bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Giangaleazzo's Investiture and its Legacy
Authors: Black Jane 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Chapter Three describes the Milanese dukes' desire for imperial recognition of their right to absolute powers, beginning with Giangaleazzo Visconti, created duke in 1395. Plenitude of power itself came with the investiture of 1396. Giangaleazzo's successor, Giovanni Maria (1402–12) was denied imperial recognition; Filippo Maria Visconti (1412–47) had to wait until 1426. The Ambrosian Republic of 1447–1450 was similarly based on the investitures of 1395 and 1396. Faced with Emperor Frederick III's determination not to recognize his claims, Francesco (1450–66), Galeazzo Maria (1466–76) and Giangaleazzo Sforza (1476–94) established their right to rule on the basis of popular election, meantime pleading with Emperor Frederick III for an investiture that would include plenitude of power and imperial prerogatives (iura reservata). The chapter concludes with an exploration of the investiture granted to Ludovico il Moro (1494–1500) by Maximilian I in 1494.
The Surrender of Absolute Power
Authors: Black Jane 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Chapter seven concerns the decline of absolute power as a tool of government. The lawyer and Senator and Egidio Bossi, insisted that absolute power was no longer misused in the duchy. Francesco Sforza II (1521‐1535) appears to have given up plenitude of power, handing it over to the Milanese Senate in the interests of justice. Whether or not the Senate did have plenitude of power was much debated. With its right to administer equity, Senate did not have to keep to the letter of the law; the Senate also had the right to judge according to the facts alone (sola facti veritate inspecta), ignoring established legal procedure. Both these prerogatives were analogous to plenitude of power; on the other hand, the Senate never referred to plenitude of power in its decisions. The discussion continued for decades among later commentators.
Linking of Emissions Trading Schemes
Authors: Mehling Michael 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The integration of carbon markets will require a careful assessment of its political and economic viability, which, in turn, largely depends on the respective compatibility of the underlying emissions trading schemes. Because design features in each scheme can extend to all other linked schemes, and differences — if too pronounced — can affect the integrity of the overall market as well as the direction of trade flows, a certain degree of harmonization is essential for linking. Legal and normative considerations have featured only marginally in existing research on the conditions and implications of a trading link. This chapter provides a systematic overview of such considerations. It starts by drawing a conceptual background for the subsequent analysis, defining central characteristics and different forms of linking in the second section. It then proceeds to explore the specifically normative and jurisprudential implications of linking in the third section, and distinguishes these from broader questions of political expedience and economic rationality.
Private Actors in International and Domestic Emissions Trading Schemes
Authors: Lin Jolene 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the risks and opportunities for private entities in the international climate regime and domestic emissions trading schemes, respectively. It begins with an overview of carbon markets and the ways in which private actors are involved. Section 3 focuses on the risks involved in project-based transactions, which is the type of transactional activity that private actors are most likely to engage in. Section 4 discusses some of the risks that private actors face in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS). Section 5 looks briefly at the new issues and risks raised by Phase III of the EU ETS, and section 6 concludes the discussion.
International Emissions Trading and Green Investment Schemes
Authors: Simonetti Sander , de Witt Wijnen Rutger 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The Kyoto Protocol has introduced the first ever global scheme of emissions trading. Parties included in Annex I to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) with greenhouse gas (GHG) emission limitation and reduction commitments inscribed in Annex B to the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Parties) can achieve their commitments not only by taking domestic measures, but also by making use of the so-called ‘flexible mechanisms’ of the Kyoto Protocol: International Emissions Trading (IET), Joint Implementation (JI) and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Although the mechanism of IET under Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol is mostly referred to in the context of trading Assigned Amount Units (AAUs), it covers the international transfer of all Kyoto emission rights. The first part of this chapter sets out the legal framework of IET. The second part describes the principles and challenges of IET under Green Investment Schemes, where traded AAUs are ‘greened’ by investing the purchase price in environmental activities in the seller country.
Joint Implementation Transactions: An Overview
Authors: Anthony Hobley , Carly Roberts 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter builds on the introduction to Joint Implementation (JI) in Chapter 8 by re-examining the key differences between JI and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), framed more from the point of view of the prospective investor who is perhaps more used to CDM. It addresses some of the common myths and misconceptions which often arise due to such existing experience of the CDM. The chapter will draw out the key differences which give rise to the distinct risk profile of JI. This will then be used to offer practical advice on the key issues which need to be addressed both in due diligence and contractual drafting for JI projects, as distinct from CDM projects. The chapter shows that there are some particular aspects of the JI mechanism's regulatory design which, relative to the regulatory design of the CDM mechanism, create higher risks for investors and buyers. However, JI is a valuable tool and a ‘learning by doing’ exercise for similar or new mechanisms in the post-2012 world.
