bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
15 ‘People Like Us’ in the Face of History: Cormon’s Les Vainqueurs de Salamine
Authors: Schultze Clemence 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the French academic painter Fernand Cormon's Les Vainqueurs de Salamine (1887). It shows how the Persian Wars chimed at this time with a mood of nationalist revanche and military reform. The War Minister General Boulanger enjoyed huge popularity, confronting Germany and passing measures to render the French army a citizen militia on ancient lines; Themistocles himself in the painting resembles Boulanger on his famous curvetting horse. It is little surprise that Cormon's contemporaries read the work as showing the Greeks as ‘people like us’, in their vulnerable bodily reality, their fervent patriotism, and in their supportive womenfolk. The Persian Wars theme here expresses through history painting the aspirations of ordinary members of a community at a critical turning point of world history.
16 Xerxes Goes to Hollywood
Authors: Levene D. S. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Rudolf Maté's The 300 Spartans (1962) was a commercial success and has enjoyed perennial popularity. More people in the 20th-century world acquired an understanding of the Persian Wars from this film than from any other single source. This chapter draws on archival research into journalistic responses to the film in the USA at the time of its release, and discovers alternative political resonance far more in tune with the domestic concerns of the American heartland than those which have dominated the discussion: Thermopylae has always held a special place in the American imagination as the classical forerunner of the heroic deeds of 1836 when the Catholic mission- cum-fortress known as the Alamo became the ‘cradle of Texan Liberty’. Persia was identified with Mexico and Leonidas with David Crockett and the other heroes of Texas.
17 The Guts and the Glory: Pressfield’s Spartans at the Gates of Fire
Authors: Bridges Emma 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
One artistic genre that has received comparatively little attention in studies of the reception of ancient history is that of the historical novel. This chapter shows that literary snobbery regarding novels concerning the Persian Wars can to some extent be justified — many 20th-century novelistic depictions of the conflict with Persia read simply as exercises in reproducing the Persian Wars topoi with little imagination and few attempts to engage the reader in a believable representation of the historical past. There are, however, some notable exceptions to such sanitized fictionalizations. The chapter focuses on Steven Pressfield's Gates of Fire (1998). This version of the Thermopylae story stands out largely because of Pressfield's refusal to shrink from dealing with many of the less appealing aspects of Spartan society and military training, as well as his vivid imagining of the horrors of war and the effects of conflict on the mentality of its very real human participants.
Competitive and Co-operative Strategies II: Directives
Authors: Minchin Elizabeth 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the use of directives — those speech acts by which a speaker tries to make an addressee do as he or she proposes. Sometimes speakers will use unambiguous imperatives; at others, exhibiting what Penelope Brown calls ‘negative politeness’, they will allow some degree of ‘interactional leeway’. Three categories of directive have been identified for study in the epics: imperatives, mitigated forms, and oblique directives and hints. The study concludes that although men and women understand the advantages of mitigated forms, and use them, there is a very high tolerance of imperative forms, whether voiced by men or by women. Young people addressing their elders, however, choose mitigated forms rather than bald imperatives. It is in this category alone that we find interesting reflections on status.
Competitive and Co-operative Strategies III: Interruptions
Authors: Minchin Elizabeth 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In conversation people generally observe a principle of turn-taking. Interruption occurs when a participant breaks in on the person speaking in an attempt to take the floor. Interruption in Homer's world is relatively rare. This chapter evaluates the function of those interruptions that Homer describes, asking in particular whether we might associate interruption with the verbal behaviour of men or of women. Despite the evidence of the Iliad, which shows interruption as a pattern of dominance associated more with men, the evidence of the Odyssey indicates that there can be no single reading of interruption in Homer's world.
Storytelling and Gender
Authors: Minchin Elizabeth 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines stories from the world of Homer to observe whether Homer is consistent in his representation of gender differences in storytelling in respect of theme, content, and presentation. Homer's men tell longer stories and observe other markers of men's storytelling in the Western world of today. Women tell fewer stories, but these are appropriate to the worlds in which they live: stories of failure, loss, and unhappiness. The exception is Helen in the Odyssey. Women, unlike men, do not seek praise and admiration; what they hope to hear are mirror-stories, which show that the point of their story has been taken. Their stories throw the physicality of the hero into relief against their own more passive role, in the home and with the family.
