bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Developing Countries in the WTO Legal System
Authors: Trachtman Joel P. , Thomas Chantal 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
With contributions from some of the leading experts in international trade, law, and economics, this book looks at the positioning of developing countries within the WTO system. The chapters address some of the most pressing issues facing these countries, while reflecting on Robert E. Hudec's book, Developing Countries in the GATT Legal System. Hudec argued against preferential and non-reciprocal treatment for developing countries. He did so on the basis of a combination of economic, political, and legal insights that persuasively demonstrated that non-reciprocal treatment would not benefit developing countries. It is a testament to Hudec's legacy that his analysis is still the object of scholarly discussion more than twenty years later. The first part of this book evaluates the general situation of developing countries within the WTO. The second part examines market access and competition law within these countries. Lastly, it discusses the special arrangements these countries have with international financial institutions, the developing country's capacity to litigate, and an analysis of the country's level of participation in WTO dispute settlements.
Dysfunction, Diversion, and the Debate Over Preferences
Authors: Dunoff Jeffrey L 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Robert Hudec's Developing Countries in the GATT System makes at least two important contributions to the trade literature. First, it provides an authoritative history of the debate over preferential treatment for developing states. Second, it offers an influential analysis of the effects of preferences. Hudec rejects the conventional wisdom that preferential treatment disserves developing states because a policy of reciprocity would produce greater concessions from developed states. He argues that, given the economic disparities between developed and developing states, reciprocity by developing states is unlikely to produce greater access to developed state markets. This chapter explores what we know about preferences and how we know it. It also explores whether juxtaposing alternative methodological approaches can suggest a progressive research agenda designed to enhance our understandings of how preferences work and, in particular, their effects on developing states.
Asymmetry in the Uruguay Round and in the Doha Round
Authors: Ostry Sylvia 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter considers the unintended consequences of the Uruguay Round, focusing on the issue of asymmetry. A number of case studies by the World Bank demonstrate both the capacity deficit in poor countries and the heavy costs of implementation. There was very little participation by the African countries in the Uruguay Round because of both the lack of personnel in Geneva delegations and the lack of coordination and expertise at home. There is still serious weakness in domestic coordination mechanisms among a number of ministries; this institutional deficiency is not confined to the poorest countries but affects many developing and transition economies as well. Finally, there is little, if any, coordination between Geneva and the home country.
Winners and Losers in the Panel Stage of the WTO Dispute Settlement System
Authors: Hoekman Bernard , Horn Henrik , Mavroidis Petros C 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Most research on the role of developing countries in the WTO Dispute Settlement (DS) system has focused on their propensity to participate as complainants, respondents, and third parties. Much of this line of research has sought to examine claims that developing countries are underrepresented as complainants and/or overrepresented as respondents in the DS system. This chapter examines whether the outcomes with regard to legal claims differ between developing and developed countries. It employs a dataset describing various aspects of the DS system that have been compiled under a World Bank project to take a first cut at exploring what the experience to date suggests regarding this question. The objective underpinning the assembly of the dataset was to systematically compile information on various aspects of the DS system, in order, inter alia, to facilitate assessment of its implications for developing countries.
Justice, the Bretton Woods Institutions, and the Problem of Inequality
Authors: Garcia Frank J 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The Bretton Woods Institutions and the WTO are the preeminent international institutions devoted to managing international economic relations. This mandate puts them squarely in the center of the debate concerning development, inequality, and global justice. While the normative analysis of the WTO is gaining momentum, the systematic normative evaluation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund is comparatively less developed. This chapter contributes to that nascent inquiry. How might global justice criteria apply to the ideology and operations of the Bank and Fund? Political theory offers an abundance of perspectives from which to conduct such an analysis; this chapter focuses on Rawls's theory of justice as fairness adapted to international institutions by the author in connection with the WTO and extend it to the remaining “legs” of the Bretton Woods “stool”. It asks what difference it would make for the Bank and Fund if an explicit global justice framework informed their international lending activities.