Responsibility for the Environmental Integrity of the CDM: Judicial Review of Executive Board Decisions
Authors: Christina Voigi 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the responsibility of the Executive Board (EB), a UN body set up under the Kyoto Protocol (KP) to govern the environmental integrity of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). As there is increasing evidence that a high level of environmental integrity has not yet been achieved, the issue dealt with in the chapter is the possibility for judicial review of EB decisions, both within the international climate regime by a review panel (internal review) and separate from it (external review).
The European Union Emissions Trading Scheme
Authors: Pohlmann Markus 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
On 29 April 1998, the European Community (EC) and the initial fifteen EU member states signed the Kyoto Protocol. Under the Kyoto Protocol, the EC and the EU member states are committed to jointly reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during the period 2008-2012 by a total of 8% below 1990 GHG emissions levels. Soon after signing the Kyoto Protocol, the EU started exploring the potential of an emissions trading scheme to help its member states comply with its GHG emission reduction targets under the Burden Sharing Agreement and the Kyoto Protocol. Despite the Kyoto Protocol not being in force and strong opposition from powerful EU member states — such as Germany and France — the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) was finally adopted in October 2003 with the objective of reducing EU GHG emissions in a cost-effective and economically efficient manner. This chapter provides historic and legal background information on the EU ETS and puts the EU ETS in the context of overall EU climate policy. It also discusses the cornerstones of the EU ETS and its linkages to the Kyoto Protocol and other emission trading schemes in light of the current amendments to the EU ETS structure for the post-2012 era.
What Might a Future Global Climate Change Deal Look Like?
Authors: Ward Murray 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
In 2009, global leaders are expected to come together and agree a new multilateral framework to protect the world's climate system. Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), negotiations have been underway for some years already on an update and enhancement of the Kyoto Protocol. Its first commitment period, under which most developed countries have taken on binding emissions limitation and reduction targets, ends in 2012. The current negotiations are framed by the ‘Bali Action Plan’ agreed at the 13th session of the UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (COP13) meeting in December 2007. This set in place a two-year process expected to result in a global agreement at COP15 in Copenhagen in December 2009. This chapter sets out ideas for what the architecture of a global deal might look like. It describes a concept involving enhanced commitments to constrain emissions in a quantitative and legal manner, as well as a broad set of other elements that are expected to be needed to bring a package together that can win the support of all countries.
A Post-2012 Vision for the Clean Development Mechanism
Authors: Figueres Christiana , Streck Charlotte 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Despite the many calls to reform the flexibility mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol, their conceptual underpinnings are strong and it is likely that the idea of the mechanisms, in fact the mechanisms themselves, will survive in a post-2012 climate regime. This chapter examines how a post-2012 climate treaty could provide incentives for greater emission reductions in developing countries. It starts by summarizing the current frustrations with the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and reviewing incremental modifications that could be considered to strengthen the mechanism without requiring a decision of the parties to the Kyoto Protocol or changes to the Marrakech Accords. It then explores a potential post-2012 scenario that combines three possible financial mechanisms to promote large-scale mitigation in developing countries: the activity-based CDM as we know it, albeit improved; a second market mechanism which would seek to improve the long-term emission trends of developing countries; and a third, non-market-based financial mechanism which would follow a scheme of payment that is not commoditized and does not create international offsets.
Summary and Outlook
Authors: Streck Charlotte , Freestone David 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
In early 2010 it will be five years since the Kyoto Protocol came into force. This short period has been truly astonishing for the new world of carbon trading. The market for trading emission rights and carbon credits has exploded — more than doubling each year. In 2005, the market was worth US$10 billion, in 2006 US$30 billion, in 2007 US$67 billion, and in 2008 more than US$120 billion. At the same time as the amounts of money involved have increased, so has the level of sophistication of those involved — investors, project proponents, host countries, and the international bodies responsible for overseeing these developments. However, rather than moving into a settled era of maturity and certainty, the future of the carbon market is still wracked with uncertainty. Uncertainty is in fact one of the key themes of this book. But so also is the spirit of experimentation and enterprise — of Innovation and of Learning by Doing. This chapter examines each of these three themes.
