bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Netherlands, Psychology in
Authors: van DER Molen Henk T. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The year 1892 is considered as the starting date of the discipline of psychology in The Netherlands. In that year, Gerard Heymans (1857–1930), professor at the University of Groningen, set up the first psychological laboratory in the country. This laboratory was situated in his own house, and the most important subject was his wife, Anthonia, who participated in perceptual and response time experiments. On the one hand, Heymans did empirical research; on the other hand, he was engaged in systematic philosophical work, which resulted in three main books about epistemology, metaphysics, and ethics. This makes clear that psychological issues were studied within the discipline of philosophy in that period, which continued to be the case until World War II.
Neuroimaging in Pediatric Bipolar Disorder
Authors: Muralidharan Anjana 
Published: January 2010

AbstractPediatric bipolar disorder (PBD), like the adult counterpart of the disorder, has been characterized by structural and functional abnormalities in the brain regions responsible for emotional regulation, attentional control, and executive functioning. Studies of PBD subjects have revealed that adult and pediatric bipolar disorder may have shared neurological underpinnings. A few key differences between these populations have also been found, which may provide some insight into vulnerability markers for the disorder (Hajek, Carrey, & Alda, 2005), independent of effects of repeated mood episodes and long‐term medication use.
Neuropsychology
Authors: Golden Charles 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Historically, the field of neuropsychology was derived not only from the discipline of psychology, but also from the various related disciplines within the traditional professions of medicine, education, and law (Meier, 1997). The term
neuropsychology
is a combination of the word
neurology
, which is defined as a branch of medicine that deals with the nervous system and its disorders, and
psychology
, which is defined as the study of behavior or the mind (Finger, 1994). One of the first people to combine the words neurology and psychology into neuropsychology was Kurt Goldstein (Frommer & Smith, 1988) in his book
The Organism
(1939). Neuropsychology today is used to describe a field of psychology that principally circumscribes the identification, quantification, and description of changes in behavior that relate to the structural and cognitive integrity of the brain (Golden, Zillmer, & Spiers, 1992). Although neuropsychological techniques and questions have long existed, the clinical side of the field did not start to expand until the late 1970s. Most practitioners in the field have been trained within the last two decades, with the majority of those in the last 10 years. Neuropsychologists are most prominently represented professionally by the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, Division 40 (Clinical Neuropsychology) of the American Psychological Association, and the International Neuropsychological Society (INS).
Neurosis
Authors: Sugarman Alan 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Although the concept of neurosis dates to 1769 in Cullen's
Synopses and Nosology
, it awaited Freud's early attempts to explain and treat a host of neurotic symptoms, most notably hysterical ones, to establish its nosological prominence. In fact, the focus on the concept and the importance attributed to it as a unique psychopathological condition parallel the prominence and importance of psychoanalysis within the discipline of psychiatry. The general diagnosis of neurosis and many subtypes were included in the first and second editions of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
(DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association, which is that organization's attempt to construct a nosological schema of psychopathology. These manuals were used by generations of psychiatrists and clinical psychologists trained in the heyday of psychoanalysis in the United States. Psychoanalysts maintained prominent administrative and teaching positions in the most prestigious psychiatry departments, clinical psychology doctoral programs, and psychology internships in the post–World War II years. Fenichel's (1945) tome,
The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis,
was requisite reading for clinicians going through these training programs.
Neurotransmitters
Authors: Thorne B. Michael 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance that carries a “message” from the terminal bouton (button) of one nerve cell or neuron across a tiny gap (synapse) to receptor sites on another neuron. Neurotransmitters are, in general, synthesized in the neuron's cell body and stored in tiny sacs called synaptic vesicles.
N
igeria, Psychology in
Authors: Gire James T. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Psychology is relatively new to Nigeria. Its origins can be traced to the offering of courses in counseling and educational psychology in departments of education at the few universities in the country at that time. As an academic discipline, psychology is said to have started in 1964 when the first department of psychology was established at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, with 16 students and two lecturers (Olomolaiye, 1985). Psychology's identity in Nigeria has been that of a social‐science discipline (Obot & Gire, 1995).
Norm‐Referenced Testing
Authors: Kanjee Anil 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
A norm‐referenced test (NRT) refers to a test on which the score of an examinee is reported in comparison to a distribution of scores of other examinees in a reference group. The standards for comparisons are called norms, and the group in which the norms are obtained is called a norm group. Norm‐referenced testing differs from criterion‐referenced testing (CRT), in that the primary purpose of CRTs is to determine how examinees perform in comparison to a predetermined performance level or outcome. NRTs provide information on how well an examinee performs in comparison to other examinees, whereas CRTs provide information on what an examinee knows and can do. A mathematical test used to determine an examinee's performance against specific curriculum outcomes is an example of CRT. By comparison, when assessing mathematical aptitude of examinees, the reference point becomes a specific comparison group.
