bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Hastings, Battle of (1066)
Authors: Morillo Stephen 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Battle of Hastings took place on October 14, 1066 between the forces of Harold Godwinson, the king of Anglo‐Saxon England, and an invading army under the command of William, duke of Normandy. At the end of the day, William was “the Conqueror” rather than “the Bastard,” having not only defeated his opponents but killed Harold, two of his brothers, and a good many of the Anglo‐Saxon ruling class. On Christmas Day, 1066, after a cautious approach to London, he was crowned king of England.
Hoche, General Louis Lazare (1768–1797)
Authors: Vandervort Bruce 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Hoche is the classic example of the private soldier in revolutionary France with a marshal's baton in his knapsack. Born the son of a groom near Versailles in 1768, he ended life as a major general in command of the Army of the Sambre‐et‐Meuse, one of the great armies of the French Revolution. En route, he became one of the most accomplished practitioners of counterinsurgency warfare in recent military history.
Howe, Admiral Richard, 1st Earl Howe (1726–1799)
Authors: Conway Stephen 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Richard Howe, 4th Viscount Howe and then 1st Earl Howe, was a prominent British naval officer in the War of American Independence and the conflict with revolutionary France. He was born on March 19, 1726, the second son of Emanuel Scrope Howe, 2nd Viscount Howe, and his wife Mary Sophia Charlotte, the daughter of Baron von Kielmansegg. Richard's older and younger brothers joined the army, but Richard himself was destined for a career at sea. He appears to have served on a merchant ship before entering the navy in July 1739. Howe was actively employed in the war against Spain that began that year; he was involved in the operations against the Spanish Central American coast in 1743. Howe also was engaged against the Jacobites in Scotland, receiving a wound in the head in an action with French privateers in 1746. By the end of the War of the Austrian Succession, he was a flag‐captain in the West Indies. Howe was with Admiral Boscawen's fleet off the mouth of the St. Lawrence River in June 1755, and was therefore present in the first naval action of the next Anglo‐French struggle, the Seven Years' War. He distinguished himself in 1757 in the unsuccessful expedition against the French port of Rochefort, by attacking the fort on the Isle d'Aix at close range. Howe was also employed in the attacks on Saint‐Malo and Cherbourg the following year. He served at the British victory at Quiberon Bay in 1759, and then on blockade duties helping to confine the shattered French navy to its ports.
Ibn Saud (Abd al‐Aziz ibn Abd al‐Rahman Al Saud) (ca. 1880–1953)
Authors: Hughes Matthew 
Published: November 2011

AbstractAbd al‐Aziz ibn Abd al‐Rahman Al Saud was born to the Al Saud family — in reality a clan of thousands of people — in Riyadh in the Najd region of central Arabia. He is known in the West as Ibn Saud,ibnbeing Arabic for “son”; for Arabs, Abd al‐Aziz. He reasserted the power of the Saud family and, for the first time since the early Islamic era, unified most of the Arabian Peninsula in the modern kingdom of Saudi Arabia, created in 1932. He was the greatest of all Saudi rulers. The new state was forged in war as Ibn Saud crushed his rivals, 1902–1929. With the discovery of vast oil reserves in 1937–1938—income from which did not fully come on‐stream until after Ibn Saud's death—Saudi Arabia became one of the world's richest states and after 1945a key player in the politics of the Middle East. US oil companies exploited Saudi oil reserves, beginning a long relationship with the United States, solidified when Ibn Saud met US President Franklin Roosevelt in Egypt in 1945. By the time that the two men met, Saudi Arabia was on her way to becoming one of the world's largest oil producers, with drilling and extraction led by the Arabian American Oil Company (Aramco).
Jackson, General Thomas J. “Stonewall” (1824–1863)
Authors: Crosswell D. K. R. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
After Lee the most mythologized Confederate general of the Civil War, Jackson died shortly after leading one of his trademark idiosyncratic flanking attacks at Chancellorsville. Not yet 40 and at the pinnacle of his fame—and with the Army of Northern Virginia's reputation for invincibility intact—Jackson's death won him a lasting, if not wholly deserved, reputation as master of mobile offensive operations.
