bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
U
nited
S
tates Department of Agriculture
Authors: Heintzelman Leila 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) plays a critical role in protecting the United States' food supply and agricultural products from acts of bioterrorism. The ability to effectively respond to an attack is dependent upon the effectiveness of the existing food safety infrastructure. The current food safety infrastructure, rooted in policies established over a century ago, has evolved in an effort to meet modern day food safety challenges. Coordination between federal agencies, state and local governments, and the public health community, is a key component in safeguarding against and responding to a bioterrorism attack.
U
nited
S
tates Legislation and Presidential Directives
Authors: Jacobs Leslie Gielow , Parker Elizabeth Rindskopf 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
Bioterrorism defense policy is a broad and complex body of law stemming from United States legislation, federal agency regulations and presidential directives. This immense area of law may be discussed in three general categories: defining and punishing biological weapons offenses; expanding laws, enforcement tools and methods; and preventing access to biological weapons materials, equipment and expertise.
Water Supply, Vulnerability, and Attack Specifics
Authors: Burrows W. Dickinson , Birkmire Sara E. 
Published: July 2011

AbstractThough hardly credible as weapons of mass casualties when applied to community water supplies, biological warfare agents can sicken and even kill many people when the agent is applied to potable water distribution systems close to targeted populations. An effective defense will require improved detection and monitoring capability, better knowledge of infectivity or toxicity of individual agents, as well as their environmental stability, upgraded water treatment technologies, and vigilance.
Weather Underground: A Case Study
Authors: Muldoon Anna 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
The Weather Underground was a radical anti‐war group, formed in the late1960s, which was responsible for a number of bombings in the US. In November 1970, several newspaper articles reported that the Weather Underground had attempted to acquire biological weapons to contaminate a city's water supply. There is no evidence, however, that the group ever sought weapons of mass destruction, nor that they attempted to acquire biological agents in 1970.
Risk Assessment in Bioterrorism
Authors: Hope Bruce K. , Elrod Sarah 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
General concerns about terrorist use of biological agents have increased at U.S. state and federal levels and in the popular press. However, establishment of effective security and counterterrorism programs will require condensing generalizations about such threats into specific attack scenarios, as well as use of an analysis method that helps focus decision makers on those scenarios that are both most probable and potentially most damaging. This chapter proceeds on the premise that risk assessment methodologies developed for human health and the environment can be adapted to move decision makers beyond potentially intractable generalizations about who or what is threatened by bioterrorism toward specific scenarios that can be evaluated, anticipated, and managed. A two‐step process is outlined with which to achieve this goal: first, a vulnerability analysis to define and rank scenarios, followed, for the more highly ranked scenarios, by a quantitative risk assessment to more clearly identify (and eventually manage) specific factors contributing to risk.
“
A
merithrax”: The Investigation of Bioterrorism Using

B
acillus
A
nthracis

Spores in Mailed Letters
Authors: Murch Randall S. 
Published: July 2011

Abstract

In September and October 2001, letters containing spores of the bacterial pathogen and recognized biological weapon agent,
Bacillus anthracis
, were sent through the mail to several prominent media outlets and to two United States Senators. As a result, 22 persons contracted inhalational or cutaneous anthrax, and five of those individuals died. A massive 7‐year investigation led by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was undertaken that eventually identified a suspect who committed suicide in 2008 before formal legal action could be taken against him.
Ansar al‐Islam
Authors: Ryan John J. 
Published: July 2011

AbstractAnsar al‐Islam was one of the most potent threats that U.S. and coalition forces faced in Iraq. The group formed in the semi‐autonomous Kurdish region of Northern Iraq and shares close ties to both al‐Qa'ida's central leadership and al‐Qa'ida in Iraq (AQI). Ansar al‐Islam provided safe haven to members of al‐Qa'ida who fled Afghanistan after the 2001 U.S. invasion, and who prepared to fight U.S. forces prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. As this entry is being written, Ansar al‐Islam continues to mount attacks against U.S. and coalition forces, and anyone else that does not share its ideology.
Attribution of Biological Weapons Use
Authors: Bahr Elizabeth 
Published: July 2011