Assessing Vulnerability of Selected Sectors under Environmental Tax Reform: The Issue of Pricing Power
Authors: Gerald John Fitz , Keeney Mary J. , Scott Susan 
Published: February 2010

AbstractEnvironmental tax reform could bear heavily on manufacturing sectors that are energy‐intensive and highly traded, in particular if their options for adapting technology are limited. However, to the extent that such sectors can pass on the cost of the environmental taxes through higher prices charged to their customers, they will not suffer a lasting drop in profitability or output. To assess pricing power in key sectors, a model of long‐run price‐setting behaviour is specified and tested. Significant and plausible results emerged from this exercise. Of the six sectors analysed, the basic metals sector revealed least pricing power and, hence, greatest vulnerability, and the non‐metallic minerals sector revealed most pricing power. The results indicated that the world price, proxied by the US price, was less of a constraint than the EU price, proxied by the German price. Thus, international competitiveness fears are reduced not just where there is good potential for adapting technology, but also if application of environmental tax reform is EU‐wide.
How focus and givenness shape prosody
Authors: Féry Caroline , Ishihara Shinichiro 
Published: February 2010

AbstractCaroline Féry and Shinichiro Ishihara proposes a model of how syntax and information structure (focus and givenness) shape prosody where prosodic phrasing and tonal effects are kept apart. It is argued that the prosodic effects of syntactic structure and those of information structure should be kept apart. It is shown that in German and Japanese, syntactic structure primarily influences prosodic phrasing, which we assume to be recursive. Information structure, on the other hand, influences tonal structure, keeping phrasing intact. In a comparison between the two languages, it becomes apparent that prosodic domains corresponding to focus and givenness domains are subject to tonal readjustments. A further point made in the chapter is that the amount of downstep and reset of register domains is language‐dependent.
Focus in Aghem
Authors: Hyman Larry M. , Polinsky Maria 
Published: February 2010

AbstractChapter 9 ‘Focus in Aghem’ by Larry M. Hyman and Maria Polinsky presents a new analysis of syntactic focus marking in the West African language Aghem. The main characteristic of focus marking in Aghem is that focused constituents must occur in an immediately postverbal position, the IAV (immediately after verb). The authors propose that the IAV is not a designated structural (focus) position in which focus constituents must be located, e.g. by way of movement into Spec,FocP in recent cartographic approaches. Instead, it is argued that a covert focus operator in the left periphery of the clause associates with the most deeply embedded element inside the verbal projection. In the default case, the most deeply embedded constituent will be the direct object, accounting for object focus and VP focus. If another constituent is focused, the (lexical) object NP is removed from inside the VP, by means of an evacuating movement operation to the left, or by means of right‐dislocation.
Information structure and unmarked word order in (Older) Germanic
Authors: Hinterhölzl Roland 
Published: February 2010

AbstractIn chapter 12 ‘Information Structure and Unmarked Word order in (Older) Germanic’, Roland Hinterhözl proposes a novel interface‐based account to the distinction between OV‐ and VO‐languages in Germanic. Dispensing with the head complement parameter, he argues that the unmarked word order in these languages is determined by two types of mapping conditions at the interfaces to PF and LF. The chapter investigates mixed OV/VO orders in the OHG Tatian translation and shows that OHG cannot be treated as a language with basic OV‐order plus a higher degree of extraposition. Instead, it is shown that word order is predominantly determined by information‐structural restrictions in OHG. The account is embedded in a phase‐based model of the interaction between syntactic, prosodic and information‐structural conditions that define the characteristic word order properties of OV‐ and VO‐languages in Germanic.
Effects of givenness and constraints on free word order
Authors: Skopeteas Stavros , Fanselow Gisbert 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThe preference for given information to precede new has already been identified in the earliest studies on information structure within the framework of the Prague School linguistics. In chapter 12 ‘Effects of givenness and constraints on free word order’, Stavros Skopeteas and Gisbert Fanselow present production data from ten different languages showing that cross‐linguistically two distinct syntactic operations are employed as a result of asymmetries in givenness: object fronting (scrambling) and passivization. They account for the typological variation in terms of the type of movement that is structurally available in a language. Givenness asymmetries (optionally) induce operations involving A‐movement (either of the object scrambling type or of the passivization type), while they generally do not induce operations involving A’‐movement. The cross‐linguistic complementarity between passive voice and object fronting as well as the optionality in the reported data support the view that A‐movement is semantically and pragmatically vacuous and is optionally selected in order to fulfill conditions at the discourse interface.
Chapter 2 Estimating State and Local Government Pension and Retiree Health Care Liabilities
Authors: McElhaney Stephen T. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Liabilities for pension and retiree health-care benefits provided by US state and local governments are causing concerns for taxpayers and for those holding government bonds. Many question whether the methodology used to calculate these liabilities is appropriate, since the private sector calculates retirement system liabilities using different methods and assumptions. This chapter reviews and critiques current actuarial and accounting standards under which governmental retiree liabilities are calculated and compares and contrasts these standards to those used by private sector employers.
