bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The representational theory of the visual mind
Authors: JACOB PIERRE , JEANNEROD MARC 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter sketches and argues for a view called the ‘representational theory of the visual mind’ (RTVM). RTVM is not so much a scientific theory that leads to testable predictions, as a picture or a framework. According to this theory, the mind is at bottom a representational device: in Dretske's terms, ‘all mental facts are representational facts’. In this view, mental processes consist of the formation and the transformation of mental representations. Section 2 contrasts RTVM with two alternatives: ‘sense-datum theory’ and ‘disjunctivism’. Section 3 presents reasons for thinking that visual percepts have non-conceptual content. Section 4 sketches the basis of an approach labelled as ‘cognitive dynamics’. Section 5 considers three implications of RTVM for the control of visually guided actions. It argues that RTVM has the resources to clarify the puzzle of visually guided actions. It examines the nature of actions and argues that actions involve mental representations.
Multiple pathways in the primate visual system
Authors: JACOB PIERRE , JEANNEROD MARC 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter reviews the progressive build-up by anatomists and physiologists of the concept of multiple visual systems with specialized functions. In particular, it examines the grounds for distinguishing a visual subsystem dedicated to localizing a stimulus (the ‘where’ system) from a visual subsystem dedicated to its identification (the ‘what’ system). It contrasts the responses of single neurons located, respectively, in the anterior intraparietal area (AIP) and in the inferotemporal area (TE) of the brain of macaque monkeys. The former responds to the geometrical properties of objects relevant in the context of grasping tasks. The latter responds to more complex visual properties of the same objects.
Seeing humans act
Authors: JACOB PIERRE , JEANNEROD MARC 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines how the human visual system responds to human actions. Section 1 starts with the examination of the human ‘praxic’ system, i.e. a high-level visual pragmatic processing of artifacts as tools. Section 2 examines what seems to be the primary level of the visual analysis of human action, namely the perception of biological motion. Sections 3 and 4 ascend from the primary level to higher levels of the visual analysis of human actions, and argue that the human visual system has two complementary specialized neural circuits for processing human actions. The chapter distinguishes between non-social motor intentions and social intentions to reflect the difference between an intention to grasp an object and an intention to affect a conspecific's behaviour, which, in the human case, may involve the intention to cause a new mental state or representation, e.g. fear or a belief, in a conspecific on the basis of visual cues.
Epilogue: the two visual systems revisited
Authors: JACOB PIERRE , JEANNEROD MARC 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses how the dualist model of human visual processing presented in the book departs from Milner and Goodale's (1995) dualist model. It first argues that the concept of action involved in their notion of ‘vision-for-action’ is overly narrow. In the process, it reflects on the complexities of the notion of a perceptual object. The chapter then argues that Milner and Goodale's model underestimates the role of the parietal lobes, not only in the organization of high-level pragmatic visual processing (i.e. for action) but also, for the visual perception of spatial relationships.
Photopigment Polymorphism in Prosimians and the Origins of Primate Trichromacy
Authors: Jacobs Gerald H. , Deegan II Jess F. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter describes a study of photopigment polymorphism in prosimians. A noninvasive electrophysiological technique, electroretinogram (ERG) flicker photometry was used to measure spectral sensitivity in three adult (one male, two female) black and white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata). The pigment polymorphism observed in black and white ruffed lemurs predicts variations in colour vision. Two of the animals could be dichromatic, each with distinctly different colour vision characteristics, while the third (a female) has the photopigment basis for trichromacy. With the recent evidence that prosimians have cone opsin gene and photopigment polymorphisms, it seems clear that the idea that only anthropoid primates can be trichromatic was mistaken. At the same time, it is equally clear that the number of prosimians potentially enjoying trichromacy may be limited.
The Arrangement of Land M Cones in Human and a Primate Retina
Authors: Bowmaker J. K. , Parry J. W. L. , Mollon J. D. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
The relative numerosities and spatial arrangement of long-wave (L) and middle-wave (M) cones in the human and primate retina have long been debated. This topographical organization of cones is fundamental to the understanding of visual sensitivity and colour vision. This chapter examines the numerosity of L and M cones in the human fovea. It also examines cones at the ora serrata and analyzes the foveal array of a single female marmoset. The data suggests that the ratio of L:M cones in the foveal region in humans varies between individuals from close to unity to at least as high a 5L:M. However, the average for the population is 2:1. In the case of the female marmoset, the two types of long-wave cone were in the ratio 0.7:1. The functional significance of individual variation in the ratio of L and M cones in humans is discussed.
