bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fight/Flight Reaction
Authors: Berent Stanley 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The fight‐flight reaction can be observed across species and represents a critically important mechanism for survival, no less so in humans than in other living organisms. At the heart of this reaction is fear, which is an immediate response to perceived threat, and anxiety, which is a response similar to fear that can be thought of as anticipation of danger, or even anticipation of fear itself. Put another way, if fear is the sensation people experience with their first bee sting, then anxiety is the emotion they feel thereafter when hearing the buzz of a bumblebee.
Forensic Consulting
Authors: Drogin Eric Y. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractForensic consulting occurs when psychologists support one side's attempts to prevail over another in civil and criminal legal proceedings. Unlike expert witnesses, who are expected to approach each case in an unbiased fashion and to testify about their findings under oath, forensic consultants strive from the very beginning to identify helpful information and winning strategies for the party that retains them, secure in the knowledge that they will never take the witness stand.
Forensic Psychologists, Roles and Activities of
Authors: Petrila John 
Published: January 2010

AbstractForensic psychology is an increasingly popular area of practice within psychology. It has been defined as “the application of psychological research, theory, practice, and traditional and specialized methodology (e.g., interviewing, psychological testing, forensic assessment and forensically relevant instruments) to provide information relevant to a legal question” (Goldstein, 2003, p. 4). The American Psychological Association designated forensic psychology as an area of specialization in 2001 (Goldstein, 2003), and it is the subject of a rapidly growing number of books, journals, and professional conferences (Otto & Heilbrun, 2002).
Friendships
Authors: Furman Wyndol , Shomaker Laren B. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractFriendships are important relationships in all cultures and throughout the lifespan. Friendships are characterized by several defining features: (1) they are dyadic relationships, (2) there is a reciprocated, affective bond, (3) they are voluntary relationships, (4) they are typically egalitarian in nature, and (5) almost all friendships entail shared activities and companionship. Friendships often meet other functions as well, such as serving as a source of support and providing opportunities for self‐disclosure and intimacy.
Gambling Addiction
Authors: Meyers Andrew W. , Steenbergh Timothy A. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The past three decades have witnessed significant increases in legalized gambling opportunities in the United States, with all but two states allowing some form of legalized gambling. These opportunities have been accompanied by record levels of gambling expenditures. For example, Americans spent over $90 billion on legal gambling activities in 2006, which represented a 7.7% increase over record expenditures in 2005 (Christiansen, 2007).
Gender Differences
Authors: Jenkins Sharon Rae 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe study of psychological gender differences (GDs) originated with the earliest studies linking brain structures to differences in behavior, especially in the area of intellectual performance. These lines of research purported to explain sex differences in behavior by comparing brain structures of men and women that were believed to account for them (Shields, 1975). These inquiries represented one facet of the continuing “nature–nurture” debate over the relative impact of genetic heritage and environmental influences as causes of behavior. Present‐day neuroscience research has found evidence for neural plasticity that supports a biopsychosocial interactionist view, which is gaining acceptance over earlier monocausal models (Halpern et al., 2007). However, in the presence of ideological and political commitments to differing views of “human nature,” debates continue over how much of a difference is a just‐noticeable difference, as this depends on who is doing the noticing, and over what is a functionally important difference, as this depends on the function, its context, and its consequences.
Gender Identity Disorder
Authors: Burgess Kristen A. , Gillespie Charles F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Gender identity is a psychological concept that refers to one's subjective sense of being male or female. The intensity of gender identity exists along a continuum and therefore may vary between individuals. Gender identity disorder is a mental disorder in which gender identity is incongruent with anatomical sex (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). As a consequence, individuals with gender identity disorder experience varying degrees of dissatisfaction with their designated anatomical birth sex. In extreme cases (transsexualism) they express and pursue their desire to live and have the body of a person of the opposite sex as well as be viewed socially as a person of the opposite sex.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Authors: Treanor Michael , Roemer Lizabeth 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is a clinical anxiety disorder that is centrally characterized by excessive, pervasive, and chronic worry. Worry is a cognitive activity that involves repeatedly thinking about potential negative future events, such as “What if I can't finish this task?” “What if I never graduate?” “What if I have some type of illness?” According to the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000), in order to warrant a diagnosis of GAD an individual must experience excessive and uncontrollable worry for at least 6 months, as well as three or more associated symptoms that are present, more days than not, over this time period. These associated symptoms include restlessness, being easily fatigued, difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle tension, or sleep disturbances (e.g., difficulty falling or staying asleep). Consistent with other DSM‐IV diagnostic criteria, both the worry and associated symptoms must cause clinically significant distress or impairment.
