bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Rivalry between Germany and Italy in Croatia, 1942–1943
Authors: Trifković Srdjan 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTThe Independent State of Croatia(Nezavisna Država Hrvatska,NDH),which came into being during Hitler'sBlitzkriegagainst Yugoslavia in April 1941, was nominally included in the Italian sphere of influence in the Balkans. It soon turned into an uneasy condominium, however, between its formal Italian mentors and the Germans. Italian influence was largely symbolic, while German officers, experts of all profiles, businessmen and officials were prominent in Zagreb from the outset. Mussolini was deeply mistrustful of German intentions, and suspected that Germany sought a leading role in Croatia in spite of Hitler's assurances to the contrary. Nevertheless, the Italians could not devise a strategy to bring their nominal Croatian protégés to heel.While there is no evidence of a German ‘grand design’ to undermine Italy's aspìrations in the Balkans, it is certain that the Germans never intended to give up their leading role in the economic sphere. By early 1942 they secured control over all key natural resources of the NDH and most of its industrial capacity, often acting behind their Italian partners' backs in pursuit of their objectives.Also in 1942 theWehrmachtmade a strong bid to bring Croatian armed forces under its command and control. While this caused some intra-German disputes, and was resisted by the foreign ministry, it proved ultimately successful due to the rise of insurgency which threatened strategic interests of the Axis. Again, Italian claims to precedence were disregarded.The most serious dispute between Italy and Germany in the NDH concerned large joint antiinsurgency operations in the first half of 1943, and the Italians' refusal to give up their links with theČetniks.The breakdown of Italo-German military co-operation in the NDH reflected a deeper malaise of the intra-Axis relationship. It was founded upon different assumptions and objectives, but such differences remained unstated. The rivalry between Germany and Italy in Croatia vividly reflected this deeper schism between the ultimate objectives of Mussolini and his brutal Teutonic friend.
Recasting Utopia: Montesquieu, Rousseau and the Polish constitution of 3 May 1791
Authors: Lukowski Jerzy 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTBetween the sixteenth and eighteengh centuries, the nobility of the Polish–Lithuanian commonwealth had developed an ideology of extreme individualism and libertarianism, within a correspondingly weak and decentralized state structure. The first partition of 1772 starkly revealed the weaknesses of the Polish polity, but any hopes of major political overhaul were frustrated by the dead hand of Russian ambassadorial policing. The war of 1787–92 with Turkey proved a temporary distraction for Russia, which the Polish parliament of 1788–92 showed itself only partly capable of exploiting. Factional conflicts and a wary conservatism hampered reforms: the ideas of Montesquieu and Rousseau, which closely complemented so many aspects of traditional Polish noble ideology, seemed to offer the most acceptable way forward, culminating in the constitution of 3 May 1791, a compromise between enlightened idealism and political pragmatism.
Gerrard Winstanley and the Digger movement in Walton and Cobham
Authors: Gurney John 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTThere has been disagreement among historians about the nature of the local response to the Diggers in Surrey, and about the relative importance of popular hostility and gentry-led opposition in the defeat of the Digger movement. It is argued here that a distinction must be made between the Diggers' reception in Walton and their treatment in Cobham: popular opposition was much in evidence in Walton, where the Diggers were treated as outsiders, but the response of Cobham's inhabitants was more ambivalent: some of Winstanley's most active fellow Diggers were Cobham inhabitants, and in this parish it was the local gentry who took the lead in the campaign against them. It is argued that the existence of a degree of local support for Winstanley was in part a reflection of Cobham's long tradition of landlord/tenant conflict, of the absence of a settled minister during the 1640s, and of the hardships experienced in the area in the aftermath of civil war.
Hiding history: the Allies, the Resistance and the others in Occupied Italy 1943–1945
Authors: Absalom Roger 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTOf the almost 80,000 prisoners-of-war held by Italy at the time of the Armistice with the Allies of 8 September 1943, more than half succeeded in escaping and almost 18,000 were not recaptured, largely due to the help offered spontaneously by Italian civilians. The records of the Allied Screening Commission preserved in Washington, and other official papers available in England, South Africa and Australia, complemented by oral history fieldwork among former escapers and their Italian helpers, reveal an Anglo-Italian epic of anti-heroism, whose protagonists nevertheless displayed great courage, ingenuity, perseverance and humanity.Exploration of this neglected but critical dimension of the secret history of the years of occupation and resistance between 1943 and 1945 throws new light upon the characteristics and the long-term potential of a submerged nation of peasants, charcoal-burners and shepherds. The article is an attempt to historicise their expression of an often overlooked but universal peasant culture of survival, far deeper at the time than political commitment, but not without ultimate political importance.
Labour repression in the American South: corporation, state, and race in Alabama's coal fields, 1917–1921
Authors: Feldman Glenn 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTThis article is a case study of labour strife in the Alabama coal fields from 1917 to 1921. It speaks to the broader issue of labour repression in the American South by examining the patterns of repression in one industry and in one state. Several revisionist works have been written recently refuting the alleged distinctiveness of the South on the labour issue. This article supplies evidence for a surprising degree of labour militancy; the type of militancy that has been used to buttress revisionist interpretations of the similarity of southern labour to that of other American regions. In this study, however, labour militancy is understood more as a function of the desperation of southern workers confronted with distinctive issues and degrees of racial acrimony, communal antipathy toward labour, and the advantageous position of southern coal operators vis-a-vis their northern counterparts. In the face of overwhelming odds of governmental, business, press, religious, communal, and legal opposition, Alabama coal miners mounted a militant, prolonged, and biracial protest against what have been described as the worst conditions in the United States at that time.
‘Mother, what did policemen do when there weren't any motors?’ The law, the police and the regulation of motor traffic in England, 1900–1939
Authors: Emsley Clive 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTThe law had always been deployed by the police to regulate traffic, but the development of motor vehicles, travelling at much greater speeds than previous road traffic, constituted a problem of a new dimension. By the early 1920s the use of the law to control motor vehicles was jamming the magistrates' courts and creating friction, hitherto unknown, between the police and the middle classes. The paper explores the way in which, and the extent to which, the criminal law was used to control the motorist in the first third of the twentieth century. It takes issue with the whiggish view of law making, which understands laws as logical remedies for readily identifiable problems; it rejects equally the idea of seeing laws as inspired by class interest. Rather the motor traffic legislation fits better with the concept of the ‘policeman state’ which, according to V. A. C. Gatrell, developed from the late nineteenth century. At the same time the paper suggests that a scapegoat – ‘the road hog’ – was created as the focus for criticism in much the same way that other criminal scapegoats have been established; the offender thus ceased to be a member of society and became an outsider, threatening respectable law-abiding citizens.
Social Change and Military Revolution in Early Modern Europe: Some Danish Evidence
Authors: Jespersen Knud J. V. 
Published: June 2009

