bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Bruce invasion of Ireland (1315–1318)
Authors: Duffy Seán 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Bruce invasion of Ireland is one of the most written‐about episodes in later medieval Irish history, not for what it achieved—it ultimately failed—but for what it promised: the overthrow of the English conquest of Ireland that had begun almost 150 years earlier, establishing a Scottish prince—Edward, brother of King Robert Bruce—as king of Ireland with Irish backing, and rousing of the Welsh too to rebellion against the recent English conquest of Wales.
C
hulalongkorn, King (Rama
V
) (1853–1910)
Authors: Angeles J. Amiel 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
King Chulalongkorn “the Great” of Thailand was born on September 20, 1853, to King Mongkut (1804–1868) and Queen Debsirindra (1834–1861). Chulalongkorn was still young when he was groomed to be Mongkut's successor. He received a combined Thai and western education; he spent some time as a Buddhist monk and among his instructors was the famous Anna Leonowens. To prepare him for government, he was “apprenticed” by his father and joined him in public audiences and government business.
Colonial Wars, Dutch Indonesia (Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries)
Authors: Moor Jaap De 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the Netherlands was a small, almost inconspicuous country in the community of nations. It did, however, possess an impressive colonial empire in Asia and America, fifty times the size of the home country. While Dutch possessions in South America and the Caribbean (Surinam and the Antilles) were small, present‐day Indonesia—then called the Netherlands Indies—projected onto the map of Europe would stretch from Dublin to Moscow. On the eve of World War II, the Netherlands Indies comprised between sixty and seventy million inhabitants (at least eight times the population of the home country), most of whom were Muslims. A small upper class of around 240,000 Dutchmen and other Europeans dominated the spheres of administration, the plantations, and industry.
Congo Wars (1960s–2000s)
Authors: Stapleton Timothy J. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractDuring the 1950s Belgian colonial rulers failed to prepare Congo for independence. The many Belgians in the civil service meant that few black Congolese gained administrative experience or western education. With much of the rest of Africa moving toward independence, Congolese political movements emerged along regional and ethnic lines. When the Belgians finally decided to decolonize, they did so with only six months preparation, intending that a weak Congo would be dependent upon their assistance. In 1960, the first independent government was led by Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, a PanAfricanist from the northeast, and President Joseph Kasavubu, a Bakongo irredentist from the west. Continued Belgian control of the army quickly led to mutiny, attacks on Belgian civilians, and Belgian withdrawal from the capital. Albert Kalongi declared the diamond mining area of Kasai independent, though this was suppressed by Lumumba's new army, transported in Soviet‐supplied trucks and aircraft. In the mineral‐rich southern province of Katanga, Moise Tshombe declared secession, supported by western mining interests and the Belgians. Belgian soldiers disarmed Congolese army units in the area and organized a Katanga military with Belgian, French, South African, and Rhodesian mercenaries. While Lumumba called for United Nations (UN) assistance, international peacekeepers undermined his authority by seizing the country's airports, disarming soldiers loyal to him, and refusing to crush Katanga separation. Lumumba and Kasavubu dismissed each other, and the former was placed under house arrest by army commander Joseph Mobutu. Lumumba attempted escape but was recaptured and flown to Katanga where, in February 1961, he was killed on Tshombe's orders.
ConstantiusII(317–361)
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav 
Published: November 2011

AbstractAlthough Constantius II would eventually unite all of the Roman Empire that had been partitioned among the sons of Constantine I the Great in 337CE, his reign marked a further separation between its eastern and western parts. Generally successful militarily, he constantly had to have someone share the responsibility of controlling the empire, fighting incessant competitors andrepelling numerous foreign invasions.
Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)
Authors: Morgan Rhys 
Published: November 2011

AbstractOne of the most controversial figures in British military and political history, Oliver Cromwell was a minor English gentleman who rose to prominence as a parliamentarian cavalry commander during the English Civil Wars. In a military career lasting only nine years, Cromwell earned a reputation as one of England's greatest soldiers and became general of the New Model Army. He helped orchestrate the execution of King Charles I in 1649 and was made lord protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland in December 1653. He ruled until his death on September 3, 1658.
Cuban Revolution (1956–1959)
Authors: Jose María Herrera 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Cuban Revolution was a revolt led by Fidel Castro against the corrupt government of Fulgencio Batista. Though the revolution attracted broad support from the various Cuban social classes, the communists, influenced and led by Castro's brother Raúl and Ernesto Guevara, gained prominence and eventually dictated the nature of the revolution.
Decapitation strategy
Authors: Brough Gideon , D. Williams Alun 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The strategy of disrupting or defeating an enemy by eliminating its military and political leadership, “decapitating” the army or society, has long been practiced in conflicts and advocated by strategists as diverse as Sun Tzu and Machiavelli. The principal benefit of decapitation is that much can be gained, immediately, from a limited operation. Removing leaders can bring victory in battle, decisively turn a campaign, or cause an entire country to fall. There are weaknesses inherent in this strategy, however; its success seems dependent on the specific context in which it is employed.
