bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Chapter 5 Strategic Politicians, Emotional Citizens, and the Rhetoric of Prediction
Authors: Jerit Jennifer , Kuklinski James H , Quirk Paul J 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter argues that strategically interacting politicians who seek to sway public opinion, routinely use predictions about the outcomes of different policies to their advantage. This produces a political environment in which ordinary citizens hear opposing and often contradictory predictions about the future consequences of a policy. The chapter reviews two examples: the Lincoln–Douglas debates and the 1997 Devolution Referendum in Scotland. Over time, serious negative predictions about consequences came to dominate both debates. Those who identify strongly with one or another party or faction can overcome the difficulty created by such user-unfriendly political environments by simply adopting their parties' positions. However, initially-unaligned message recipients, who do not begin on one side or the other, and who want to make the best and most objective choices they can, face a very difficult challenge. The chapter concludes by offering speculations about how unaligned citizens might reach their judgments.
Chapter 9 Diverging Ideological Viewpoints on Pathways to More Harmonious Intergroup Relations
Authors: Judd Charles M. , Park Bernadette 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Social cognition research on social categorization and stereotyping has traditionally assumed that outgroup prejudice follows from stereotyping and the categorization process. Consequently, prejudice reduction strategies typically involve efforts to reduce the salience of category boundaries. Challenging this perspective, this chapter argues that negative outgroup stereotypes ensue from prejudicial outgroup attitudes. The existence of numerous groups (and group differences) is not problematic unless these differences result in competition over scarce resources. This alternative perspective suggests that efforts at eliminating categorization are somewhat misplaced, especially given that categorization is such a fundamental part of social perception and cognition. In addition, it provides space for legitimate claims of ethnic and cultural uniqueness.
Introduction
Authors: Romer Daniel 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This introductory chapter provides an overview of the massive social and economic changes that emerged post-World War II, with particular emphasis on the mass media's influence on youth. The baby boom generation was socialized in the context of unprecedented growth in household income and increasing exposure to advertising on television. At the same time, researchers were uncovering unhealthy effects of the media that could adversely affect youth development, including such mechanisms as modeling, disinhibition, and normalization of antisocial behavior. Advertising may have further encouraged impulsive behavior that helped to produce such outcomes as today's obesity epidemic. Theories of media influence can help to inform policies that promote both helpful and harmful influences. But the increasing ability of youth to express themselves in the media raises important questions about how best to educate youth and parents to the potential adverse effects that the new media landscape poses.
Understanding the “Jackpot Market”
Authors: Osgerby Bill 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Advertisers and marketers identified American teenagers as a new “jackpot market” in the 1950's, given its size (15-million-strong) and spending power (estimated at over $9 billion a year in 1958 and increasing to $14 billion by 1965). The baby-boom generation was more likely to attend high school and college, and the U.S. became the largest consumer-oriented economy in the world. Youth consumer-spending included fashion, grooming products, cars, and sporting goods, the promotion of which in advertising led to a form of “youthful hedonism” not heretofore seen on this scale. The musical genre of “Rock and Roll” emerged and tapped into the interests and spending power of the new “teen” market. The new market and associated cultural effects expanded to other parts of the globe, with lasting changes in the way that youth are portrayed and considered in the modern economy.
It Matters What Young People Watch
Authors: Jamieson Patrick E. , More Eian , Lee Susan S. , Busse Peter , Romer Daniel 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Films have long been a major influence on youth, and their content changed dramatically with the demise of the production code in the 1960s. To understand changes in film content, the Coding of Health and Media Project (CHAMP) analyzed the top-30 grossing movies from 1950 to 2004. This chapter presents trends in gender and youth representation, as well as in portrayal of tobacco and alcohol use, and sex and violence. Bandura's social cognitive theory of mass communication is used to explain how such content may influence audiences. Over the study period, youth and male characters were increasingly represented. Consistent with a cultural shift in attitudes toward tobacco and alcohol, portrayal in both decreased. However, violence (especially as committed by youth) and sex increased. Although the MPAA rating system (G, PG, PG13, R) was intended to inform movie audiences of problematic content, the system restricted sexual content far better than violent content.
African Americans, Latinos, Asians, and Native Americans in the Media
Authors: Stroman Carolyn A. , Dates Jannette L. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Media images and messages about African Americans, Latinos, Asians, and Native Americans (ALANAS) may affect the perceptions and stereotypes of those within and outside of these groups. These messages may also influence identity formation and attitudes of Europeans and non-Europeans about race and ethnicity. Historically, ALANAS have been under represented in television portrayals. African Americans and Latinos are generally shown on television in minor and low status roles. African Americans have reached a proportion on television representative of their actual size in the population but other ethnic groups are under-represented. Nevertheless, these portrayals are not necessarily accurate. More research is needed, however, to assess the role that media portrayal of racial and ethnic groups plays in adolescent health and socialization.
