bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Imjin War (1592–1598)
Authors: M. Swope Kenneth 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The common designation for this conflict comes from the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese designation for the year 1592. It is also known as the Japanese invasion of Korea, Hideyoshi's invasion of Korea, the Campaigns of 1592 and 1597 (in Japan), the Rescue of Korea, the Eastern Expedition (in China), and the First Great East Asian War. This war was one of the seminal events in east Asian history and was the largest conflict in the world in the sixteenth century in terms of the numbers of soldiers involved. While the contemporary War of the Spanish Armada featured approximately fifty thousand combatants, this war featured an excess of three hundred thousand.
Imperial war cabinet (1917–1918)
Authors: R. Woodward David 
Published: November 2011

AbstractShortly after becoming prime minister, David Lloyd George told the House of Commons (December 19, 1916) that “the time has come when the Dominions ought to be more formally consulted as to the progress and course of the War.” India and the Dominions had become essential partners in the war against the Central Powers, furnishing British armies in France, Gallipoli, Palestine, and Mesopotamia with approximately one million men. But the British government now sought even more imperial reinforcements, especially from India. In 1911 Lloyd George had been impressed with the involvement of the Imperial Conference (composed of Dominion representatives) after its members had participated in secret discussions in the Committee of Imperial Defence. But the Imperial Conference had no provision for secret sessions and excluded India, which was not a self‐governing Dominion. To get around this difficulty Lloyd George wanted a “special war conference of the empire” composed of representatives of the Dominions as well as India to meet jointly with his new war cabinet, a small inner‐governmental body that effectively supplanted the cabinet and exercised oversight of the war effort.
improvised explosive devices
Authors: Estes Kenneth W. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The use of explosives or items of explosive ordnance such as rockets, bombs, and shells in unconventional ways in order to inflict harm or cause damage probably dates from the very invention of gunpowder and its associated devices. Petards were used ingeniously to batter down protective walls, and the unwary engineer mishandling such an artifice was said to be “hoist on his own petard,” something contemporary bomb‐makers have experienced in their own right.
Indo‐Pakistani Wars (1947–1948, 1965, 1971)
Authors: Barua Pradeep.P 
Published: November 2011

AbstractIndia and Pakistan became independent nations in 1947. Almost at their very inception the two nations went to war over the disputed territory of Kashmir. The Kashmir conflict would lead to war again in 1965, and in 1971 the creation of the new nation of Bangladesh was cause for yet another war. These three wars have been a defining factor in relations between the two countries and the region in general.
Iraq–Iran War(1980–1988)
Authors: Johnson Douglas.V 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThis eight‐year war began as a series of miscalculations and spiraled out of control as new tactics brought forth unexpected reactions, the way most wars develop. In the end, the Iraqis overcame their ideological prejudices to produce a professional military with which they achieved military victory. The Iranians could not overcome their revolution's ideological influences. In the end, the Ayatollah Khomeini's religious stature may have been the only factor preventing the Iranian government's collapse. The centrality of oil made the war a matter of serious interest to all industrialized nations and brought about some strange cooperative actions which are the subject for another study. By war's end, both sides were exhausted, but Iraq had access to reserves Iran did not possess and could have continued the war for a while longer; however, its debt settlement issues led to the invasion of Kuwait in 1989 and the coalition counterstroke, Operation Desert Storm. In the process, both societies were reordered, one by revolutionary zeal, the other by modernization—for a while.
Irish Republican Army
Authors: Kautt W. H. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractWhile there were many earlier nationalist groups in Ireland's history, the most direct predecessor of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) was the Irish Volunteers. The Irish Volunteer Force was founded in November 1913 in Dublin in reaction to theformation of the militant Unionist Ulster Volunteer Force in Belfast in 1912. The Irish Volunteer Force split in September 1914 over the issue of supporting the war effort against the Germans in World War I. Separating from the larger Home Rule group, which renamed itself the National Volunteers, the smaller, more militant and republican faction called themselves simply the Irish Volunteers.
Janissaries
Authors: Aksan Virginia H. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractJanissaries, or Yeni Çeri (New Troops), established during the reign of Sultan Murad I (1326?–1389), were the backbone of the formidable army of the Ottoman Empire. The sultans originally created the infantry force as their bodyguard and as loyal support against the Turkish cavalry warriors and tribesmen of the Anatolian frontiers. Armed with swords and bows and arrows, by 1600 the Janissaries had become one of the first standing armies of Europe, equipped with matchlock and later flintlock muskets. They were particularly feared for their formidable artillery and their skill at siege warfare.
