bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The 1977 Protocols: a landmark in the development of international humanitarian law
Authors: Kosirnik René 
Published: January 2010

By adopting on 8 June 1977 the two Protocols additional to the 1949 Conventions, the States meeting in Geneva brought to a successful conclusion four years of arduous negotiations. The Protocols took four years, the Conventions only four months. Why such a huge difference?In 1949, once the initial period of instinctive rejection of anything related to war had passed, a natural consensus emerged regarding the main evils which needed to be banned by law. Besides, the delicate subject of the rules governing the conduct of hostilities — the law of The Hague, as it is called, also part of humanitarian law — was left out of the discussions. It was also a time when the political map of the world was fairly monolithic, in the sense that the North still dominated the South, and East-West tensions had not yet escalated.
The historical foundations of humanitarian action
Authors: Guillermand Jean 
Published: January 2010

After nearly 130 years of existence, the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement continues to play a unique and important role in the field of human relations.Its origin may be traced to the impression made on Henry Dunant, a chance witness at the scene, by the disastrous lack of medical care at the battle of Solferino in 1859 and the compassionate response aroused in the people of Lombardy by the plight of the wounded. The Movement has since gained importance and expanded to such a degree that it is now an irreplaceable institution made up of dedicated people all over the world.
Remembering Hiroshima
Authors: Bugnion François 
Published: January 2010

The seventh largest city in Japan by population size, located on the mouth of the Ota River, whose muddy waters pour into the Inland Sea, Hiroshima had been almost spared by the bombing until the summer of 1945.At dawn on 6 August 1945, four reconnaissance planes flew over the city and disappeared again without dropping any bombs. At 7:31 the sirens signaled the end of the alert. The inhabitants left their shelters and went about their business.
Handling the tragedy in Novye Atagi — The Norwegian Red Cross experience
Authors: Heiberg Astrid Nøklebye 
Published: January 2010

In the following pages I will give an account on how the Norwegian Red Cross reacted to the tragic killing of six ICRC delegates in Chechnya in December 1996. Then was the time for action; now is the time for reflection.For the Movement as a whole it is vital that we now focus on the security issue as it affects our Red Cross/Red Crescent workers. At the same time, we must never let evil acts like this paralyse our ability to operate in conflict areas.
Prosecution of suspected war criminals in Switzerland
Authors: van Wijnkoop Jürg 
Published: January 2010

Legal basesBy ratifying the Geneva Conventions of 1949, Switzerland undertook to supplement its national legislation accordingly. Its subsequent revision of the Swiss military penal code in 1950, though certainly prompt, was half-hearted. It was not until 1 March 1968, when a broader revision came into force, that national legislation was fully adapted to meet the requirements laid down in those Conventions:— the scope of application of Swiss criminal law was extended to cover all armed conflicts within the meaning of international conventions;— civilians who commit offences against international law in the event of armed conflict were explicitly made liable to military jurisdiction; it is thereby clearly established that Switzerland, or more specifically the military justice authorities, must prosecute violations of international humanitarian law even if the offence is committed outside Switzerland by nationals (civilians or members of the armed forces) of another country.
Effect of embolisation on endoscopic resection of angiofibroma
Authors: Mohammadi M , Saedi B , Basam A 
Published: January 2010

AbstractObjective:To determine the effect of embolisation on endoscopic resection of angiofibroma.Subjects and method:A partially blinded trial was undertaken. Twenty-three patients with angiofibroma (nine embolised and 14 not embolised) underwent endoscopic resection between January 2007 and August 2008 in two tertiary referral centres. Demographic data were collected, the pre-operative tumour extent was assessed by computed tomography, and tumours were staged according to their computed tomography appearance (Radkowski scale). In addition, we evaluated the duration of surgery, amount of haemorrhage, blood pressure during surgery, duration of hospitalisation, complications of surgery and embolisation, cost of treatment, and number of post-operative recurrences, as well as the angiographic characteristics in the embolisation group.Results:There was no significant difference between the general characteristics of both groups. At the end of the study period, we could find no significant difference between the two groups regarding haemorrhage, number of recurrences or complications. The only significant difference was cost of treatment, which was significantly higher in the embolisation group.Conclusion:Endoscopic resection is a feasible and safe method for angiofibroma surgery. The current evidence does not support obligatory embolisation in every case of endoscopic angiofibroma resection.
Crises and Growth: A Latin American Perspective
Authors: Edwards Sebastian 
Published: January 2010