Unanticipated Gains
Authors: Small Mario Luis 
Published: September 2009

AbstractSocial capital theorists have shown that inequality arises in part because some people enjoy larger, more supportive, or otherwise more useful networks. But why do some people have better networks than others? This book argues that the answer lies less in people's deliberate “networking” than in the institutional conditions of the churches, colleges, firms, gyms, and other organizations in which they happen to participate routinely. This book introduces a model of social inequality that takes seriously the embeddedness of networks in formal organizations, proposing that what people gain from their connections depends on where those connections are formed and sustained. The model is illustrated and developed through a study of the experiences of mothers whose children were enrolled in New York City childcare centers. As a result of the routine practices and institutional conditions of the centers—from the structure of their parents' associations, to apparently innocuous rules such as pick‐up and drop‐off times—many of these mothers dramatically increased their social capital and measurably improved their wellbeing. Yet how much they gained depended on how their respective centers were organized. This book identifies the mechanisms through which childcare centers structured the networks of mothers, and shows that similar mechanisms operate in many other routine organizations, from beauty salons and bath houses to colleges and churches. The book makes a case for the importance of organizational embeddedness in the study of personal ties.
2 Suspiciousness of Experimenter's Intent
Authors: McGuire William J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThree stages in the life of an artifact are (a) ignorance of its existence, (b) coping with the artifact, and (c) exploiting it for what it can tell us about human behavior. This chapter focuses on the subject's suspicions of the experimenter's intent, with special emphasis on strategies for recognizing, coping with, and exploiting this source of artifact.
5 Demand Characteristics and the Concept of Quasi-Controls
Authors: Orne Martin T. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractHere, the assumption is that many subjects who volunteer for research participation have a tendency to play the role of the “good subject” (an ironic term) who is both highly sensitive and responsive to inadvertent task-orienting cues (demand characteristics). Quasi-control procedures can be used to identify sources of artifacts, and there is a discussion of how drug (pharmacological) research might serve as a model for the psychological experiment.
Section introduction
Authors: Evans Stephen M. , Nyengaard Jens R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractMost neuroscientists would accept that neurons and synapses form the fundamental building blocks for information processing in the central nervous system. Although this is a somewhat simplified view, since it neglects the subtle interaction between other elements of the nervous system such as glial cells and the local microenvironment, it is not unreasonable to assume that perturbations in their number will be involved in the pathophysiology of both disease and normal development. This chapter describes the basic principles of number estimation with a series of examples and exercises to help explain the methodology.
Unbiased morphometrical techniques for the quantitative assessment of cells in primary dissociation cultures
Authors: Schröder H , Nyengaard J. R. , Selberis W , Lain E , Keller A , Köhler C , Witter B 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents a neuroscientific study using a primary neuronal dissociation culture in which it was necessary to obtain reliable data as to whether the induction of potentially toxic conditions would: (1) affect the total number of neurons, that is, the number of neurons that express the marker protein microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2); (2) affect the expression of certain markers in the cultured neurons, namely, the number of neurons that express a4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit protein; and (3) affect the co-expression in neurons of different nAChR proteins or phosphorylation markers. Using immunocytochemical or immunofluorescent protocols, it was possible to answer these questions on a quantitative level.
Developing and validating complex behavioural outcome measures
Authors: Shain Rochelle N. , Perdue Sondra , Piper Jeanna M. , Holden Alan E.C. , Champion Jane , Newton Edward R. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Interventions developed to reduce the risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) have typically focused on changes in discrete behaviours. However, simple behaviours alone may not be directly related to risk of infection. This chapter examines the types of behavioural measures commonly used, and explores the development of complex measures. It considers the utility of each with reference to data from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that have utilized both biological and behavioural measures.
Unpacking the ‘black box’: the importance of process data to explain outcomes
Authors: Wight Daniel , Obasi Angela 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Many of those who advance criticisms of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) conclude that RCTs of social interventions are rarely, if ever, appropriate. However, it should be possible to combine the strengths of a randomized approach with the ‘theory-driven’ or ‘realistic’ approach that has been advocated by Pawson and Tilley. The essence of this approach is to base the outcome evaluation on a thorough understanding of the process of the intervention and to complement it with the collection of good process data, in particular using Pawson and Tilley's formula: ‘Outcomes = Mechanism + Context’. In short, an unintelligible intervention, or ‘black box’, has to be unpacked. This is illustrated through two RCTs currently under analysis in Scotland and Tanzania. Following an outline of the projects, this chapter discusses four key intervention factors that can be of critical importance in interpreting outcome evaluations. These factors are: (1) the extent and quality of intervention delivery; (2) the mechanism; (3) the context; and, (4) the response of the target group. Finally, the chapter considers some key problems with process evaluations and how process and outcome data can be integrated.
