bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Policy Interventions
Authors: Baker C. Edwin 
Published: April 2010

AbstractThis chapter considers legal and other policy approaches to limit youth exposure to harmful media content. A wide range of arguments against censorship of problematic content is reviewed. In particular, it is difficult to identify problematic content and to enforce its suppression. Suppression often gives rise to other more problematic content. Censorship is also costly to enforce. Another concern is that the same media content can affect various people differently, so while suppressing content may limit harm to some, it could limit good to others (examples of this are in the chapter on the Internet). Regimes can abuse censorship, and censorship can limit the benefits gained from free expression. A better approach is for the government to promote desirable behavior, which generally works better than punishing bad behavior. Media literacy is an alternative to censorship, which in principle can favorably change reactions to and consumption of media content.
The Social Security Act in Perspective
Authors: Dobelstein Andrew W. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter provides a broad overview of the social welfare programs authorized by the Social Security Act, both when it was created in 1935 and as they exist in 2009. A timeline shows how the Social Security Act has developed into the form in which we know it today, with twenty-one Titles, or parts, generating more than fifty of the nation's most significant social programs. The chapter distinguishes between the Act's social policy construction and the specific programs created from the policy — a distinction applied to all the Act's specific programs, discussed in subsequent chapters.
Title II: The Program Structure of Old Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance
Authors: Dobelstein Andrew W. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
What is commonly referred to as “Social Security” is a government-administered social insurance program that actually consists of three interlocking programs: Old Age Retirement Insurance, (often called “Social Security”), Survivors Insurance, and Disability Insurance. These programs make up the core of Title (i.e. part) II of the Social Security Act. From a straightforward retirement insurance program, Title II social insurance has grown incrementally to become the nation's largest and most complex social welfare commitment.
Title XVIII: Medicare Health Insurance for the Aged
Authors: Dobelstein Andrew W. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Since it was created in 1965, Medicare has become America's prototype for public health care. An entitlement program, Medicare Part A provides hospital insurance for social security beneficiaries, fully funded by the Federal government; and Medicare Part B provides Social security beneficiaries with a range of physician and health care services, funded mostly by a premium. Medicare Part D provides beneficiaries with prescription drugs, presumably at government subsidized prices. Medicare's growth illustrates the lack of clarity about goals for publicly financed health care, the fragmentation of health policy exacerbated by a health insurance model, and the politically fragile foundation for comprehensive health care in America.
Visuomotor representations
Authors: JACOB PIERRE , JEANNEROD MARC 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers both conceptual reasons and empirical evidence in favour of the dualistic model of the human visual system applied to the vision of objects. It examines the contribution of the visual system to a restricted class of human actions — reaching, grasping and manipulating objects in one's vicinity — and argues that one and the same visual stimulus can undergo perceptual processing or motor processing. It characterizes the major differences between these two kinds of processing of visual inputs, called ‘semantic’ and ‘pragmatic’ processing. The chapter makes the bold claim that a new kind of non-conceptual content has been discovered by the cognitive neuroscientific study of the visual system, i.e. visuomotor content.
Electrons and X-Rays Reveal the Structure of Rhodopsin: A Prototypical G Protein-Coupled Receptor-Implications for Colour Vision
Authors: Ruprecht Jonathan J. , Schertler Gebhard F. X. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
A fundamental aim in vision research is to elucidate the factors that subtly modify the absorption maxima of the visual pigments — the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) responsible for transducing visual stimuli. Humans have four visual pigments, found in the two classes of retinal cells responsible for light detection: rod cells for dim light detection and cones for colour vision. Human rod cells contain rhodopsin, which is important for vision in dim light and is currently the most intensively studied visual pigment. This chapter reviews the structural work that has been carried out on rhodopsin, with a view towards spectral tuning.
Lack Of S-Opsin Expression in the Brush-Tailed Porcupine (Atherurus Africanus) and Other Mammals. Is the Evolutionary Persistence of S-Cones a Paradox?