Gerontology
Authors: Haley William E. , Kwak Jung 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Significant improvement in public health and advancement in medical technology in the twentieth century led to increasing life expectancy and remarkable growth in the older adult population. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, 35 million older Americans, 12.4% of the U.S. population, is over the age of 65. With the aging of the baby boom cohort, there will be 70.3 million Americans over age 65 in the year 2030. The rapid growth of the older population and significant changes associated with multiple aging, physical, psychological, and social dimensions suggest that knowledge about gerontology (the scientific study of the process of aging and aging experience) and geriatrics (the branch of medicine studying clinical aspects of aging) will become vital for researchers, clinicians, and policy makers.
Gestalt Psychology
Authors: Verstegen Ian 
Published: January 2010

AbstractGestalt psychology refers to the school of psychology that was formed in Berlin by Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) and that continued to have influence throughout the twentieth century at universities where it was particularly practiced, namely the New School for Social Research in New York, Swarthmore College in Philadelphia, the University of Münster in Germany, and the Universities of Padua and Trieste in Italy. After a period of neglect and misunderstanding, the principles of the school are once again central to psychological discussion, especially in perceptual psychology.
H
all,
G
.
S
tanley (1844–1924)
Authors: Hilgard Ernest R. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

G. Stanley Hall is honored as the founder and promoter of organized psychology as a science and profession. He founded the American Psychological Association in 1892, was its first president, and in 1887 founded the first psychological journal in America, the
American Journal of Psychology.
He also founded other journals: the
Pedagogical Seminary
(later the
Journal of Genetic Psychology
) in 1894, the
Journal of Religious Psychology
in 1904, and the
Journal of Applied Psychology
in 1917.
Haptic Perception
Authors: Lederman Susan J. , Kitada Ryo , Pawluk Dianne 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe human sense of touch consists of two principal subsystems. One of them, the “cutaneous” or “tactile” system, uses sensory information from mechanoreceptors and thermoreceptors embedded in the skin. The other, known as the “haptic” system, relies on all the sensory inputs used by the tactile system in combination with information from position and movement receptors in joints and muscles and force receptors in tendons. Haptic perception typically involves active manual exploration, although other parts of the body, such as the foot and tongue, may also be used for “touching.” When people use their haptic system, they tend to focus on their experiences of the external world of surfaces and objects and their properties (e.g., roughness, compliance, shape, weight, and so forth). In contrast, when their tactile system is passively stimulated, people tend rather to focus on their own internal subjective sensations, such as pressure, vibration, and warmth.
Hoarding
Authors: Frost Randy O. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Hoarding has been widely recognized as a serious problem by elder service workers but has been almost completely ignored in the research literature until very recently. Frost and Hartl (1996) defined hoarding as (1) acquisition and failure to discard a large number of possessions; (2) clutter that precludes activities for which living spaces were designed; and (3) significant distress or impairment in functioning caused by acquisition, difficulty in discarding, and clutter. In addition to these primary features, people who hoard tend to be highly perfectionistic, have problems with decision‐making, and experience ADHD‐like symptoms including extreme disorganization. Hoarding has been associated with impairment in activities of daily living as well as marked problems with occupational and role functioning (Steketee & Frost, 2003). The difficulties caused by hoarding can be extreme and can endanger the health and safety of the individual as well as anyone living nearby. Despite the dearth of information about hoarding, a recent epidemiological survey reported a weighted lifetime prevalence of serious hoarding problems of over 5% (Samuels et al., 2008).
Homosexuality
Authors: Herek Gregory M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Homosexuality refers to sexual behaviors, desires, attractions, and relationships among people of the same sex, as well as to the culture, identities, and communities associated with them. The term encompasses at least five phenomena that are often though not always related. First, it is used to describe specific instances of sexual behavior with a person of one's same sex. Second, it refers to ongoing patterns of sexual or romantic attraction to people of one's own sex, which may or may not be expressed behaviorally. Both homosexual and heterosexual behaviors and attractions are common across human societies.
Hope
Authors: Ritschel Lorie 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
All humans are goal‐directed beings by nature. Whether we seek food, jobs, social connection, relaxation, or better health, much of our behavior is organized around the pursuit of a particular end state. Successful goal attainment requires three elements: a clearly articulated goal, a plan, and motivation to put that plan into action. According to Snyder and colleagues, these three elements constitute hopeful thinking.
H
ull,
C
lark
L
. (1884–1952)
Authors: Lundin Ralph W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Clark L. Hull's most important contribution to psychology lies in his theory of learning, considered one of the most important learning theories of the twentieth century. He received his PhD in 1918 at the University of Wisconsin. Early in his career he was interested in the field of aptitude testing, an area he abandoned because he did not see much future in it. He then turned to the field of hypnosis and suggestibility. In 1929 he accepted an appointment as research professor at Yale University, a post he held until his retirement.
