bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Insect Flight Control
Authors: Taylor Graham K. 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
This chapter aims to provide an overview of the integrated functionality of the insect flight control system. A key difference of insects from aircraft is their sensor‐rich feedback control architecture. Sensory inputs are therefore considered first, dealing with visual, inertial, and aerodynamic sensing in turn to elucidate some of the functional advantages of this architecture. Besides these sensors responding to rigid body motion, flying insects are also equipped with strain sensors that respond to aeroelastic deformation of the wings in flight, and which appear to be used in feedback to the flight controller. Insect wings deform greatly in flight, which complicates interpretation of their kinematics. The function of the flight muscles in relation to controlling the wingbeat is discussed and several of the most salient wing kinematic parameters are identified. Finally, the unsteady, separated flow dynamics of insects are considered from the perspective of maneuvering flight. The chapter concludes with a brief assessment of the prospects for drawing biomimetic inspiration from the extraordinary maneuverability of insects, and from the simplicity of the flight controller that appears to derive from having such rich sensor input and actuator output.
Fundamentals of Micro Air Vehicle Flight Dynamics
Authors: Żbikowski Rafa 
Published: December 2010

AbstractFlight dynamics describe possible interactions between the air flow generated by the aircraft and the inertial motion of the aircraft; the nature of those interactions is the physical foundation of flight control. This chapter outlines theoretical and practical knowledge on flight dynamics available from large‐scale aviation which is relevant to professional micro air vehicle (MAV) design. The emphasis is on good understanding of flight dynamics as the cornerstone of MAV flight performance and also a key factor in MAV control design. The influence of the aerodynamics on the MAV flight dynamics is of fundamental importance and hence the meaning of aerodynamic modeling is explained in detail, together with the associated sensor technology. The MAV sensors, required for flight dynamics measurements, are essential for practical implementation at the required scale.
Autonomous Flight of Rotary WingMAVUsing Infrared and Ultrasonic Sensors
Authors: Iwakura Daisuke , Nonami Kenzo 
Published: December 2010

AbstractThe accuracy of small and low‐cost GPS is insufficient to provide data for precisely landing micro air vehicles (MAVs). This study shows how an MAV can land on a small targeted landing site by using rangefinders rather than imprecise GPS data. This chapter describes a proposed movable range‐finding sensor system for measuring the environment and an algorithm of position measurement. This range‐finding system consists of four infrared (IR) rangefinders, four servomotors, and one ultrasonic rangefinder. In order to measure the MAV's position, the sensor system vertically swings each IR rangefinder using the servomotors and these IR sensors detect the edge of landing target. And this sensor system calculates the position from the measured edge direction and the ultrasonic altitude. Additionally, experiments of autonomous hovering over a 52 cm × 52 cm table and autonomous landings were carried out indoors using the proposed sensor system. Our experiments succeeded, and as a result, the MAV kept flying horizontally within a 17.9‐cm radius circle, and then it landed on the table from a height of 50 cm. The IR rangefinders were selected because of the payload limitations of small MAVs. If the MAV's payload capacity were higher, then a laser rangefinder would be used since lasers can operate better in sunlight than IR sensors. Laser rangefinders also tend to have longer scanning ranges and are more accurate.
Development of Centimeter‐sized Aerial Vehicles
Authors: Sunada Shigeru , Tokutake Hiroshi 
Published: December 2010

AbstractFrom the viewpoints of stability and safety in outdoor flights, a centimeter‐sized UAV probably has a larger possibility to be used in our everyday lives than different sized UAVs. Centimeter‐sized fixed‐wing UAVs that have already been developed can make autonomous flights. However, their flight speed, that is, their momentum, is fairly high. To use them, their flight speed must be decreased. On the other hand, centimeter‐sized rotary‐wing UAVs that have also already been developed can also make autonomous flights. However, their weight is fairly large. To use them in our daily life, their weight must be decreased. Longer flight duration is also required. For both fixed‐wing and rotary‐wing UAVs, higher reliability is also required.
Flapping‐Wing Propelled Micro Air Vehicles
Authors: Jones Kevin D. , Platzer Max F. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractIn recent years, several micro air vehicles have been built and flown that use flapping wings to generate lift and/or thrust. These designs can be classified as either biomimetic, trying to mimic nature as closely as possible, or biomorphic, being inspired by nature but adopting only certain features from nature. The basic physics of the flapping‐wing phenomenon is first discussed, followed by a description of the recently developed flapping‐wing micro air vehicles.
Fractionated Spacecraft: Exploring Possible Futures of Space Systems
Authors: Brown Owen , Collopy Paul 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
In this chapter, spacecraft fractionation is described. In this approach, a satellite is decomposed into a cluster‐flown, wirelessly linked, distributed network, which can carry out the same function as a comparable monolith. The origins of the concept are described that lead to a full depiction of the approach. The benefits of fractionation are articulated using the concepts of flexibility and robustness. Means to measure value, to include derived value from flexibility and robustness, are detailed using the net present value methodology. Finally, the technological and policy‐oriented challenges are discussed.
Electronic Warfare and Defensive Aids Systems Design and Development
Authors: Pywell Mike 
Published: December 2010

