bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Assemblage Theory
Authors: Rey P.J. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Assemblage theory was first formulated and popularized by Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari (1980/1987) in the book
A Thousand Plateaus
. It was later adopted by scholars in a range of disciplines. Most notably, Manuel Delanda (2006) extended the concept in
A New Philosophy of Society: Assemblage Theory and Social Complexity,
and afforded it a far more sustained theoretical treatment than the original authors. The assemblage concept is intended to supplant other metaphors traditionally employed in social theory to explain complex formations such as states, societies, or global networks. Particularly, it problematizes organismic metaphors that attribute discrete, interdependent functions to various parts of a system. Deleuze and Guattari often invoked the description “a body without organs” to distinguish assemblages from functionalist or organismic frames of thought.
Bank for International Settlements
Authors: L. Pinheiro Diogo 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) is an international organization for cooperation between central banks based in Basel, Switzerland. It is the world's oldest international financial institution, founded in May of 1930. The original purpose of the Bank was to organize the payment of reparations that Germany owed as a result of the Treaty of Versailles. Initially an organization with both central banks and private investors and shareholders, the BIS has evolved into an organization comprised only of central banks. Its role now includes setting bank regulations (especially through the Basel I and Basel II accords), doing research, facilitating cooperation between monetary authorities in different countries, acting as a sort of global central bank, and helping with the provision of liquidity in the context of stabilization programs. It has also become a more global organization, with 56 central banks as its current members.
Body
Authors: Sutton Barbara 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe term “globalization” evokes broad‐scale economic, social, and political phenomena. Yet what is often lost in discussions about international integration, financial transactions, trade agreements, information flows, and capital mobility is how human bodies are involved in these overarching processes. Attention to human bodies can help to grasp more fully the impacts and workings of globalization. As social theorist David Harvey (2000: 34) points out, in the last few decades both “globalization” and “the body” have become key categories for understanding the social world, and they represent the two poles of the “most macro” to the “most micro” levels of analysis. Much of the relatively recent scholarship on the body has been inspired by the work of Michel Foucault (1978, 1995), postructuralism/postmodernism, and feminist and queer theorizing about the social construction of bodies and power. The body in society has also been approached from materialist, phenomenological, and structuration perspectives (among other streams of social theory). Insights from the interdisciplinary field of body studies have much to offer to understandings of globalization.
Bollywood
Authors: Rizvi Fazal 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The term “Bollywood” commonly refers to the Hindi‐language Indian film industry based in Mumbai. Established in the early 1920s, Hindi cinema grew rapidly in popularity after India became independent in 1947. The Hindi films played a major role in generating the postcolonial national imaginary of an India that was progressive and secular, committed to social justice and democracy. Films of the 1950s such as
Awara
,
Pyaasa
, and
Mother India
explored India's postcolonial aspirations and examined social issues such as corruption, poverty, and the growing urban–rural divide (Mishra 2002). Created in the genre of melodramatic musicals, most of these films represented ordinary Indian life around classical Indian narratives of the struggle between good and evil. The melodic songs of the period drew upon the traditions of
raga
; they were lip‐synched by actors on the screen and often accompanied by dances based on both folk and classical Indian traditions.
Borders
Authors: Paasi Anssi 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Borders characterize and structure social life on all spatial scales, from localities to states and from supra‐state units to global geopolitical dividing lines. Yet the roles of borders vary between these scales. The most significant borders exist between national states. It is the state and its supposed power to erode or maintain borders that is nowadays being debated in the context of globalization. The state is the most important territorial unit that mediates and controls the cultural, economic, and political processes that operate between the “global” and the “local” — scales that are often seen today to constitute an integrated “glocal” level.
Brain Drain
Authors: Ray Manashi 
Published: March 2012

AbstractIn the new information economy that emerged in the 1990s, “human capital” devoted to creativity and innovation became the most critical resource that can ensure a country's dominant presence in the world. This is reflected in the selective immigration policies of countries in the Organization for Economic Co‐Operation and Development (OECD) and of developing and transition economies that favor the migration of skilled labor. These migration policies – including the US employment (H1B) visa program of the US government – increased the migration of highly skilled and educated individuals from developing nations to nations with employment opportunities in the information technology (IT) and science and technology fields, especially during 1990s. This process is referred to as “brain drain” because the sending countries in many instances lose a considerable number of their highly skilled people. Lowell (2003) states that two conditions are necessary for the phrase “brain drain” to apply to a given country: there must be a significant loss of the highly educated population; and adverse economic consequences must follow.