Authors: Ahnelt P. , Moutairou K. , Glösmann M. , Kübber-Heiss A. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter describes the photoreceptor layer of the African brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus africanus) and surveys the occurrence of secondary short wavelength cone (pigment) sensitivity loss. This loss is a seemingly frequent event in recent placental mammal evolution, and it contrasts with the long persistence of the S-cone system in the early Mesozoic mammals. The loss may point to changing roles of the short-wavelength-sensitive system during different stages of the mammalian evolution.
Psychophysical Correlates of Parvo- and Magnocellular Function
Authors: Smith Vivianne C. , Pokorny Joel 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
A contrast discrimination technique was developed that revealed parvocellular (PC)- and magnocellular (MC)-pathway function by taking advantage of their differences in achromatic contrast response. Spatiotemporal processing for these pathways was evaluated using achromatic stimuli. The signals leaving the retina are subject to considerable further processing by higher visual processes. By biasing the early retinal processing to one or other pathway, different properties of higher order processes can be accessed. This chapter reviews these studies, indicating the possible clinical applications of the approach.
Sensitivity to Movement of Configurations of Achromatic and Chromatic Points in Amblyopic Patients
Authors: De Mattiello M. L. F. , Maneiro M. , Buglione S. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Amblyopia has been attributed to a shift in sensitivity of the visual system toward low spatial-frequency filter mechanisms. This chapter analyzes the capacity to recognize moving signals and how colour can help in this task. It shows that changes in perceived form or colour can cause changes in perceived motion.
Macular Pigment: Nature’s Notch Filter
Authors: Moreland J. D. , Westland S. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Macular pigment (MP) is a natural filter with ‘notch’ transmission characteristics. This chapter examines the effects of MP on surface colours in Normal and Anomalous Trichromats for a database of 1782 reflectance spectra. The results show that increases in MP concentration produce a general clockwise rotation of chromaticity around the illuminant point for Normals and Anormals. The chromaticity shifts, associated with rotation, increase with distance from the illuminant point.
How to Find a Tritan Line
Authors: Smithson H. E. , Sumner P. , Mollon J. D. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter proposes transient tritanopia as an effective method for locating an individual's tritan line. The method has several practical advantages. Firstly, the procedure can be carried out using a CRT, without the need to construct a uniform auxiliary field. Secondly, it allows almost free choice of the spatial properties of the stimulus so that the experimenter can determine the tritan line for the exact retinal region to be used in a subsequent experiment.
Effects of Retinal Detachment on S And M Cone Function In An Animal Model
Authors: Jacobs Gerald H , Calderone Jack B. , Sakai Tsutomu , Lewis Geoffrey P. , Fisher Steven K. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter shows that retinal detachment in the ground squirrel model does not have a larger impact on S-cone than on M-cone function as indexed by signals originating in the outer retina. To the contrary, to the extent that there is any differential effect of detachment on function subserved by the two cone types, the results suggest that the loss may be slightly in the opposite direction, that is, a proportionally greater effect of detachment on M-cone than on the S-cone function.
Colour-Vision Disturbances in Patients With Arterial Hypertension
Authors: Schröder Anke , Erb Carl , Falk Stefan , Schwartze Gabriele , Radermacher Jörg , Winter Rolf 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines colour vision in patients with an early stage of arterial hypertension without end-organ damage. A significantly higher median error score in Roth's 28-hue (E) desaturated colour-arrangement test was observed for patients with arterial hypertension than for the control group. These results should be taken into account in colour-vision testing to avoid diagnostic interference between specifically ocular diseases (e.g. glaucoma) and arterial hypertension.
Models of amino acid and codon substitution
Authors: YANG ZIHENG 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Chapter 1 discussed continuous-time Markov chain models of nucleotide substitution and their application to estimate the distance between two nucleotide sequences. This chapter discusses similar Markov chain models to describe substitutions between amino acids in proteins or between codons in protein-coding genes. It makes straightforward use of the Markov chain theory introduced in Chapter 1, except that the states of the chain are now the 20 amino acids or the 61 sense codons (in the universal genetic code), instead of the four nucleotides. Exercises are provided at the end of the chapter.
