF REFRACTORY PRODUCTS IN FRANCE1
Authors: Widemann R. V. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTImportance of the question for a country where fuel is expensive and resources are less than consumption. Types of Kilns Used.—Principally continuous kilns; some intermittent ones and a few tunnel kilns. Heating of Kilns.—Heating direct or with gas—evolution of ideas. Conclusion.—Heating in modem kilns consists in transporting calories from one point to another with the minimum of loss, the hearth serves only to compensate these losses while raising the calories to a higher potential.The firing of refractory products can be considered either from the purely technical point of view of the influence of the firing temperature on the quality of final product, or from the economic point of view of obtaining this firing temperature in the least onerous manner.The fuel question plays an important part in the ceramic industry, particularly in the making of refractories; it is one of the important elements in cost of production, especially in a country like France in the present situation.Our2 production of coal in 1913 amounted, in round numbers, to 40 million tons; in 1921 due to our coal mines having been destroyed, the extraction was only 28 million tons. In 1920, although our needs amounted to 80 million tons, we were able to obtain, both in French and foreign coals, not more than 50 million tons.The saving of fuel, undertaken in all of the great nations, presented then and still presents to our country a primordial interest.The point of these various statements is to show very briefly the technic of firing in the industry of refractory products in France and the evolution of ideas in respect to firing.
HIGH TEMPERATURE LOAD AND FUSION TESTS OF FIRE BRICK FROM THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST IN COMPARISON WITH OTHER WELL‐KNOWN FIRE BRICK1
Authors: Wilson Hewitt 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTSeventeen samples of fire‐clay brick from the Pacific Northwest have been tested with twenty‐seven other commercial brands of fire clay, silica, magnesia, chromite, zirconia, diaspore, silicon carbide and crystalline alumina, as well as china clay and crystalline sillimanite products made at the University of Washington. The tests show that the fire‐clay brick of the Pacific Northwest vary considerably in quality. According to the high temperature load test, the majority of the local brick are among the upper grades, some are to be classed with the best fire‐clay brick and one equal to the best diaspore brick. The brick tested is not the best which can be made from Pacific Northwest materials, for the kaolins in eastern Washington and northwestern Idaho give opportunity for the production of an all‐kaolin fire brick.A method is suggested for testing super‐refractory materials under load at high temperatures similar to the standard load test for fire clay and silica brick except that the temperatures are measured by cones, and are raised until 10% linear deformation of the brick is obtained. The rate of heating and soaking varies with the brick under test, and the principles learned from the cone fusion test are used in the application of heat. A numerical value, expressing the area under the cone‐shrinkage curve, affords an easy method for comparing the high temperature load resistance of various refractories.The brick which are best able to resist deformation at high temperatures are composed of crystalline materials which have developed a recrystallized bond of the same composition. These are crystalline silica, silicon carbide, corundum and sillimanite, and they resist deformation at temperatures close to their melting points. Amorphous materials like fire clay, diaspore, bauxite or even the very refractory crystalline materials lie chromite and periclase, which depend on amorphous silicates for a bond or are contaminated with silicate impurities. will fail with the softening of the bond of the amorphous impurities. The cone fusion of the brick as a whole can not be depended upon to indicate the resistance to load at high temperatures.
THE MANUFACTURE OF AN INSULATING BRICK FROM DIATOMACEOUS EARTH
Authors: Smith C. A. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACT Development of an Insulating Brick.—Pulverized diatomaceous earth was blended with each of the four clays, Tennessee ball, Bedford shale, Rock Hill, Tionesta, in percentages of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 50 clay. Dry pressed briquettes were made using 50 to 60% water, and were burned at cones 06, 02 and 2. Heat conductivity tests were made upon the best bodies of the series.