ResumenEn este artículo uso datos históricos para analizar la relación entre crisis y crecimiento en América Latina. Calculo en cuanto se ha reduci-do el PIB per capita en la región como consecuencia de las recurrentes crisis externas. Analizo, también, los principales determinantes de las crisis de balanzas de pagos. La principal conclusión es que es poco probable que América Latina experimente, en promedio, una mejora impor-tante en su crecimiento en el largo plazo. Es posible que algunos países experimenten un cierto progreso en su convergencia con los países avan-zados. Esto, sin embargo no será la norma; la mayoría de los países latinoamericanos se atrasaran en relación a los países asiáticos y otros países en desarrollo emergentes. Mi análisis también sugiere que en el futuro el tipo de crisis catastróficas, tan comunes en la región, afectarán a un menor número de países. El futuro de América Latina será «Sin crisis y con un crecimiento muy modesto».
El legado colonial y el desarrollo regional en Colombia
Authors: Bonet Jaime , Roca Adolfo Meisel 
Published: January 2010

ResumenEste trabajo utiliza los aportes teóricos y empíricos de la reciente literatura internacional sobre los determinantes del crecimiento económico de largo plazo, para explicar el origen histórico de las enormes desigualdades económicas regionales que caracterizan a Colombia. Los resultados indican que la geografía y la cultura no son un determinante directo de las diferencias en el ingreso per cápita regional. Sin embargo, la geografía tuvo un papel central pero indirecto, a través de su influencia en los patrones de poblamiento durante el período colonial. Si bien las estimaciones econométricas muestran la enorme influencia del legado colonial sobre las diferencias contemporáneas en los ingresos departamentales, no es claro si el efecto opera vía las instituciones o el capital humano.
The Other Europeans: Immigration into Latin America and the International Labour Market (1870–1930)
Authors: Alonso Blanca Sánchez 
Published: January 2010

ResumenNo todos los europeos emigraron a Estados Unidos. Entre 1879 y 1930 alrededor de 13 millones de europeos fueron a América Latina. Sin embargo, América Latina no está plenamente incorporada a los debates actuales sobre costes y beneficios de las migraciones atlánticas. Este artículo presenta un estado de la cuestión de la inmigración en América Latina desde finales del siglo XIX hasta 1930. Evalúa las inferencias realizadas a partir de la experiencia de los inmigrantes europeos en Estados Unidos y se cuestiona su validez para el caso latinoamericano. Los temas tratados en la primera sección incluyen las tendencias migratorias y su cronología, el origen nacional de los flujos y la evolución de los salarios reales entre países receptores y emisores. El trabajo presenta nuevos datos sobre el coste del transporte en la migración internacional. Una segunda sección examina la contribución de los inmigrantes al crecimiento eco nómico de América Latina, con especial énfasis en el capital humano de los inmigrantes europeos. El impacto de la inmigración sobre la mano de obra y la estructura demográfica de los países de inmigración, en el corto y en el largo plazo, se analiza en la sección siguiente.
Bonsais in a Wild Forest? A Historical Interpretation of the Longevity of Large Spanish Family Firms
Authors: Pérez Paloma Fernández , Raposo Núria Puig 
Published: January 2010

ResumenEn este artículo se presentan los primeros resultados de una investigación en curso sobre la longevidad de las grandes empresas familiares españolas. Su principal objetivo es proporcionar datos sólidos sobre un tema en el que abundan más las opiniones que las estadísticas científicas, así como identificar las claves de la supervivencia y competitividad de las cerca de 250 empresas en que se basa el estudio. Se concluye que esta realidad no es sólo el resultado de dos décadas de integración económica en Europa o de una buena dotación de recursos naturales, sino también de un largo período de aprendizaje y de la combinación de dos factores: la especialización en nichos de mercado que no fueron objeto de interés estratégico por parte del Estado, y la habilidad para consolidar redes personales de cooperación e influencia dentro y fuera del país.
Una mirada ingenua sobre las series del sector exterior, 1869–1999
Authors: Sanz José María Serrano , Sort Marcela Sabaté , Rivas María Dolores Gadea 
Published: January 2010