Dönitz, Admiral Karl (1891–1980)
Authors: John T. Kuehn 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Karl Dönitz was born in Berlin on September 16, 1891. He enlisted in the imperial German navy in 1910 as a sea cadet and became a midshipman the following year. In 1914 he was commissioned as a second lieutenant and was aboard the cruiser
Breslau
when she made her dash for Turkey with the battle cruiser
Goeben.
He requested a transfer to the U‐boat forces in 1916. His active submarine service occurred in the Mediterranean serving under the U‐boat ace Walter Forstmann. In February 1918, Dönitz received his first U‐boat command, UC‐25. After that his career took a turn for the worse while commanding another submarine. His boat was sunk and he was taken prisoner by the British. However, he had gained an appreciation for the dangerous potential of the submarine in naval warfare. Asked to remain in the German navy after the war, Dönitz claimed he did so only when assured that the navy once again would include U‐boats.
Douhet, Giulio (1869–1930)
Authors: Michael Perry May 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Giulio Douhet was one of the most influential military theorists of the twentieth century. His controversial ideas on winning command of the air, employing air power for strategic effect, and bombing civilian non‐combatants have impacted political and military policies and planning since he penned his renowned treatise
Command of the Air
in 1921. Both the publication of his ideas and their application in war fueled endless debate on the effectiveness and the morality of bombing civilians since the end of World War II.
English Civil War (1642–1651)
Authors: Wanklyn Malcolm 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Civil war between Charles I and his parliament broke out in England in the summer of 1642. The context has been a perennial occasion for debate — the struggle for parliamentary democracy, the Puritan Revolution, a bourgeois revolution, a chapter of accidents, and the last baronial revolt. However, leading royalists fought for a range of motives — a strong monarchy, the Church of England as established by Elizabeth I, and a fear that a weakening of the hierarchy of landownership and power was in prospect. The supporters of parliament similarly had different agenda. Some wished to see monarchical power diminished and made accountable to parliament; others feared the resurgence of Roman Catholicism following a major uprising in Ireland in 1641; and yet others wanted the liberties of the subject enhanced or the Church of England made more Protestant. For individuals, a host of personal considerations affected choice of sides, including personal advancement, security, traditional loyalties, family connections, and past power relationships. Both sides were therefore coalitions, which for parliament became more apparent when an alliance was forged with the rulers of Scotland in September 1643.
Ethics of war
Authors: Coady C. A. J. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThese moving words of Franklin Delano Roosevelt reflecting on his participation in World War I are engraved in stone on the Roosevelt Memorial in Washington, DC. They were spoken in 1936 and encapsulate what is morally problematic, to say the least, about the waging of war. Yet it was the same Roosevelt who strove so mightily (and often furtively) not long afterwards to bring a reluctant United States into the war against Germany, only gaining his object when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor in 1942. The tension between his words and his later endeavors reveals the logical space an ethics of war attempts to fill.
First Indochina War (1945–1954)
Authors: Goscha Christopher.E 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Indochina War was a colonial and civil conflict, a violent hotspot in the Cold War, as well as a social, cultural, and ideological battle. The conflict divided the French and the Vietnamese, opposed Vietnamese, engulfed the Lao and the Cambodians, and involved the Chinese, British, Soviets, and Americans, among others.
French and Indian War (1754–1763)
Authors: Macleod D. Peter 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The French and Indian War involved France, Britain, and numerous Amerindian nations in a struggle for control of northeastern North America that ended in a decisive British victory. Significant in itself, the French and Indian War was the North American component of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), which pitted France against Britain in the global struggle for empire that Winston Churchill called the “first world war.”
French conquest of Algeria (1830–1847)
Authors: Vandervort Bruce 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe French seizure of Algiers from its nominal Ottoman overlords in 1830 was not intended to be permanent, much less the prelude to a conquest of the rest of the country. Rather, it was a last‐ditch effort by the unloved Bourbon monarchy in France to avert revolution by winning glory for the nation abroad. Even so, the expedition was a substantial undertaking. Some 675 ships were assembled at the Toulon naval base near Marseille to transport the 37,000‐man assault force and its baggage across the sea to Algiers.
French Foreign Legion
Authors: Vandervort Bruce 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The French military employed large numbers of foreign soldiers throughout the nation's history but none ever achieved the notoriety of the French Foreign Legion, founded in 1831 during the reign of the last French king, Louis‐Philippe, and still operating today. The Legion was originally founded to provide employment for the king's recently disbanded Swiss Guard and as a repository for worrisome political refugees living in the French capital. Subsequently, it became one of the main instruments of French imperial expansion and national defense in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The fame of the French Foreign Legion encouraged other countries to emulate it, but only one such experiment, the Spanish Foreign Legion, has endured.