SHEET STEEL COOKING WARE WHITE ENAMELS ECONOMICALLY SUITABLE FOR USE IN CHINA1
Authors: LAI CHI‐FANG 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTThe research was carried on to develop data on sheet steel enamels which would be good enough and cheap enough for use in China. Substitutes for tin oxide were tested.An efficient and cheaply constructed kerosene fired enameling furnace was designed and built. Little could be gained by work on the ground coats.Sodium antimonate and calcined alumina yielded the cheapest enamels with quality almost equal to enamels made with tin oxide. Zirconium oxide yielded the best results when tested with acids. Cryolite could be reduced to the minimum and with benefit to the resulting product. High feldspar enamels proved to be most satisfactory. High zinc oxide content greatly increased the gloss but lowered the opacity. Calcined alumina failed when used alone.
VARIATIONS IN SOFTENING POINTS OF REFRACTORY MATERIALS DUE TO RATE OF HEATING1
Authors: COLE SANDFORD S. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTResults are given of a series of softening point tests upon several types of refractory materials in which the rate of heating to obtain cone 28 down was varied from one hour to five hours. The results are presented in order to show that much of the data obtained by a fusion furnace is dependent upon the rate at which the furnace is heated and that large variations will occur unless care is taken to duplicate conditions of previous tests. Conclusions reached were: that two laboratories must duplicate the essential conditions in order to obtain agreement that the furnaces should be of the same type and heated in a similar manner, that the variations reported by different investigators can often be traced to the fact that conditions have not been duplicated.
KILN CONSTRUCTION1
Authors: LYON J. B. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTSeventeen periodic kilns were studied for construction and design details, operation, and results. Eleven were round and six were rectangular. Alterations were made in grate area proportions, floor openings, flue design, and dimensions; the firing conditions and quality of ware obtained with each were recorded. The data obtained show effect on heat distribution and on time and fuel expenditures. Detail designs of flues are shown and the data are in tables and graphs. Detail specification and bill of materials are given for the 30‐foot round kiln which was found to give best results in ware and costs.
NEW TYPE OF TUNNEL TANK REPLACES DAY TANK1
Authors: WILLIAMS WARREN S. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTCurrent retail distribution methods compel the glass manufacturer to be prepared for rapid changes in style, designs, and colors. Small, flexible, producing units capable of accurate control and permitting rapid color changes or composition of glass aid in maintaining a close ratio between production and current sales. Day tanks are elastic in operation, but are not as economical or reliable as continuous tanks. A day tank was replaced with a tunnel tank (two feet wide by twenty feet long) of equivalent melting capacity per shift. Details of construction, drawing, gas consumption, filling, and operation are given. Advantages gained: dependable production with uniform color, melting conditions stabilized and assurred, producing capacity increased threefold without increasing fuel or labor costs, repair production loss cut, repair labor and material costs reduced.
THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF ERRORS OF SAMPLING AND MEASUREMENT IN CERAMIC RESEARCH1
Authors: Westman A. E. R. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTThe common use of average values based on measurements of a small sample of specimens in ceramic research is pointed out. The principal errors to which such averages are subject are described and the need for a method for proportioning sampling errors and errors of measurement shown. An equation giving the relation between sampling errors and errors of measurement is derived by expression of factors involved in statistical terms and combination of well‐known statistical equations. This equation is used for constructing a chart by means of which questions involving sampling errors and errors of measurement can be readily solved. This chart also enables one to visualize the rôles played by sampling errors and errors of measurement in determining the accuracy of an average. The general applicability of the method is pointed out and its theoretical limitations are discussed.
GRAPHITE AS A REFRACTORY*
Authors: Stonic Richard H. 
Published: July 2010

AbSTRACT(1) Some properties or graphite are discussed and industrial applications as a refractory arc enumerated. (2) Previous work on graphite, particularly during the World War on graphite crucibles, is reviewed. That work was directed toward finding substitutes for imported graphites and clays. Since peace‐time conditions were restored the manufacturers have returned to foreign sources, of raw materials and sonic reasons for this tendency arc advanced. (3) Analyses of Vera1 foreign and domestic graphites are tabulated. (4) Reports arc given on experiments 011 the thermal conductivity of clay‐graphite bodies with the effect of varying percentages of graphite on the conductivity.