AbstractThe goal of biological weapons attribution is to identify and assign the origin of a disease outbreak within human, plant, and/or animal populations. Attribution can be defined as the ability to link an outbreak to a particular biological source at a particular place and time, as well as linking the outbreak to a specified perpetrator. The process of biological weapons attribution, therefore, involves not only the identification of a biological agent responsible for an event, but also the characterization of the event, as well as the ultimate attribution of biological weapons use to a specific perpetrator. However, due to the unique nature of biological weapons, as well as the complex political restraints of both a domestic or international biological weapons outbreak, the successful attribution of biological weapons use remains challenging.
Bioterrorism Preparedness: The
U
nited
K
ingdom Approach
Authors: Pearson Graham S. 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
There has long been a necessity in the United Kingdom to be able to respond to outbreaks of disease which may affect humans, animals or plants. The response to bioterrorism is primarily based upon the capability to respond to terrorist incidents and upon the capability to respond to outbreaks of disease. The integrated approach in the United Kingdom to a major emergency provides the background to the examination of the effectiveness of that approach in preparedness to counter deliberate releases of biological materials.
Bioterrorism Targeted at Agriculture
Authors: Casagrande Rocco , Wills Nickolas 
Published: July 2011

AbstractBioterrorism targeted at agriculture has received relatively little attention despite the significant economic disruption that could result from such an attack. In this entry, we examine several aspects of the US agriculture system that make it potentially vulnerable to attack, several qualities of pathogens that make them likely to be considered for use as a weapon. Additionally, we discuss what the possible consequences of an agriculture targeted attack could be in the context of recent, natural outbreaks are considered. We also examine why agriculture may be an attractive target to adversaries with a variety of motivations.
Biowatch Program
Authors: Siegrist David W. 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
BioWatch is a collection of aerosol samplers and a system for detecting an aerosol attack featuring a number of pathogens and toxins. It is led by the Department of Homeland Security, in cooperation with the Centers for Disease Control and the Environmental Protection Agency, as well as other Federal partners, in conjunction with local jurisdictions. The system has been implemented since 2003.
C
uba, Terrorism, and Biotechnology
Authors: Zilinskas Raymond A. 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
The Cuban government has in the past been known to directly support terrorist groups and, as well, nations that are or were supporters of terrorists. In addition, it has taken steps over its existence to acquire a powerful biotechnology infrastructure. Is it possible that Cuban biotechnology has been misused for the purpose of acquiring biological weapons? There certainly have been allegations made by high U.S. government officials to this effect. This entry addresses the relationships between Cuba, terrorism, and biotechnology. It has two sections. The first section considers Cuba's history of terrorist support and associations with nations that have been named by the United States as supporting terrorists, such as Iran, Libya, and Syria. Second, Cuba's powerful biotechnological capability is reviewed, as well as its potential for biological weapons acquisition.
D
emocratic
P
eople's
R
epublic of
K
orea
Authors: Pinkston Daniel A. 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
The Democratic People's Republic of Korea fell behind South Korea economically in the 1970s and militarily in the 1980s. North Korea increasingly relies upon asymmetric military capabilities as it falls further behind in the conventional realm. The DPRK has conducted two nuclear tests and possesses a large missile arsenal. North Korea signed the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention in 1987, but has been suspected of having a biological weapons program. South Korean intelligence reported in the early 1990s that North Korea had produced 13 types of pathogens, including those that cause anthrax, cholera and typhoid. There is speculation that the DPRK could have obtained smallpox virus from the former USSR in the 1980s. North Korea probably has the infrastructure to produce BW agents, but recent intelligence estimates have been revised downward. The Republic of Korea government now believes the DPRK has not weaponized any pathogens it might possess. The DPRK has not engaged in terrorism since 1987 and was removed from the U.S. Department of State's terrorism list in October 2008.
DianeThompson: A Case Study
Authors: Zilinskas Raymond A. 
Published: July 2011

AbstractIn 1996, Diane Thompson, a laboratory technician in Dallas, Texas provided a number of fellow hospital workers with pastries contaminated withShigella dysenteriae. This attack led to 12 illnesses and 4 hospitalizations. Thompson was arrested for food tampering and is serving a 20‐year prison sentence.
D
irector of
N
ational
I
ntelligence
Authors: Elrod Sarah 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
The Director of National Intelligence oversees the Intelligence Community, working to integrate its 17 intelligence agencies into a single, coherent enterprise. In addition to his management duties, he serves to direct the implementation of the National Intelligence Program and advises the President, National Security Council, and the Homeland Security Council on intelligence issues that relate to U.S. national security. It is through the coordinated efforts of the Intelligence Community that the U.S. can position itself to withstand the threat of bioterrorism and other terrorist activities.
E
nvironmental
P
rotection
A
gency:
B
ioterrorism
D
efense
E
fforts
Authors: Funke Odelia 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
The US Environmental Protection Agency makes several key contributions to the federal government's bioterrorism defense program. This entry outlines the principal areas of EPA's responsiblity, including protection of drinking water infrastructure,emergency response, and environmental monitoring. EPA's role in bioterrorism defense builds on Agency expertise in dealing with biological materials as environmental problems to be monitored, tested, controlled and cleaned up. In addition, the Agency is extending its research agenda in biomonitoring, and its programmatic concerns related specifically to addressing bioterrorism threats to protect drinking water as a national infrastructure asset.
Exercises
Authors: Allen Heather 
Published: July 2011