RESUMENEste trabajo propone periodificar el sector exterior de la España contemporánea (1869–1999) con mirada ingenua. Es decir, su propuesta es periodificar dejando que sea el análisis estadístico de las nuevas series de Prados (2003), quien establezca etapas y las caracterice. Los resultados así obtenidos permiten afirmar que existieron dos etapas compactas pero diferentes entre sí, separadas por una larga transición. La primera etapa, hasta 1935, fue la de un comercio impredecible, con escasa relación con la evolución de la renta. La transición se prolongó hasta 1960 como un periodo lleno de irregularidades. Ese año se abre una segunda etapa compacta, la de un comercio de madurez, predecible y fuertemente vinculado a la evolución de la renta.
Statistics of Spain's Colonial Trade, 1747–1820: New Estimates and Comparisons with Great Britain
Authors: Cuenca-Esteban Javier 
Published: January 2010

AbstractNew estimates of Spain's current-account balance with the «Indies» add new perspectives to the recent debate on the aims and results of Spanish commercial policy. At the height of «comercio libre» in 1784–92, Spain's private commercial interests appear to have drawn larger financial returns from the Indies than did their British counterparts from wider colonial engagement. On this as on other scores, by the eve of the French wars the Spanish empire appears to have become a sounder economic proposition than might be inferred from recent pessimistic views. The empire's subsequent demise may have involved a greater degree of geographical and dynastic accident than is seemingly apparent.
Autarkic Policy and Efficiency in the Spanish Industrial Sector. An Estimate of Domestic Resource Cost in 1958
Authors: Ruiz Elena Martínez 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe impact of Francoist autarkic economic policy on Spain's economy is assessed using Domestic Resource Cost (DRC) as an indicator. This indicator compares the real opportunity cost of the primary factors used in the production of a certain good with its added value at international prices. Our results indicate that the inefficient allocation of productive factors induced by the interventionist economic policy resulted in a significant loss of efficiency for the economy. Only 50 out of 125 industries or, in other words, 39 per cent of Spanish industrial production, could be considered efficient. However, the paper also shows that the Spanish economy was in a good position to take advantage of the opportunities created by the 1959 reform, as most industrial production was on the verge of relative efficiency.
Convergence, trade and industrial policy: Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay in the international economy, 1900–1980
Authors: Bértola Luis , Porcile Gabriel 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThis paper discusses the economic performance of three Latin American countries (Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay) from a comparative perspective, using as a benchmark a group of four developed countries (France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States). The focus is on the relative performance within the region and between the Latin American countries and the developed countries in the period 1900–1980. The paper argues that Argentina and Uruguay benefited from a privileged position in international markets at the beginning of the 20thcentury and this allowed them to converge. However, they failed to adjust to the major long-run change in the pattern of world trade brought about by World War I and the Great Depression, which implied a persistent decline of their export markets. On the other hand, Brazil, after having been much less successful until 1930, grew at higher rates thereafter based on rapid structural change and the building up of competitive advantages in new industrial sectors. The more vigorous Brazilian policy for industrialization and export diversification may explain why Brazil succeeded in changing its pattern of specialization, while Argentina and Uruguay were locked in to the old pattern. A typology of convergence regimes is suggested based on the growth experience of these countries.
The role of Mexico in the first world oil shortage: 1918–1922, an international perspective
Authors: Rubio María Del Mar 
Published: January 2010

ResumenEn 1921 México producía un cuarto del petróleo mundial, siendo el segundo mayor productor en el mundo, pero para 1930 ya sólo representaba el 3 por cien de la producción. Hasta la fecha la mayor parte de la discusión se ha basado en los hechos acaecidos en México para explicar el declive de la industria petrolera, poniéndose muy poca atención en los acontecimientos de la industria petrolera en otros lugares, salvo en Venezuela. Prácticamente ningún esfuerzo se ha dedicado a entender las razones del auge, ignorando así los cambios masivos que tuvieron lugar en la industria petrolera durante la Primera Guerra Mundial y la inmediata posguerra, y sobre todo, olvidando la crisis energética que se produjo entre 1918 y 1921. Estos eventos son cruciales a la hora de comprender el primer auge de la industria petrolera mexicana y sientan las bases para comprender mejor el posterior súbito declive.
Electricidad e industria en la España rural: el Irati, 1904–1961
Authors: Irurzun Urrutia Josean Garrués 
Published: January 2010