Maximum likelihood methods
Authors: YANG ZIHENG 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses likelihood calculation for multiple sequences on a phylogenetic tree. As indicated at the end of Chapter 3, this is a natural extension to the parsimony method when we want to incorporate differences in branch lengths and in substitution rates between nucleotides. Likelihood calculation on a tree is also a natural extension to estimation of the distance between two sequences, discussed in Chapter 1. Exercises are provided at the end of the chapter.
BoolNet—an R package for generation, reconstruction and analysis of Boolean networks
Authors: Müssel Christoph , Hopfensitz Martin , Kestler Hans A. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractMotivation: As the study of information processing in living cells moves from individual pathways to complex regulatory networks, mathematical models and simulation become indispensable tools for analyzing the complex behavior of such networks and can provide deep insights into the functioning of cells. The dynamics of gene expression, for example, can be modeled with Boolean networks (BNs). These are mathematical models of low complexity, but have the advantage of being able to capture essential properties of gene-regulatory networks. However, current implementations of BNs only focus on different sub-aspects of this model and do not allow for a seamless integration into existing preprocessing pipelines.Results: BoolNet efficiently integrates methods for synchronous, asynchronous and probabilistic BNs. This includes reconstructing networks from time series, generating random networks, robustness analysis via perturbation, Markov chain simulations, and identification and visualization of attractors.Availability: The package BoolNet is freely available from the R project at http://cran.r-project.org/ or http://www.informatik.uni-ulm.de/ni/mitarbeiter/HKestler/boolnet/ under Artistic License 2.0.Contact: hans.kestler@uni-ulm.deSupplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
VSDocker: a tool for parallel high-throughput virtual screening using AutoDock on Windows-based computer clusters
Authors: Prakhov Nikita D. , Chernorudskiy Alexander L. , Gainullin Murat R. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractSummary: VSDocker is an original program that allows using AutoDock4 for optimized virtual ligand screening on computer clusters or multiprocessor workstations. This tool is the first implementation of parallel high-performance virtual screening of ligands for MS Windows-based computer systems.Availability: VSDocker 2.0 is freely available for non-commercial use at http://www.bio.nnov.ru/projects/vsdocker2/Contact: nikita.prakhov@gmail.comSupplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Do the health‐care workers gain protection against herpes zoster infection? A 6‐year population‐based study in Taiwan
Authors: WU Chen‐Yi , HU Hsiao‐Yun , HUANG Nicole , PU Cheng‐Yun , SHEN Hsi‐Che , CHOU Yiing‐Jeng 
Published: April 2010

AbstractVaricella zoster virus (VZV) causes varicella, and may reactivate to cause herpes zoster later in the life of the host. It has been previously observed that exposure to VZV may boost the host’s latent immunity. Health‐care workers who are frequently exposed to ill patients ought to receive a protective effect. We investigated the incidence of herpes zoster among health‐care workers and the general population in Taiwan to see whether such a protective effect exists among health‐care workers against herpes zoster. This nationwide population‐based retrospective cohort study was based on data obtained from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Database. In total, 7744 health‐care workers, including 168 dermatologists and pediatricians, and 695 188 general adults were recruited for the study. Health‐care workers in the age groups 20–29, 30–39 and 40–49 years were found to have a significant higher herpes zoster incidence compared to the general adults (P < 0.001, 0.011 and <0.001, respectively). Both logistic regression and Cox regression showed that dermatologists, pediatricians, and other medical professionals have a higher herpes zoster incidence than the general population (odds ratio [OR] = 1.36, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 0.63–2.90, hazards ratio [HR] = 1.35, 95% CI = 0.64–2.82 in dermatologist and pediatrician groups, and OR = 1.39, 95% CI = 1.23–1.58, HR = 1.38, 95% CI = 1.22–1.56 in other medical professionals). The incidence of herpes zoster is higher among health‐care workers and it can be clearly concluded that no protective effect against herpes zoster exists for health‐care workers in Taiwan.