Comparison of Human and Monkey Pigment Gene Promoters to Evaluate DNA Sequences Proposed to Govern L:M Cone Ratio
Authors: McMahon C. , Neitz J. , Neitz M. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the genetic mechanisms responsible for the difference in long-wave (L) and middle-wave (M) cone ratio between monkeys and humans. It is possible that sequences of the L and M gene promoter regions influence the L versus M cone decision-making process during development. The similarity between the L and M promoters in Old World monkeys may be related to the nearly equal numbers of L and M cones in these animals, and that some of the additional differences between the human L and M promoters may play a role in producing the difference in L and M cone numbers in human retinas. It is also possible that other differences between L and M genes, for example differences within the introns, may play a role in determining the L:M ratio.
The Neural Circuit Providing Input to Midget Ganglion Cells
Authors: Marshak David W 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter proposes a neural circuit providing input to a central midget ganglion cell. The narrow field of amacrine cells are unselective in their contacts with bipolar cells, but because their dendritic arbors are small, their responses tend to be biased toward L or M cones, the same type that provides input to most of the nearby midget bipolar cells. The narrow field amacrine cells make inhibitory synapses onto wide field amacrine cells. The wide field amacrine cells inhibit the midget ganglion cells and midget bipolar cells, and they provide the classical, spatially antagonistic surround, as originally proposed by Dowling and Boycott (1996). Because the wide field amacrine cells have much larger dendritic trees, their input reflects the key ratio of L and M cones to the entire region of the retina.
Chromatic Assimilation: Evidence for a Neural Mechanism
Authors: Shevell Steven K. , Cao Dingcai 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Chromatic induction refers to the shift in colour appearance caused by nearby light. Most research on chromatic induction has focused on colour contrast, which is a shift in appearance away from the colour of the nearby light. Most studies of chromatic assimilation suggest that neural factors contribute to it. The nature of neural mechanisms, however, is often vague or untested. This chapter has two aims. First, a new stimulus is introduced to minimize the influence of prereceptoral factors. Most previous studies of assimilation used contextual light covering half or more of the whole stimulus area. Here, light is induced in various conditions that covers just 9% to 37% of the whole area. Measurements show that chromatic assimilation from this contextual light cannot be explained by prereceptoral factors. Second, the proportion of the whole area covered by inducing light was varied systematically to test for neural summation over the stimulus area. The measurements are generally consistent with neural summation.
Contribution of Achromatic and Chromatic Contrast Signals to Fechner–Benham Subjective Colours
Authors: Le Rohellec J. , Brettel H. , Viénot F. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter describes an experiment aimed at examining the respective contribution of achromatic contrast and isoluminant chromatic contrasts for generating subjective colours. It compares the efficiency of cone contrasts that are manipulated in an additive mode or in an antagonistic mode to differentiate subjective colours produced by different spatio-temporal stimuli. The results demonstrate the prevalence of the achromatic contrast to elicit Benham subjective colours. It seems that isoluminant chromatic contrast needs to be boosted to a very high value to produce subjective colours. The findings confirm that S-cone signals alone are inefficient to generate Benham colours.
Convergence as a Function of Chromatic Contrast: A Possible Contributor to Depth Perception?
Authors: Paramei Galina V. , Jaschinski Wolfgang 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter addresses the question of whether vergence — an oculomotor component of binocular vision — is related to the variation of chromatic information in stimuli, thereby contributing to binocular ‘colour-and-depth’ perception. In particular, the chapter examined whether a near-vergence response elicited by a fusion stimulus would change when stimulus chromatic contrast is varied. The results show that chromatic contrast yields information for a distance cue in dichoptically presented stimuli, as indicated by a systematic increase of the vergence error with reducing contrast. Similarly, reducing luminae contrast results in increasing vergence error.
Red–Green Colour Deficiency and Colour Constancy Under Orthogonal-Daylight Changes
Authors: Amano Kinjiro , Foster David H. , Nascimento Sergio M. C. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents a computational model of the performance of colour-normal, pronatopic, and deuteranopic observers using information available from long-, medium-, and short-wavelength-sensitive cones. Large anisotropies found with the sample of protan and deutan observers were not reproduced by the corresponding dichromatic models, confirming that information about deviations in spatial cone-excitation ratios in the remaining medium-to-long-wavelength-sensitive cone class was not used effectively.
Schopenhauer’s “Parts of Daylight” In The Light of Modern Colorimetry
Authors: Koenderink Jan J. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter argues that although Arthur Schopenhauer's hopes of arriving at a principled basis of colour harmony appears futile, the concept of colours as ‘parts of daylight’ is a valuable one. It shows that the tripartition is very natural, namely the unique solution to the problem of inscribing a ‘best fitting crate’ (a parallelepiped) into the colour solid that exhausts the greatest fraction of its volume.
Some Properties of the Physiological Colour System
Authors: Von Campenhausen C. , Schramme J. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
The Physiological Colour System (PCS) is an approach towards a uniform colour system. The PCS is based on cone excitations as calculated by the Naka–Rushton relation. This chapter shows that the PCS has a certain degree of uniformity as demonstrated by computed wavelength discrimination curves and MacAdam ellipses.