Bribery
Authors: Warner Carolyn M. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Bribery is a common technique or form of corruption in which something of value is given to an individual or organization in an effort to influence the individual or organization to make a decision in favor of the bribe‐giver – a decision that might not otherwise have been made. A multitude of things may constitute the bribe: money is the most obvious, but so too is a job, home renovation, or anything of value (Lambsdorff 2008). Bribery is an exchange of favors: the bribe is given in exchange for some desired outcome, which the recipient has the power (or is believed by the briber to have the power) to effect. Its role in facilitating business transactions and economic development more generally has been extensively debated by scholars and policy‐makers, a number of scholars in the 1960s and 1970s suggesting that it had a salutary effect (Nye 1967; Huntington 1968). The tide turned in the late 1980s, to the extent that bribery, as a particular form of corruption, has become the target of a number of national laws and international conventions, perhaps the most well known of which in the international business community is the United States Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1978. As it has been applied by the United States, this Act makes illegal any form of bribery of a foreign public official, an intermediary, or a political party by any firm with a listing on a US stock exchange. The Organization for Economic Co‐Operation and Development (OECD) adopted an anti‐bribery convention in the late 1990s, to which several dozen countries are now signatories. Bribery of politicians or government officials and bureaucrats is commonly associated with efforts to obtain favorable treatment. Bribery, like corruption, has been found to be most often associated with poor, authoritarian countries. Where there is limited oversight of governing authorities, where they hold extensive discretionary powers over political and economic activity, bribery becomes the means by which they are paid to use their power in favor of one individual or organization or another. If the economy is extensively regulated, as it often is in poor countries (due to a circular dynamic that is beyond the subject of this entry), bribery may be the means by which transactions can be accelerated. However, recent research has noted that there are dynamics within wealthy, democratic societies that provide incentives and opportunities for individuals and firms to bribe politicians and government officials and for the latter two to demand bribes (Johnston 2005; Warner 2007).
Buddhism
Authors: Nichols Brian J. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractBuddhism is the oldest of the world's missionary religions. Originating in India about 2500 years ago, by the ninth centuryceit had spread throughout much of Asia, adapting itself to a great variety of cultural contexts and assuming a diversity of forms. For this reason many scholars prefer to speak of Buddhist traditions or religions (in the plural) rather than of Buddhism (in the singular). Three major branches or “vehicles” associated with three distinct canons of scripture may be distinguished: Theravada, which is based on the Pali Canon; Mahayana, which is centered on the Chinese Canon; and Vajrayana, which is associated with the Tibetan Canon. Theravada (the “Way of the Elders”) remains the dominant religion of Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Burma and is also present in Laos and Cambodia. Mahayana (the “Great Vehicle”) has been – and remains – an important feature of the cultures of East Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Taiwan). Vajrayana (the “Adamantine Vehicle”) is dominant in Tibetan and Mongolian cultural areas.
Care Chain
Authors: Yeates Nicola 
Published: March 2012

AbstractGlobal care chains (GCCs) involve the social organization and relations of paid and unpaid care that transcend the political and geographical borders of states and span the globe. GCCs are studied through the lens of international migration and focus on the provision of a variety of personal care services by migrants to one or more people who cannot, or will not, provide this care for them. Most, but not all, of this migration moves from poor to rich countries to bridge the “crisis of care” occurring there as a result of neoliberal attempts to reduce the costs of social reproduction.
Civilization
Authors: Tiryakian Edward A. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractCivilization, like globalization, is a multidimensional concept with very old empirical referents and very new applications. It is also marked, as many other concepts in the social sciences, by a certain fuzziness as to what it includes and what it excludes. Further, while European scholars have long had familiarity with aspects of civilization as a cultural theme of prime importance in the international setting, American sociologists have shown as little readiness to engage in civilizational research as they have with historical research. Still, after a long delay of research and theoretical deployment, the contemporary setting is propitious for civilizational analysis to link with globalization to boost the repertoire of macrosociology in dealing with “large problems” of the twenty‐first century.