Just war
Authors: Bonney Richard 
Published: November 2011

AbstractProponents of a just war theory do not necessarily believe that a war can ever be completely just or justifiable, but that there should be some moral guidelines to determine in what circumstances a war should be declared, how it should be conducted, and how it should be ended. “Just war” is about applying moral restrictions, limits, and the guidance of “justice” to acts of sustained violence, which may otherwise become unrestricted, limitless, and barbaric. Those who seek to apply such limits are to be distinguished from realists, who contend that considerations of morality have no place in an anarchic system of competing states. However, it can be argued that some “realist insights draw our attention to ‘lesser evil’ issues and force us to confront the basic proposition that abstract moral principles influence behavior only when actors use them to guide their actions” (Bellamy 2006: 117–118). Such insights are discussed in the conclusion to this article.
Kargil War (1999)
Authors: Gill John H. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Kargil War was a limited conflict fought between India and Pakistan along the Line of Control (LOC) in Kashmir during the spring/summer of 1999. The conflict takes its name from the principal town in the combat zone on the Indian side of the LOC. Although observers debate whether Kargil constituted the “Fourth India–Pakistan War,” the conflict represented the first open fighting between India and Pakistan as declared nuclear‐weapons states and had significant repercussions for both.
Lincoln, Abraham (1809–1865)
Authors: Nolan Cathal J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Wartime president of the United States, 1861–1865. The death of close relatives and friends was all around Abraham Lincoln over the course of his life, yet his only direct military experience was a few months as a volunteer militiaman in the Blackhawk War (1832), in which he saw no combat. An extraordinary autodidact, during his only term as a Whig in the House of Representatives he spent his spare time in the Library of Congress. A lifelong habit of rigorous self‐education served him well when he became a war president. To better evaluate and argue with his generals, Lincoln read deeply until he gained a respectable command of military theory, tactics, and strategy. In his mature writing and speeches he displayed a discriminating and keen intellect that penetrated more deeply than most to the root of important issues.
Little Big Horn, Battle of (1876)
Authors: Lookingbill Brad D. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Also called the Battle of Greasy Grass, the Battle of Little Big Horn is the most famous event of the Sioux Wars. On June 25 and June 26, 1876, the 7th Cavalry of the US Army battled with the Lakota Sioux and the Northern Cheyenne at the Little Big Horn River in what today is the state of Montana. Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, commander of the 7th Cavalry, died in the battle.
Mahan, Captain Alfred T. (1840–1914)
Authors: Kuehn John T. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan is among the most influential and important figures in modern history. Any discussion of naval theory must account for his immensely successful book
The Influence of Sea Power Upon History
. Mahan was a product, and a reflection, of his time. Naval officer, historian, and Christian evangelist, Mahan was an American entering a century which witnessed a global explosion of the United States' power and culture. The United States did not become a world power because of Mahan or sea power, but it was certainly shaped as a world power in no small part due to the influence of Mahan's ideas. For many, Mahan's message conveyed a sense that real national power could only come with an associated maritime empire—like the British.
Mfecane (1815–1840)
Authors: Laband John 
Published: November 2011

AbstractDuring the first decades of the nineteenth century turbulent migrations of peoples violently tore apart most of the pre‐colonial societies of southern Africa and reached as far away as East Africa. Widespread warfare, devastation, and the formation by conquest or incorporation of newly militarized and centralized states accompanied these migrations. Historians later applied the term “Mfecane” to this complex and revolutionary period, and as an explanatory concept it gradually assumed the status of an entrenched historical orthodoxy. Popularly, the Mfecane is associated most closely with the military reforms and conquests of Shaka, the first Zulu king. In recent decades historians have questioned the very idea of the Mfecane and the Zulus' central role in it.
