bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
ENGAGEMENT IN MEANINGFUL ACTIVITY IN DAY CENTRES: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
Authors: Pettipher Charlotte , Mansell Jim 
Published: August 2010

AbstractObservational measures of client engagement and staff‐client contact were taken of 33 people attending a day centre for adults with mental handicap. A low ability group were engaged in constructive activity for 22%, a middle ability group for 46% and a high ability group for 66% of the observations. Assuming a notional 5‐hour ‘working’ day in the centre, people in the low ability group were engaged for, on average, 66 minutes; people in the middle group for 2 hours 18 minutes; and people in the high ability group for 3 hours 18 minutes. The most common disengagement code for the highest ability group (53% of disengaged observations) was ‘inactivity’ ‐ people were either spectating or doing nothing although they had materials available. For the middle and low ability groups the most common codes were ‘waiting’ (e.g. for staff, client, materials to work with) and ‘not allowed or enabled to participate in activity by member(s) of staff (e.g. not included in a team game, not given necessary materials with which to participate, not given anything to do). Together these accounted for over half of the ‘disengaged‘ time of the middle and low ability groups: i.e. the low ability group spent, on average, 2 hours and 18 minutes waiting or not enabled to participate out of a notional 5 hour ‘working’ day. The implications of these results are discussed.
NEW LONG‐STAY PATIENTS AT A MENTAL HANDICAP HOSPITAL
Authors: Khan Asaf M. , Cumella Stuart , Krishnan Vallepur , Iqbal Mohamed , Corbett John , Clarke David 
Published: August 2010

AbstractLegislative changes and the development of community mental handicap services make it essential to identify the future requirement for mental handicap hospitals. One means of doing this is to look at patients who become long‐stay hospital residents despite the existence of community‐based services. This paper reports a study of 31 new long‐stay patients in an English mental handicap hospital. Most were young, male, mobile and physically‐active. Half had either social impairments and/or communication disabilities, three‐fifths had psychiatric disorders, and four‐fifths were severe or potential management problems because of disturbed behaviour. The characteristics of this group reflect the absence of alternative provision for patients with mental illness and/or disturbed behaviour, and these will need to be developed before mental handicap hospitals are closed.
THE READABILITY AND HUMAN INTEREST OF INFORMATION LEAFLETS FROM MAJOR BRITISH CHARITIES: AN UNINTELLIGIBLE, BORING REPLICATION?
Authors: Sturmey Peter 
Published: August 2010

AbstractA sample of 32 leaflets designed for parents, carestaff and the general public by four major charities for people with mental handicaps were analysed for their readability and human interest. Approximately one‐third had some human interest and had reading ages under 18 years, however, a further third of leaflets had none or minimal human interest and reading ages over 18 years.
GENERIC FAMILY SUPPORT SERVICES: ARE PARENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITY CATERED FOR?
Authors: Llewellyn Gwynnyth 
Published: August 2010

AbstractOverall, the results of training programmes for parents with learning disability (LD) are positively reported. These training programmes are generally provided through specialist services. However, ordinary life principles dictate that people with LD be catered for in generic services. In this study community based generic family support services were surveyed in one Australian state, New South Wales, to determine whether assistance was provided to parents with LD. The results show that only a small proportion of these services (20%) catered for these parents. Type, content and frequency of parent education and training was predominantly determined on an individual needs basis. The parent education and training provided is discussed in relation to programme components thought necessary to ensure successful training outcomes. Possible reasons why the majority of services do not include parents with LD are also presented.
THE ERRORS OF FADING AND THE SHAPE OF THINGS TO COME: A RESPONSE TO JONES AND EAYRS
Authors: Ager Alastair 
Published: August 2010

AbstractJones & Eayrs (1992) provide a valuable critique of the use of errorless learning procedures with individuals with learning disabilities. The current paper concurs with the generally negative conclusions of this review regarding procedures involving the use, and intended subsequent fading, of task‐irrelevant prompting stimuli. The value of this fading approach is contrasted, however, with the impact of shaping procedures which involve the enhancement or adjustment of task‐relevant cues. Shaping procedures appear to avoid many of the problems highlighted by Jones & Eayrs. Further, they offer the prospect of a powerful intervention technology consistent with behaviour‐analytic approaches and yet in sympathy with more intuitive understandings of what constitute effective learning environments.
ERRORLESS LEARNING REVISITED: TOWARDS AN EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGY
Authors: Jones Robert S. P. , Eayrs Caroline B. 
Published: August 2010

AbstractThere are many valid points made in the Ager paper and both authors concur with the central argument of using shaping procedures which involve the enhancement of naturally occurring cues. In addition, we suggest two other further points of focus involving the motivational aspects of the teaching environment and the development of self‐regulatory skills.
CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR IN SCHOOLS FOR PUPILS WITH SEVERE LEARNING DIFFICULTIES
Authors: Kiernan Chris , Kiernan Diana 
Published: August 2010