Jewish Slavery in Antiquity
Authors: Hezser Catherine 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book is an historical-critical study of Jewish slavery in antiquity, comparing the Jewish discourse on slavery with Graeco-Roman and Christian attitudes, and the first comprehensive analysis of Jewish attitudes towards slavery in Hellenistic and Roman times. It subverts many traditional views of Jews and slavery in antiquity; for example, showing against the traditional opinion that after the Babylonian Exile Jews refrained from employing slaves, that slavery remained a significant phenomenon of ancient Jewish everyday life, and generated a discourse which resembled Graeco-Roman and early Christian views while at the same time preserving specifically Jewish nuances. It examines the impact of domestic slavery on the ancient Jewish household and on family relationships, discusses the perceived advantages of slaves over other types of labor, and evaluates their role within the ancient Jewish economy. The ancient Jewish experience of slavery seems to have been so pervasive that slave images also entered theological discourse. Like their Graeco-Roman and Christian counterparts, ancient Jewish intellectuals did not advocate the abolition of slavery, but they used the biblical tradition and their own judgements to ameliorate the status quo.
Women, Slaves, and Minors
Authors: Hezser Catherine 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The triad ‘women, slaves, and minors’, which is so pervasive in rabbinic halakhah, especially in tannaitic texts, seems to have been more than a convenient theoretical construct circumscribing the ‘other’ from which free male Israelites distinguished themselves. It seems to have been based on actual social circumstances and common assumptions associated with these groups. Women, slaves, and minors were associated with the private domain of the house, which was considered to be in need of proper regulation. The private sphere had to be subordinated to what was considered to be the common good. Rabbinic ordinances concerning various aspects of private life affecting women, slaves, and minors can similarly be regarded as attempts to control and regulate a sphere which was commonly considered to be chaotic and threatening to the proper order of society.
Slaves within the Household
Authors: Hezser Catherine 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Probably at all times, a large proportion of slaves was employed in the domestic service, ‘for, by and large, personal servants were always slaves’. The number of domestic slaves employed in a household depended on the householder's wealth. While rich Greeks and Romans had hundreds or even thousands of household slaves, smaller numbers of servants were probably found in the houses of the less well-to-do as well. Especially in late antiquity, when the employment of slaves in agriculture seems to have declined, slaves were still found in the domestic sphere, where they remain predominant. In Roman-Byzantine times, from the second to the 5th century CE, slaves are mostly represented in the epigraphy of the cities and were employed in the domestic service, in crafts, and in administrative positions.
Prostitutes and Concubines
Authors: Hezser Catherine 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
One of the most fundamental characteristics of ancient slavery was the slave's lack of control over his or her own body. Slaves ‘were sexually available and completely subject to the will of their owners’. Even if they were not forced to work as commercial prostitutes, they would nevertheless serve as the functional equivalent of prostitutes as far as the owner himself, his family members, and his friends were concerned. The sexual exploitation to which they were subjected was similar in both cases. Graeco-Roman literary sources from Homer's Iliad to late antiquity provide ample testimony on this aspect of slave-master relationships. Members of the slave-owning strata of society did not need to frequent brothels: they had their own or their friends' private prostitutes available at all times.
Power Relationships
Authors: Hezser Catherine 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Although slaves constituted a danger for their masters in certain regards, masters retained an ultimate authority over their household dependants. This authority was executed by physically punishing their slaves. The physical violence indicated that masters had unlimited control over their slaves' bodies. The control of slave owners' anger, on the one hand, and the problem of slaves' obedience, on the other, constituted serious issues which were discussed by philosophers and regulated by Roman imperial legislation. The proper and improper punishment of slaves also concerned rabbis, whose suggestions resembled Roman law in some respects but also differed from it in important particulars, especially as far as the master's power over his slave's life and death is concerned.
The Acquisition and Sale of Slaves
Authors: Hezser Catherine 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The employment of slaves was advantageous only under particular circumstances, and these circumstances also determined whether slave owners would rely on slave labour only or combine slave labour with other types of work. The extent to which slave labour was used in Roman Palestine will have depended on slaves' availability and price. The trade in slaves was a common ancient phenomenon, and Roman Palestine is unlikely to have constituted an exception in this regard. The specific ways in which the ownership of slaves was transferred from one person to another are regulated by both Roman property law and rabbinic halakhah.
The Location of Slaves in Ancient Jewish Society
Authors: Hezser Catherine 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Although the actual number and percentage of slaves in ancient Jewish society cannot be determined any more, one can hypothesise about the social and economic location of slaves amongst the Jewish inhabitants of Roman Palestine. One way to arrive at such a hypothesis is to look at the representations of slave ownership and slaves' activities in ancient Jewish sources. Another, complementary way to assess slaves' location is to look at their structural place in other Roman provinces and to use that model as an analogy. The problem with such an approach is that it may be too generalising, not taking local differences into account. If both of these approaches are combined, they may yield results which may approximate historical reality, although certainty can never be reached in this regard.