Adolescents and Television Violence
Authors: Potter W. James 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
There appears to be little discernible change in television violence over time, and violent acts by children and adolescents are rarely shown on television. Perhaps as a result, adolescent portrayal in television violence has been under-studied. Nevertheless, children and adolescents exposed to heavy amounts of television violence behave more aggressively as they age. This chapter discusses viewer characteristics and portrayal characteristics in order to explain this link. Television violence teaches young people that violence is an effective problem-solving strategy at both the personal and societal level. An education strategy is recommended for dealing with television violence, in which the public learns about the harmful effects of media violence and rewards the creation of other types of programming. This model avoids the problems of censorship but requires individuals to accept this goal and work toward making it a reality.
Tobacco Portrayals in U.S. Advertising and Entertainment Media
Authors: Dewhirst Timothy 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Exposure to portrayal of tobacco use in the media is important because cigarette smoking represents the most preventable cause of illness and premature death in the U.S. The tobacco industry has long targeted young people with tobacco promotional activities. Cigarette advertising and marketing has appealed to young adults and adolescents using themes of independence and risk-taking. The 1998 Master Settlement Agreement banned cigarette broadcast advertising, some billboard advertising, and product placement in films. Nevertheless, tobacco portrayal on user generated media such as blogs, online bulletin boards and podcasts, may be a cause for concern, as well as dissemination on Internet sites such as YouTube, MySpace, and Wikipedia.
The Games, They Are a-Changin’
Authors: Ivory James D. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractThe video game market has grown enormously and sales revenue now exceeds that of the movie industry. Research on the effects of video games on youth finds both potential problems and benefits. It is difficult to summarize the effects of video games because technological advancements that permit them to become ever more realistic can be put to favorable as well as unfavorable uses. Just like exposure to other screen violence, violent video game use is most likely to have ill effects, and addiction to (or more precisely overuse of) video games is a possibility. A wide variety of video game formats is evolving that permit physical interaction, immersion in virtual worlds, and multiplayer interaction over the Internet. Characteristics of avatars that represent players may also introduce effects of their own. It is clear that this ever-evolving medium will be a focus of research and continued examination far into the future.
War, Military Violence, and Aggressive Development
Authors: Punamäki Raija-Leena 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter gives a full theoretical treatment to the often invoked, yet inadequately validated presumption that violence exposure leads to violent or aggressive development in children. It outlines the variety of potential child, family, and social factors that inform if and when aggression in war-exposed children is likely to develop. Suggestions for future research and interventions are provided; namely, that research and interventions among “war's children and adolescents” will benefit from integrative approaches that combine individual, familial, and social antecedents of aggression. Furthermore, interventions are more likely to be effective if they are developmentally tailored and focused comprehensively on addressing deficiencies in cognitive, emotional and psychophysiological processing of violent experiences.
Youth Soldiering
Authors: Wessells Michael , Kostelny Kathleen 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter provides a holistic understanding of the consequences of youth soldiering, recognizing the diversity within the category “child soldiers” and using young people's testimonies to show how youth understand their experiences and choices. Having put the definitions of “youth” and “child soldiers” in critical perspective, the chapter analyzes various pathways for a young person's entry into soldiering, recognizing the linkage between how one enters and the impact of soldiering itself. Additionally, it examines the varied roles and experiences of youth soldiers, connecting these with gender, the choices young people make while associated with an armed group and their evolving sense of meaning and identity. The chapter also examines the impact of youth soldiering by linking psychosocial wellbeing with health, cosmology, economics, and social roles and relations. It concludes with reflections on the implications of this holistic conceptualization for social reintegration and peacebuilding.
Young People’s Perceptions of Political Violence
Authors: Muldoon Orla , Cassidy Clare , McCullough Nichola 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter reconsiders the variability of conclusions researchers have drawn on the experiences of the impact political violence has on children. It begins with an examination of the extent of young people's experience of political violence in Northern Ireland and follows this with a consideration of children's perceptions of these same events. Particular attention is given to these perceptions of political violence as well as to socioeconomic variations in these perceptions. Through a series of data analyses, the chapter illustrates the degree to which the effects of political violence can be contingent on these types of variability.