EFFECT OF VARIOUS GASEOUS ATMOSPHERES ON THE VITRIFICATION OF CERAMIC BODIES*
Authors: BADGER A. E. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTVarious types of ceramic bodies were fired in atmospheres of O2, N2, CO2, H2, And A marked increase in the rate of vitrification occurred when bodies containing feldspar were fired in an atmosphere of H2O. This effect was explained on the basis of a feldspar‐water eutectic.
ENAMELS OF STANDARD COLORS FOR VITREOUS CHINA SANITARY WARE AT CONE 6*
Authors: Kauitz Karl M. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTThe composition and preparation of the six colorcd enainels for producing the standard color samples in use in the sanitary ware industry are given. These enamels can also be used for the production of a standard vitreous china sanitary ware at cone 6.
STRESSES IN DOMES AND CROWNS OF CIRCULAR KILNS*
Authors: Goodier I.N. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTPrevious papcrs on the analysis of stress in various kinds of domes and crowns of circular kilns point to the dcsirability of a simple and general method applicable to any proposed shape, and capable of indicating what shape will ensure the satisfaction of certain special stress conditions. The method given here can be applied graphically or analytically to domes or kilns, either complete or with circular openings in the crown.The principal point of intcrest for masonry structurcs is whether tensile stresses will occur or not, their occurrence being rcgarded as a criterion of instability. In domes the circuniferential stress (acting across vertical sections through the axis of symmetry) may or may not be tensile according to the shape of the profile. It is shown that domes whose profilesare parabolas or catenaries are free from tensile stress, whether open at the top or not, and that openings are favorable to stability in kiln crowns of any shape of profile. The particular shape which ensures complete freedom from circumferential stress, tensile or compressive, is investigated with results at variance with those of a recent paper.1The principal conclusions arrived at are given in the summary.
MECHANICS OF ENAMEL ADHERENCE, VIII*
Authors: King R.M. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTThe desirability of firing enamels under accurately controlled conditions has, in general, been recognized. The author has made a study of enamel firing under varying pressures and atmospheres (oxidizing, reducing, and neutral) as well as with accurately controlled temperatures. A special apparatus, which is described, was developed for this purpose and soiiie results of these studies under reduced pressure are given and analyzed. This analysis reveals some basic causes of gas defects in enamels.
THE EFFECT OF MECHANICAL PRESSURE ON THE IMBIBITIONAL AND DRYING PROPERTIES OF SOME CERAMIC CLAYS, II*
Authors: Westman A. E. R. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTThe apparatus and technique used in a study of the permeable‐pressing characteristics of ceramic clays, described in a previous paper with the same title, were used in making a detailed study of the effect of molding pressure on the properties of permeable‐pressed disks of Florida and Delaware kaolins. The effect of initially high pressures on the properties of disks made at low pressures was investigated, and the rate of water removal was studied. The permeable‐pressing characteristics of mixtures of clays and nonplastics were investigated at high and low pressures and the firing properties of pcrmeable‐pressed clay disks made in the previous investigation were determined. Further work with larger disks is in progress.
X‐RAY INVESTIGATION OF THE OPACIFYING COMPOUNDS PRESENT IN SHEET‐IRON COVER ENAMELS*
Authors: Andrews Andrew I. , Breen J. P. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTBy the use of X‐ray methods, sheet‐iron cover‐cnamel frits and fired enamels were investigated. The results obtained show that tin oxide exists as tin dioxide in the enamel, antimony as antimony pentoxide, fluorspar as calcium fluoride, and cryolite as sodium fluoride. Zirconium oxide does not exist as the crystalline zirconium oxide even when present as a mill addition. Variations in the compositions of the ordinary sheet‐iron cover enamels do not affect the identity of the crystals.
A SUMMARY OF THE OBSERVATIONS AND FACTS CONCERNING THE PHENOMENON OF REBOILING*
Authors: Lord James Osborn 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTThe recent observations and generally accepted facts concerning the phenomenon of reboiling of enamels on sheet metals are listed concisely. Six photomicrographs are presented to show the outstanding characteristics of the enamels obtained by some of the treatments described in the paper. With no attempt at a final explanation, a series of the most obvious deductions to be drawn from the observations of the first portion of the paper is made. In conclusion, some of the various theories that have been expressed to explain reboiling are mentioned and discussed.