AbstractA postal survey concerning the prevalence of challenging behaviour in day schools for pupils with severe learning difficulties, covering one in six schools in England and Wales, is reported. Definitions of particular challenging behaviours were operationalised and an overall rating of management difficulty was shown to be reasonably consistently applied across schools. There were unexplained differences in the reported prevalence of challenging behaviour across schools but the ‘average’ school of 60 pupils would be expected to identify around five more difficult pupils and a further nine pupils who showed less difficult challenging behaviour. Differences between Independently mobile (IM), and non‐independently mobile (NIM), pupils in abilities and the pattern of challenging behaviour emerged. Data are discussed in the context of possible training needs of schools.
AN AUDIT OF PHYSICAL HEALTH NEEDS OF ADULTS WITH PROFOUND LEARNING DISABILITY IN A HOSPITAL POPULATION
Authors: Ganesh S. , Potter J. , Fraser W. 
Published: August 2010

AbstractThis paper highlights the potential physical health problems of people with profound learning disability in a hospital population. Assessments were made under seven probable health care needs of this population. Uncomplicated Body Mass Index (BMI) <20 (underweight) was a common finding, but low Body Mass Index alone was of little significance in this population. The majority of participants had well controlled epilepsy, were vulnerable to pressure sores, and prone to constipation. The number of consultations with a doctor were similar to the general population, but all had regular annual physical examinations. A small but significant number of people required a high level of health care which can only be provided with a high level of nursing care and regular medical support. The implications of the recent shift of focus of the National Health Service and its effect on this population is discussed.
THE SEXUAL ABUSE OF ADULTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES: REPORT OF A SECOND TWO‐YEAR INCIDENCE SURVEY
Authors: Brown Hilary , Stein June , Turk Vicky 
Published: August 2010

AbstractThis paper reports the results of the second part of the largest UK incidence survey to date of the sexual abuse of adults with learning disabilities. A mandate was sought from the relevant statutory agencies and a standard questionnaire filled in by service managers or practitioners for each case/incident reported which fitted the definitions and parameters of the survey. The results confirm the pattern of abuse which emerged from the earlier study, i.e. that both women and men are at risk, that perpetrators are predominantly men and usually known rather than strangers. One important difference was a significant increase in the proportion of cases, of abuse of men with learning disabilities reported. Despite the increase in awareness and sources of information about adult abuse, service agencies have not developed coordinated systems for reporting or recording instances of sexual abuse. Data collection continues to be patchy and ad hoc. The level of reporting has not changed but there is some evidence that people who had been victimised received more appropriate help. Devolution of services within a new mixed market of care requires that additional safeguards are put in place to protect vulnerable adults.
THE ALL‐OR‐NONE PRINCIPLE
Authors: RITCHIE A. D. 
Published: August 2010

Summary.1. The all‐or‐none character of the heart beat is briefly considered, and, in contrast, some processes which are graded. A theoretical discussion follows emphasising the relation between an all‐or‐none process and a refractory phase following excitation. Some chemical analogies are mentioned.2. The difficulties surrounding the question of conduction with a decrement are discussed and the necessity for observations on single physiological units.3. The all‐or‐none character of the nervous impulse, which the older macroscopic observations strongly supported, is now placed beyond doubt by the investigation of action potentials in single nerve fibres.4. The case of skeletal muscle is not so easily settled, but the conclusion appears to be that its contractile process is all‐or‐none. Apparent exceptions and anomalies are discussed.5. Among vertebrate smooth muscles and various invertebrate muscles there is evidence of all‐or‐none behaviour in certain types at least. But it would be premature to conclude that they are all similar.
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION IN INVERTEBRATES
Authors: MOORE JANET , WILLMER PAT 
Published: August 2010