Obesity
Authors: Perri Michael G. , Nackers Lisa M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Over the past three decades, the prevalence of obesity in the United States has increased at an alarming rate: almost one‐third of the adult population is now obese. The seriousness of this phenomenon is highlighted by the fact that in the United States 5 of the 10 leading causes of death are directly linked to obesity. Excess body weight increases morbidity, decreases life expectancy, and diminishes quality of life. We summarize the scope and seriousness of the obesity epidemic, and we describe the effectiveness of behavioral and pharmacological interventions for the management of obesity.
Occupational Interests
Authors: Leong Frederick T. L. , Golubovich Juliya 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The literature on interests offers many definitions of the term. Interests may be defined, for example, as activities or stimuli that engage one's attention and curiosity. Edward K. Strong, one of the most influential authorities on interests, proposed that interests involve enduring attention, positive feeling, and action directed toward the object of interest, as well as preference for that object over another. Occupational interests in particular may be understood as “patterns of likes, dislikes, and indifferences regarding career‐relevant activities and occupations.” Notably, interests only relay information about the likelihood that an activity will be initiated and continued; interest in the activity does not guarantee that the activity will be carried out successfully. For career interests this means that an individual's interest in a career does not carry the promise of his or her high performance in it. Additional factors, such as abilities, bridge the gap between interest and performance.
Oedipus Complex
Authors: Barratt Barnaby B. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Oedipus complex is a psychoanalytic concept that refers to psychological conflicts experienced by every individual. The complex was named by Sigmund Freud in 1910 after the Greek tragedy of King Oedipus (Freud, 1910/1957). As a baby, Oedipus narrowly escaped being killed by his father. Later he unknowingly killed his father and inadvertently married his mother. When he came to realize what he had done—that the man he had killed was his father, and that the woman he was having sex with was his mother—he was so horrified that he blinded himself and gave up his kingdom. The story suggests how there may be aggressive competition between fathers and sons. It also shows how powerful is the taboo against incest, and how incestuous feelings may cause intense guilt. Freud held that every boy struggles with such feelings. Later he extended this theory to girls, because they have feelings of rivalry toward their mother figures as a consequence of harboring secret erotic feelings toward their father figures (Freud, 1933/1964). Psychoanalysts view these conflicts as entirely normal, although they are often the source of conflicts in later life (Young, 2001).
Oppositional Defiant Disorder
Authors: Barry Tammy D. , Lochman John E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a recurrent pattern of negativistic, disobedient, and hostile behavior by young people toward authority figures. A diagnosis of ODD requires that four or more of the following eight symptoms have been present over the course of at least 6 months: (1) losing one's temper, (2) arguing with adults, (3) actively defying adults' requests or rules, (4) deliberately annoying others, (5) blaming others for mistakes, (6) being easily annoyed, (7) being angry and resentful, and (8) being spiteful or vindictive (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Those receiving a diagnosis of ODD exhibit such behaviors at a frequency above what is considered to be developmentally appropriate, and such behaviors lead to significant impairment in social or academic functioning. These symptoms need only be present in one setting to warrant a diagnosis, and children sometimes exhibit symptoms in the home setting without concurrent problems at school or in the community. Likewise, teachers may identify ODD symptoms among students who do not show the same severity of problems in nonacademic settings (Drabick, Gadow, & Loney, 2007).
Oxytocin
Authors: Young Larry J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Oxytocin is a nonapeptide hormone and neuromodulator with a range of physiological and psychological effects related to reproduction, social cognition, and behavior (Burbach et al., 2006). Oxytocin is produced predominantly in the hypothalamus and is projected to the posterior pituitary for release into circulation, where it acts as a hormone. Oxytocin released into circulation plays important roles in regulating both lactation and the progression of labor. Oxytocin is the most uterotonic substance known, and pitocin, a synthetic oxytocin, is widely used by physicians to stimulate the progression of labor. Nipple stimulation during nursing stimulates synchronous firing of hypothalamic neurons via a reflex arch, resulting in the pulsatile release of oxytocin from the mother's pituitary gland. This elevation in oxytocin stimulates milk ejection by causing myoepithelial cells in the mammary gland to contract.