Extreme Anomalous Trichromatism
Authors: Birch Jennifer 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Progress in the molecular genetics of colour vision deficiency relies on matching phenotype with genotype. Thus, it is essential that accurate diagnosis of the type of red-green colour deficiency is obtained and that unusual phenotypes, such as extreme anomalous trichromatism, are identified. Accurate diagnosis is obtained by careful determination of the limits of the red-green matching range on a spectral anomaloscope. This chapter shows that extreme anomalous trichromats make matches with a significant excess of both red and green light, but are unable to match all red-green mixture ratios.
Comparison of methods and tests on trees
Authors: YANG ZIHENG 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses two problems: the evaluation of statistical properties of tree reconstruction methods and tests of the significance of estimated phylogenies. Section 6.1 discusses criteria for assessing the statistical properties of tree reconstruction methods. A summary of simulation studies conducted to evaluate different methods is provided, as well as some recommendations concerning the use of those methods in practical data analysis. Sections 6.2 and 6.3 deal with the likelihood versus parsimony debate from the likelihood and parsimony perspectives, respectively. Section 6.4 provides an overview of methods for assessing the reliability of estimated phylogenies.
Molecular clock and estimation of species divergence times
Authors: YANG ZIHENG 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on statistical methods for testing the clock hypothesis, and on likelihood and Bayesian methods for dating species divergence events under global and local clock models. In such an analysis, fossils are used to calibrate the clock, that is, to translate sequence distances into absolute geological times and substitution rates. A similar situation concerns viral genes, which evolve so fast that changes are observed over the years. Then one can use the dates at which the sequences are determined to calibrate the clock and to estimate divergence times, using essentially the same techniques as discussed here.
Introducing Evolutionary Thinking For Medicine
Authors: Stearns Stephen C. , Nesse Randolph M. , Haig David 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter introduces the book, motivates it with examples of cases in which evolutionary approaches provide useful insights, and provides a brief sketch of evolutionary biology that describes key concepts and misconceptions. It argues that doctors need to know this about evolution: how natural selection works; why trade-offs are ubiquitous; how to distinguish and apply proximate and ultimate explanations; how to distinguish natural selection, drift, and inherited constraints as explanations; why group selection is weak and rarely an explanation; why aging is a by-product of selection for reproductive success earlier in life; why each human differs genetically in reacting to drugs and diseases; how pathogens rapidly evolve antibiotic resistance, and how that can be managed; how pathogen virulence evolves in response to human interventions; how evolutionary conflicts help to explain reproductive problems; and how selection operates in everyday life.
Global spatial patterns of infectious diseases and human evolution
Authors: Guégan Jean-François , Prugnolle Franck , Thomas Frédéric 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter surveys global spatial patterns of the incidence of infectious diseases and human genetic variation. Contagious diseases are everywhere; zoonotic pathogens are concentrated in the tropics. Thus, populations in the tropics have suffered, and are still suffering, from a greater diversity of pathogens. Pathogens have exerted selective pressures on humans, which have evolved resistant genotypes. The results can be observed in human genomes. The life-history traits of early humans were shaped by interactions with parasites, and connections between life history traits and disease biology can help us to understand fertility, sexual dimorphism, and lifespan. Important questions remain open: which kinds of pathogens are most likely to emerge into human populations in the future? Will the homogenization of zoonotic diseases interfere with human adaptation and evolution? If pathogen pressure maintains much human polymorphism, what will be the effects of disease control and eradication on our own evolution?
Health consequences of ecogenetic variation
Authors: Bamshad Michael , Motulsky Arno G. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter reviews human variation in drug response, taste perception, and nutritional effects. Such traits are often caused by multiple variants. New technologies and statistical methods make it easier to identify these variants. The frequencies and effects of many risk alleles influencing health co-vary more closely with ancestry than with race. While race captures substantial information about ancestry in U.S. populations, it is a poor predictor of individual ancestry proportions, which should be inferred from explicit genetic information. Clinicians need to understand the circumstances under which ancestry, rather than race, is a better predictor of disease risk or treatment outcome. There is a need to develop convenient, cheap ways to assess ancestry and to teach clinicians how to interpret ancestral information appropriately.
How hormones mediate trade-offs in human health and disease
Authors: Bribiescas Richard G. , Ellison Peter T. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Trade-offs between reproduction and maintenance can compromise health. Male hormones such as testosterone regulate energy allocation between reproductive effort and survival; this is made evident when immunological challenges cause changes in reproductive hormones. Female hormones adjust energy allocation between investment in ovarian function, somatic investment, and present offspring (lactation), implementing trade-offs between present and future reproduction. Metabolic hormones respond to environmental cues to sequester or liberate energetic resources such as glucose and fat. Mismatch between environmental conditions and the expression of metabolic hormones are likely to underlie variation in obesity and diabetes. Lifetime variation in endogenous reproductive hormones suggests a trade-off between early benefits for reproduction and later costs against survivorship expressed in population differences in the incidence of reproductive tumors, such as breast and prostate cancer.
