bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Two dons in politics: Thomas Cranmer and Stephen Gardiner, 1503–1533
Authors: MacCulloch Diarmaid 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTThis article contrasts the early careers of Thomas Cranmer and Stephen Gardiner, two Cambridge dons of approximately the same generation who diversified into politics in the late 1520s. It attempts to assess their developing attitudes to the religious changes of the period, and considers the nature of humanism in Cambridge University; it suggests, with the aid of new evidence, that in the 1520s, Cranmer was more conventional in his religion than Gardiner, but already showed an especial interest in the authority of a general council. Attention is drawn to their similar patterns of church preferment up to 1531. The crucial change in both men's careers is here seen as occurring in 1532; this change projected them in opposite theological directions for the rest of their intertwined careers. Gardiner took a leading part in the church authorities' unsuccessful attempt at taking a firm stand against Henry VIII's plans, while Cranmer made a clear breach with the medieval rules on clerical celibacy by marrying the niece of a Lutheran theologian.
The lawful bonds of Scottish society: the Five Articles of Perth, the Negative Confession and the National Covenant
Authors: Fodr John D. 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTThe origins of the Scottish National Covenant of 1638 in the traditional practice of banding have been explored in the past, as have the links between the Covenant and a millenarian perception of the Scots as an elect or covenanted nation. By locating the Covenant in the context of the sort of debate that went on about the legitimacy of the Five Articles of Perth after 1618, and in particular by considering the use in that debate of arguments relying on the Negative Confession of 1581, this paper suggests that the Covenant may have had less to do with asserting the particular heritage and destiny of the Scottish people than with re-tying the bonds of the universal law of God.
Not the Radical republic: liberal ideology and central blandishment in France, 1901–1914
Authors: Wileman Donald G. 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTMadeleine Rebérioux was right to wonder whether France was truly a ‘Radical republic’ in the years between the Dreyfus affair and the Great War. Archives only opened or explored since Rebérioux published in 1975, and the re-interpretation of older newspaper sources, show that control of the Third Republic was still hotly contested in those years. The Radicals tried to build a republic in their own image, but in a situation where left and right were closely balanced, they were almost always foiled. Crucial to this process was a politically republican but socially conservative centre – best typified by the A.R.D. The A.R.D. wanted a Third Republic frankly favourable to the interests of big business. Since it held the parliamentary balance of power between the left and a right only partly republican, it generally got its way. Statistical sources also support this interpretation.
Medicine, Property and the Law in Britain 1800–1914
Authors: Crowther M. A. , White Brenda M. 
Published: June 2009

Property, in spite of its solid sound, is an elusive idea. As C. B. MacPherson puts it:The actual institution, and the way people see it, and hence the meaning they give to the word, all change over time… The changes are related to changes in the purposes which society or the dominant classes in society expect the institution of property to serve.
Cain and Abel: Two Aristocrats and the Early Victorian Factory Acts
Authors: Mandler Peter 
Published: June 2009