ResumenEl estudio del Irati pretende mostrar algunos de los comportamientos empresariales que se esconden detrás de las primeras fases del desarrollo eléctrico español y, a su vez, establecer nuevas preguntas sobre los factores y condicionamientos de los procesos regionales de industrialización. De hecho, esta firma representa una de las múltiples posibilidades abiertas por la electricidad en una región española no industrializada a principios del siglo XX. La producción eléctrica generada en sus saltos explica la creación del mayor complejo industrial integrado en España alrededor de la primera transformación de la madera (serrerías y destilación química) y su comercialización (ferrocarril), al tiempo que la venta de sus excedentes energéticos en el mercado más importante de Navarra. El análisis de esta última actividad, además, permite ofrecer un modelo explicativo alternativo y complementario al clásico—realizado desde las mayores firmas—, sobre la progresiva articulación de los mercados eléctricos tradicionales en los mercados integrados de las grandes compañías españolas.
Entre la eficiencia y la equidad. Los desafíos de la reforma fiscal en Buenos Aires. Primera mitad del siglo XIX
Authors: Gelman Jorge , Santilli Daniel 
Published: January 2010

ResumenEn 1821 se realiza una reforma fiscal en Buenos Aires de claro carácter modernizador. Se suprimen gravámenes de antiguo régimen y se crea un sistema que si bien incluye los inevitables impuestos al comercio exterior, implanta contribuciones directas a los capitales, con el objeto de disminuir la dependencia de los primeros y distribuir más equitativamente la carga fiscal, imponiendo a los propietarios según sus riquezas.En este trabajo se reconstruyen las series impositivas, mostrando el escaso peso de la Contribución Directa en el conjunto. Se estudian también diversos intentos de mejorar su recaudación, que fueron fracasando uno tras otro.Finalmente se analizan las causas de estos fracasos y la lógica que llevó a los gobiernos del período a mantener un sistema impositivo regresivo, pero eficiente y con menores costos políticos.
La convertibilidad de la peseta en el siglo XIX
Authors: Ródenas Clementina , Bru Segundo 
Published: January 2010

ResumenEste artículo presenta una nueva interpretación para una cuestión central de la historia monetaria española. En España, desde el Decreto de Figuerola de 1868, el sistema monetario legal era, y continuó siendo a lo largo de todo el siglo XIX, bimetalista. Como consecuencia de tal sistema el Banco de España, al igual que el Banco de Francia, podía realizar el pago de sus billetes en plata, en oro, o en ambas monedas metálicas. Por ello, en 1883 no hubo ninguna declaración de inconvertibilidad ni el abandono de ningún supuesto patrón oro. La convertibilidad de la peseta, que no puede identificarse exclusivamente con su canje por oro, siempre estuvo asegurada por las leyes y por la jurisprudencia. En España, a diferencia de Italia, Portugal, Austria o Francia, no hubo nunca curso forzoso del billete.
Gender Equality and Inequality in Numeracy: The Case of Latin America and the Caribbean, 1880–1949
Authors: Manzel Kerstin , Baten Jörg 
Published: January 2010

ABSTRACTThis article outlines the development of gender disparities in education for 28 Latin American and Caribbean countries for the period from 1880 to 1949, using age heaping techniques. We explore in particular the hypothesis of a U-shaped development of women's education during economic development, i.e., a decrease in gender equality at lower levels of overall education, and increasing gender equality at higher levels. For the downward sloping part, we find some evidence, although this part is relatively small. The upward sloping part is strongly confirmed. We also find that non-Hispanic Caribbean countries had substantially lower gender inequality rates than Latin American countries. A second major contribution is to document the development of average numerical abilities (of both genders) in these 28 countries.
Regulación Económica y Mercado en el Sector de las Telecomunicaciones. Telefónica: 1945–1965
Authors: Calvo Ángel Calvo 
Published: January 2010