Pathogen evolution in a vaccinated world
Authors: Read Andrew F. , Mackinnon Margaret J. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Vaccines alter the immune landscape experienced by pathogens, and hence their evolution, by targeting subsets of strains in a population, reducing the number of fully susceptible individuals, and creating or expanding classes of semi-immune hosts. The great success of vaccination against the acute childhood occurred without being undermined by pathogen evolution, but those diseases were easy targets: natural immunity was evolution-proof; all vaccination needed to do was to induce something very similar. Pathogens now under assault by vaccination are different: their natural infections induce leaky, often strain-specific immunity that usually wanes. Vaccines against these diseases will induce immunity to which natural selection has already found solutions. Evolutionary analysis is particularly warranted where vaccines are leaky, target subsets of strains or virulence determinants, involve novel technologies, or relax selection against virulence. Vaccination has been a great benefit. Continuing past successes requires evolutionary considerations at all stages of vaccine design and implementation.
Whole-genome analysis of pathogen evolution
Authors: Parkhill Julian 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Whole-genome sequences for many bacterial species have initiated a new era of analysis. Horizontal gene exchange may be the dominant mechanism of adaptation. Bacterial chromosomes can be divided into core and accessory genes. Core genes are more likely to be involved in central processes such as transcription and translation, and are less likely to be horizontally exchanged. Accessory genes are more likely to be involved in adaptation and pathogenicity, and to have been horizontally acquired. Bacteria can evolve very rapidly in new niches, sometimes via genome degradation as well as gene acquisition. Many pathogenic bacteria have specialized mechanisms for generating diversity in otherwise clonal populations that are used to adapt to rapidly or randomly changing environments. Bacteria evolve under many selective pressures, not just the requirements of pathogenicity, including via ‘arms-races’ with their own parasites.
Emergence of new infectious diseases
Authors: Woolhouse Mark , Antia Rustom 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter reviews the evolution and ecology of emerging diseases. Human infectious diseases are caused by more than 1400 pathogen species with considerable diversity in lifestyles. Almost all pathogens of newly emerging diseases come from animal reservoirs. Most are viruses, especially RNA viruses. The emergence of a new infectious disease in the human population involves exposure to the pathogen, successful infection of the hosts, and sufficient transmission between hosts. These different levels of emergence make up the ‘pathogen pyramid’. Both ecological and evolutionary changes can affect a pathogen's position on the pyramid. HIV/AIDS, influenza (H5N1), SARS, Ebola, and monkeypox are emerging diseases. From the available data it is hard to tell if ecological changes alone caused these diseases to emerge or if evolutionary changes were sometimes involved as well. The past provides some guidelines as to which kinds of pathogen are most likely to emerge in the future.
Lifestyle, diet, and disease: comparative perspectives on the determinants of chronic health risks
Authors: Leonard William R. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
We evolved under high levels of physical activity and energy expenditure, seasonal fluctuations in food availability, and frequent periods of marginal or negative energy balance. Today, we continue to eat about the same amount but exercise less, and the ‘imbalance’ between energy intake and expenditure causes obesity. Consumption of meat from feedlot animals now causes atherosclerosis; eating wild or grass-fed animals does not. For most of human history, simple carbohydrates were a minor element of our diet; today Americans derive almost 40% of calories from simple sugars and refined grain products. Simple carbohydrates contribute to the rise of type 2 diabetes in the industrialized world. The problems of ‘overnutrition’ and energy surplus are causing rates of obesity, diabetes, and hypertension to increase more rapidly in the developing than in the industrialized world. Nutritional interventions should promote increased exercise and activity levels as well as dietary modifications.
The evolutionary context of human aging and degenerative disease
Authors: Austad Steven N. , Finch Caleb E. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter reviews evidence on human aging. Humans are the longest-lived primate. Trade-offs modulate human life span. ‘Longevity genes’ that protect against disease may slow the aging processes in humans and in model organisms, but they are not at high frequency in human populations, probably because they reduce fitness in early life. Insights into their protective mechanisms could yield pharmaceuticals that extend human health, but close attention would have to be paid to side effects, for the effects on humans of genetic alterations that extend life in laboratory mice are not pleasant. Genetic alterations in the GH/IGF-I axis appear at best not to extend life and at worst to shorten it, with many detrimental impacts on health. It would help to have a small, short-lived, primate research model in which anti-aging therapies developed from mouse experiments could be evaluated before testing them on humans.