Human Development
Authors: Diehl Manfred , Chui Helena , Youngblade Lise M. , Qualls Sara H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Theory and research in lifespan psychology rest on the key assumption that human development occurs from conception to death and involves lifelong adaptive processes (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006). Thus, human development is the result of biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences that mutually affect each other and shape how individuals develop over the lifespan (Baltes et al., 2006; Li, 2003). With regard to individual development (ontogenesis), lifespan psychologists focus on (1) how single individuals change over time (intraindividual change); (2) differences between individuals during different developmental periods (interindividual differences); (3) differences in individuals' patterns of change over time (interindividual differences in intraindividual change); and (4) how between‐person variability in within‐person change is brought about as a consequence of biocultural coconstruction (Li, 2003). Moreover, lifespan psychologists agree on a set of core assumptions from which they study human development. These assumptions state that human development is a process that involves continuity and discontinuity, multidirectionality, gains and losses, plasticity, and contextual embeddedness (Baltes et al., 2006).
Hypochondriasis
Authors: Taylor Steven , Asmundson Gordon J. G. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Hypochondriasis is defined by a preoccupation with the fear of having, or the idea that one has, a serious disease, based on misinterpretation of one or more bodily sensations or changes (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000). Fear persists even though the person receives ample reassurance from physicians that there is no evidence of serious disease and despite the fact that frightening bodily changes or sensations the person believes to be symptomatic of disease rarely become progressively worse. People with hypochondriasis usually resist the idea that they are suffering from a psychiatric disorder. To be diagnosed with hypochondriasis, one has to have its symptoms for at least 6 months.
I
ndia, Psychology in
Authors: Barnes Blanche 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Beginning early in the twentieth century, psychology emerged as one of the most popular professional disciplines in India. It has deep philosophical roots, far more ancient than one might suspect. In the beginning, modern Indian psychology was influenced mainly by the Wundt–Titchener tradition, which was introduced by N. N. Sengupta at Calcutta University in 1915. At about this same time, G. Bose (1886–1953) was instrumental in initiating a postgraduate course of study in psychoanalysis at this very same university. Psychoanalysis subsequently took firm roots in Indian soil when Bose established the Indian Psychoanalytical Society in 1921 in Calcutta. In the south, M. V. Gopalaswamy (1896–1957), a protégé of Spearman, instituted efforts to standardize tests of higher mental functions on the basis of Western constructs. He also spearheaded an independent Department of Clinical Psychology at the All‐India Institute of Mental Health in 1955 (AIIMH, now called NIMHANS, Bangalore). In this institute, M. V. Govindaswamy (1904–1961) subsequently brought to bear the rigor of Johns Hopkins University in the United States and the Maudsley Hospital in London in the education and training of qualified clinical psychologists in India.
Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Authors: Landy Frank J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Industrial and organizational psychology (I‐O) has a long history of research and application in both the United States and abroad. In America, its earliest roots are found in the work of Hugo Munsterberg, a colleague of William James and chair of the Department of Psychology at Harvard at the beginning of the twentieth century. Munsterberg was a pioneer in industrial selection, which is still a core activity of I‐O psychologists. He developed tests to hire applicants for jobs such as telephone operator and trolley driver (Landy, 1992). There has been an unbroken development of testing technique and theory for the 100 years since then. Two additional major figures in the early development of I‐O psychology (circa 1910–1940) were Walter Dill Scott and Walter Van Dyke Bingham (Landy, 1993, 1997). The early history of I‐O psychology was one of application of more general psychological principles, such as learning, without much emphasis on theory development (Viteles, 1932). By 1960, this had changed, and I‐O psychology then and to the present day has adopted an integrated scientist‐practitioner model for academic training, practice, and research.
Insight
Authors: Huprich Steven K. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Most schools of psychotherapy and psychological treatment recognize the importance of insight as part of what makes psychotherapy effective (Castonguay & Hill, 2007). Insight has been conceptualized in many ways, but the general consensus is that insight provides patients with a new way to understand their inner mental life, their interpersonal conflicts or troubles, or a new understanding of those factors that contribute to an individual's difficulties. The complexities of the construct of insight have been succinctly summarized by Castonguay and Hill: “Insight can vary considerably in terms of content (e.g., links between past and present, links between conscious thoughts and underlying assumptions). Insight also seems to involve several dimensions (e.g., emotional vs. intellectual, explicit vs. implicit, sudden vs. gradual)” (2007, p. 4). Insight is often stereotypically described as when a patient has an “Aha” experience—for instance, the patient may state, “Wow, this is what has been going on! It makes so much sense. This really helps.” However, it would be rare to find a psychologist who thinks of insight strictly in this manner. Most psychologists and patients report that insight occurs emotionally rather than intellectually, explicitly and implicitly, as well as gradually—and sometimes, suddenly.