THE ELECTRICAL BEHAVIOR OF GLASS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE*
Authors: Guyer E. M. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTNew instruments and equipment are described for the measurement of the electrical conductivity of glass at room temperatures. The accuracy of the method is discussed and certain precautions are specified for this type of measurement. A short review is given of the results of measurements with such equipment on a series of glasses. In particular, experiments are described on the effect of (1) chilling, (2) prolonged heat treatment which produces an actual separation of phases, (3) mechanical strains, and (4) superposed radio‐frequency currents on the conductivity of the glass at room temperature. In conclusion, i t is pointed out that the results of these measurements indicate that the electrical behavior of glass at room temperature is of importance.
NOTE ON THE DISCOVERY OF A KAOLIN DEPOSIT IN NEW MEXICO
Authors: Richard L. M. 
Published: July 2010

There has recently been discovered in New Mexico a deposit of the English type of kaolin which is of more than ordinary interest. These beds are located in Township 21 South, Range 3 East, Dona Ana County, and occur about fifty miles north of El Paso, Texas.The deposits are of the residual type and have been formed through the chemical process of decomposition of feldspathic materials and leaching. They do not outcrop naturally but occur in the upper workings of a mine at one time worked for metalliferous minerals. The present estimated depth is from 150 to 200 feet from the surface.The kaolin is massive and white in color. Tunnels of great length have been driven through it and it stands in remarkable fashion. For the most part the kaolin appears to have been formed similarly to the deposits in England. It is imminently plastic and fine in grain and due to its extreme whiteness is suitable for paper filler.Tests which have been made show it to have admirable working qualities, comparable with the imported English variety.
WATER‐TIGHT TERRA COTTA MASONRY*
Authors: Anderegg F. O. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTIn spite of the lessened opportunity for moisture to pass the face of a terra cotta wall as compared with brick masonry, certain precautions should be observed to produce a water‐tight wall, especially where the exposure is severe. The bearing of each of the important properties of masonry cements in regard to their application to terra cotta is pointed out and recommendations are made for suitable cementing materials. Suggestions arc offered for the selection of sand and for securing uniformity and intimacy of mix. A joint width of 3/16 to 1/4 inch is recommended where the regularity of the units permits. The joints should he shoved and given a tool finish at the proper stage of stiffening. The joints subjected to extra severe exposure should be packed with prehydrated mortar and properly tool‐finished. Mortar may be aided to adhere to a glazed surface either by using prehydrated mortars or by first painting the surfaces with cement paint. For back‐up, a hollow tile with webs vertical is recommended.
CAUSE OF DEFECTS IN ENAMEL FIRED ON CAST IRON AT TEMPERATURES ABOVE 725°C., I*
Authors: Zapffe C. A. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTA previous investigation on enameling cast iron is continued. Various wet‐process enamels were fired at temperatures above 725 °C. (1335°F.). Blistering and pinholing, even at high temperatures, were found to be caused principally by hydrogen contained in the iron and not by carbon oxides. If carbon oxides form, they do not occur in sufficient quantities to deface the enamels. Dehydrogenized cast iron may be fired as high as 790°C. (1455°F.) with a direct application of sheet‐steel white cover coat and at 840°C. (1545°F.) with sheet‐steel ground coat without incurring defacement. The moisture content of certain constituents in wet‐process enamels at higher temperatures causes an important gas effusion by reacting with the metal. The characteristics of the behavior of hydrogen in cast iron during enameling are compared with those of hydrogen in steel.