AbstractLarge‐scale exercises are organized to test national and international preparedness and response capabilities against bioterrorism events. Through these exercises, weaknesses can be identified and targeted for improvement. This entry discusses TOPOFF 1‐4, Black ICE I‐II, and Dark Winter. The latter is a real event in whichBacillus anthraciswas dispersed in the United Kingdom in 1981. Special attention is given to the hypothetical biological event in each exercise.
I
nterpol
Authors: Kellman Barry 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
INTERPOL, an international organization for facilitating international police cooperation, launched the INTERPOL Bioterrorism Prevention Program in 2004 to assist law enforcement in bio‐related investigations and promote international cooperation on these issues. Through this program, INTERPOL has hosted numerous training sessions and exercises, developed a database of biocriminalization information, and produced training materials to assist law enforcement in countering biocrimes.
I
slam and
B
ioterrorism
Authors: Lailari Guermantes 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
Most Muslims are not terrorists, but many terrorist groups today use Islam as justification for violence. After providing a basic primer on Islam, this entry explores the violent past of Islam and how modern Islamic scholars have justified the use of violence according to Islamic jurisprudence. Since the late 1970s, more and more Islamic terrorist organizations have appeared throughout the world. In fact, most terrorist groups listed by Western countries are Islamic. Types of Jihad are discussed, focusing on violent forms as well as types of Islamic terrorist groups. As Jihadists use a black and white world view, they are able to use these stark perspectives to clearly define who is on their side and who is their enemy. The threat to each area of the world by Islamic terrorist groups is briefly described. State sponsors of these Islamic terrorist groups are also mentioned as well as Islamic states and violent nonstate actors desires to increase their weapons of mass destruction (WMD) capacity. Several Islamic scholars are cited to explain under what circumstances WMD can be used against Islam's perceived enemies, including bioterrorism. Terrorist historical uses of WMD and uses of WMD by Islamic terrorists are provided. The entry concludes by explaining which Islamic state and Islamic terrorist organization present the most dangerous threats to the world.
J
emaah
I
slamiyah
Authors: Pervez Fouad 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) is a militant Islamic organization in Southeast Asia with a wide range of goals, including the establishment of Islamic governments, a Southeast Asian Islamic caliphate, or jihad against the West, with debate between members as to which goal should be pursued. It has been significantly weakened by counterterrorism activity, especially after the 2002 Bali club bombing. In turn, it has pursued alliances with other Islamic groups. While there may be some intent in JI to use bioterrorism as a tactic, it is unclear if the group has the capability to acquire biological weapons.
L
arry
W
ayne
H
arris
Authors: Harrison Lauren , Miller Jacqueline E. 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
Larry Wayne Harris, a trained microbiological technician from Lancaster, Ohio has been implicated in two cases of possession of biological materials that are of particular concern in weapons. In 1995, he was charged with misrepresenting himself while ordering three vials of the causative agent of plague. He was also arrested on suspected possession of the causative agent of anthrax. This substance was later found to be a harmless veterinary strain. He is thought to be a lone actor and not maintaining ties with any terrorist groups or states. He did have, at one time, ties with Aryan Nations and other neo‐Nazi groups. He renounced his racist views in mid‐1990s.
Managing Laboratory Biorisk
Authors: Petrillo Jessica 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
Managing the risks associated with laboratory use of biological agents is necessary to ensure the health and safety of laboratory personnel, the public, and the environment. Inadvertent or deliberate release of infectious materials risks the health of people, animals, or plants and can potentially undermine national and international security and stability. Effective management of the risks associated with laboratory use of biological agents is a process in which the components of the research environment associated with biological agents are examined to determine if they can cause harm, whether the appropriate precautions are in place to mitigate the harm, and, if not, to determine what additional steps are required. Application of risk mitigation measures must be based on a thorough assessment of risk, consistent with the specific risks at the facility and cost‐effective. Mitigation measures must not unduly impede life sciences research. This process of managing laboratory risk is the shared responsibility of all those engaged in the life sciences, including the researcher, institution, local community, national government, and international community.
Marine Toxins
Authors: Poli Mark A. 
Published: July 2011