There is general agreement among scholars of military history on the main features of military developments during the transition from the middle ages to the early modern period. A brief sketch of the broad outlines of these developments may therefore suffice as a preface to an investigation of Danish knight service in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.The decisive factor in the medieval army was the fully armoured, lancebearing mounted knight. The battlefield was totally dominated by the combat technique of these bands of qualifizierten Einzelkämpfern, offensive combat at close quarters. The remaining forces, in contrast, functioned merely as auxiliaries to the main arm - the heavy mounted knights.
The National Assembly and the abolition of guilds in France
Authors: Fitzsimmons Michael P. 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTThe hesitation with which the national assembly approached the issue of guilds has long puzzled historians. After apparently abolishing them on the night of 4 August 1789, the national assembly delayed any action on guilds for eighteen months. This study examines the reasons for the tentativeness of the national assembly and the factors that ultimately led it to take action in 1791. A fear of aggravating violence in the countryside led the national assembly initially to delay action against guilds. By the time the assembly was ready to act, however, it found itself stymied by one of its own committees, which refused to bring the matter forward. The equivocation of the assembly led to unrest in towns and villages, and that unrest, along with the need of the assembly to realize the new principles it had advanced, led to a pre-emptive manoeuvre by the assembly against the obstructionist committee that resolved the anomaly of guilds in the new polity created by the national assembly.
Fabianism, permeation and Independent Labour
Authors: Bevir Mark 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTThe leading Fabians held different versions of permeation: Shaw saw permeation in terms of weaning the Radicals away from the Liberal party, so he favoured an independent party; Webb defined permeation in terms of the giving of expert advice to a political elite without any need for a new party. These varieties of permeation can be traced in the individual and collective actions of the Fabians, and, in particular, in their attitude to the formation of the Independent Labour party (I.L.P.). The Fabians did not simply promote the I.L.P. nor did they simply oppose the I.L.P.
A Concern for Understanding: A Case of Locke's Precepts and Practice
Authors: Mulligan Lotte , Richards Judith , Graham John K. 
Published: June 2009

