bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The role of spatial working memory deficits in pathological search by neglect patients
Authors: Driver Jon , Husain Masud 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter addresses one possible contributing component to the neglect syndrome that has received relatively little attention to date, namely deficits in spatial working memory. It is proposed that impaired spatial working memory may contribute to recursive examination of ipsilesional locations in many visual tasks. It also considers how possible spatial working memory deficits might impact performance on a standard diagnostic test for neglect, namely cancellation tasks. In doing so, it discusses a new variant of the cancellation task (‘invisible’ cancellation) which provides a clinically applicable method for investigating the role of spatial working memory at the bedside. In general, it is suggested that deficits in spatial working memory may promote visuospatial neglect. Specifically, it indicates a role for a deficit in retaining which locations have already been examined, across saccades during search.
Cognitive routes to the rehabilitation of unilateral neglect
Authors: Robertson Ian H. , Manly Tom 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter provides a review of cognitive routes to the rehabilitation of unilateral neglect. Cognitive rehabilitation is defined as ‘the systematic use of instruction and structured experience to manipulate the functioning of cognitive systems such as to improve the quality and/or quantity of cognitive processing in a particular domain’. Results reveal that the lack of spontaneous improvement shown by some patients may stem from impairments in the more general resources necessary to maintain corrective ‘top-down’ control. It can be stated that the connections between theoretical models of cognitive neuroscience and cognitive rehabilitation techniques have been particularly fruitful in the field of unilateral neglect. Most patients who display unilateral neglect in the immediate post-stroke phase recover quite rapidly from the frank spatial biases of the disorder. However, for many patients, this apparent recovery may reflect the use of compensatory strategies (volitional or otherwise) that mask a persistent distortion in the perception of space.
In the year 2054: innumeracy defeated
Authors: Gigerenzer Gerd 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter provides a panel discussion, ‘How the war against innumeracy was won’. The discussion is chaired by Professor Emile Ecu, an economist at the Sorbonne, Paris. The Great Hall at the Sorbonne is packed with flowers and guests, and is presided over jointly by the president of France and the president of the World Health Organization. A large curved podium provides the set for the four most distinguished scholars in the social sciences. France happens to be the birth place of probability theory, back in the 17th century.
A memory models approach to frequency and probability judgement: applications of Minerva 2 and Minerva DM
Authors: Dougherty Michael R. P. , Franco-Watkins Ana M. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractA fundamental question in decision making has been how people make judgements of frequency and probability. This chapter describes a new theory, Minerva DM (MDM) that ties many of the heuristics and biases together within the context of a multiple-trace memory model for frequency judgements. It provides a brief tutorial on how Minerva 2 and MDM simulates non-conditional and conditional frequency judgements, and then demonstrates how the models can be used to describe two possible accounts of the availability heuristic. It ends by discussing where MDM fits within the context of other models of frequency judgement.
Associative learning and frequency judgements: The PASS model
Authors: Sedlmeier Peter 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter argues that associative learning is the obvious mechanism to simulate judgements of relative frequency. PASS (Probability ASSociator), the specific associationist model proposed, consists of two parts, FEN (Frequency Encoding Network), a neural network, and the CA (Cognitive Algorithms)-module, which operates on the output of the neural network. FEN encodes events, including their contexts, by their featural description and builds up a representation of the frequency with which features co-occur. The CA-module consists of only two algorithms that suffice to model the results usually found in studies on relative frequency estimates as well as on confidence judgements about such estimates. Several extensions of PASS that allow judgements of absolute frequencies and the simulation of biased estimates are suggested, and PASS is compared to competing models that have been used to simulate relative frequency judgements.
Frequency judgements of emotions: the cognitive basis of personality assessment
Authors: Schimmack Ulrich 
Published: April 2012

AbstractFrequency judgements of emotions are routinely used in personality assessment and clinical diagnoses. However, relatively little is known about the cognitive processes underlying these judgements and their validity. This chapter examines this issue, drawing on cognitive psychological theories of frequency processing. The reviewed evidence suggests that frequency judgements of emotions are made in a fast, intuitive manner that does not rely on the conscious retrieval of individual episodes. These judgements show high discriminant validity for frequency of different emotions but low absolute accuracy. Implications for the validity of personality assessments are discussed.