Slave Parables
Authors: Hezser Catherine 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Slave parables are an important means of employing slave imagery for theological purposes. The large majority of these parables are transmitted in amoraic Midrashim, but some also appear in tannaitic Midrashim and in the Tosefta. This shows that the form of the slave parable was already known to the rabbis in the first two centuries but flourished especially from the third century onwards. Slave parables also appear in the gospels of the New Testament. Interestingly, both the gospels and rabbinic literature contain many more slave parables than parables featuring day labourers or tenant farmers. The slave parables can be seen as expanded metaphors which play with the various associations which the ancient slave experience provided and construct detailed and at the same time succinct theological vignettes out of them.
13 Unmarried Couples: The Legal Consequences of the Ending of the Relationship
Authors: Cretney Stephen 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The twentieth century saw huge changes in public attitudes towards relationships outside marriage, but from early times the law — especially the Poor Law — made some attempt to deal with the problems which could arise when such relationships came to an end. Only in the last quarter of the twentieth century were there serious attempts to create a legal regime for the families of unmarried couples who live together in a relationship factually similar to marriage.
14 Parentage
Authors: Cretney Stephen 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter deals with the problems of deciding who should be treated as a child’s ‘parent’. At first, there was no alternative to using ‘presumptions’ — for example, that a husband was the father of any child born to the wife during the marriage — but the twentieth century saw the development of increasingly sophisticated and reliable scientific procedures determining who is genetically related to whom. The development of artificial insemination (and, latterly, other techniques of Human Assisted Reproduction) has made the attribution of legal parentage solely on the basis of genetic identity unsatisfactory.
16 Parents and Children: Legal Authority in the Family
Authors: Cretney Stephen 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The common law gave the right to make decisions about a legitimate child’s upbringing to the father: the mother had no legal rights unless the court ordered that she should have a measure of authority. This ‘monstrous legal fiction’ was one of the first targets of the increasingly assertive women’s movement. A measure of equality was achieved in 1925, but only in 1973 was ‘full equality’ attained. If a dispute came before a court, it was increasingly recognised that the relevant criterion was to find what would best promote the child’s welfare. The children of parents whose marriage had broken down were thought to be in need of special consideration, but over the years the effectiveness of the legal procedures was increasingly questioned. In the latter years of the century, the question of whether children were entitled to make their own decisions on such matters as birth control and medical treatment became controversial.
17 Legal Adoption of Children, 1900–1973
Authors: Cretney Stephen 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Unlike most European countries, at the beginning of the century English law did not have any procedure under which a child could legally be integrated into a new family. In the wake of World War I a restricted process was developed, but over the years many controversial questions had to be answered: should it be possible for a child to be adopted if a parent did not agree? And was it right to allow a child to be adopted by a step-parent, thus integrating him legally into a family but, equally, totally severing the legal relationship with the birth family? And should adoption be kept secret? At one time the case for preventing the birth parents from any possibility of interfering with the adopters’ relationships was thought to be of overriding importance, but more recently the desirability of allowing a child who has been adopted to find out the true facts about his or her origins has been recognised.
18 The State, Parent and Child: (1) Before the Welfare State
Authors: Cretney Stephen 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Legislation seeking to protect vulnerable children goes back to the early nineteenth century, with measures aimed at those who abused ‘apprentices’ farmed out under the Poor Law. Then, magistrates were given powers to commit children to recognised Industrial and Reformatory schools, and philanthropists — notably Dr Thomas Barnado, but also others with a different religious conviction — set up ‘homes’ for deprived children, and the stage was set for litigation about the children’s religious upbringing. Many children were ‘fostered’ or ‘adopted’ by ‘baby-farmers’ and the resultant scandals helped create an atmosphere of concern, eventually manifested in the foundation of the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children in 1889. Pressure led to more legislation, much of it creating criminal offences targeting adults guilty of cruelty. The Poor Law provided a measure of care for orphans and the destitute. In 1908, the Children Act brought together many of these different strands, and extended the grounds on which a child could be removed from unsatisfactory parents. Juvenile Courts were established, and in 1933 the Children and Young Persons Act marked the legislative high-water mark of the view that there was no real distinction between ‘treating’ the young offender and providing for the needs of the innocent but deprived. Increasingly, the State was given the lead.
The Call of the Wild
Authors: ARMSTRONG REBECCA 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter turns to the important, recurring images of wildness which can be found in the myths. The starting points are the two bulls of Europa and Pasiphae. Europa's encounter with Zeus in bovine form is superficially the antithesis of Pasiphae's love for a real bull: she is the object of the god's lust and does not herself desire the animal, yet some versions of her story efface this distinction, and make the bull a focus of erotic infatuation for the young Tyrian woman. The grotesque nature of Pasiphae's passion for her bull exerts a fascination over the poets, whose reactions and treatments range from the sympathetic to the unashamedly sensational.