Frontinus, Sextus Julius (d. 103 or 104)
Authors: Campbell Brian 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Frontinus was a Roman senator of the imperial period who occupied a distinguished position in society, holding numerous important public offices, winning the favor of emperors, and being a notable writer. The Younger Pliny described him as one of the two most respected men of his day (
Letters
5.1). His origins are obscure: he may have come from southern Gaul, and his early career cannot be recovered before the praetorship held in 70. He played some part in the exciting events after the civil wars of 68/69 when Civilis, a Roman citizen and prince of the Batavians, led a revolt of his people against Roman rule; he tells us that he accepted the surrender of seventy thousand of the Lingones, who had allied themselves with Civilis, presumably during the military operations. Frontinus soon held a consulship (perhaps in 72 or 73). His next assignment was as governor of Britain, where he carried on substantial military operations, first in south Wales in putting down the revolt of the Silures, and then in north Wales against the Ordovices. The subjugation of Wales was a significant military achievement, but details are lacking.
Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (“Mahatma”) (1869–1948)
Authors: Bonney Richard 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Gandhi's unique contribution to nonviolent civil resistance cannot be understood without reference to the interaction of two concepts, “truth force” (satyagraha, from satya: truth; and agraha: firmness) and non‐violence (ahimsa, the avoidance of violence, a principle to be found in Hinduism and Buddhism, but particularly strongly in Jainism, for which it is a central tenet). There were strong Jain traditions in the area of Gujarat in which Gandhi was born; and the oath of purity taken by Gandhi at his mother's insistence before leaving for England was administered by a Jain seer. Gandhi, however, remained a Hindu. Gier (2004: 31) disputes the impact of Jainism on Gandhi, stating that it “was not as great as he or others have claimed.” Gandhi was also influenced by the writings of others—by Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862), whose article of 1849 entitled “Resistance to Civil Government” advocated “actions through principles”; and by Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God is Within You (1894), which proposed non‐violent resistance—but his was an essentially personal synthesis, an active ahimsa, unlike the largely passive Jain concept.
Genghis Khan (1162–1227)
Authors: Boyd James 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Temuchin, better known as Genghis Khan, meaning “great ruler,” overcame adversity and hardship to unite the Mongol people and forge the largest empire the world has ever seen. A ruthless warrior who endured great suffering as a child, he was a charismatic individual who attracted fierce devotion and grew into an outstanding military leader and an astute politician.
Grant, General Ulysses
S
. (1822–1885)
Authors: Crosswell D. K. R. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Commander of Union armies in the Civil War, Ulysses S. Grant served two terms as American president (1868–1876). His friend and trusted subordinate, William Sherman, considered Grant “the greatest soldier of our time if not all time.” Sherman also identified another salient element to Grant's success: Grant more perfectly embodied the extant American character “than any other living man.”
Great Northern War (1699–1721)
Authors: Stevens Carol B. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Great Northern War was the decisive and final conflict in a series of wars beginning in 1558 with Muscovy's attack on the collapsing Livonian Order. Five countries—Denmark, Sweden, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Brandenburg–Prussia, and Muscovy—contested power at the eastern end of the Baltic on‐and‐off for roughly the next century and a half. Russian victory in 1721 proved unequivocal, marking Russia's emergence as a European power, the destruction of Poland–Lithuania's military might, and the precipitous decline of the Swedish Empire. Although Sweden tried in the eighteenth century to recapture some of its lost territories, this transformation of northern Europe proved lasting.
Guderian, General Heinz (1888–1954)
Authors: Lieb Peter 
Published: November 2011

AbstractGeneral Heinz Guderian is often considered to be the father of modern armored warfare and his name is closely linked to the successfulBlitzkriegtactics of the German army during the first half of World War II. These tactics were characterized by speed and surprise, thereby allowing the ruthless exploitation of the enemy rear areas once a breakthrough had been achieved. This concept provided the foundations of what is today termed “maneuver warfare” in the English‐speaking world.
Guomindang (Kuomintang)
Authors: Reist Katherine 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Guomindang (GMD) or Nationalist Party began as an amalgamation of Sun Yatsen's United League with four other parties in the wake of the revolution of 1911. As Sun's ideas and power were undermined by the military commander Yuan Shikai, Sun returned to Guangzhou and organized the GMD, which won the subsequent parliamentary elections. Yuan dissolved the parliament, ruled as a military dictator, and died a few years later. His subordinates maintained control over areas of China as warlords from 1916 to 1927. Sun, aware of the chaos in China, tried to organize an effective government and military in order to unify the country. Requests for western aid having failed, Sun was relieved by a Soviet offer of party and military advisors and aid, the only condition being the acceptance of individual Chinese Communist Party (CCP) members into the GMD, as the first United Front. Since both parties were small and had similar goals for unification and modernization, their union was initially successful. However, differences in means and ends became apparent by 1927, not only between the GMD and CCP, but within the GMD itself. Many factions and leaders challenged those who had taken over after the death of Sun, particularly Jiang Jieshi, who had trained many in the officer corps of the revolutionary army. Unity of a sort was achieved and the GMD, having purged the CCP from the party, began to govern from their capital at Nanjing.