Mozambican Child Soldier Life Outcome Study
Authors: Boothby Neil , Crawford Jennifer , Mamade Agostinho 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Focusing on Mozambican youth, this chapter offers initial findings on the first longitudinal study of life-outcomes of former child soldiers. It identifies specific interventions that were important in enabling substantial recovery and societal reintegration of these former child soldiers. For instance, it highlights the role of community reintegration, spiritual cleansing, and family and intervention program support in enabling most of the soldiers to become trusted and productive members of society.
Title II: The Policy Structure of Old Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance
Authors: Dobelstein Andrew W. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the social welfare policy construction that provides the political and economic principles that have determined the development of the social insurance programs discussed in Chapters 1 and 2. While the vision of early social security administrators sought a form of comprehensive social insurance, their dream has been constrained by a complex, characteristically American, political economy that has had more influence on its multifaceted development than usually is discussed. The payroll tax, trust funds, expansion of the beneficiary pool, and benefit increases all emerged from divergent views over an economic philosophy and the shrewd political leadership of Congressman Wilbur Mills. This many-sided policy environment explains the “back door” program development of Title II discussed in the previous chapter.
Title III: Unemployment Insurance
Authors: Dobelstein Andrew W. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Cash payments to persons who become unemployed through no fault of their own was a part of the original Social Security Act and continues to function under the Act's authority, although today it is administered by the United States Department of Labor. Even though the cash payments are essential for the unemployed who are unable to find work, the program is hobbled by its funding mechanisms, definitions of employment, complex state differences over the extent of unemployment coverage, and policy questions of whether this program best serves the unemployed or their employers. This social insurance program is most in need of drastic reform if it is to meet the requirements of American labor in twenty-first century America.
Who’s Taking Care of the Children? Title IV: Temporary Assistance to Needy Families and Related Programs for Children and Families
Authors: Dobelstein Andrew W. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Efforts to provide financial support to economically dependent children have emerged from some of America's most confusing social welfare policy objectives. As a result, at least five major programs are now administered under the authority of Title IV of the Social Security Act: several modified forms of cash assistance for children and their families, support for children in substitute homes (foster and institutional care), child support enforcement, long term planning for children not living in their own homes, and temporary assistance for needy families (TANF) that limits the amount of time some families and children can receive financial support. Title IV has become the part of the Social Security Act that addresses a comprehensive social welfare concern for America's children.
The varieties of normal human visual processing
Authors: JACOB PIERRE , JEANNEROD MARC 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Numerous psychophysical experiments have revealed in normal human vision a rich and intriguing set of dissociations between different ways of processing one and the same visual stimulus. Of particular interest are dissociations between perceptual and visuomotor responses to a given visual stimulus. The two previous chapters focused, respectively, on anatomical and electrophysiological evidence gathered mostly on the brain of macaque monkeys and on neuropsychological research on brain-lesioned human patients. This chapter focuses on psychological evidence gathered on normal human adults. Primates in general, and humans in particular, are unique among animals in being able to grasp and manipulate objects in their environment using their arms and the dexterity of their hands. Thus, many relevant visuomotor tasks involve visually guided actions constituted by arm and hand movements directed towards objects, such as pointing, reaching and grasping. The chapter highlights the major differences between the visual computations underlying perceptual and visuomotor responses in normal subjects.
Structure of Receptive Field Centers of Midget Retinal Ganglion Cells
Authors: Lee Barry B. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses factors influencing measurement of midget ganglion cell receptive field centres and relevant recent physiological evidence. Receptive field centre size of midget ganglion cells is much larger than the aperture of a single cone. This is partly due to the effects of optical blur. The cone-specific midget anatomy may not have evolved to achieve small centre size — since this would be lost by optical blurring anyway — but to help provide cone specificity. On the other hand recent physiological data suggest that the centre structure of midget ganglion cells may derive from more than one cone even in central retina, and that cone-specific mechanisms exist that contribute to centre structure. It appears that the centre structure of these cells is more complex than anticipated from the anatomy.
Coding of Position of Achromatic and Chromatic Edges by Retinal Ganglion Cells
Authors: Sun Hao , Lee Barry B. , RÜttiger Lukas 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines how accurately ganglion cells carry positional information about chromatic and achromatic moving edges, and compares results with pathophysical thresholds to similar stimuli. Physiological data showed that spatial precision of magnocellular (MC)-cells' responses was determined solely by luminance contrast, but that of parvocellular (PC)-cells was dependent on chromatic contrast. Psychophysical vernier thresholds for edges of the same luminance, but different chromatic contrasts were similar when plotted as a function of luminance contrast, but were different when plotted in detection threshold units. Taken together, the physiological and psychophysical data suggest that positional information delivered by MC-cells is important for vernier performance.