ABSTRACTResemblance between animal taxa may be due to convergence rather than to recent common ancestry. Constraints on biological materials and adaptation to particular habits or habitats will produce widespread convergence. How may we distinguish the two causes of resemblance? The relationship between convergence and taxonomy is discussed, demonstrating that the choice of taxonomic method will itself determine the extent to which convergence is perceived. In particular, cladistic analysis based on parsimony will tend to minimise and thus conceal convergence: neither the resulting cladogram nor a consistency index derived from it can be used to assess the prevalence of convergence. With any taxonomic system, there can be no substitute for evaluation of the morphological characters used. Complementary use of molecular characters shows promise: we wait further understanding of constraints in genetic evolution and of the possibilities of convergence at this level also.These general principles are illustrated with a range of examples from within and between invertebrate phyla: the phylogeny of Cnidaria and Platyhelminthes cannot be traced with certainty, but where the fossil record allows clear rooting, as for the echinoderms and in particular the echinoids, combination of morphological and molecular methods has made much progress. Sub‐groups within a phylum, for example opisthobranch molluscs and the dipteran Phoridae, may show an uncontested phylogeny, and here studies have precisely identified convergence and shown that it may be the commoner cause of resemblance. Adaptation to exacting environments shown by terrestial and freshwater nemertines may also result in a predominance of convergent resemblance.Traditional grouping of phyla breaks down on re‐examination of supposedly key characters, such as segmentation, body cavities, germ layers and symmetry, each of which must have had multiple origins: nor are developmental stages (especially not larvae) a reliable guide to relationships. Demarcation of phyla may be difficult, as with arthropods, and location of phyla is even more difficult, due to their early and rapid radiation. Over‐simplified definition of characters has bedevilled invertebrate classification and the use of molecular data has not yet resolved the major controversies.The question ‘How common is convergence?’ remains unanswered and may be unanswerable. Our examples indicate that even the minimum detectable levels of convergence are often high, and we conclude that at all levels convergence has been greatly underestimated.
200 YEARS OF AMPHIBIAN WATER ECONOMY: FROM ROBERT TOWNSON TO THE PRESENT
Authors: JØRGENSEN C. BARKER 
Published: August 2010

ABSTRACTIn the 1790s, Robert Townson established the main features of the water economy of terrestrial amphibians: rapid evaporative water loss in dry surroundings,‘drinking’ by absorption of water through the abdominal skin pressed against moist substrates, and use of the urinary bladder as a reservoir from which water is reabsorbed on land. This knowledge was of little interest to the establishment in the first half of the nineteenth century of experimental physiology as a basic medical discipline, when frogs became models in the elucidation of general physiological processes. Townson's pioneer contributions to amphibian physiology were forgotten for 200 years (Jørgensen 1994 b). Durig (1901) and particularly Overton (1904) restored knowledge about amphibian water economy to the level reached by Townson, but the papers had little impact on the young science of animal physiology because they primarily aimed at elucidating the transport of fluids across membranes. Frog skin remained a model preparation in such studies throughout the century. With the establishment of terrestrial ecology early in the century, the relations of animals, including amphibians, to water became a central theme. Concurrently with comparative studies of amphibian water economy in an ecological setting, the subject proceeded as an aspect of animal osmoregulation. Adolph (1920‐1930) and Rey (1937 a) established the highly dynamic nature of water balance in amphibians in water and on land. Their observations indicated functional links between environment, skin and kidneys, the nature of which remained to be explored. Thorson & Svihla (1943) reopened the ecological approach in a comparative study of the relations between amphibian habitat and tolerance of dehydration. By mid‐century, the central themes of amphibian adaptations to terrestrial modes of life were re‐established, except for the function of the bladder as a water‐depot. During the following decades, a rich literature appeared, particularly focusing on adaptations of amphibians to arid environments. Thus, in the 1970s, it was found that ‘waterproofing’ of the highly permeable skins by means of skin secretions had evolved independently in several families of tropical arboreal frogs, and that a number of amphibians that aestivate whilst burrowed in dry soil could reduce evaporation by forming cocoons from shed strata cornea. In 1950–1970 the role of bladder urine as a water depot in terrestrial amphibians was recognized: this did not change the established view of water balance in terrestrial amphibians as alternating between dehydration on land and rehydration in response to the deficit in body water. Amphibians may, however, maintain normal water balance whether the ambient medium is water or air by means of little understood integrated mechanisms in control of cutaneous drinking behaviour, water permeability of the skin and bladder wall, and urine production.
CHARACTERS, CONGRUENCE AND QUALITY: A STUDY OF NEUROANATOMICAL AND TRADITIONAL DATA IN CAECILIAN PHYLOGENY
Authors: WILKINSON MARK 
Published: August 2010