Online strategies versus memory-based strategies in frequency estimation
Authors: Haberstroh Susanne , Betsch Tilmann 
Published: April 2012

AbstractTwo kinds of strategies can be distinguished by which people can arrive at a frequency estimate: online strategies and memory-based strategies. Online strategies are based on a frequency record, which is formed during encoding. Subsequent frequency judgements can be directly based on this record. In contrast, when people use memory-based strategies, they base their estimate on a memory sample drawn at the time of judgement. The Strategy Application Model predicts under which conditions online strategies and memory-based strategies are used. This chapter describes an experiment in which one of the key assumptions of the Strategy Application Model is tested regarding the role of cognitive effort on the selection of judgement strategies.
Free word associations and the frequency of co-occurrence in language use
Authors: Wettler Manfred 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter shows which predictions about the relation between the strength of free word associations and the frequency of co-occurrence of the stimulus and the response word in language use can be derived from the stimulus sampling theory of Estes (1950). It describes a method to test these predictions and show that they prove correct. Examples are given to demonstrate how the possibility of predicting human word associations can be used in consumer research. This work is then linked to other approaches which relate co-occurrences between words to word associations as well as to other observations about verbal behaviour.
Is imprinting such a special case?
Authors: BATESON PATRICK 
Published: April 2012

AbstractAs the result of relatively brief exposure to a particular type of object early in life, many birds and mammals will form strong and exclusive attachments to that object. This is known as ‘filial imprinting’. Early experience can also have long-lasting effects on sexual preferences, but the conditions are different from those in which the first attachments are formed. Some of the characteristics of imprinting are undoubtedly because of the naive animal searching for and responding selectively to particular stimuli. But that is not all. At least two types of plastic change seem to be involved: establishing an internal representation of the familiar object and pre-emptive capturing by that representation of the systems controlling filial behaviour and, much later in development, sexual behaviour.
Neural bases of recognition memory investigated through an analysis of imprinting
Authors: HORN GABRIEL 
Published: April 2012

AbstractVisual imprinting leads to changes in a nervous system that may not have been marked by previous visual experience, and so encourages the hope of discovering the neural bases of the learning process. The intermediate and medial part of the hyperstriatum ventrale, a sheet of cells within the cerebral hemispheres, plays a crucial role in visual imprinting, particularly in the memory process of recognition. The cellular and sub-cellular changes that take place in this part of the hyperstriatum ventrale after imprinting are described. The right and left hyperstriatum ventrale regions play different roles in the imprinting process, and evidence is given for the existence of multiple memory systems in the chick brain.
Food-storing birds: adaptive specialization in brain and behaviour?
Authors: KREBS JOHN R. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractAmong the passerine birds, species that store food have an enlarged hippocampal region (dorso-medial cortex), relative to brain and body size, when compared with the non-storers. The volume of one of the major afferent-efferent pathways (the septo-hippocampal pathway) is also greater in food storing species. This specialization of brain structure is discussed in relation to behavioural studies in which the spatial memory of storing and non-storing species has been compared.
An assessment of Marr's theory of the hippocampus as a temporary memory store
Authors: WILLSHAW D. J. , BUCKINGHAM J. T. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractIn the study of neural networks, there have been very few attempts to examine in detail how a particular part of the brain might compute a particular function. This chapter examines one theory of learning and memory that does consider seriously the constraints imposed by the available computing machinery of the brain. This is the proposal, due to the late David Marr (1971), that the mammalian hippocampus acts as a temporary content-addressable memory store. This study remains a potential source of inspiration for those interested in the theory of the nervous system.
Memory: task dissociations, process dissociations and dissociations of consciousness
Authors: Richardson-Klavehn Alan , Gardiner John M. , Java Rosalind I. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter covers tasks, retrieval strategies, states of consciousness, task dissociations, and process dissociations and dissociations in reports of subjective awareness. It also reviews and combines recent data to understand better the relationship between task performance, retrieval strategies, and states of awareness. This leads to the adoption of a framework that makes a threefold distinction between methods of testing memory as defined by intentional and incidental task instructions; voluntary and involuntary retrieval strategies and subjective states of conscious and unconscious awareness with respect to the past. These conscious memorial states are further sub-divided into recollective experiences, which are referred to as remembering, and feelings of familiarity, which are referred to as knowing. This chapter also clarifies the distinction between memory tasks and the chapter suggests that the relationships between task performance, memorial states of awareness, retrieval strategies, retrieval processes, and memory representations are much more intricate than is acknowledged by any current framework or theoretical scheme.