Jeune Ecole
Authors: Hood Chalmers 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Since the industrialization of the world, there has been only one significant alternative to Admiral Alfred T. Mahan's strategy of maritime dominance by large battle fleets. Called the
Jeune Ecole
because of its origin among the younger officers of the French navy, this was the sole attempt to formulate a maritime defense policy—including colonial conquest, commerce raiding, and offensive war—relying on squadrons of small, fast, torpedo boats. Most of its proponents were French naval officers, engineers, or journalists interested in naval affairs. It emerged during the 1870s in the aftermath of the Franco‐Prussian War and continued as a formal, alternative school of naval thought up to World War I. Pipe dream of young officers eager to prove themselves after a terrible military defeat? Corollary to rapid colonial expansion? Technological vision revolutionizing war at sea? A gimmick to sell naval policy cheaply to a country overwhelmed by the threat of a newly united Germany? The answer to all of these is “Yes” and it is this diversity of unreconciled views that explains the continued fascination with the
Jeune Ecole
.
Jomini, General Antoine‐Henri, Baron de (1779–1869)
Authors: Gallaher John G. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Antoine‐Henri Jomini was born on March 6, 1779, in the town of Payerne in the canton of Vaud, Switzerland. He was educated for a career in business and began as a clerk in a banking house in Basle, but soon moved to Paris in 1796, where he was employed in banking. However, the young Jomini had no interest in the business profession. From an early age he wished for a career in the military. In 1798 he entered the Swiss army as a staff officer and within a few years was given command of a battalion. When the War of the Second Coalition ended in 1801, Jomini returned to civilian life in the banking profession in Paris. In 1803 he published a
Traité des grandes operations militaires
that was widely read by French officers. He came to the attention of Marshal Michel Ney who gave him a position as a volunteer aide‐de‐camp on his staff. In this capacity Jomini served with Ney's 6th Corps during the Austerlitz campaign of 1805. Napoleon was impressed by the talents of the young man, and in December of the same year gave him a commission as colonel in the French army. Thus began Jomini's career in the service of France.
Kutuzov, Field Marshal Mikhail (1747–1813)
Authors: Mikaberidze Alexander 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Russian military commander whose leadership contributed substantially to Napoleon's defeat in Russia. A scion of an ancient Russian noble family (GolenishchevKutuzov), Kutuzov graduated from the Combined Artillery and Engineer School and was promoted to ensign in 1761. In 1762 he served in the Astrakhanskii Infantry Regiment commanded by General Alexander Suvorov and later fought in Poland in 1764–1769. In 1770–1774 he served with distinction against the Turks at Larga and Kagul, earning the rank of lieutenant colonel. In 1774 Kutuzov sustained a serious wound to the head and lost his right eye in action, which required medical treatment in Europe.
League of Nations
Authors: Webster Andrew 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The League of Nations was an international organization created at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, intended, in the aftermath of World War I, “to promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security” (Walters 1952: 43). Its charter, known as the Covenant, was included as the first part of each of the several peace treaties between the victorious Allies and the defeated Central Powers; the League itself formally came into existence on January 10, 1920, with the entry into force of the Treaty of Versailles. The Covenant was surprisingly brief, yet its 26 articles covered a vast range of issues including disarmament, collective security (though the term itself was not used until much later), the resolution of international disputes, social and economic cooperation, the trusteeship of former enemy territories, and the new body's organizational principles. The primary purpose for which the League was created was as an international mechanism of war prevention, and while it experienced some degree of success during the 1920s, when it was essentially left untested, this was violently punctured by its inability to deal with the multiple crises of the early and mid‐1930s, most prominently over the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the collapse of its efforts to achieve international disarmament during 1932–1934, and the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. The stark nature of its failures left the League to drift into paralysis and impotence during the final years before the outbreak of World War II. Its work having ceased almost completely during the war, the League of Nations formally dissolved itself on April 18, 1946 and transferred its functions, powers, and physical assets to the new United Nations Organization (UN).
Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990)
Authors: Zisser Eyal 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
From April 1975 to October 1990 Lebanon suffered a bloody civil war. At its peak it threatened to bring about the complete collapse and disintegration of the Lebanese state. During the fighting nearly 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 wounded. Six hundred thousand people were made homeless, and nearly 250,000 left Lebanon, most of whom never returned. All this took place among a population that numbered merely 3.1 million at the beginning of the war.