Retinyl retinoate induces hyaluronan production and less irritation than other retinoids
Authors: KIM Jin Eun , KIM Bora , KIM Hyuk , KIM Hyojung , LEE Joo Dong , KIM Hyun Jung , CHOI Kang Yell , LEE Seung Hun 
Published: April 2010

AbstractHyaluronan, a non‐sulfated glycosaminoglycan, retains water, maintains the extracellular spaces and facilitates the transport of ion solutes and nutrients. Hyaluronan is closely involved in keratinocyte proliferation, migration and differentiation. The synthesis of hyaluronan in vitro can be stimulated by several growth factors, including retinoids, dibutyryl cyclic adenosine monophosphate and peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor‐α agonist. In this study, we examined retinyl retinoate (a novel retinol derivative) on hyaluronan expression in primary human keratinocytes and in hairless mouse epidermal skin. Histochemistry using hyaluronan‐binding protein revealed that topical retinyl retinoate increased the intensity of hyaluronan staining in murine skin. Moreover, topical retinyl retinoate increased CD44 (hyaluronan receptor) expression. Using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, we assessed the expression level of the hyaluronan synthase 2 (HAS2) gene in primary human keratinocytes and in hairless mouse epidermal skin. We found that retinyl retinoate upregulated mouse HAS2 and human HAS2 mRNA. Application of retinyl retinoate induced increasing transepidermal water loss less than retinol, retinoic acid and retinaldehyde. Taken together, we suggest that retinyl retinoate is more effective on hyaluronan production and less of an irritant than other retinoids.
Pharmacogenomics of metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 1 and in vivo malignant melanoma formation
Authors: ABDEL‐DAIM Mohamed , FUNASAKA Yoko , KOMOTO Mari , NAKAGAWA Yoko , YANAGITA Emmy , NISHIGORI Chikako 
Published: April 2010

AbstractWe have previously shown that ectopic expression of metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 1 in melanocytes is essential for both development and in vivo growth of melanoma using newly developed transgenic mice which conditionally express metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 1 (mGluR1). In this study, we developed conditional transgenic mice, which harbor melanocytes not only in the dermis and hair follicles but also in the epidermis using stem cell factor transgenic mice. Pigmented plaques on the backs, tails, ears or groins of the transgenic mice began to appear 13 weeks after activation of the mGluR1 transgene, and the transgenic mice produced melanomas at a frequency of 100% 36 weeks after transgene activation. Although this transgenic mouse harbors melanocytes in the epidermis, proliferation of melanoma cells took place in the dermis. To elucidate the signals involved in development and growth of melanoma, inhibitors to phospholipase C, protein kinase C and mitogen‐activated protein kinase kinase 1/2, and antagonists to Ca2+ and calmodulin were administrated to transgenic mice. Each signal inhibitor to phospholipase, protein kinase C, Ca2+ release, calmodulin and mitogen‐activated protein kinase kinase 1/2 inhibited melanoma development. However, once melanoma was developed, the growth of melanoma was dramatically inhibited only by the inhibitor to mitogen‐activated protein kinase kinase 1/2 with partial inhibition by inhibitors to protein kinase C and phospholipase C. This inhibition of melanoma growth was well correlated with the expression of phosphorylated extracellular signal‐regulated kinase 1/2 and Ki‐67. These results indicate that for development of melanoma, activation of every signaling pathway from mGluR1 is required. However, for growth of melanoma, the extracellular signal‐regulated kinase pathway plays a key role.