Pain Theories
Authors: Melzack Ronald 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The traditional theory of pain, which evolved during the early twentieth century, holds that pain is a specific sensation produced by a direct‐line pain pathway from pain receptors in the body to a pain center in the brain. Research based on this theory focuses on acute pain evoked by noxious stimulation and has investigated physiological mechanisms at every level of the pathway from receptors to cerebral cortex (Dostrovsky & Craig, 2006). Although acute pain due to injury or surgery is now generally well controlled by a variety of drugs, the direct‐line theory of pain has failed to reveal new therapies to control chronic pain such as the neuralgias and fibromyalgia.
Paradoxical Sleep
Authors: Thorne B. Michael 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Paradoxical sleep is a sleep stage characterized physiologically by a lack of muscle tone; rapid eye movements (REMs), which are not always rapid; and an awake cortical electroencephalographic (EEG) pattern. The paradox refers to the disparity between the alert EEG pattern, implying that the person is awake or nearly so, and the indications that the person is actually more deeply asleep than at other times (difficulty in arousing, reduced muscle tone). The lack of muscle tone prevents the sleeper from performing the activities reflected in the alert EEG pattern.
REM without atonia
or
REM behavior disorder
is a sleep disorder in which the atonia fails to occur, with the result that the sleeper may actually perform his or her REM sleep actions.
Paranoid Personality Disorder
Authors: Harper Robert G. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Most people recognize the term
paranoid
as unwarranted suspiciousness or mistrust of others' actions or intentions due to belief that others are seeking harm or harboring ill will toward them. Anyone can have such concerns for a time, but when it becomes a pervasive and enduring feature of one's way of dealing with the world, then this can constitute a paranoid personality disorder. Among mental health disciplines, there is consensual agreement reflected in the American Psychiatric Association's (APA)
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
(
DSM;
the gold standard for diagnosis of psychiatric disorders) that a personality disorder is an enduring, inflexible pattern of behavior across a broad range of functional contexts that produces either clinically significant personal distress or disruption and impairment in a person's social, occupational, or “other important areas of functioning” (APA, 2000). The prevalence of paranoid personality disorder (PPD) has been estimated to range from 0.5–2.5% in the general population, to be four times more prevalent in outpatient psychiatric settings, and to occur 10–30% in inpatient psychiatric facilities (APA, 2000). It is also thought to be more prevalent among males. Though it is a comparatively uncommon condition, its impact can be pervasive. Many would agree that dramatic examples in history of paranoid personalities include Joseph Stalin and perhaps Saddam Hussein.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Authors: Quigley Karen S. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) is one of the divisions of the autonomic nervous system that controls the function of organs and glands in the body (the efferent portion), and the PNS senses changes in these visceral systems (the afferent portion); the other autonomic division is the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The neurons that comprise the efferent PNS (also called the craniosacral system) arise from either the cranial nerves, which exit from the brain stem and spinal cord, or from the sacral portion of the spinal cord. Cranial nerve parasympathetic fibers innervate the viscera of the head, neck, chest, and upper abdomen, including the upper portions of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Sacral parasympathetic fibers innervate the lower GI tract and other organs of the pelvis.
Partner Abuse
Authors: Schumacher Julie A. , O'Leary K. Daniel 
Published: January 2010

AbstractPartner abuse is variously referred to as domestic violence, battering, wife beating, spouse abuse, spousal assault, partner aggression, and intimate partner violence. Partner abuse is a very broad term, most typically referring to three distinct types of abusive behaviors that occur within the context of an intimate relationship: physical, psychological, and sexual. Physical abuse includes behaviors ranging in severity from those that are unlikely to result in injury, such as pushing and grabbing, to those that can be life‐threatening, such as choking, kicking, beating, and using a weapon against a partner. The definition of psychological abuse is broad, encompassing behaviors that range from insulting or swearing at a partner, to threatening a partner, to engaging in jealous behaviors, to isolating a partner from friends and family. Sexual abuse refers to any undesired sexual contact that is psychologically or physically coerced and includes behaviors such as insisting a partner have sexual intercourse without a condom and using physical force or threat of force to obtain oral, anal, or vaginal intercourse. Because of the greater research emphasis on physical abuse than on psychological and sexual abuse, physical partner abuse is our focus here.
Passive‐Aggressive Personality Disorder
Authors: Zagelbaum Adam , Carlson Jon 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The concept of Passive‐Aggressive Personality Disorder (PAPD) is less controversial than its validity. The disorder used to be known as Negativistic Personality Disorder (NEGPD) and has undergone several changes in terms of its classification, criteria, and appearance within empirical studies. Its original appearance in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders
was in 1952 (
DSM‐I;
American Psychiatric Association [APA]). Criteria for this disorder centered on dispositional qualities of individuals who would passively resist demands related to everyday routines (Rotenstein et al., 2007). Subsequent versions of the
DSM
would lead to revised criteria by which PAPD was identified within clinical fields. Clinicians responsible for these revisions often related their rationale for doing so because of clients' tendencies to show pervasive oppositional thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that also manifested themselves within interpersonal relationships (Ritzler & Gerevitz‐Stern, 2007).