LeMay, General Curtis (1906–1990)
Authors: Perry May Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Curtis Emerson LeMay has been called by those who knew him the best air commander of the twentieth century. He became the youngest four‐star general in the history of the US Air Force at age 44 in 1951. He was the Chief of Staff of the US Air Force from 1961 to 1965 and the vice presidential running mate of George Wallace in 1968. His skills as a leader and his influence on the concept of strategic bombing left a legacy that remained well into the twenty‐first century. Born in Columbus, Ohio, in 1906 to impoverished subsistence farmers, LeMay had few natural prospects for success. After seeing his first airplane at age 5, LeMay yearned to fly. He received a commission from the Army Reserve Officer's Training Corps (ROTC) program at Ohio State University in 1928. Soon after, he found himself learning to fly in the Army Air Corps.
Liddell Hart, Basil H. (1895–1970)
Authors: Holden Reid Brian 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
A significant contributor to the renaissance of British military thought after 1918, Liddell Hart was born on October 31, 1895 in Paris, the younger son of a Wesleyan Methodist minister. He was educated at St. Paul's and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, though he never graduated. In December 1914 he gained a commission in the King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry and witnessed three tours of duty on the Western Front before being gassed on July 18, 1916 in Mametz Wood during the Battle of the Somme. He was promoted captain in April 1917, and served as adjutant of the 4th Battalion Gloucestershire Volunteer Regiment in Stroud. In 1918 he married Jessie Douglas Stone (1895–1977).
Liman von Sanders, General Otto Karl Victor (1855–1929)
Authors: Sheffy Yigal 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
A German officer who gained his reputation during World War I, serving in Turkey and Palestine, Liman is clearly the only imperial German officer to rise to such a prominent status despite being of Jewish ancestry. Born on February 18, 1855 in Stolp, Pomerania (now Slupsk, Poland) into a landowner family and to paternal grandparents who had converted from Judaism, he joined the German Imperial Army in 1874 as an infantry officer, but soon was reassigned to the cavalry. In 1877 he married Amalie von Sanders, who bore him three daughters. He held command and staff positions, received the rank of generalmajor in 1908, and was promoted to the rank of generalleutnant and a division commander in 1911. In July 1913 Liman was ennobled by Kaiser Wilhelm II and added his late wife's maiden name to his, becoming Liman von Sanders.
Mahdia campaign (1087)
Authors: Berwinkel Holger 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In August 1087 an expeditionary force from several Italian cities attacked the fortified town and harbor of Mahdia (al‐Mahdīya) in modern Tunisia. Mahdia was the strong hold of the Zīrids, a Muslim Berber dynasty that since ca. 1050 had lost most of its hinterland territory to the Bedouin Banū Hilāl and Banū Sulaym. Therefore Tamīm, who ruled Mahdia from 1062 to 1108, directed his ambitions toward the sea and offered his city as a base to pirates. Their raids against Italian coasts and commerce prompted a reaction from the seafaring city‐states of Italy, especially Pisa and Genoa. The aim of these maritime republics was more than punitive: they sought to establish bases on foreign shores for commerce and further conquest. Pisa and Genoa were on the rise to dominate the Tyrrhenian Sea—i.e., the western Mediterranean—in terms of naval power and had already built up a record of amphibious expeditions against southern Italy and northern Africa during the eleventh century, e.g., when attacking Palermo together with the Normans in 1063. Though both cities often rivaled with each other, they could cooperate for mutual benefit as they did on the Mahdia campaign. Other participants came from Rome and from Amalfi, a southern Italian maritime city under Norman domination. Pisa seems to have taken the lead, but the main source for this campaign (Cowdrey 1977) was written there and is biased in Pisan favor. It mentions the Pisan noble Ugo Visconte as leader. The whole enterprise was at least to some degree incited by Pope Victor III and politically backed by Matilda of Canossa as the overlord of the Pisan territory, but neither influenced the actual military campaign.
Mamluks
Authors: May Timothy 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The mamluk (slave) institution entered Islamic civilization in the ninth century as a way for the Abbasid caliphs to counter their reliance on military warlords and tribal leaders. The caliphs sought to create a dependable body of warriors loyal only to them as a counterbalance to the shifting rivalries of other regional power brokers. Most of the earliest mamluks were Turks, whose prowess on horseback and skills in archery were highly prized, and preferred to the Arabs and Persians who already made up the armies of the caliphs. Over the centuries, mamluks became a common feature in Muslim armies throughout the Islamic world, although always limited in number due to their expense, up to and including the famous Janissaries of the Ottoman Empire. Others were Slavs from Russia and eastern Europe and some Africans. Typically, mamluks were purchased just as they approached puberty—thus they may have had some early skills, but were still impressionable and could be taught. Mamluks were not slaves
per se
, but slaves who were trained, educated in Islam (although some never converted), and then manumitted. They usually remained intensely loyal to the man who manumitted them, but less so to their master's successor, who often had his own mamluks.