Like many of his contemporaries, John Locke was concerned with the problems inherent in both the communication and the recovery of an author's meaning. Language and its proper use was of the utmost significance for him. He was in no doubt that God had granted language to man to act as ‘the great Instrument, and common Tye of Society’, but though God-given, language as man had used it had not proved an unmitigated blessing:he that shall well consider the Errors and Obscurity, the Mistakes and Confusion, that is spread in the World by an ill use of Words, will find some reason to doubt, whether Language, as it has been employ'd, has contributed more to the improvement or hindrance of Knowledge amongst Mankind.
The culture of reconciliation: community and the settlement of economic disputes in early modern England
Authors: Muldrew Craig 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTThe period from 1550 to 1640 saw a tremendous rise in the amount of litigation initiated in England. Although the pattern of this great expansion is known, its social meaning is not yet clear. Litigation has, paradoxically, been interpreted as both the barometer of a breakdown in social relations, or alternatively as a functional means of dispute settlement. Here this problem will be addressed by placing the initiation of litigation within the context of the social practices and events which led to disputes, and also by looking at how contemporaries reacted to, and interpreted these events, both publicly and privately. Most litigation arose out of economic disputes concerning credit and contracts, and this was a result of the growth of marketing in the period. Such disputes were seen as threatening to the social order, and were something which contemporaries took very seriously. The primary means of dealing with disputes was to attempt to initiate a community negotiated Christian reconciliation between the disputing parties in order to maintain social peace and concord. But as the market grew more complex, and disputes became more difficult to resolve, increasingly the authority of the law had to be invoked. This in turn led to the development of a more pessimistic language of social relations which stressed that any form of positive sociability could only be maintained under an institutional umbrella created by the threat of authority. As a result, community relations and reconciliation, although still defined in terms of Christian love and charity, came to be seen as more functional than normative because of the massive interjection of the civil law into day to day life.
Imperial backwater or strategic outpost? The British takeover of Vicky Madagascar, 1942
Authors: Thomas Martin 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTBetween June 1940 and September 1942 the French colony of Madagascar was a part of the Vichy French empire and a life-line for supplies to French Indo-China. Governor Paul Annet's island administration assumed a critical importance to Britain and South Africa after the fall of Singapore in February 1942. Conscious of the precedent of Vichy's two-fold capitulation to Japanese demands upon Indo-China in August 1940 and July 1941, both the British and the American governments feared that Annet might follow suit, conceding to Japan the use of Madagascar's principal ports and air bases. This threat led to the invasion of Madagascar by British empire forces. The attack began in May 1942 and was completed by October. Much to General Charles de Gaulle's lasting annoyance, the Free French movement played no part in these operations, although the British installed a Free French administration at Tananarive in December. This article examines the Madagascar invasion in the light of this exclusion of the Free French. It measures the strategic importance of the island against the political damage caused to Anglo-Free French relations by the British rebuttal of de Gaulle. It is argued that the British government utilized the Madagascar takeover as a means to keep the French national committee in check, disregarding Free French proposals as a result. Albeit temporary, this generated political confusion within Madagascar itself.
Golden age to separate spheres? A review of the categories and chronology of English women's history
Authors: Vickery Amanda 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTTwo very powerful stories structure the history of the changing roles of English women. The tale of the nineteenth-century separation of the spheres of public power and private domesticity relates principally to the experience of middle-class women. The other story, emerging from early modern scholarship, recounts the social and economic marginalization of propertied women and the degradation of working women as a consequence of capitalism. Both narratives echo each other in important ways, although strangely the capacity of women's history to repeat itself is rarely openly discussed. This paper critically reviews the two historiographies in order to open debate on the basic categories and chronologies we employ in discussing the experience, power and identity of women in past time.
Methods of Determining the Numbers of Bacteria in Milk
Authors: Mattick A. T. R. 
Published: June 2009