Collective Memory
Authors: Stepnisky Jeff 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The term collective memory refers to group representations of the past that inform action in the present. The original theorist of collective memory is Maurice Halbwachs, who treated collective memory as a central component of a group's collective consciousness. As noted by Jeffrey Olick (2007), Halbwachs's treatment of collective memory had two dimensions. First, he used the term to describe the social origins of individual memory. In contrast to psychological perspectives, which treated memory as an individual phenomenon, Halbwachs argued that all forms of memory, even the most personal, are socially framed. Second, Halbwachs, following Emile Durkheim, treated collective memory as a social fact. Even though they can inform individual memory, collective memories exist independently of individual biography in the form of commemorations, archives, rituals, and other mnemonic practices. In this sense, collective memory is a social construction that embodies a group's identity. The concept of collective memory allows social scientists to describe the way that the constructed past can direct the formation and development of groups and institutions. This also distinguishes collective memory from related terms such as history. Unlike the concept of history, which in some sense stands outside of human action, collective memories are generated by groups and institutions. They orient action in the present, but they also construct the past so as to embody the concerns of the present. For this reason, both the form and the content of collective memory changes across time and place. This is also where collective memory studies overlap with the topic of globalization. As a distinct form of social organization, globalization impacts both the form and content of collective memories.
Commodification in Perpetuity
Authors: Dahms Harry F. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Commodification
denotes the process of something becoming, or being turned into, a commodity. This process can apply (and be applied) to objects, products, living creatures (including human beings), practices, forms of association, the natural environment, and even such abundantly available elements as water and air. The term often is linked to Marx's concept of
commodity fetishism
(Marx 1967 [1867]: 71–83), which played a central and rigorously theoretical role in
Capital
, and some traditions of Marxian theorizing ever since. However,
commodification
represents much less analytical acuity, has many more uses, and cannot be traced literally to Marx's writings, despite the conspicuous affinities between Marx's thought, the basic idea it alludes to, and his detailed discussion of the commodity form. Furthermore, although in
The Great Transformation
1944, Polanyi made extensive use of
commodity
to circumscribe the effects of marketization on society, he, too, did not use
commodification
.
Commodity Chains
Authors: Grossman‐Thompson Barbara , Lake Sarah 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
A commodity chain refers to the set of economic actors and activities involved in the creation of a good or service. Each part of the process, from design through production, distribution and consumption, represents a discrete link in the chain. Global commodity chain research was developed over the course of the 1990s as an approach for studying globalized networks that express a “new international division of labor” within increasingly integrated markets (Froebel et al. 1980). This body of work seeks to explain the organization of global capitalism by analyzing complex interfirm linkages and the manner in which these linkages are divided and coordinated across space. For example, the commodity chain for a pair of denim jeans exemplifies the spatial and organizational fragmentation of contemporary production insofar as each link in the chain takes place in a different location and is coordinated by different economic agents: cotton may be grown in India, woven into denim fabric in China, sewn into a garment in Mexico, and finally sold by a clothing retailer in the United States. Further, each of these processes has distinct and stratified possibilities of economic gain for participating actors and ultimately for the region in which these processes are located.
Computer Viruses
Authors: Subramanian Ramesh 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Like their biological counterparts,
computer
viruses do not discriminate among class, creed, organization, society or even nation. Once released into the “wild,” they find ingenious ways to disguise, perpetuate, and spread themselves. In the short span they have existed – from the early 1980s to the present – they have infiltrated and infected millions of computers all over the globe, and in the process have captivated and frustrated both digital elites and novices. They have managed to instill revulsion, fear and even a perverse fascination among victims and non‐victims alike. Yet, unlike their biological counterparts, computer viruses are manmade. Researchers studying artificial life (A‐Life) have long considered computer viruses to be a nascent form of life itself, and have sought to create and study their capacity to self‐replicate, spread and mutate (Levy 1993). These research projects are generally confined to carefully monitored laboratory settings. However, outside the academic environs, numerous viruses proliferate in the wild today, performing their nefarious tasks. These viruses and their creators are not exactly popular in much of the computing world due to the damage they cause. What started as a prank by some computer science students (i.e., creating viruses) in high schools and colleges has now evolved into tools of crime co‐opted by criminals, extortionists, terrorists and even governments the world over to commit crimes, attack and wage war on each other and their citizens.
Consumption
Authors: Brändle Gaspar , Ryan J. Michael 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Globalization has become perhaps the hot topic in both the academic and lay world alike in recent decades. Not far behind, however, have been issues related to consumption and consumer culture. Whether it was the global economic crisis of 2008 (and arguably beyond), the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the Beijing Olympics, the global spread of multinational brands, or the unprecedented rise of music, fashion, and popculture icon Lady Gaga, discussions about the relationship between globalization and consumption have becoming increasingly commonplace.
Core
Authors: Reifer Tom 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The notion of core states and regions are key concepts in world‐systems analysis and their usage has gained considerable currency in world scholarship more generally. World‐systems analysts posit that in the period stretching from late medieval to early modern times, there developed a new historical system, a capitalist world economy, divided into a tripartite zonal hierarchy of wealth and power, among core, semiperipheral and peripheral zones and regions. In this system, an increasingly global division of labor, related networks of geopolitics, communication spheres and international law, created a system within which important processes transgressed the boundaries of nationstates, thus creating a world society, albeit a highly unequal one, in which there was more or less continuous conflict between materially based states, classes and peoples over the benefits of the global division of labor.