Insomnia
Authors: Belleville GeneviÈVE , Morin Charles M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Insomnia entails a spectrum of complaints reflecting dissatisfaction with the quality, duration, or continuity of sleep. These complaints may involve problems with falling asleep initially at bedtime (initial insomnia), waking up in the middle of the night and having difficulty going back to sleep (middle insomnia), awakening prematurely in the morning with an inability to return to sleep (late insomnia), or a perception of nonrestorative sleep. In order to fulfill the American Psychiatric Association (APA) diagnostic criteria of an insomnia disorder (e.g., Primary Insomnia, Insomnia related to another mental disorder), the sleep disturbance or its daytime consequences (e.g., fatigue) have to cause significant psychological distress or impaired functioning (APA, 2000). More than one third of the adult population reports insomnia symptoms, whereas 6% suffer from an insomnia disorder (Ohayon, 2002).
Instrumental Conditioning
Authors: Grau James W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Instrumental conditioning represents a form of behavioral change that depends on the temporal relationship (contingency) between a response and an environmental outcome. The response might correspond to pressing a bar, lifting a leg, turning a wheel, or navigating a maze. In the laboratory, the outcome is typically a biologically relevant event, such as food, water, or a frightening shock. Outside the laboratory, behavior can be modified by a variety of events including social praise, access to a sexual partner, or a stimulus that has acquired value (e.g., money). Outcomes capable of modifying an organism's behavior are sometimes called reinforcers, and the process through which they influence behavior is known as reinforcement. Examples of an instrumental contingency include praising a child for waiting quietly or providing a food pellet to a rat whenever it presses a bar. According to Thorndike's law of effect, these contingencies should bring about a lasting change in behavior, leading the child to stand quietly and increasing the frequency with which the rat presses the bar.
Intelligence Quotient
Authors: Girard Todd A. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

What is an intelligence quotient (IQ)? Intelligence is a theoretical construct with many definitions. The definition is further complicated by the belief of many that there are multiple types of intelligence. The IQ forms the most common operational definition as a cognitive and behavioral measure of global intellectual capability. Like intelligence, the IQ is best viewed as a multifaceted construct, but one that can be quantified by summing scores across tasks or subtests that comprise an intelligence test. In this way, the IQ is traditionally considered an index of Spearman's
g
, a general ability factor reflecting that how a person performs one task is likely similar to how well they score on others.
Intelligence Testing
Authors: Saklofske Donald H. , Drefs Michelle 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The idea of intelligence and intellectual abilities underlying human behavior is neither new nor limited to the Western world. However, this elusive construct has received considerable attention in the last 100 years, particularly from psychologists but also from other disciplines and fields ranging from behavior genetics and cultural anthropology to education and business. Intelligence is essentially a “latent” trait describing a complex set of human characteristics that psychologists and others contend is useful in describing individual differences across many of human behaviors ranging from skill in solving mathematics problems to success in the workplace. Measuring such an abstract construct is a demanding task and draws from theory, research evidence, and professional practice needs. Furthermore, fully understanding intelligence necessitates a multidisciplinary perspective drawing from all fields in the social and biological sciences, and a mixed methods approach to researching intelligence, including longitudinal and cross‐sectional, and correlational and experimental strategies.
Interests
Authors: Lowman Rodney L. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractInterests refer to individual difference characteristics of people that influence the types of occupations and leisure activities that they will find attractive, fulfilling, and enjoyable. Interests motivate people to pursue certain activities and not to pursue or persist with others (e.g., Crites, 1999). Lowman (2003) defined interests as follows: “Interests are relatively stable psychological characteristics of people which identify the personal evaluation (subjective attributions of ‘goodness' or ‘badness,’ judged degree of personal fit or misfit) attached to particular groups of occupational or leisure activity clusters” (p. 478).
Interpersonal Psychotherapy
Authors: Weissman Myrna M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is a time‐limited, evidence‐based psychotherapy, specified and described in a manual. It was initially developed for patients with major depressive disorder and later adapted for other disorders. Designed for administration by trained mental health professionals, it has been taught to mental‐health workers with less professional training. The original manual detailed the empirical and theoretical basis of IPT (Klerman & Weissman, 1984) and was updated in 2000 (Weissman, Markowitz, & Klerman). The most recent manual is oriented to clinicians and contains numerous clinical examples (Weissman, Markowitz, & Klerman, 2007).