AbstractMarine biotoxins should not be overlooked as potential agents of food bioterrorism. Because they occur naturally in fresh and otherwise wholesome seafood products, possess no visual or olfactory clues to their presence, and are impervious to typical cooking temperatures, they can be a difficult problem to identify. Toxic foodstuffs are easily acquired and, in theory, need only be inserted into the food supply at the desired location downstream of any regulatory testing. Six major seafood intoxication syndromes, along with their bioterrorism implications, are discussed.
Melamine Contamination
Authors: Heintzelman Leila 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
Melamine and its analogues (cyanuric acid, ammeline and ammelide) have been identified as the cause of attributed to two serious food adulteration incidents: contaminated pet‐food in the United States in 2007 resulting in the death of perhaps a thousand cats and dogs, and adulterated infant formula in China in 2008 affecting almost 300,000 infants and children and causing at least 6 deaths (WHO, 2008). In both cases, melamine was deliberately added to products artificially inflate their protein content. Melamine toxicity is dependent on concentration. Data suggests that exposure to both melamine and cyanuric acid is more toxic than exposure to either compound individually. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) continues to screen products, collaborate with foreign governments and their regulatory agencies, and monitor reports of contamination from international sources to help ensure that the U.S. food supply is safe.
M
oro
I
slamic
L
iberation
F
ront
Authors: Pervez Fouad 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
The Moro Islamic Liberation Front is a militant Islamic organization in the Philippines that uses violence to pursue its goal of independence for the Muslim regions of the southern part of the country. It has alternated between violence and peace with the government, although prospects for a long‐term peace settlement seem low right now. The group has not been linked to bioterrorism, although it allegedly is connected to Jemaah Islamiyah and Abu Sayaf, groups that have been accused of having links, albeit weakly, to bioterrorism.
Nanobiotechnology
Authors: Kosal Margaret E. 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
The intersection of the pursuit of the minutely small—nanotechnology—with biotechnology and the life sciences is thriving in academia, in the private sector, and in global state science and technology programs. Bionanotechnology has great potential to provide new and possibly revolutionary countermeasures from improved methods for detection of biological agents to medical therapeutics. Concurrently bionanotechnology creates many of the same concerns, and some unique, regarding dual‐use applications as traditional biotechnology. The biosecurity implications, both for traditional nonproliferation regimes and for misuse by non‐state actors, of developments in biotechnology have not received commensurate attention to other areas of nanotechnology or biotechnology.
N
ational
B
iodefense
A
nalysis and
C
ountermeasures
C
enter
Authors: Fitch J. Patrick 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
The National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center's (NBACC) mission is to provide the nation with the scientific basis for characterization of biological threats and bioforensic analysis to support attribution of their use against the American public. NBACC is a Department of Homeland Security Federally Funded Research and Development Center that is managed and operated by the Battelle National Biodefense Institute, LLC.
N
ational
C
enter for
M
edical
I
ntelligence
Authors: Michaud Joshua 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
The National Center for Medical Intelligence (NCMI), part of the Defense Intelligence Agency, is responsible for preparing, coordinating, and disseminating integrated all‐source intelligence for the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and other U.S. government customers on health threats and issues. NCMI is the U.S. government's primary producer of “medical intelligence,” defined as the assessment of health risks and issues that affect force health or other critical U.S. interests worldwide, and which includes such topics as infectious diseases, foreign medical capabilities, environmental threats, and medical science and technology. Medical intelligence has played an important role in DoD missions in times of both peace and war, and has a history extending back at least 60 years. NCMI's roles and responsibilities grew in 2008 when it expanded from its previously highly DoD‐focused mission to a broader mission that also includes homeland health protection. NCMI's medical intelligence now supports U.S. operational and policy decisions worldwide, plays a role in protecting the health of deployed forces, and also helps protects the homeland from a diverse set of health threats by forging and maintaining communication and awareness on these threats between agencies that span domestic and foreign intelligence.
N
ations of
C
oncern:
I
ran
Authors: Nordmann Brian 
Published: July 2011

Abstract
In his 2002 State of the Union address, President George W. Bush announced that he considered Iran, along with Iraq and North Korea as countries that threatened the global interests of the United States. He declared these three countries as the “Axis of Evil.” Iran was considered deserving of this designation because of its weapons of mass destruction programs and its support of terrorist groups. Some continue to fear that Iran will combine its interests with other groups to uses their resources against their enemies. Iran has maintained an advanced biotechnology program. Iran's official stance on biological weapons is one of complete abhorrence. Iran has hosted mock inspections for future inspections and is a party to every relevant international arms control agreement. However there are still fears that Iran could arm terrorist groups such as Hezbollah with biological weapons.
Nations ofConcern:Libya
Authors: Nordmann Brian 
Published: July 2011

AbstractAfter the 1969 coup that overthrew the ruling monarchy, Libya maintained a foreign policy of enmity to the West and occasionally erratic behavior towards the rest of the world. In 2003, leader Mu'ammar al‐Qadhafi made “the historic decision” to renounce the country's weapons of mass destruction and eliminate all vestiges of its weapons programs,