Reaction Times to Stimuli in Isoluminant Colour Space
Authors: Mckeefry D. J. , Parry N. R. A. , Murray D I. J. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Simple reaction times (RTs) are a useful measure of supra-threshold information processing. This chapter examines how the metric used to scale coloured stimuli influences the variation in RT with chromaticity. The variation of simple RT with chromaticity appears to be strongly dependent upon the extent to which stimulus activates either the L/M or S/(L+M) colour opponent mechanism. The dominant influence of these two mechanisms suggests that pre-cortical as opposed to cortical colour processing has a strong influence on the RT to chromatic isoluminant stimuli.
Temporal Frequency and Contrast Adaptation
Authors: Shapiro G. , Mary Hood S. , Mollon J. D. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Chromatic contrast adaptation is a valuable technique for delineating cardinal and higher-order colour mechanisms. This chapter presents the results of three experiments: the first measures threshold elevation production by contrast adaptation along the cardinal axes as a function of temporal frequency at two light levels; the second investigates whether the cardinal mechanisms remain independent at these temporal frequencies and light levels; and the third measures the temporal contrast sensitivity to the cardinal mechanisms in conditions similar to those used for the first experiment. It is shown that contrast adaptation can occur at frequencies greater than 1 Hz; that the cardinal mechanisms remain independent at the temporal frequencies and light levels measured; and that contrast adaptation cannot easily be related to the temporal sensitivity of the cardinal mechanisms.
Stimulus Duration Affects Rod Influence on Hue Perception
Authors: Buck Steven L. , Knight Roger 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter explores the effects of simultaneous rod and cone stimulation on rod hue influences. It shows that the balance among rod hue biases varies with test-stimulus duration. There appears to be little effect of prolonged cone stimulation on the balance of rod hue biases, which appears to be primarily controlled by the duration of rod stimulation. The ‘faster’ rod green bias is determined by a differential rod influence on M- versus L-cone pathways. The ‘slower’ red and blue hue biases could result from rod signals having the same sign of influence as S-cone signals in chromatic pathways.
Tritanopic Colour Constancy Under Daylight Changes?
Authors: Foster David H. , Amano Kinjiro , Nascimento SÉrgio M. C. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter addresses the question of how colour constancy judgments vary under daylight changes. An experiment was performed to estimate the distributional properties of colour-constancy. An operational approach was adopted in which observers were required to distinguish illuminant changes on a scene from changes in the reflecting properties of the surfaces comprising it. The distribution of responses was anisotropic: observers were less able to detect spectral reflectance changes in one direction than in another. The long axis of the distribution is close to the tritanopic confusion line, although biased towards the daylight locus.
Calculating Appearances in Complex and Simple Images
Authors: Mccann John J. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractThis chapter studies the visual effects of segmented surrounds to understand the transition from contrast to assimilation. Contrast is a complex spatial mechanism that is evident with simple centre-surround displays. It can be shut off, and reintroduced by the spatial pattern of outer-surround elements. Assimilation in periodic displays is a simple mechanism found in the absence of contrast. It depends on the average value of very large-receptive fields.
The Effect of Global Contrast Distribution on Colour Appearance
Authors: Wolf K. , Hurlbert A.C. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter tests the hypothesis that increasing the number of distinct surfaces that change consistently with the local background causes stronger reinforcement of the illuminant colour signalled by the background change, using the temporal-change paradigm. It also tests whether segmenting the remote surfaces from the local background by increasing the luminance contrast against it, and thereby weakening the evidence that they belong to the same illuminant, attenuates the contrast enhancement effect. The final experiment probes the locus of the ‘contrast enhancement’ effect by presenting the remote inducers and the target surface to different eyes using haploscopic viewing. The results provide inconclusive support for the notion that contrast enhancement by remote inducers is linked to estimation of the illuminant colour in a constancy mechanism.
Genotypic Variation in Multi-Gene Dichromats
Authors: Deeb S. S. , Jagla W. , Jägle H. , Hayashi T. , Sharpe L. T. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
The gene arrays of multi-gene dichromats are quite heterogeneous with respect to both the type of hybrid gene and the total number of genes. Hybrid genes play a major role in causing dichromacy. This chapter shows that dichromacy results if the first two pigments encoded by the first two genes have identical or near identical spectral sensitivities. The difference in sequence of exon 2 does not confer any colour discrimination capacity.