AbstractDesign and development of airborne Electronic Warfare (EW) systems is described, with a focus on self‐protection Defensive Aids Systems (DAS) that are essential to military aircraft and aircrew survival when going ‘in harm's way.’ Whilst much of the material is equally applicable to the individual components of EW systems and DAS, the chapter primarily focuses on platform‐level aspects of the latter. EW definitions are provided and systems described. EW's contribution to survivability is outlined. The route from military user need, through defense procurement agency requirements' expression, to equipment specification is explained. System acceptance philosophy and methods are described. The EW test and evaluation process is outlined and details are given of supporting capabilities for performance verification and customer acceptance into military service. The chapter is written from the perspective of a major international military air/sea/land platform prime contractor and systems integrator. It provides information from a U.K. viewpoint and, whilst national variations are known to exist, the design and development processes and techniques described are broadly general. In particular, the EW test and evaluation capabilities used to support the development and acceptance processes are similar around the world, although some high‐value test facilities are much less common, for example aircraft‐sized RF anechoic chambers.
Installed Antenna Performance Design And Verification
Authors: Macnamara Thereza M. 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
The radiation pattern of an antenna can be severely affected by the airframe on which it is installed. The installed antenna pattern is peculiar to each airframe and therefore the radiation pattern differs from that obtained on other airframes. The process used to design the antenna layout on an aircraft is outlined together with the measures undertaken to achieve interoperability between systems connected to antennas. The effect that the airframe has on the radiation pattern of blade antennas is illustrated and the formulas used to calculate the coupling between antennas are given, including empirically derived values for antenna gains developed in an EU project entitled Installed Performance of Antennas on aeroStructures. The various computational tools used to model the radiation patterns of aircraft are described qualitatively and the predicted patterns compared with measurements, to demonstrate the accuracy of these tools. A brief description of the design and qualification/certification phases is also given.
Design Aspects of Aircraft Vulnerability
Authors: Pywell Mike , MacDiarmid Ian 
Published: December 2010

AbstractThe introductory chapter, ‘The Survivability Balance’ (The Survivability Balance), highlights the three components of survivability, namely damage avoidance, tolerance, and repair. This chapter provides an overview of the design considerations of an aircraft to ensure that if damage cannot be avoided then, as far as possible, the aircraft will be tolerant (i.e., not vulnerable) to damage that causes mission, aircraft, or aircrew loss.This chapter indicates the types of threat and resulting damage to be considered. The vulnerability reduction strategies that can be adopted in the design and their impact on vulnerability are introduced for airframes and systems. At a top level there are aircraft configuration considerations such as engine location, fuel tank arrangements, and flight control surface concepts. At a more detailed level in the airframe, structural integrity in the event of damage must be considered. For the system, the design and architecture (layout) of the system must be considered such that duplication, separation shielding, and isolation are considered to maintain (as far as practical), critical system functions despite damage from hostile attack.Finally, vulnerability assessment is introduced as an activity that is undertaken throughout the aircraft design and development process. At an early stage, when the details of the aircraft design are fluid, it is appropriate to carry out qualitative and then quantitative vulnerability analyses. This approach ensures that the top level aircraft configuration is optimized for reduced vulnerability and thus maximized survivability.
An Introduction to Project Management
Authors: Faddy David 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
The introduction briefly explains the nature of project management and specifies its main contributing features together with the authors concerned. These are: the physiological effects of human factors, team‐working, passenger evacuation, reliability and maintainability, cost analysis, cost forecasting, scheduling and life‐cycle engineering, both theoretical and practical. Each of these topics is subsequently discussed in detail in articles by distinguished experts in the relevant field.
Human Factors for Maintenance Engineers and Others – A Prerequisite for Success
Authors: Bennett Simon A. 
Published: December 2010

Abstract

Crew resource management (CRM) has made commercial aviation safer by improving teamwork on the flight‐deck, in the cabin, and between the flight‐deck and cabin. Aviation, however, is a complex activity involving numerous actors whose talents must be allowed to flourish and whose actions require close co‐ordination. These actors include air traffic controllers, dispatchers, fuellers, loaders, and maintenance engineers. Maintenance, calibration, and testing account for up to 65% of human performance problems in engineering. Unlike pilots and cabin crew, maintenance engineers have generally not had the benefit of CRM training. It is argued that CRM training for engineers would reduce maintenance error: (i) by improving communication and co‐ordination (thus helping engineers maintain a
singular
mental model/situation assessment); (ii) by encouraging engineers to question instructions or practices they consider ill‐advised; and (iii) by bringing every useful resource (both physical and experiential) into play. While some engineering teams may practise certain CRM skills naturally, it is important that such skills are learned in a structured environment away from the shop‐floor. Only in this way can competencies be calibrated and a consistent standard established. Maintenance engineers must be allowed the time and space to reflect on praxis.