P
avlov,
I
van
P
etrovich (1849–1936)
Authors: Haynie N. A. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was the eldest of 11 children. He learned about hard work and responsibility at an early age. In 1860, Pavlov entered a theological seminary, but in 1870 he changed his mind and went to the University of St. Petersburg to study to begin a long career in physiological research. He earned his doctorate in 1883 from the Military Medical Academy. In 1891, he was appointed director of the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg, and in 1897, he became a professor at the university. In 1904, his research work on the primary digestive glands was recognized with the Nobel Prize.
Perceptual Control Theory
Authors: Marken Richard S. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Perceptual control theory (PCT) is a theory of mind that was developed by William T. Powers and his colleagues to explain the purposeful behavior of living organisms (Powers, Clark, & McFarland, 1960). Purposeful behavior is seen in the ability of organisms to produce preselected results in a disturbance‐prone world, as in the human ability to drive to a preselected destination despite unpredictable disturbances like road closures and car problems. Powers's use of control theory to explain purposeful behavior was based on his experience as a control engineer, which gave him the opportunity to see that the controlling done by artificial control systems, such as a thermostat, is equivalent to the purposeful behavior carried out by living systems, such as a driver. In both cases, systems are producing preselected results in the face of unpredictable disturbances. PCT is a theory of how systems, living and artificial, produce results on purpose, that is, how they exert control.
Performance‐Based Personality Measures
Authors: Viglione Donald J. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractPerformance‐based personality measures are assessment techniques that require the respondent to perform a task and that are designed to uncover or elicit information or insight into the personality in action. These tasks might, for example, involve completing a sentence, telling a story, or characterizing an emotion or verbalizing a statement in response to a depicted situation. Performance tests bring aspects of relevant behavior, associations, perceptions, organizations, emotions, and interpersonal attitudes and styles into the consulting room to be observed (Levy, 1963). The task itself is typically incomplete, contradictory, or ambiguous. With little external structure, direction, or guidance provided, respondents must rely on themselves in formulating a solution, which maximizes the effects of individuals' interpretation, processing, and personality on their performance.
Personality, Biological Bases of
Authors: Zuckerman Marvin 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The topic of the biological bases of personality was largely theoretical in the first half of the twentieth century because of the primitive stage of the science of neuropsychology, particularly in regard to the brain. Gardner Murphy's 1947 book on personality was subtitled “a biosocial approach,” but there was little on biology as a source of personality differences, just some discussion of body types and speculations about the potential role of endocrine hormones and other peripheral physiological variants.
Personology
Authors: Millon Theodore 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The word
personality
is derived from the Latin term
persona,
originally representing the theatrical mask used by ancient dramatic players. As a mask assumed by an actor, persona suggests a pretense of appearance, that is, the possession of traits other than those that actually characterize the individual behind the mask. In time, the term
persona
lost its connotation of pretense and illusion and began to represent not the mask, but the real person's observable or explicit features. The third meaning that personality acquired delves beneath the surface impression to turn the spotlight on the inner, less often revealed, and hidden psychological qualities of the individual. Thus, through history, the meaning of the term has shifted from external illusion to surface reality to opaque or veiled inner traits. The fourth conception of personality
,
which is labeled
personology,
comes closest to contemporary use. Today, personality is seen as a complex pattern of deeply embedded psychological characteristics that are expressed automatically in almost every area of psychological functioning; that is, personality is viewed as the patterning of unique characteristics that penetrate the entire matrix of the person.
Phobic Disorder
Authors: Epstein Alyssa M. , Craske Michelle G. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Whereas most individuals have some level of fear or anxiety about certain situations, objects, or events, phobias are considered to be more extreme, persistent, and irrational fears that produce a conscious avoidance of the feared stimulus. According to the
DSM‐IV,
phobic disorder is diagnosed when the following symptoms are present: a marked and persistent fear of a situation or stimulus, exposure to this feared situation or stimulus almost invariably invokes anxiety or panic attacks, the feared situation or stimulus is avoided or endured with intense anxiety or distress, and the avoidance interferes with the individual's functioning or there is marked distress about the phobia (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Adults with this disorder realize that the fear is excessive, although children may not have this insight. Whereas phobic disorders share in common features of threat‐relevant responding (i.e., anxious apprehension, fear, and avoidance), they differ in the object and breadth of threat.