SummaryOne fact emerges from a consideration of the literature upon the methods at present in use for determining the bacteriological content of milk, viz. no one method is capable of giving exact information as to the numbers of living bacteria present.The plate count has been shown to be subject to a number of limitations to its accuracy, but it is possible that these are much more the result of failure to appreciate the importance and effect of observing the protocols of a standard technique, than of insurmountable causes of error inherent in the method. Any one laboratory should be able to return results which are comparable from sample to sample, but as has been shown, it is unlikely that results will agree between laboratory and laboratory unless the most rigid precautions to secure uniformity are enforced. This latter fact does not seem to be of very great importance, since the most that can be expected is that results shall reflect the condition of the milk at the time of examination. These will be governed by the previous history of the milk. Figures have been given which show (p. 120) that, if milk is properly produced and handled, the bacterial content will be, even 24 hours or more after milking, within the range where the plate count as a method of computation is more reliable than any other known method.From the point of view of keeping quality and value for some manufacturing purposes, milk is either good or bad, and the obvious inaccuracy of the plate or any other method is a matter of small importance when the bacterial content has once exceeded 500,000 per 1 c.c.Nevertheless there is no sort of justification for attempting to separate milk into classes, which are not broad enough to include the variations which have been repeatedly shown, although not always on sound lines, to occur in the figures. It may be possible so to separate milk of very low bacterial content, but it is not possible to do so when the bacterial content exceeds, say, 200,000 per 1 c.c. It must always be remembered that the colonies appearing on agar plates arise from groups as well as from individual bacteria.In view of the fact that keeping quality, the basis on which the consumer judges milk, depends upon the kinds as well as upon the numbers of bacteria, it appears wise to supplement bacterial examinations with determinations of keeping quality, and, in view of their special significance, of organisms of the coliform group.It seems that, although the methods of Breed and Frost are excellent for rapidly classifying milk into broad grades, their accuracy is necessarily diminished by their very nature, in that the results obtained are dependent upon computation to a greater extent than the plate method and, although it is possible to secure good results, the time consumed in getting these is as great, if not indeed greater, than by the plate method.The reductase test, although it has a large sphere of usefulness as a factory method, will not give accurate information as to the numbers of bacteria in milk.
19. The Influence of other Bacteria on the Production of Acid by Lactic Streptococci in Milk
Authors: Cox G. A. , Whitehead H. R. 
Published: June 2009

SummaryFour organisms commonly found in contaminated milk (B. coli, B. subtilis, a staphylococcus, and B. faecalis alkaligenes) were grown in milk in association with lactic streptococci, and the acidity produced in a given time was determined. B. subtilis appeared to stimulate the production of acid. B. coli caused a decrease in acid production in some experiments, and an increase in others. The staphylococcus had a slight stimulative effect. B. faecalis alkaligenes had only a slight effect which was barely beyond experimental error. There was no indication that any of the organisms are responsible for the cessation of acidity production which sometimes occurs in milk during cheese manufacture. However, the results were not conclusive in this connection, since the experimental conditions did not simulate those obtaining in a cheese vat.
Part III. The Basis of Control
Authors: Hiscox E. R. , Christian M. I. 
Published: June 2009

In the foregoing parts it is indicated that great difficulty may be experienced in the control of the spoilage of commercial sterilised milk which results from the development of spore-bearing bacteria.A detailed study of the actual sources of contamination is now being made, but in the meantime it may be pointed out that many of these bacteria are typical members of the soil flora. They may therefore enter the milk from the dust either at the farm or the factory. The greater the care with which the milk is handled from the time of milking until the end of the heating process, and the greater the efficiency of the cleaning and sterilisation of the plant and the empty bottles, the less will be the danger of spoilage arising from the use of infected milk. During the course of the investigations recorded it has been necessary to carry out numerous control experiments. The milk used has been Grade A (T.T.) milk and the utensils with which it came into contact and the empty bottles into which it was poured were clean and sterile. There has never been the least difficulty in obtaining a sterile, fresh-smelling and sweet-tasting product after heating at 100°C. (212°F.) for 30 minutes and storing at 22°C. (72°F.).
43. Normal Growth of Dairy Cattle
Authors: Bartlett Stephen , Jameson Joan Lyster 
Published: June 2009

1. Normal curves of growth for dairy Shorthorn cattle from birth to 5 years of age are presented. These include height at withers, length of body, depth of chest and live weight.2. The expression of growth by the “Relative growth rate” method is discussed and illustrated. The method is particularly suitable for expressing the growth of calves under 6 months of age.
47. The Errors Involved in Certain Methods of Estimating the Lactation Yield of Milk and Butterfat
Authors: Houston John , Hale Robert. W. 
Published: June 2009

An analysis of the data collected at the Agricultural Research Institute for Northern Ireland, Hillsborough, County Down, was undertaken to find if the system of milk recording practised in Northern Ireland is satisfactory.The standard deviations of the errors in the calculated milk yields, on a weekly and 2-weekly basis, of 24 cows were found. It is shown that weekly weighings give results which approximate closely to the true milk yield.By basing the calculated butterfat yields on tests made at intervals of from 1 to 8 weeks, the standard deviations of the errors in the calculated butterfat percentages for each interval, as well as the maxmium errors, were found. It is shown that as the interval between the tests is lengthened, the errors increase. With tests made at intervals of 6 weeks, most of the errors in the calculated butterfat percentages will be less than 8-5 per cent., but in some cases the calculated butterfat percentage may differ from the true butterfat percentage by over 12 per cent.In order to ensure that the errors in calculated butterfat percentages do not exceed 10 per cent., the interval between butterfat tests should not exceed 1 month.