Pasiphae in the Eclogues and Ars Amatoria
Authors: ARMSTRONG REBECCA 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on depictions of Pasiphae in the Eclogues and Ars Amatoria. In much Latin poetry, Pasiphae tends to be given a brief, frowning reference, a figure who represents in short-hand the worst excesses of female passion and deceitfulness. Yet despite the inclination to stereotype when Pasiphae makes a cameo appearance, the only two substantial treatments of her story in Augustan poetry present the reader with quite different, and challenging, views of the myth. Vergil offers an unusually subtle, sympathetic account of the queen's love; Ovid takes a more traditional tack, mixing disapproval with ridicule, but by mediating his version through Eclogue 6 and other poetic influences, he still creates a figure far more complex than the cliché she is supposed to represent.
The Homeric Hymn to Hermes
Authors: Richardson N. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter argues that a closer analysis of Hymn to Hermes reveals that the central theme, Hermes' cattle theft, is framed by the two episodes of the invention of the lyre, and his appeasement of Apollo by its music and gift of the instrument to him. Both include songs by Hermes, about his own birth (54-61), and the origin of the gods in general (424-33). Both of these evoke comparison with songs of young men at feasts (55-6, 453-4). This simple structure is complicated by the last episode, concerning the arts of prophecy (526-68), which looks like an addition. It is shown that the themes of music and prophecy are closely interlinked.
Night Thoughts (Archilochus 23 and 196a West)
Authors: Handley Eric 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers Fragment 23 IEG and the Cologne Epode (196a IEG) of Archilochus. Fragment 23 is the end of an iambic poem preserved in P.Oxy. 2310 (vol. 22, 1954), first edited by Mr Edgar Lobel. From where it becomes comprehensible, at the end of line 7 of the surviving text, the speaker of the verses, ostensibly the poet representing himself, gives his reply to a woman whose words he has just finished quoting. He sets out to turn aside the bad things that she has heard people say. In the Cologne Epode (196a IEG), first published by Merkelbach and West (1974), again presents the latter part of a conversation between the speaker, ostensibly the poet, and a woman on whom, after an initial rebuff, he is once again exercising his arts of persuasion. In reply to his advances, she reminds him that there is someone else at home that he should think of.
Erasmus on Homer’s Moly
Authors: Kassel Rudolf 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
‘Aristoteles philosophorum, ne Platone quidem iuxta M. Tullium excepto, citra controversiam omnium doctissimus’ — so Erasmus, in the preface to the 1531 Basle edition of Aristotle, informs his dedicatee John More — ‘dicere solet, liberalium disciplinarum radices quidem subamaras esse, fructus vero dulcissimos. Quod idem rectius, utpote poeta, significare videtur Homerus quum, depingens Moly, herbarum praestantissimam et adversus omne maleficiorum genus efficacissimam, ait eam radice nigra esse, sed flore lacteo candidoque’. The assertion that Homer said the same thing as the Philosopher rectius, utpote poeta, must have caused many a reader to cudgel his brains in vain since the first edition. This chapter argues that what Erasmus meant has been rendered unrecognizable by a misprinted letter: tectius, utpote poeta. Cf. Ratio verae theolog. LB v p. 85 F ‘quod alibi dictum est tectius, alibi dilucidius refertur' and Adag. 1701 (ASD II 4 p. 151. 12) ‘Eodem allusisse videtur [Plato], licet tectius, libro tertio [Legum]’.
Introduction
Authors: Carroll Stuart 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Vengeance fascinates us because it is always ambivalent. Ambivalent because it has two registers: one, vindictive, derives from instinct and comprises an impulse for revenge driven by passion and appetite; the other, vindicatory, derives from law and human society and incorporates retribution as a form of reciprocity or compensation that restores equilibrium. A study of vindicatory violence that crosses the traditional medieval-early modern divide and covers the age of absolutism is important for empirical reasons alone. While accepting that many violent exchanges between feuding groups may not involve bloodshed, this study is based on the assumption that blood taking is integral to the process of feuding, but that not all acts of blood revenge are necessarily indicative of a feud. This book investigates the causes and dynamics of vindicatory violence in early modern France, the role of kinship and honour in the process, the nature of combat, and how it was experienced, represented, and legitimised.
Quantifying Violence
Authors: Carroll Stuart 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Even after the end of the civil wars, the duelling craze continued in France. The propensity to feud and duel ran in families. By quantifying violence involving the nobles, this chapter looks at the impact of civil war and the success or otherwise of royal pacification. Under Henri IV, deaths from duelling were estimated to be between 6,000 and 10,000, or approximately 350 per year. This chapter also presents a survey of the deaths of 772 gentlemen in duels and other forms of vindicatory action in the period 1550 to 1659 derived from all the sources, documentary and literary. Statistics on executions and punishment are also analysed. The very high death rates among gentlemen is not surprising; more surprising is that violence continued to remain high throughout the first half of the 17th century. An unshakeable belief in the right to violence lay at the heart of noble egotism.