Military law
Authors: Noone Michael F. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractMilitary law refers to a system of regulations for the government of the armed forces. Some of these regulations are administrative in the sense that they govern promotions, the award of decorations, and so forth. Others involve a criminal justice system regulating persons in military service. The criminal justice system sets norms, e.g., Absence Without Leave, which may not have a parallel in civilian life. It also sets procedures, e.g., the court‐martial, for determining whether a norm has been violated, and establishes punishments for violations. This entry will focus on the criminal justice system.
Miranda
y
Rodríguez
,
Sebastián
Francisco
de
(1750–1816)
Authors: Racine Karen 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Often called the precursor of Latin American independence, Francisco de Miranda grew up in Caracas. At the age of 14 he entered the Royal and Pontifical University, claiming to have received a bachelor's degree in 1767 although there is no official record that he ever graduated. In 1772 Miranda's father purchased a junior commission for him in the Princess's Infantry Regiment in Spain. He was inducted into the forces and sent to a frontier garrison in Melilla, North Africa. Unlike many of his peers, Miranda had a healthy respect for his Moorish opponents, even sympathy for their efforts to oust a foreign presence from their land. He took the time to read the Quran and continuously offered unsolicited advice and criticism to his superior officers. In 1774 Miranda applied to join Alejandro O'Reilly's corps that was destined for Spanish America, but he was refused. Three years later, however, he was jailed in Cádiz for disobedience and confined again the next year for insubordination. He was transferred to the Regiment of Aragón and sailed for Havana in April 1780 as a supernumerary officer.
Mitchell
,
William
(“Billy”) (1879–1936)
Authors: Gentile Gian P. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In America in the 1920s and 1930s Brigadier General William (Billy) Mitchell was a crusader for the use of the airplane as a winning weapon in war, which came to be known as airpower. Mitchell combined an intense desire for personal success, a wealth of battlefield experience in World War I as one of the first American combat aviators, and a supreme knowledge of the technology of the airplane to shape his convictions toward a US defense centered on the airplane and an independent air force to the exclusion of the army and navy. Although in many ways he was a visionary and some of his predictions actually came true in World War II, he was also a stubborn and opinionated man who did not suffer well the ideas of others when they disagreed with his. This abrasive quality combined with his radical views on airpower, which he often stated publicly, led to his being tried by the army in a court‐martial in 1926.
Mongols in the Middle East
Authors: Amitai Reuven 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Mongols under Genghis Khan (Chinggis Khan, d. 1227) entered the Islamic world (then roughly what today is called the Middle East) in 1219, and over the next thirty years brought Iran and many of the surrounding countries under their control. Hülegü, Genghis Khan's grandson, conquered Baghdad in 1258 and exterminated the Abbasid Caliphate, moving on to north Syria in 1260; his forces, however, were checked by the Mamluks of Egypt at the famous Battle of ‘Ayn Jalut in northern Palestine in September of that year. Subsequently, Mongol rule continued in Iran and the neighboring regions until 1335; this state is known to historians as the Ilkhanate, after the titleIlkhan(usually translated as “submissive khan or ruler”) that was often used by Hülegü and his descendants. Over the years, the Ilkhans continued their war with the Mamluks, now also ruling Syria, and fought with the Mongol rulers of both southern Russia (the so‐called Golden Horde) and Central Asia (the Chaghatayid Khanate). For a generation after 1335 and the disintegration of their state, Mongol princes and generals influenced the political and military life of the region, and after 1370, there was the increasing impact of Timur or Tamerlane (Timur‐i Leng), a Turkic‐speaking leader of Mongol descent from the area today known as Uzbekistan.
Nightingale, Florence (1820–1910)
Authors: Selanders Louise C. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractFlorence Nightingale, an Englishwoman, developed the foundational philosophy of modern nursing and was a Victorian leader in sanitation reform. Her most famous position was as superintendent of female nursing in the military hospitals in Turkey based at Scutari during the Crimean War. The time in the Crimea provided Nightingale with the experience, political contact, and public fame to create significant and lasting social reform following the war.