In November 1844 the young Lord Ashley, not for 16 years to become the seventh earl of Shaftesbury, was in search of a public school for his son and heir, Anthony. ‘I fear Eton,’ he confided to his diary:…it makes admirable gentlemen and finished scholars, fits a man, beyond all competition, for the dancing-room, the Club, St James' Street, and all the mysteries of social elegance; but it does not make the man required for the coming generation. We must have nobler, deeper, sterner stuff; less of refinement, and more of truth; more of the inward, not so much of the outward gentleman; a rigid sense of duty, not a ‘delicate sense of honour’; a just estimate of rank and property, not as manners of personal enjoyment and display, but as gifts from God, bringing with them serious responsibilities, and involving a fearful account; a contempt of ridicule, not a dread of it; a desire and a courage to live for the service of God, and the best interests of mankind, and by His grace, to accomplish the baptismal promise… Unless we have such men as these for our successors, goodbye to the British Empire.
The navy, parliament and political crisis in the reign of Charles II
Authors: Davies J. D. 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTDuring the 1670s, the navy was the focus of increasingly critical scrutiny from parliament and the political nation. This article considers the causes and nature of this criticism, which had its roots in the perceived dominance of the catholic James, duke of York, in the field of naval appointments, and examines the political context of the various inquiries into the state of religious affection in the fleet. By so doing, the article identifies a dilemma which confronted the crown's opponents in the period 1678–81, namely the conflict between the requirement for a strong navy to oppose France and the risk that, because of York's influence over it, that same navy might in fact be an instrument of French and catholic designs. Finally, the response of the officers and men of the navy to the events of the popish plot, exclusion crisis and ‘tory reaction’ is examined, placing the navy in the mainstream, rather than on the periphery, of the political and religious history of the period.
Harriet Martineau and the reform of the invalid in Victorian England
Authors: Winter Alison 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTThis article argues that within the debates over medical reform which took place throughout the Victorian period, there flourished a variety of models of authority with respect to illness and the body. The controversies surrounding the illness and cure of the journalist, Harriet Martineau, provide a particularly useful vehicle for exploring some of these different models. During a time when many doctors were anxious to establish the medical profession as an authoritative body within British society, Martineau put forward a portrayal of invalidism that gave invalids, especially women, a degree of authority that made many medical men uneasy. By examining the question of the status of the sick individual during this period, and especially Martineau's case, historians can gain a new perspective on broader issues of reform and the status of women in Victorian society.
The structure of British official attitudes: colonial Mauritius, 1883–1968
Authors: Ballhatchet Kenneth 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTThis article seeks to demonstrate the structure of attitudes in British colonial officialdom through a case study of Mauritius from the governorship of Sir John Pope Hennessy to decolonization. It suggests that officials consistently saw Mauritians as a whole as ‘the Others’, while seeking both to divide and rule them – into an émigré French elite left over from the French colonial period at the time of British conquest (1810), a Creole community, and an Indian community – without assimilating them; and to suspect each in turn of disloyalty and treachery. By a grim irony, many of the governors and their officials were suspected by the colonial office of joining the Others. This is thus a story of an adaptable imperial paranoia.
The boundary between voluntary and statutory social service in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
Authors: Lewis Jane 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTIn the debate between the charity organisation society and the new forms of personal service societies that grew up during the Edwardian period, disagreement centred on the nature of the boundary to be drawn between state and voluntary action. The paper reviews the theory and practice of the COS and suggests that while the new societies had much in common with the COS regarding their methods, the nature of their ‘partnership’ with the state was significantly different. While the COS operated a division of labour based on client groups, the new societies preferred a task-based division. The paper argues that while the new societies were determinedly more civic-minded and pragmatic regarding their attitudes towards state welfare provision, they offered no coherent rationale for voluntary effort to replace the theory developed by the COS.
Pietro Giannone and Great Britain
Authors: Trevor-Roper Hugh 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTPietro Giannone was a revolutionary thinker who sought in the early decades of the eighteenth century to free Italy from the inveterate, legally entrenched feudal power of the church and then to free Christianity itself from the stifling and corrupting embrace of the political church. This essay tells the improbable story of how his writings were taken up and disseminated in Britain by the non-juring bishop and antiquary Richard Rawlinson, the learned but morally unsound Scottish journalist Archibald Bower, and an odd crew of Jacobites. It is shown that the translations of Giannone got into some very influential hands and represent part of an undervalued Jacobite contribution to the origins of the Scottish Enlightenment and to the thought of Edward Gibbon.
Confessional policy and the limits of state action: Frederick William III and the Prussian Church Union 1817–40
Authors: Clark Christopher 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTThe merging of the Lutheran and Calvinist (Reformed) confessions to form the United Church of Prussia was one of the most controversial policies pursued by Frederick William III after 1815. By the late 1830s it had provoked a large and well-organised movement of opposition, particularly among those ‘Old Lutherans’ in Silesia and neighbouring provinces who refused to abandon their liturgical traditions. This article examines the government's attempts to complete the process of unification through measures designed to atomize and silence Lutheran protest. Neither Prussian law nor Prussian law enforcement agencies, the article suggests, furnished an adequate foundation for Frederick William III's confessional policy. The unsuccessful campaign against Old Lutheranism exacerbated latent tensions between the executive and judicial branches of the administration and revealed the limits of government power and authority in the sensitive area of confessional policy. The aggressive and systematic confessional statism of the administration under Frederick William III was unprecedented in Prussian history; in this as in other areas of policy, the term ‘Restoration’ misrepresents political reality in post-Napoleonic Prussia.
The transformation of fiscal reform: reciprocity, modernization, and the fiscal debate within the business community in early twentieth century Britain
Authors: Trentmann Frank 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTThe debate over Free Trade was central to modem British history. This essay shifts attention from party politics to the changing discourse and perception of state and economy within the business community. It distinguishes three phases in the erosion of liberal political economy: reciprocity, defensive tariff reform, and modernizing protectionism. An analysis of the changing argument for protection points to the emergency of a new politico-economic settlement in the age of war and coordinated capitalism. The Free Trade culture of individualism and market was displaced by a new economic vision of combination and regulation. In political culture, however, state and economy continued to be viewed as separate spheres. Instead of a corporatist system, the new settlement between state and business was marked by a dissociation of economic from political pluralism.
14. The Effect of Heat upon the Rennin Coagulation. I
Authors: Moir George M. 
Published: June 2009