ABSTRACTThis article analyses the impact of market forces and regulation in the Spanish telephone sector. It aims to explore the combined effects of the intersection between regulation of the monopoly, economic policy and entrepreneurial strategies, and hypothesizes that the regulation had a decisive influence on the development of the networks and services. Chronologically, the study covers the two decades of the transition from autarky to the Stabilization and Development Plans. In its double supply-demand approach, the article quantifies investment as an expression of supply and reviews the ground rules within which these two market forces developed. Finally, it examines the situation of shortages that the intervention created, and explains the intervention in prices from the perspective of the trade-off between its use as an element of stabilization and the bargaining power of the sector. The conclusions reflect the impact of the regulation and highlight its more complex aspects.
La Integración del Mercado Español a Finales del Siglo XIX: Los Precios del Trigo Entre 1891 y 1905
Authors: García Mariano Matilla , Pascual Pedro Pérez , Carnero Basilio Sanz 
Published: January 2010

ABSTRACTThe degree of development of Spanish agriculture at the end of the XIX century and the beginning of XX is a controversial issue. In this respect the study of the integration of the domestic market could provide new evidence since the degree of the market integration can be considered an indicator of economic development. By using regional wheat prices this paper analyzes the Spanish market integration between 1891 and 1905. With this aim in mind we employ the usual cointegration approach as well as an alternative method based on spectral analysis that allows taking into consideration the existence of no synchronized cycles.
Equality or Growth: A 20th Century Argentine Dilemma
Authors: Gerchunoff Pablo , Llach Lucas 
Published: January 2010

ABSTRACTArgentina's long term economic performance between 1880 and 2000 (convergence with the rich followed by divergence) can be understood in terms of the economic and political consequences of its peculiar factor endowments. Skewed endowments meant huge gains from trade during the First Globalization boom; but, conversely, disintegration of world commerce in the Depression was a heavier blow for such a naturally specialized economy. The extreme protectionism, characteristic of the post-war period, was related to the country's peculiar economic structure: comparative advantages in food production and disadvantages in (labor-intensive) manufacturing implied that closing the economy was a political winner, though it eventually hampered growth. The road to openness followed in the last quarter of the 20th century would have meant, correspondingly, an increase in inequality. Attempts to moderate it through debt accumulation and exchange rate appreciation destabilized the economy and contributed further to Argentina's comparative decline.
UnZaibatsuFuera de Lugar: Los Orígenes Del Grupo Fierro (1870–1939)
Authors: Román Elena San 
Published: January 2010

ABSTRACTThis work focuses on the origins of the Fierro Group. Ildefonso Fierro (1882–1961) was one of the most prominent businessmen of Franco's regime. Fierro's case study presents two features that distinguish it from other Spanish family firms founded in the first half of the twentieth century: its high degree of diversifcation and its peculiar financial history. Prior to the commencement of the Franco dictatorship, Fierro had managed to form a diversifed family business and had bought a bank to finance his industrial activity. This article analyzes how he achieved this and compares his path with that of the JapaneseZaibatsu.
Comparing the demonstration of freedom fromTrichinellainfection of domestic pigs by traditional and risk-based surveillance
Authors: SCHUPPERS M. E. , FREY C. F. , GOTTSTEIN B. , STÄRK K. D. C. , KIHM U. , REGULA G. 
Published: January 2010

SUMMARYTraditionally, the routine artificial digestion test is applied to assess the presence ofTrichinellalarvae in pigs. However, this diagnostic method has a low sensitivity compared to serological tests. The results from artificial digestion tests in Switzerland were evaluated over a time period of 15 years to determine by when freedom from infection based on these data could be confirmed. Freedom was defined as a 95% probability that the prevalence of infection was below 0·0001%. Freedom was demonstrated after 12 years at the latest. A new risk-based surveillance approach was then developed based on serology. Risk-based surveillance was also assessed over 15 years, starting in 2010. It was shown that by using this design, the sample size could be reduced by at least a factor of 4 when compared with the traditional testing regimen, without lowering the level of confidence in theTrichinella-free status of the pig population.