Nixon, Richard M. (1913–1994)
Authors: Small Melvin 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Richard M. Nixon, who was president of the United States from 1969 to 1974, was born into a Quaker family in 1913. That heritage caused him concern when he decided to enlist in the navy in 1942 during World War II. Stationed in the South Pacific, he had no direct combat experiences. As a Republican from southern California, he was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and the Senate in 1950, where he developed a reputation as an ardent Cold Warrior. He came to national attention when he spearheaded the congressional investigation of Alger Hiss, a government official accused of spying for the Soviet Union.
Nuremberg War Crimes Trials
Authors: Smith Craig Bruce 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Nuremberg War Crimes Trials were a series of legal proceedings administered by the Allied nations after World War II to levy judgment on Nazi leaders, officials, and organizations accused of war crimes, crimes against peace, and crimes against humanity. The Nuremberg Trials were a series of 13 inquiries that took place in Nuremberg, Germany, over three years. The trials became an instant media spectacle, featuring prominent journalists such as Walter Cronkite and William Shirer, before their completion in 1948. The best‐known trial, the Major War Criminals trial, began on November 20, 1945, under the International Military Tribunal (IMT)—a collection of judges from the United States, Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union specifically created for the occasion. This constituted the first instance of an international criminal court and the only example of combined Allied justice after the war, especially in light of the mounting tension of the Cold War. These trials brought into public knowledge and committed into incontestable history the horrors of the Holocaust, the Nazi conspiracy of aggressive war, and the atrocities committed against soldiers and civilians during World War II. The Nuremberg Trials resulted in the conviction of Nazis with sentencing varying from prison terms to death by hanging. In addition, the trials set a precedent for future cases of international justice and the judiciary protocol surrounding cases of genocide and war crimes more broadly.
Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582)
Authors: M. Swope Kenneth 
Published: November 2011

AbstractJapanese daimyo; best known as the first of the Three Unifiers of seventeenth‐century Japan. Nobunaga was born in the relatively small, but strategically located province of Owari. At the time, Japan was in the midst of its Warring States (1477–1573) or Sengoku era. The Oda family was beset by enemies from all sides and riven by clan divisions when Nobunaga succeeded his father Nobuhide in 1551. Over the next several years, despite a reputation for erratic and outrageous behavior, Nobunaga gradually eliminated challengers for authority within his clan and built up a loyal following of retainers, several of whom would serve him loyally until his death. He also developed an appreciation for aggressive, mobile warfare and the value of arquebus guns in battle. These weapons were allegedly introduced to Japan by Portuguese traders in 1543. Nobunaga was confirmed undisputed head of the Oda family by the Ashikaga shogun in 1559 and entered the national scene the following year by virtue of his surprising victory over the formidable Imagawa Yoshimoto in the Battle of Okehazama. Although outnumbered by perhaps as much as eight to one, Nobunaga used spies, subterfuge, and misdirection to ambush the Imagawa forces in a narrow valley.
Operation Barbarossa (1941)
Authors: Glantz David M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Operation Barbarossa (Red Beard), the code name for Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II, began on June 22, 1941 and ended in defeat in early December 1941. Planned by Adolf Hitler, the chancellor of the German Third Reich, and other senior Wehrmacht (armed forces) officers between July 1940 and January 1941, the operation's objectives were to defeat and destroy the Soviet Union's Red Army, seize the cities of Moscow, Leningrad, and Kiev, overthrow the Soviet Union's communist government, and exploit Soviet territory for the benefit of Germany. Plan (
Fall
) Barbarossa's most important assumption was that the Soviet Union would collapse if the Wehrmacht could destroy the bulk of the Red Army in the border region of the western Soviet Union, specifically, west of the Western Dvina and Dnepr rivers. The plan's most significant flaw was the sharp disagreement between Hitler and many of his generals regarding Barbarossa's objectives, specifically, the German Fü hrer's fixation on economic objectives and attacking on a broad front to destroy the bulk of the Red Army in the field and his generals' concern for seizing Moscow in a rapid advance characterized by a series of spectacular encirclement battles (
Kesselschlacht
). The chief weaknesses of the opposing Red Army in June 1941 were its lack of experienced senior commanders capable of displaying necessary command initiative due to the military purges the Soviet dictator, Josef Stalin, orchestrated during the late 1930s; the army's faulty and vulnerable defensive dispositions in the western Soviet Union resulting from its occupation of eastern Poland in September 1939; and its failure to complete the military reform program it began in the wake of the Soviet–Finnish War (1939–1940).