Hearing screening for school children: comparison of low‐cost, computer‐based and conventional audiometry
Authors: McPherson B. , Law M. M. S. , Wong M. S. M. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractBackground  There is a need to develop affordable but effective audiometric screening equipment, particularly for use in low‐income countries. With advances in computer technology, low‐cost computer‐based audiometer software has been developed. However, the efficacy of computer‐based audiometers in hearing screening and diagnostic assessment requires investigation. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of a low‐cost, computer‐based audiometric system in a school‐based hearing screening programme.Methods  Eighty children were screened using the computer‐based audiometer and with a conventional pure tone screening audiometer. Overall refer rates, as well as frequency and age effects on the accuracy of the computer‐based audiometer, were considered.Results  There was a significant relationship between the low‐cost, computer‐based audiometer and a conventional pure tone audiometer when a 40 dBHL refer criterion was used in school hearing screening and when test results at 500 Hz were excluded from analysis. However, background noise effects and software limitations in the computer‐based system had major adverse effects on screening performance.Conclusions  The study results and preliminary practical experience with the system suggest that, with further software and hardware improvements, a low‐cost, computer‐based system may well be feasible for routine school screening in developing countries.
Sources of small‐scale variation in the invertebrate communities of headwater streams
Authors: LeCRAW ROBIN , MACKERETH ROBERT 
Published: April 2010

Summary1. Our objective was to investigate the associations between benthic macro‐invertebrate communities and environmental factors described at three spatial scales: local, reach and catchment. Differences in these associations, because of local topography, were determined by categorising sites into those having a large or small ‘reach contributing area’ (RCA), which is the lateral area of land contributing surface and subsurface flow of water, nutrients, organic and inorganic materials to a stream reach independent of catchment size and upstream contributions, and created by local topography.2. Twenty‐three sites were sampled in the Lake Nipigon Forest in north‐western Ontario. Local variables included hydrological metrics and stream morphology characteristics. Terrestrial reach and catchment variables included forest characteristics, topography and geomorphology. Invertebrates were identified and classified into functional feeding guilds. Canonical correspondence analysis and redundancy analysis were used to determine which variables contributed most to macro‐invertebrate community structure and how the RCA influenced those associations.3. Overall, local‐scale variables explained most variation in taxonomic and functional community structure (51.6 and 59.1%). Catchment‐scale variables explained more variation in the community (43.9 and 43.5%) than reach‐scale variables. In sites with a large RCA, the reach‐scale variables accounted for almost 10% more variability in taxonomic structure than the catchment‐scale variables, and in sites with a small RCA, catchment‐scale variables explained almost 23% more variation in feeding guild structure than reach‐scale variables.4. Topography was important at both the reach and the catchment scales. Variables at the reach scale most associated with invertebrate community tended to be related to forest cover, whereas important variables at the catchment scale were related to topography, wetlands and lakes.5. The difference in associations between invertebrate communities and environmental factors based on RCA indicates the influence of local topography on the linkage between aquatic habitats and the surrounding terrestrial environment. Understanding how these linkages affect aquatic communities can help to develop more effective predictive models of invertebrate community and more prescriptive conservation and management strategies for small streams.
Host behaviour and exposure risk in an insect–pathogen interaction
Authors: Parker Benjamin J. , Elderd Bret D. , Dwyer Greg 
Published: April 2010

Summary 1. Studies of variability in host resistance to disease generally emphasize variability in susceptibility given exposure, neglecting the possibility that hosts may vary in behaviours that affect the risk of exposure. 2. In many insects, horizontal transmission of baculoviruses occurs when larvae consume foliage contaminated by the cadavers of virus‐infected conspecific larvae; so, host behaviour may have a strong effect on the risk of infection. 3. We studied variability in the behaviour of gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) larvae, which are able to detect and avoid virus‐contaminated foliage. 4. Our results show that detection ability can be affected by the family line that larvae originate from, even at some distance from a virus‐infected cadaver, and suggest that cadaver‐detection ability may be heritable. 5. There is thus the potential for natural selection to act on cadaver‐detection ability, and thereby to affect the dynamics of pathogen‐driven cycles in gypsy moth populations. 6. We argue that host behaviour is a neglected component in studies of variability in disease resistance.