Gustavus Adolphus, Gustav
II
Adolf (1594–1632)
Authors: Crosswell D. K. R. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
At Breitenfeld, the threads of the military revolution intertwined, providing the first authentic glimpse of modern war fighting. None of the political, administrative, or military reforms originated in Sweden—all derived from imitations and improvements on European models—but the state and military structures fashioned during the reign of Gustavus Adolphus represent the first bridge from early modern developments toward a revolutionary mode of warfare.
Hague Conventions (1899, 1907)
Authors: Webster Andrew 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907 marked the first significant attempts to codify the international law of war and the opening of the modern era of efforts toward international disarmament. The First Hague Conference (May 18–July 29, 1899) adopted three conventions and three declarations: the Convention (I) for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, the Convention (II) with respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land, and the Convention (III) for the Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of the Principles of the Geneva Convention of August 22, 1864; and the Declaration concerning Asphyxiating Gases, the Declaration concerning Expanding Bullets, and the Declaration to Prohibit for the Term of Five Years the Launching of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons, and Other New Methods of a Similar Nature. The Second Hague Conference (July 15–October 18, 1907) adopted 13 conventions and one declaration: the Convention (I) for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, the Convention (II) respecting the Limitation of the Employment of Force for the Recovery of Contract Debts, the Convention (III) relative to the Opening of Hostilities, the Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, the Convention (V) respecting the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in Case of War on Land, the Convention (VI) relating to the Status of Enemy Merchant Ships at the Outbreak of Hostilities, the Convention (VII) relating to the Conversion of Merchant Ships into War‐Ships, the Convention (VIII) relative to the Laying of Automatic Submarine Contact Mines, the Convention (IX) concerning Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War, the Convention (X) for the Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of the Principles of the Geneva Convention, the Convention (XI) relative to Certain Restrictions with Regard to the Exercise of the Right of Capture in Naval War, the Convention (XII) relative to the Creation of an International Prize Court, and the Convention (XIII) concerning the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers in Naval War; and the Declaration Prohibiting the Discharge of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons. The principles laid down in the various Hague conventions (in combination with the Geneva conventions) underpinned the international law regulating armed conflict throughout the twentieth century and indeed continue to do so into the present.
Hamilcar Barca (ca. 285–229/8 BCE)
Authors: Hoyos Dexter 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Hamilcar Barca was a noted Carthaginian general in the First Punic War, who afterwards became
de facto
leader of Carthage and initiated her recovery as a great power. He was born before 280
BCE
, for by 240–238 he had two marriageable daughters, while his eldest son Hannibal was born in 247. “Barca” was not a surname—Carthaginians had none—but a nickname meaning “lightning‐bolt” or perhaps “blessed” in Punic. He was appointed general in 247 over the now meager Punic forces in western Sicily: 17 years of largely unsuccessful war with Rome had curtailed both Carthage's possessions there—these now comprised solely the ports of Drepana and Lilybaeum (Trapani and Marsala)—and her resources.
Hitler, Adolf (1889–1945)
Authors: Bendersky Joseph 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Among the most infamous dictators in history, Adolf Hitler emerged from the streets of Vienna and Munich to become political master of Germany between 1933 and 1945. Motivated by extreme racial ideology, this shrewd, opportunistic political figure led the Nazi Party in overthrowing the Weimar Republic and ruling Germany until defeat in World War II. He achieved domestic successes in reviving the economy and national morale at the expense of freedom and human decency, and through a terror state notorious for its racial and anti‐Semitic repression. Seeking a racial empire in Europe, Hitler swiftly conquered most of the continent by 1942, causing destruction, suffering, and death to millions, before bringing total destruction on Germany at the hands of western and Soviet forces in 1945.
Howe, General William, 5th Viscount Howe (1729–1814)
Authors: Conway Stephen 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
William Howe, commander in chief of the British army in North America during the War of Independence, was born on August 10, 1729, the third surviving son of Emanuel Scrope Howe, 2nd Viscount Howe, and his wife Mary Sophia Charlotte, the daughter of Johann Adolph von Kielmansegg. William entered the British army as a cornet of dragoons in 1746. He was quickly promoted to lieutenant, and by the beginning of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) he was a captain in the 20th Foot. Howe was given the rank of major in the newly formed Royal American Regiment, and became lieutenant colonel of the 58th Foot in 1757.