Implicit knowledge in people and connectionist networks
Authors: Dienes Zoltan , Perner Josef 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter discusses the methodological criteria of implicit knowledge, the meaning of implicit/explicit knowledge, the three types of explicitness, analysis of a connectionist model of artificial grammar learning, and the differences of connectionist models and implicit knowledge. It focuses on artificial grammar learning as a paradigm example of the attainment of knowledge that appears to be implicit by some criterion but not by others. Typical artificial grammar learning tasks ask the subjects to first memorize strings of letters that are generated by a finite state grammar and then they are informed that the strings were generated by a complex set of rules. The subjects were then ask to classify new strings as either obeying the rules or not. Subject knowledge are assessed as being implicit by using four methodological criteria. This chapter also discusses a possible connectionist model of artificial grammar learning and also considers the way connectionist models illuminate the way in which subjects knowledge can be regarded as implicit.
Intuition, incubation, and insight: implicit cognition in problem solving
Authors: Dorfman Jennifer , Shames Victor A. , Kihlstrom John F. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter discusses the stages of thought, the scope of implicit cognition, the role of intuitions in insight problem solving, the evidence for intuitions in insight problem solving, the role of activation in intuition and incubation, priming in insight problem solving, the problem of incubation, autonomous and interactive activation in incubation, and implicit thought in detail. It is thought that introspective analyses of human problem solving have always focused on the phenomena of intuition, incubation, and insight. These phenomena that have long intrigued observers of problem solving have also long eluded scientific analysis partly because they seem to implicate unconscious processes. The advent of the cognitive revolution in the 1960s led to psychologists returning their attention to thinking and developed more on problems of categorization, reasoning, judgement, and problem solving per se. Wallas decomposed problem solving into stages which include the preparation stage, the verification stage, the incubation stage, and the illumination stage. Wallas is certain that incubation involves subconscious thought and that immediate and sudden flashes of illumination reflect the materialization of a previously unconscious thought into phenomenal awareness. This chapter argues that intuition and incubation are aspects of implicit thought, and a facet of implicit cognition.
Development of contrast sensitivity in normal and amblyopic monkeys
Authors: Kiorpes Lynne 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter aims to discuss the development of spatial vision in primates and explore the possible underlying neural limitations on visual performance in infants. The basic measure of spatial vision for the purposes of this chapter is the spatial contrast sensitivity function. The development of contrast sensitivity is described, both in the central and peripheral visual field, in nonhuman primates, and parallels are drawn between development in animals and in humans. To explore the neural basis for behaviour ally assessed development, parallels between anatomical and physiological development of the retina and lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) are discussed, together with measured performance in infant monkeys. Finally, the effects of abnormal visual experience on the development of contrast sensitivity and on development of the visual nervous system are described.
Development of the visual field: results from human and animal studies
Authors: Sireteanu Ruxandra 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThe extent of the adult visual field gives important clues on brain functioning. Visual field deficits often accompany, and sometimes predict, the onset of neurological problems. It is therefore of utmost importance to have reliable methods of early assessment of the visual field, in addition to the assessment of visual resolution. The behavioural function that is used for visual acuity assessment is the spontaneous orienting towards a salient visual stimulus in preference to a homogeneous field. In this chapter, an overview on the achievements and limitations of the methods of visual perimetry used with infants and children is given, including correlative data from cats and monkeys.
Development of primate rod structure and function
Authors: Fulton Anne , Hansen Ronald M. , Dorn Elizabeth , Hendrickson Anita 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThe rod-mediated sensitivity of infants is lower than that of adults while the scotopic sensitivity for full-field stimuli of infants approaches adult values earlier than those psychophysical sensitivities that are mediated by rods at the posterior pole. For example, in ten-week-old infants, dark adapted scotopic sensitivity for full-field stimuli, whether assayed using an electroretinographic (ERG) or visually evoked potential procedures, is only about 0.5 log unit less than that of adults, while psychophysical sensitivities for test spots falling only on more central retina are at least a log unit below those of adults. This chapter examines the rod photoreceptors themselves for explanations of infants' low scotopic sensitivity. All across the retina, the structure of the rods of infants and adults differs. Moreover, developmental increases in rod outer segment (ROS) length and in content of the photosensitive compound, rhodopsin, have been documented. There appear to be regional variations in the rate of ROS maturation with both ROS and thresholds near the fovea. Thus it examines the physical and functional characteristics of infants' rods for possible relationships.