Manzikert, Battle of (1071)
Authors: Frankopan Peter 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In the summer of 1071 the Byzantine army marched across Asia Minor. Its targets were Manzikert and Akhlat, which had until recently been key points on the empire's eastern frontier, protecting the interior of Anatolia. They had fallen to the Turks, a people who emerged in the later tenth century in central Asia, spreading west to become masters of Baghdad following the appointment of Tughril Beg as sultan in 1055. The military expedition to retake both locations, led by the emperor Romanus IV Diogenes, proved to be a fiasco. Poor intelligence and incompetent decision‐making led to the rout of the imperial forces and the capture of the emperor by the Turks. The subsequent meeting between Romanus IV and his victor, the Turkish sultan Alp Arslan, became one of the most famous scenes of the early Middle Ages, a defining moment in the rise of the Turks and of Islam in Asia Minor and the decline of Christianity in the eastern Mediterranean.
Military necessity
Authors: Noone Michael F. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

US Army Field Manual 27–10, The Law of Land Warfare
, describes military necessity as “that principle which justifies those measures not forbidden by international law which are indispensable for securing the complete submission of the enemy as soon as possible” (para. 3a). The principle was articulated in the first codification of the laws of war, by Francis Lieber,
General Orders No. 100, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field
(1863), and recently, by implication, in Article 8 (b) (iv) of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court which lists among other violations of the law of war “intentionally launching an attack in the knowledge that such attack will cause incidental loss of life or injury to civilians or damage to civilian objects or widespread, long‐term and severe damage to the natural environment which would be clearly excessive in relation to the concrete and direct overall military advantage anticipated.” Similar language can be found Article 51, paragraph 5 (b), of Additional Protocol I to the 1949 Geneva Conventions and in the United Kingdom's
Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict
.
Military occupation
Authors: Tyson‐Banks William 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Military occupation is the umbrella term for a number of different ways in which an external power occupies territory, usually but not always by conquest. The generic definition of military occupation is necessarily vague, a point worth bearing in mind in the examination that follows. Certainly, belligerent military occupation is the classic understanding of the term, but as will be seen it is but one of a number of possible models of occupation that have been implemented throughout history. Peacekeeping and protective occupations are some examples of occupation but not by conquest. After 1945, the concept of military occupation has become more of an issue for warring powers; it has also become more complicated in a world heavily influenced by ideas of liberal intervention. These approaches come in the main from a western tradition of warfare, another point worth bearing in mind and one that reflects a typically Eurocentric attitude to the problem of occupation. Whereas, in the past, occupation was the business of national governments, in the contemporary era it is not only a politically sensitive issue for western (and other) governments but it also heavily involves non‐state actors, such as non‐governmental organizations (NGOs). Today, charities such as the Red Cross and Oxfam are almost as important for occupying powers as military forces and governments were in the past. The United Nations (UN), from its creation in 1945, plays a very significant role in all of this.
Moltke, Field Marshal Helmuth von, the Elder (1800–1891)
Authors: Seligmann Matthew S. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractHelmuth von Moltke, the Elder was of Danish birth and might, therefore, have played only a limited role in history had he not decided as a youth to forego a career in the military of his native kingdom and to seek instead preferment in the much larger and more significant Prussian army. Despite being something of an outsider in this organization, dominated as it was by Prussian noblemen (often referred to as Junkers), he advanced steadily through the hierarchy, becoming chief of the Great General Staff in 1857. In this role, which he held until his retirement in 1888, he was to become one of the most influential military leaders of the post‐Napoleonic nineteenth century. His importance derives from two different, albeit interconnected, causes.
Mongol conquest of China
Authors: Wright David Curtis 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
China was by far and away the most difficult conquest the Mongols ever undertook. It began before any other major Mongol conquest of sedentary civilizations and continued long after the others had been completed. The Mongol conquest of China lasted for 70 years, beginning in 1209, passing through several stages of intermittent prosecution, and not achieving completion until 1279, over halfway through the 34‐year reign of Khubilai Khan, Genghis (Chinggis) Khan's grandson.