Opium Wars (1839–1842, 1856–1860)
Authors: Reist Katherine 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Opium Wars include a series of skirmishes as well as the major engagements of the two official wars. The major opponents were the British, representing western interests in the China trade, and the Chinese government. The apparent cause of the first war was the illegal importation and sale of opium by the western traders. In fact, the restrictive trade system begun in 1759 to deal with the increasing western trade, the “Canton System,” was a major factor, which coupled to the resulting trade imbalance aggravated the western frustration. Western sale of opium, although illegal, helped offset the trade losses, creating a profit for the West. Clashes over the opium sale and the frustration with trade conditions brought about the wars.
Ottoman conquests
Authors: ÁGoston GÁBor 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe small Ottoman principality of Turkic semi‐nomads was formed in the last decades of the thirteenth century in western Asia Minor (Anatolia), near a place known todayas Söğüt, between the weakened Seljuk sultanate and the shrinking Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. The designation “Ottoman” is corruption fromOsman, the name of the founder of the dynasty, Osman (d. 1324?). Ottoman tradition credited Ertugğrul, Osman's father, with leading his band of Turkish nomads into western Anatolia in the second part of the thirteenth century. Osman's small polity was but one among the many Turkic or Turkoman principalities that emerged in the power vacuum caused by the Mongols' destruction of the empire of the Seljuk Turks (1243), who had ruled most of Asia Minor from the late eleventh century. The rise of the House of Osman to prominence was neither foreseeable at around 1300 nor unchallenged in the decades and centuries to come. Ottoman rule was contested by the neighboring Turkic principalities, brothers, sons, and uncles of the reigning Ottoman sultans, and popular uprisings, as well as by regional powers, both Christian (Byzantium,
Peacekeeping
Authors: Macqueen Norrie 
Published: November 2011

AbstractFrom the middle of the twentieth century and particularly since the end of the Cold War, peacekeeping has become increasingly important as a means of conflict management and resolution. It remains a very difficult activity to define precisely, however. Although peacekeeping has long been a key activity of the United Nations (UN) (more than sixty operations have been undertaken since the late 1940s), the term does not appear in the organization's charter. Its utilization as a response to conflict accelerated after it became clear that the UN's much more ambitious plan for a comprehensive system of collective security by enforcement was unachievable in the polarized world of the Cold War. Yet peacekeeping was not a UN innovation. The general technique had been employed by the League of Nations and other international actors in the interwar years, and multinational security operations had already been pursued in the nineteenth century. Peacekeeping has been undertaken by a number of regional organizations and other coalitions although the role of the United Nations has remained dominant.
Peter I of Russia (“the Great”) (1672–1725)
Authors: Stevens Carol B. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractViewed in historical perspective, the reign of Peter I represents a pivotal moment, as Russia achieved a reorientation of its government and culture that had been in the making for nearly a century. Peter's first years on the throne were titular; he shared the throne with his sickly elder brother, Ivan, while power was wielded by his regent, his sister Sofia, and her supporters. After Sofia was deposed in 1689, Peter continued to rule jointly with Ivan until the latter's death in 1696, and then alone until Peter's own death in 1725. Most famously, under Peter's leadership, the Russian army and navy triumphed over the Swedish Empire in the long Great Northern War (1700–1721). Russian victory at the Battle of Poltava in 1709 presaged its eventual triumph in the war itself. This upset was a precondition for Russia's growing acceptance thereafter as a major European Empire.