1. Milk of varied hygienic quality has been “flash”-pasteurised at different temperatures and portions have been coagulated with rennin at intervals after pasteurisation.2. Analyses performed upon the whey separated from the coagula of the raw and pasteurised milk have shown that the mineral content of the whey depends largely upon the acidity.3. The increase in the coagulation time with rennin caused by pasteurisation is associated with a decrease in the whey nitrogen, so that the one is approximately a linear function of the other.4. The chemical changes produced by “flash”-pasteurisation of milk appear to be increased both by the use of higher temperatures, and also by the treatment of milk of low hygienic quality, as compared with clean milk.
Part II. The “Coconut” or “Carbolic” Taint. A Study of the Causal Organism and the Factors Governing its Spore-Formation
Authors: Christian M. I. 
Published: June 2009

The characters are given of the organism causing the “coconut” or “carbolic” taint of commercial sterilised milk. Although certain similarities with B. novus (Plectridium novum) Huss are shown to exist, the organism remains unidentified and the question of its identity has been reserved for a subsequent paper.In laboratory culture the organism exists in a stable vegetative form which has resisted all efforts to induce it to sporulate. Under commercial conditions, on the other hand, it occurs in a spore form in the bottles of tainted sterilised milk.Propagated by ordinary laboratory methods, the spore form is rapidly replaced by a vegetative race. Five serial transplants are sufficient to bring about this transformation.Sporulation can be induced and maintained indefinitely if sporing cultures are heated at 100°C. for 30 minutes at the time of inoculation. The function of the heating process appears to be the destruction of a growth product inhibitory to the germination of the spores. This substance is associated with the growth of the vegetative form and its presence in unheated cultures is inhibitory to the germination of the spores.Spore formation takes place at temperatures below 22°C., the spore cycle occupying 3 days at 22°C., 6 days at 15°C., and 15 days at 5°C. At higher temperatures, e.g. 30 and 37°C., it is inhibited and the normal process is replaced by an abortive effort at spore formation. The optimum temperature for the propagation of the spores is 22°C.
58. Coliform Organisms in Milk and Bovine Faeces
Authors: Kon Phyllis M. 
Published: June 2009