SCRATCH BLISTERS, II
Authors: Zapffe C. A. , Yarne J. L. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTThe enamel defect known as “scratch blisters” is consistently found to be caused by hydrogen that is introduced in large quantities at scratch marks. Several independent phenomena may contribute this hydrogen. An electrochemical reaction between iron and its oxide scale during pickling increases the hydrogen absorption at the scratch sufficiently to lead regularly to scratch blisters when steel with a certain type of oxide coating is used. Galvanic nickel coatings aggravate scratch blistering in a manner that is not well understood. Surface impurities and mechanical effects may produce scratch blisters but only circumstantially. The rolling direction of the sheet is found to be related to the occurrence of scratch blisters.
RELATION OF SURFACE OXIDATION TO CERTAIN DEFECTS IN ENAMEL COATINGS ON STEEL, III
Authors: Zapffe C. A. , Yarne J. L. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTOxide on the surface of enameling stock is found to play an important part in controlling the occurrence of hydrogen‐caused defects. Actually, steel with a preformed oxide coating of certain characteristics may be fired directly with a white cover coat without incurring fish scaling, copperheading, blistering, or reboiling. The oxidizing treatment probably removes some of the inherent hydrogen from the stock and then prevents subsequent absorption during firing from the reaction of iron with moisture which remains in the dried enamel coating. The advantages of preoxidation are discussed.All other gases that may evolve from the enamels pass through the enamel without causing defacement. The primary boil simultaneously oxidizes and hydrogenizes the steel; and the pickup of hydrogen, which occurs during firing, is often the portion responsible for subsequent fish scaling and reboiling.
FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS OF HYDROGEN AS A CAUSE OF ENAMEL DEFECTS, V
Authors: Zapffe C. A. , Sims C. E. 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACTThe argument that reboiling is primarily a function of hydrogen is expanded with additional evidence obtained from metallurgical research during the past year. The behavior of hydrogen in rimming‐steel enameling stock is discussed, and an explanation is given for the varying behavior of the edge and center sections of rimming‐steel sheet in the development of certain hydrogen‐caused defects.
EFFECT OF VARIATIONS IN COLOR STAINS AND FRITS ON COLORS PRODUCED IN PORCELAIN ENAMELS*
Authors: Cook Ralph L. , Pelz Robert W. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractA representative series of colors, blue, brown, green, red, and yellow, was selected for this investigation. Variations of the constituents for these five stains were made and the resulting colors produced in the enamels were measured by means of spectrophotometric curves. The influence of additions of barium oxide, lead oxide, and zinc oxide to the frit was also studied. The addition of lead oxide to the frit tended to give greater solution of the blue stains. The barium oxide additions dissolved the lead antimonate yellow the most, while the lead oxide had the least effect on the yellow stains. Variations in calcination temperatures of the red stains produced decided changes in color. The additions of lead oxide darkened the color produced with the red stains.
THEORY OF THE BEHAVIOR OF GLASSWARE IN SERVICE*
Authors: Glathart J. L. , Preston F. W. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractThe most important characteristic of a piece of glassware such as a bottle or a jar is its serviceability, that is, the amount of use which can be obtained from it. In the case of glassware which is subject to repeated re‐use, this serviceability may be thought of in terms of length of life, measured either by months or years, if the service is uniform, or measured by the number of trips successfully undergone if it is not.The termination of the serviceability of such glassware is due to breakage, and breakage in turn is, in the vast majority of cases, due to impact. But a piece of glassware may survive many severe impacts, only to succumb to a comparatively minor one. Impact alone is not the whole story. Glassware must be prepared for breakage by undergoing a process of use and abuse during which the surface is scratched, abraded, and otherwise damaged and thus rendered vulnerable to the final stroke.In the present paper the assumption is made that in nearly all cases breakage involves two separate and independent processes, the “vulnerating” process and the final impact. On this assumption a mathematical treatment is evolved which yields a mortality curve showing the relation between the rate of breakage and the service age of a given installation of glassware. This curve has been found to represent quite accurately the results of a service test on glass tumblers conducted in an actual restaurant.Impact strength, as determined by laboratory tests, declines with service age in a way consistent with the above assumption. These strength data, furthermore, may be correlated with the results of the service test.Additional data are being secured from other service tests now in progress.