ABSTRACTPrevious phylogenetic analyses of caecilian neuroanatomical data yield results that are difficult to reconcile with those based upon more traditional morphological and molecular data. A review of the literature reveals problems in both the analyses and the data upon which the analyses were based. Revision of the neuroanatomical data resolves some, but not all, of these problems and yields a data set that, based on comparative measures of data quality, appears to represent some improvement over previous treatments. An extended data set of more traditional primarily morphological data is developed to facilitate the evaluation of caecilian relationships and the quality and utility of neuroanatomical and more traditional data. Separate and combined analyses of the neuroanatomical and traditional data produce a variety of results dependent upon character weighting, with little congruence among the results of the separate analyses and little support for relationships among the ‘higher’ caecilians with the combined data. Randomization tests indicate that: (i) there is significantly less incompatibility within each data set than that expected by chance alone; (2) the between‐data‐set incompatibility is significantly greater than that expected for random partitions of characters so the two data sets are significantly heterogeneous; (3) the neuroanatomical data appear generally of lower quality than the traditional data; (4) the neuroanatomical data are more compatible with the traditional data than are phylogenetically uninformative data. The lower quality of the neuroanatomical data may reflect small sample sizes. In addition, a subset of the neuroanatomical characters supports an unconventional grouping of all those caecilians with the most rudimentary eyes, which may reflect concerted homoplasy. Although the neuroanatomical data may be of lower quality than the traditional data, their compatibility with the traditional data suggests that they cannot be dismissed as phylogenetically meaningless. Conclusions on caecilian relationships are constrained by the conflict between the neuroanatomical and traditional data, the sensitivity of the combined analyses to weighting schemes, and by the limited support for the majority of groups in the majority of the analyses. Those hypotheses that are well supported are uncontroversial, although some have not been tested previously by numerical phylogenetic analyses. However, the data do not justify an hypothesis of ‘higher’ caecilian phylogeny that is both well resolved and well supported.
Heterochrony and allometry: the analysis of evolutionary change in ontogeny
Authors: KLINGENBERG CHRISTIAN PETER 
Published: August 2010

ABSTRACTThe connection between development and evolution has become the focus of an increasing amount of research in recent years, and heterochrony has long been a key concept in this relation. Heterochrony is defined as evolutionary change in rates and timing of developmental processes; the dimension of time is therefore an essential part in studies of heterochrony. Over the past two decades, evolutionary biologists have used several methodological frameworks to analyse heterochrony, which differ substantially in the way they characterize evolutionary changes in ontogenies and in the resulting classification, although they mostly use the same terms. This review examines how these methods compare ancestral and descendant ontogenies, emphasizing their differences and the potential for contradictory results from analyses using different frameworks. One of the two principal methods uses a clock as a graphical display for comparisons of size, shape and age at a particular ontogenic stage, whereas the other characterizes a developmental process by its time of onset, rate, and time of cessation. The literature on human heterochrony provides particularly clear examples of how these differences produce apparent contradictions when applied to the same problem. Developmental biologists recently have extended the concept of heterochrony to the earliest stages of development and have applied it at the cellular and molecular scale. This extension brought considerations of developmental mechanisms and genetics into the study of heterochrony, which previously was based primarily on phenomenological characterizations of morphological change in ontogeny. Allometry is the pattern of covariation among several morphological traits or between measures of size and shape; unlike heterochrony, allometry does not deal with time explicitly. Two main approaches to the study of allometry are distinguished, which differ in the way they characterize organismal form. One approach defines shape as proportions among measurements, based on considerations of geometric similarity, whereas the other focuses on the covariation among measurements in ontogeny and evolution. Both are related conceptually and through the use of similar algebra. In addition, there are close connections between heterochrony and changes in allometric growth trajectories, although there is no one‐to‐one correspondence. These relationships and outline links between different analytical frameworks are discussed.
The demands of incubation and avian clutch size
Authors: THOMSON DAVID L. , MONAGHAN PAT , FURNESS ROBERT W. 
Published: August 2010

ABSTRACTWe reviewed information on the demands of incubation to examine whether these could influence the optimal clutch size of birds. The results indicate that appreciable metabolic costs of incubation commonly exist, and that the incubation of enlarged clutches can impose penalties on birds. In 23 studies on 19 species, incubation metabolic rate (IMR) was not elevated above the metabolic rate of resting non‐incubating birds (RMR), but contrary to the physiological predictions of King and others, IMR was greater than RMR in 15 studies on 15 species. Across species, IMR was substantially above basal metabolic rate (BMR), averaging 1.606 × BMR. Of six studies on three species performed under thermo‐neutral conditions, none found IMR to be in excess of RMR. IMRs measured exclusively within the thermo‐neutral zone averaged only 1.08 × BMR contrasting with the significantly higher figure of 1.72 × BMR under wider conditions. 16 of 17 studies on procellariiforms found IMR below RMR, indicating a significant difference between this and other orders. We could find no other taxonomic, or ecological factors which had clear effects on IMR. Where clutch size was adjusted experimentally during incubation, larger clutches were associated with: significantly lower percentage hatching success in 11 of 19 studies; longer incubation periods in eight of ten studies; greater loss of adult body condition in two of five studies; and higher adult energy expenditure in eight of nine studies. Given that incubation does involve metabolic costs and given that the demands of incubation increase sufficiently with clutch size to affect breeding performance, we propose that the optimal clutch size of birds may in part by shaped by the number of eggs the parents can afford to incubate.