Chapter 5 Public Pensions and State and Local Budgets: Can Contribution Rate Cyclicality Be Better Managed?
Authors: Young Parry 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Pension fund contribution rate volatility has challenged state and local government defined benefit plan sponsors over time. Methods to contain volatility have been used for years but recent experience has placed greater urgency on the search for better solutions. This chapter examines the historical approach to bring stability to employer rates as well as some of the current thinking on the issues. Because both asset and liability changes can affect volatility, governments are looking at both sides of the balance sheet for relief.
Chapter 6 Benefit Cost Comparisons Between State and Local Governments and Private Industry Employers
Authors: McDonnell Ken 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
It is often argued that compensation patterns for public sector employees are higher than in the private sector. This chapter examines some of the reasons for the observed differences in total compensation costs between US state and local government employers and private industry employers. The author examines compensation costs by industry, occupation, union status, and employee benefit participation.
Chapter 7 Administrative Costs of State Defined Benefit and Defined Contribution Systems
Authors: Hustead Edwin C. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter compares the administrative costs of public sector defined benefit and defined contribution systems offered by the federal government and many states. Administrative expenses are presented as percentages of both income and assets, and the author discusses how administrative expenses might enter into the decision by a public sector employer as to whether to establish a defined contribution plan.
Chapter 14 The Evolution of Public Sector Pension Plans in the United States
Authors: Clark Robert L. , Craig Lee A. , Ahmed Neveen 
Published: February 2010

AbstractMunicipal governments in the United States began offering retirement plans for their workers in the mid-nineteenth century, and state governments followed in the early twentieth century. As these plans matured, they confronted economic, social, and political challenges, including the creation of the Social Security system, which subsequently shaped their structure, governance, and generosity. After reviewing this history, the authors employ data from all fifty states to estimate a pension benefit equation for hypothetical workers and explain differences in the generosity of plans across states and types of workers covered. The authors show that population growth, plan funding, union representation, and participation in Social Security influenced the generosity of the plans.
Chapter 16 The New Intersection on the Road to Retirement: Public Pensions, Economics, Perceptions, Politics, and Interest Groups
Authors: Almeida Beth , Kenneally Kelly , Madland David 
Published: February 2010

AbstractState and local pensions have been a cost-effective way to ensure that those retiring from public service will have adequate retirement income after a lifetime of work. Despite their strengths, opposition to public pensions has emerged in recent years. This chapter examines the economics of public pensions and outlines the role of public perceptions, politics, and interest groups in the public pension debate.
GR as a geometric theory of gravity – I
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
A geometric description of equivalence principle physics of gravitational time dilation is presented. In this geometric theory, the metric plays the role of relativistic gravitational potential. Einstein proposed curved spacetime as the gravitational field. The geodesic equation in spacetime is the GR equation of motion, which is checked to have the correct Newtonian limit. At every spacetime point, one can construct a free-fall frame in which gravity is transformed away. However, in a finite-sized region, one can detect the residual tidal force which is second derivative of gravitational potential. It is the curvature of spacetime. The GR field equation directly relates the mass/energy distribution to spacetime's curvature. Its solution is the metric function, determining the geometry of spacetime.
Spherically symmetric spacetime — GR tests
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
A spherically symmetric metric has two unknown scalar metric functions. The Schwarzschild solution to the GR field equation is presented. An embedding diagram is used to visualize such a warp space. GR predicts a solar deflection of a light ray that is twice as large as that implied by the equivalence principle. We present a brief discussion of gravitational lensing, with the lens equation derived. The precession of Mercury's perihelion and the Shapiro time delay of a light ray are worked out as successful tests of general relativity.
The homogeneous and isotropic universe
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The universe, when observed on distance scales ≳100 Mpc, is homogeneous and isotropic. Hubble's discovery that the universe is expanding suggests strongly that it had a beginning. The estimate of the age of the universe by astrophysics from observation data is between 12 Gyr to 15 Gyr. The mass density of matter in the universe has around a quarter of the “critical density”. There is strong evidence showing that most of the mass in the universe does not shine and the nonrelativistic exotic dark matter has density ration of 0.21. A homogeneous and isotropic universe (the cosmological principle) is described by the Robertson-Walker metric in the comoving coordinates (the cosmic rest frame). In an expanding universe with a space that may be curved, any treatment of distance and time must be carried out with care.