Assessing dimensionality in infant colour vision
Authors: Knoblauch Kenneth , Bieber Michelle , Werner John S. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Since the human visual system continues to mature and to be influenced by the visual environment over at least the first two years of life, the practical benefit of studies of infant vision will be in the development of screening tools for the early identification of visual deficits that might be correctable with early intervention. Since the trichromacy of normal adult colour vision requires three classes of functioning cone photoreceptors in the retina, as well as integrity of the parvocellular stream of the visual pathway from retina through the lateral geniculate nucleus to the cortex, colour vision testing would be a valuable tool for the screening for defects in this portion of the developing visual system. Such a test would be of use in the assessment of residual function in infants with partial vision or other disabilities, as well as in identifying the approximately 8% of males who inherit an abnormality of one of the longer wavelength-sensitive cone photopigment genes that result in a red-green colour defect. While tests for screening infant colour have been proposed recently, several factors may make them more difficult to interpret than equivalent adult tests. In this chapter, some of these difficulties are reviewed and preliminary data using techniques aimed toward ameliorating them are presented.
Spatial and temporal properties of infant colour vision
Authors: Burr David C. , Morrone M. Concetta , Fiorentini Adriana 
Published: April 2012

AbstractInformation processing for colour vision starts in the retinal photoreceptors and proceeds through the inner retina, the lateral geniculate nucleus, and visual cortex. At the photoreceptor level, the spectral composition of light is analysed with three cone types with different absorption spectra. However, at the next retinal stages and at all subsequent sites, colour information is processed by cells organized into colour-opponent receptive fields, as suggested by the Hering opponent theory of colour vision. This chapter reviews some of the evidence for development of these mechanisms; a few recent experiments from the laboratory are described in detail. When studying the development of colour vision in infants, it is useful to try and distinguish between possible neonatal immaturities at pre-receptor or receptor levels and immaturities of the post-receptoral level, either retinal or more central. The chapter concentrates on recent studies of infant colour vision development aimed at elucidating the role of postreceptoral neural mechanisms.
Basic considerations when refracting infants
Authors: Thorn Frank 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Conceptually, the basic optical methods used to perform an ‘objective’ refraction are simple. However, these elementary optical procedures are not always simple to implement and are invariably affected by the conditions under which they are used. This chapter is written to help the professional who works with infants but who does not perform eye examinations, to understand the procedures and problems encountered while refracting an infant. The discussion of the six conditions, under which refractions can be performed and which affect the results of the refraction, involves a more complex analysis than the basic refractive procedure. The most widely used objective refracting device is the retinoscope. It is objective only in the sense that the patient's subjective impressions are not used. However, the retinoscopist must make a complex series of subjective decisions. How the retinoscope works is explained in this chapter. The less widely used autorefractors use variations on the same optical principles employed by the retinoscope.
Prediction of myopia in children
Authors: Gwiazda Jane , Bauer Joseph , Thorn Frank , Held Richard 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Children who become myopic generally do so sometime between seven and thirteen years of age. The aetiology of this school-age myopia has been debated for centuries. The latest research indicates that, although myopia has a genetic component, close-up visual activity, such as reading and playing computer games, also contributes to the genesis and progression of myopia in susceptible eyes. Recent findings from longitudinal studies of refraction indicate that it is now possible to predict whether an infant will become myopic at school age. This chapter reviews some of the new findings relevant to the prediction of myopia in children.
The Rotterdam C-chart: visual acuity and interocular acuity differences in very low birth weight and/or very prematurely born children at the age of 5 years
Authors: van Hof-van Duin J. , Pott J. W. R. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractIt is generally accepted that children born very prematurely or with a very low birth weight (VLBW; 〈1500 g) are at risk for visual impairment, at least during the first few years after birth. Whether visual impairment such as low visual acuity is only a sign of delayed development, or is irreversible, is still questionable. Visual acuity development continues until puberty which possibly allows a catching up in this lag in development. The purpose is to determine whether VLBW and/or very prematurely born children are at risk. For permanent impairment of visual acuity by comparison of acuity values obtained in five-year-old children who are at risk for an impaired visual development because of a very low birth weight and/or a very short gestational duration, to those of healthy control five-year-olds. In this earlier study, it is demonstrated that with the Rotterdam C-chart acuity estimates of both five-year-old control children and adults show a normal distribution and no ceiling effect. Therefore, the Rotterdam C-chart seems suitable for acuity assessment in young and visually impaired children.