Cosmopolitanism
Authors: Menéndez Alarcón Antonio V. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The word “cosmopolitan” developed from the Greek “cosmos” (
κóσμoζ
) (the universe) and “polis” (
∏óλιζ
) (city). Like many other concepts, “cosmopolitanism” has many nuances and meanings. In what follows, some of the main aspects of this concept as they relate to globalization will be discussed. Cosmopolitanism contends that the world is a single community. It also implies that the world is reproduced and present in a given place. Thus, different cultures and different views coexist in a given territory. A cosmopolitan city would have different cultural expressions; different types of food would be offered in restaurants; different types of entertainment, music, and art would be available; and there would be stores that offer products from other parts of the world. This is directly tied to the globalization process, which implies the movement of goods and people. Today in the United States, as a result of immigration, one can find some elements of cosmopolitanism even in small, Midwestern towns. “Cosmopolitan” implies a connection with the world, and an acceptance – even a celebration – of cultural differences across societies.
Cosmopolitanism and Cosmopolitanization
Authors: Beck Ulrich , Grande Edgar 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The concept of cosmopolitanism has been the object of one of the most significant debates in the social sciences and humanities during the last decade (Beck & Sznaider 2006; Beck & Grande 2010a). In the process, cosmopolitanism has refashioned itself, moving beyond philosophy and political theory, its conventional home, to social theory and research; and ranging widely across anthropology, geography, cultural studies, literary criticism, legal studies, international relations, and social history. New, more or less reflexive and critical cosmopolitanisms have since proliferated. They have been preoccupied, first, with squaring the circle of abstract universalism by emphasizing respect for the particularity of human diversity. In the second place, they have sought to expand the circumference of the circle to include (if not to favor) those for whom cosmopolitanism is not a lifestyle choice, but the tragic involuntary condition of the refugee or otherwise dispossessed.
Counter‐Hegemonic Globalization
Authors: Evans Peter 
Published: March 2012

AbstractContemporary capitalism's restructuring of global power has sparked a wide variety of countermovements. This article outlines one conceptualization of the set of countermovements that are sometimes referred to as “alter‐globalization” or “anti‐globalization” movements, or sometimes simply as “countermovements,” “anti‐systemic movements” or “the movement of movements.”
Counterterrorism
Authors: Innes Martin 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Establishing a coherent and robust definition of counterterrorism is rendered difficult by the contested nature of terrorism. As the popular adage contends, “one person's terrorist is another's freedom fighter.” Accordingly, the scholarly and policy literatures on terrorism and responses to it are replete with definitions shaded in different hues. This is important because, in practice, it is the successful application of the label “terrorist” to particular actions and people that determines which are defined as suitable targets for counterterrorist interventions. While acknowledging the importance of such debates, the essence of a reasonable working definition of counterterrorism would gravitate around the notion of “actions and interventions deliberately designed to prevent or respond to violence enacted in pursuit of political ends that is labeled as terrorist.”
Creative industries
Authors: Olma Sebastian 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The topos “creative industries” is a conceptual amalgamation made up of emergent social structures, urban planning fantasies, real estate speculation, academic marketing and local politicians' last hopes for regeneration. Its birth certificate is of British origin and was issued in 1998 (upgraded in 2001) by the Blair government's Department of Culture, Media and Sports (DCMS) in the form of the so‐called
Task Force Mapping Document
decreeing a new postindustrial super‐sector out of 13 otherwise distinct sectors ranging from advertising, interactive leisure software to performing arts. The Australian
Creative Nation Initiative
might be seen as its predecessor but receives hardly any attention in the literature.
Criminal Networks
Authors: Jakobi Anja P. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractCriminal networks are loosely connected individuals or groups that organize themselves without a central authority for carrying out a criminal enterprise. This activity can take place within or across countries. In particular cross‐national networks and transnational organized crime have risen in the context of globalization, caused by new means of communication and transportation, and global markets in which licit and illicit goods can be manufactured, exported and imported more easily. Criminal networks are active in any area of crime, ranging from drug trafficking to human smuggling, counterfeiting products and terrorism (most prominently, Al‐Qaeda). This entry focuses primarily on criminal networks (crime marked by an economic motivation), and less on terrorism (crime marked by a political motivation).