The lactose-fermenting coliform organisms in milk and dung have been investigated.A large proportion of those recovered from raw milk by direct plating proved to be of theBact. aerogenestype and a number of “intermediates” was also present.In dung faecalBact. colilargely predominated, the proportion ofBact. aerogenesbeing very small.If the implication of these experiments be accepted it is possible that many of the coliform types found in milk are derived, not from faeces, in which the proportion ofaerogenesis small, but from external sources, such as contaminated utensils, and from food-stuffs.
62. Variation in the Composition of Milk in Certain Midland Districts of England during the Years 1923–31
Authors: Baker A. G. , Cranfield H. T. 
Published: June 2009

1. Records of the percentages of fat and solids-not-fat in the milk supplies received at twelve depots in the counties of Cheshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire and Leicestershire during the period 1923–31 have been analysed and the results of analysis given in the form of graphs.2. The yearly averages for the whole area and for the three sections of the area are illustrated and compared with graphs based upon meteorological data (rainfall and temperature) recorded at stations in, or adjacent to, the area.3. The monthly average figures for the whole period are shown in the form of graphs and compared with graphs based upon data recorded by Richmond.4. The data upon which this paper is based indicate a positive correlation between rainfall and average composition of milk for each year
63. The Mode of Combination and Distribution of Traces of Heavy Metals in Dairy Products
Authors: Davies William Lewis 
Published: June 2009

Small amounts of heavy metal are distributed between cream and separated milk in proportion to the curd nitrogen, but on completely centrifuging the fat a higher concentration of metal occurs in the cream, showing adsorption of complex proteinate at the fat-globule surface.The heavy metal entering into butter from cream of different acidities is not affected by the acidity but by the curd-nitrogen content of the butter, but the copper associated with the curd in butter is roughly twice that associated with the protein nitrogen of the buttermilk. This is explained by adsorption of heavy metal on the fat-globule surface, which holds alike in water in oil as well as oil in water emulsion.The entry of heavy metal into the fat phase in the absence of protein is greatest at neutrality but decreases with increasing acidity. The presence of protein increases slightly the amount of heavy metal entering into the fat owing to adsorptive and buffering effects of the protein at the oil-water interface in the emulsion.The amount of diffusible heavy metal increases directly with the acidity and runs parallel with the diffusion of hydrogen ions.The concentration of the ionic form of heavy metal in milk is of a low order, but increase in acidity causes more ionic metal to form. Evidence from potentiometric measurements in milk containing known amounts of heavy metal, or from the addition of milk to a standard copper solution at various acidities, confirms this finding.
89. Seasonal Variation of the Percentage Butterfat Content of Milk. An Examination of the Results of Certain Individual Cow Tests
Authors: Oxley C. D. 
Published: June 2009

Figures showing the means and the standard deviation of butterfat percentage of milk samples, at the afternoon and morning milkings res-pectively, during the four quarters of the year are presented.The probable sources of error due to the nature of the sample are discussed and the seasonal variability of mean and of standard deviation is considered.The likelihood of the mean of afternoon or of morning milk failing to reach certain specified minima during the respective seasons is calculated.
101. The Occurrence of Coliform Organisms in Cream and their Effect upon Cream Quality
Authors: Pont Edwin G. 
Published: June 2009

In a study of coliform organisms in cream attention has been directed towards the occurrence of specific types within the group, and to their effect upon flavour and quality.Coliform organisms were isolated from eighty-eight (or 72 per cent.) of 112 samples of cream examined. By preliminary enrichment methods 128 strains were isolated, of which ninety-eight (or 76·5 per cent.) were typical coli strains, fourteen (or 11 per cent.) aerogenes, and sixteen (or 12·5 per cent.) intermediate.Twenty-nine coliform organisms were tested for their effect upon cream flavour and quality. The aerogenes and intermediate types were found to be similar in their effect and to produce a more rapid and serious deterioration in quality than the coli strains of faecal type.
103. Studies on the Mycological Problems of Dairying. II. The Internal and Subsurface Discolorations of Butter
Authors: Vernon T. R. 
Published: June 2009