Since pertinent problems and their solutions are similar across virtually all organizations, this article draws upon examples across engineering in general and even beyond where this enables a point to be made with particular clarity.
Design Considerations for Enhanced Passenger Aircraft Evacuation
Authors: Grant Rebecca L. , Muir Helen C. 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
In the event of an aircraft accident involving fire, it is important that all passengers are able to evacuate as quickly and efficiently as possible. Unfortunately accident investigations have shown that this has not always been the case, and as a result extensive research has been conducted on passenger behavior and emergency evacuation. Consideration is given to the research that has been conducted into the factors that have been proposed to influence evacuation, and suggestions made for areas for ongoing exploration.
Reliability and Maintainability
Authors: Crocker John 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
Aircraft, whether civil or military, fixed wing or rotary wing, generally require a lot of maintenance. Most of this maintenance will require skilled personnel using special equipment in purpose‐built facilities. It is likely to cost the owner several times the initial purchase price of the aircraft. Anything that can be done during the design phase and subsequently through the aircraft's in‐service life to reduce these costs will very likely make the aircraft both cheaper to operate and more attractive to potential buyers. This section looks at some of the tools available to the designer to help influence these costs and what the operator might do to further reduce them while the aircraft is in‐service.
These tools range from the simple reliability block diagrams through fault‐tree and failure mode effects and criticality analyses to statistical analysis, life testing, simulation modeling, health monitoring, risk assessment, and fleet management. While there are many tools and techniques available to perform many of these tasks, it has to be recognized that the reliability of an aircraft, sub‐system or even a part cannot be determined until the last aircraft of the given type has been scrapped or re‐cycled. The reason aircraft today are more reliable than their predecessors is mainly down to experience, lessons learnt, better materials, and better manufacturing processes and controls not, in the main, because of better reliability tools.
Project Management: Cost Analysis
Authors: Pugh Philip G. , Faddy David , Curran Ricky 
Published: December 2010

AbstractVirtually all decisions in management turn ultimately on the balance of costs and revenues. The article therefore first discusses the nature of costs and the various different types of cost, together with the way they can be aggregated into life‐cycle costs. It then goes on to describe the contribution of cost analysis to the periodic review of major projects required by most procurement authorities, the phenomenon of cost growth associated with the tendency to initially underestimate costs. Finally, it identifies some of the problems with ‘just in time’ practices, risk registers and the assessment of levels of technical maturity.
Project Management: Cost Forecasting
Authors: Pugh Philip G. , Faddy David , Curran Ricky 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
This article, recognising that a forecast of costs is an essential aid to decision‐making at every stage of a project, discusses appropriate methodologies. It describes ‘bottom‐up’, ‘top‐down’ and intermediate approaches, together with their advantages and disadvantages. It also describes the assembly of a data base of past project costs and the need to express each of them at the same economic conditions by the use of inflation indices. Methods of deriving cost estimating relationships using regression analysis and the assessment of their predictive capability are described.
Project Scheduling
Authors: Browning Tyson R. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractThis chapter provides an overview of ten general steps in project scheduling, an essential component of project planning. The ten steps are: (i) define the project's scope and final deliverables, (ii) define the activity set, (iii) decompose the activities and deliverables, (iv) determine the flow of deliverables, (v) determine the activity modes and their durations, (vi) sequence the activities and events, (vii) load and analyze the resources, (viii) adjust the project's duration and risk, (ix) secure commitments to perform, and (x) iterate. One may accomplish these steps with more or less rigor, and with varying methods and tools, depending on such factors as project size, novelty, dynamism, complexity, resources, and risk. Rather than providing detailed explanations of the various techniques in each step, which would require an entire book, the chapter puts these into an overall context and provides references to sources of deeper explanation.
Aerospace Avionics Systems
Authors: Atkins Ella M. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractAvionics systems have become the information backbone of modern Aerospace systems ranging from micro‐air vehicle and nano‐satellite to jumbo jet and advanced spacecraft. With origins in vacuum‐based radios, the rapid evolution of electronics and software has enabled the development and integration of sensing, processing, and communication elements to perform a wide variety of monitoring, control, and communication tasks. This chapter overviews avionics systems for air and space systems, summarizing the functionality, technologies, and interfaces that have evolved. Although mission objectives and avionics designs differ from air to space systems, both rely on a common suite of interdisciplinary technology areas, including electrical engineering (sensors, communication devices, and power systems), computer engineering (processors and networks), software engineering (including validation and verification), control systems engineering (including guidance, navigation, and control), and human factors (cognitive engineering, life support). Training and education concerns are also discussed in the context of preparing engineers and pilots to design and operate next‐generation avionics systems. Avionics technologies, existing and emerging, are summarized here at a system‐level; further details of avionics subsystem technological capabilities and needs are referenced in other Encyclopedia Chapters (Embedded UAS Autopilot and Sensor Systems through Space Human Factors and Operator Interfaces).
Embedded
UAS
Autopilot and Sensor Systems
Authors: Beard Randal W. 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
The objective of this chapter is to give an overview of autopilot software design for small and miniature unmanned air systems. An architecture that is typical of commercially available autopilots is described. A detailed explanation of the inner‐loop control structure is described, including the lateral directional feedback loops and the longitudinal directional feedback loops. We give a brief description of the sensor package that is usually on small UAS, and describe simple filtering schemes for extracting estimates of the states needed by the autopilot. Finally, we briefly describe GPS navigation for following straight lines and orbits.
Aircraft Communications and Networking
Authors: Rankin James M. , Matolak David W. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractAircraft communications have long relied on wireless radio communications to transmit air traffic control instructions and airline operational information between ground facilities and aircraft. As the number of aircraft and ground facilities increase, there is more demand for communication capacity in the frequency spectrum allocated for aeronautical communication. This increased demand has been satisfied so far by slicing the spectrum into smaller bandwidth channels. This issue of frequency congestion is particularly acute near large airports when many people are trying to speak at once on the same channel. Frequency congestion can make it difficult for a pilot to make a radio call in a timely manner. Digital datalinks were thus implemented to transfer non‐time‐critical information. The use of these datalinks reduces the need for voice communication, which then alleviates frequency congestion. The initial use of datalinks has been for airline operations and flight information such as local weather and airport status. As the United States transitions to the Next Generation Air Traffic System, digital data links are the enabling technology that will enhance aircraft communication and networking. Data links will also be used in navigation, surveillance, and flight information services. This chapter reviews aircraft communication basics, traditional types of aircraft communication, and current and future aircraft communication and networking plans.
Space Vehicle Communication and Networking
Authors: Clare Loren P. , Clement Bradley J. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractSpace missions range from Earth‐orbiting satellites to deep space and planetary surface missions. Issues such as time delay, blackout periods, bandwidth limitations, and power constraints make space‐based communication a unique challenge. This chapter overviews the challenges associated with spacecraft communication and solutions adopted and advanced for spaceflight. These challenges have motivated the development and deployment of strategically placed relay stations on the Earth and in space. Spacecraft communications structure and protocols will be overviewed, and associated engineering considerations with ground systems. Data compression and onboard processing will be introduced as methods with potential to better utilize available bandwidth.
Aircraft Pilot and Operator Interfaces
Authors: Cummings Mary L. , Zacharias Greg L. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractThe shift from mechanical/pneumatic instruments and dedicated mechanical controls/linkages to glass cockpit displays and “fly‐by‐wire” controls has not only transformed the appearance of the modern‐day cockpit, but with the growth of on‐board computational power, the role of the pilot has changed from one of directly controlling the aircraft to one of system management and automation supervision. This move towards human supervisory control means that computer‐mediated displays (primarily visual and auditory) and associated controls are the conduit through which pilots “manage” the aircraft and its subsystems. Thus operator interface design is critical for safe and efficient operation. This chapter provides a brief history of human‐cockpit interface evolution, outlines design variables, principles, and guidelines for effective interface design, and concludes with a discussion of the parallels and differences between conventional manned aircraft interfaces and unmanned aerial vehicle operator ground control stations.
Space Human Factors and Operator Interfaces
Authors: Henshaw Carl Glen , Roberts Brian John 
Published: December 2010

AbstractHuman factors, also known as human factors engineering or ergonomics, is the branch of engineering that deals with understanding and improving how humans and mechanical, electronic, and software systems interact. Areas of space exploration in which human factors engineering is important include design of human/machine interfaces, including flight control stations and robotic operator interfaces; design of astronaut tools and spacesuits; design and evaluation of operator training regimens; and design and evaluation of human/robotic teams, including team member roles, interactions, and capabilities.