1. A description is given of internal and subsurface discolorations in unsalted and lightly salted butter.2. Six strains of the causative organism Cladosporium herbarum are described.3. These strains are shown to be capable of reproducing the defect under experimental conditions.4. Four of the strains tested proved capable of slight growth at 20–24° F. (−6·6 to −4·4° C.). after 3½ months.5. None of the strains grew at normal cold store temperatures, 15–18° F. (−9·4 to −7·7° C).6. Salt retards the development of internal spotting. Under favourable conditions it was shown that discolorations developed in 6, 10, 16 and 25 days in butter containing 0, 5, 10 and 15 per cent, of salt in the butter serum.
113. The Yield and Composition of the Milk of the Ewe
Authors: Godden William , Puddy Claude Austin 
Published: June 2009

Figures are given for the yield, specific gravity and composition of samples of milk collected at varying intervals throughout lactation from eight Cheviotewes kept under experimental conditions and of odd samples taken from ewesunder natural grazing conditions in different parts of Scotland.The figures recorded do not show any marked differences in compositionas a result of wide differences in the calcium content of the rations.
118. Investigations on the Milk of a Typical Herd of Shorthorn Cows. III. Nitrogen Distribution, Chloride, Lactose, Copper and Iron Content over a Period of two Years
Authors: Davies William Lewis 
Published: June 2009

The weekly samples of typical milk from a small herd of Shorthorn cows have been analysed for chlorine content and nitrogen distribution (ninety-six samples). Lactose has been determined in seventy-five samples and copper and iron in twenty-four samples. The results are tabulated and discussed.The author is indebted to Mr A. Wagstaff for carrying out the determinations of lactose.
119. Mastitis Streptococci in Bulk Milk
Authors: Pullinger E. J. 
Published: June 2009

1. A technique for examining bulk milk, by cultural and microscopical means, for evidence of mastitis among the cows is described. To demonstratea light contamination with haemolytic streptococci, cultural examination of gravity cream is advocated, whilst, if much significance is to be attached to the actual count, whole milk should be cultured.2. Forty–two samples of Certified milk from sixteen producers wereexamined, and twenty–four of these contained beta-haemolytic streptococci when whole milk was cultured. Twelve of these herds were examined on three occasions during fifteen months, and samples from only two were free frombeta-haemolytic streptococci at every test.
Factors in the Reduction of Methylene Blue in Milk
Authors: Jackson Christopher James 
Published: June 2009

1. Bacteria may play but an insignificant part in the reduction of methylene blue in milk, though their de-oxygenating effect may be of influence in the commercial application of the test.2. Milk as it exists in the udder, or milk drawn anaerobically, reducesmethylene blue almost instantaneously, whereas the same milk exposed to oxygen will usually take more than 10 hours to reduce.3. The oxidation-reduction potential of anaerobically drawn milk is much lower than the same milk exposed to oxygen, and in accordance with its behaviour toward methylene blue.4. Evidence is given for the presence of a redox system, present in low concentration, as responsible for the reduction of methylene blue.5. Although the addition of small amounts of cysteine or glutathione to milk leads to the reduction of methylene blue, their absence from milk excludes them as possible factors in the normal reduction.6. The possibility that lactoflavin may furnish the redox system is suggested.7. The reduction of methylene blue in milk is catalysed by light in the visible spectrum.
133. Influence of Mastitis and of Brucella abortus Infection upon the Milk Yield of Cows
Authors: Minett F. C. , Martin W. J. 
Published: June 2009

The influence of mastitis and of Br. abortus infection, separately and combined, has been observed in two tuberculosis-free herds during the years 1929–31 and 1930–4 respectively. Actual abortions in these herds were few, but many cows were affected with Streptococcus mastitis in a subclinical form. The results, comprising the examination of 180 lactations in Ayrshires and 193 in Friesians, have been considered in relation to the results of others who have investigated the influence of Br. abortus infection on the yield.When all the lactations of all cows were considered, the average reduction in yield per lactation was 954 lb. due to mastitis and 1685 lb. due to mastitis and abortion combined. Among the Ayrshires of one herd the average reduction due to mastitis was 892 lb.