Generalizability of trials and implementation of research into practice
Authors: Grosskurth Heiner , Kumaranayake Lilani 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter considers a wide range of issues relating to the generalizability of effective interventions. It begins by looking at factors that determine the extent to which the observed effects in a randomized trial can be generalized to other populations. It proposes suggestions to increase generalizability at the design stage. Because populations are heterogeneous, repeat trials in different environments are often required. However, as trials are expensive, the use of computer modelling has been suggested as an alternative to explore likely intervention effects in other populations. The options and limitations of this strategy are discussed. Translating research results into policy and practice is not straightforward. Various strategies towards achieving this objective are considered, including cost-effectiveness analysis. The last two sections of the chapter are concerned with the practicalities of scaling up an intervention and with aspects of sustainability.
Defects in activator proteins and other soluble proteins of the lysosome
Authors: Macheleidt Oliver , Kolter Thomas , Sandhoff Konrad 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses enzymatically inactive proteins that play a part in two areas of endosomal-lysosomal membrane lipid metabolism. Some are involved in binding and transfer processes that assist lysosomal sphingolipid catabolism and others appear to regulate cholesterol transport from these acidic compartments back to the plasma membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). These activator-mediated processes are of physiological relevance since defects in activator function can lead to fatal human diseases.
Simple non-mammalian systems
Authors: Pearce David A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter begins with a discussion of proteins associated with lysosomal storage diseases and their orthologues in model organisms. It then discusses studies of orthologous proteins associated with lysosomal storage diseases; biogenesis and trafficking to the lysosome; proteins associated with disease and with lysosome biogenesis and their orthologues in model organisms; and studies of orthologous proteins implicated in disease that are involved in lysosome biogenesis.
Pathogenic cascades and brain dysfunction
Authors: Walkley Steven U. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractLysosomal diseases begin quite simply as single gene mutations that affect the function of one protein. This protein may be an enzyme critical in the degradative action of the lysosomal system or in the processing and/or trafficking of such enzymes to the lysosome. The pathophysiological consequences in brain ultimately play out as an expanding cascade involving multiple substrate accumulation and widespread, but variable, impact on different types of neurones and glia. In some cases these changes may actually appear as regenerative, as seen in the new growth of dendrites and formation of synaptic connections in Tay–Sachs disease, but which more likely lead to inappropriate connections and neuron dysfunction. This chapter discusses the pathogenic cascade in brain; the why, where, and what of storage; the cellular consequences of storage; and functional assessment of brain.
Geostatistical methods for mapping environmental exposures
Authors: Cressie N. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses statistical methods for mapping environmental exposures. The chapter proceeds as follows. Section 10.2 presents a study of particulate matter to motivate the need to map environmental exposures. Section 10.3 discusses approaches for obtaining exposure estimates at specific locations based on so-called ‘naive’ and smoothing methods. Section 10.4 describes geostatistical methods. Section 10.5 illustrates ordinary kriging while Section 10.6 describes a fully parametric hierarchical modelling approach that was recently developed in a geostatistical context.
Ecological correlation studies
Authors: Richardson S. , Monfort C. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter reviews some current issues relating to studies commonly known as ‘ecological studies’, with particular reference to the context of geographical epidemiology. The chapter proceeds as follows. Section 11.2 discusses the problem of model specification and interference between individual and aggregated level. Section 11.3 investigates issues relating to the sensitivity of aggregated level regression coefficients and to the specification of the spatial structure for the unmeasured confounders, and presents an illustrative study concerning childhood leukaemia. Section 11.4 provides a concluding discussion.
Investigating the genetic association between diabetes and malaria: an application of Bayesian ecological regression models with errors in covariates
Authors: Bernardinelli L. , Pascutto C. , Montomoli C. , Gilks W. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter describes a Bayesian hierarchical model and applies it to a new dataset on insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) prevalence among 18-year-old males born in Sardinia between 1936 and 1973, using malaria prevalence in 1938–40 as the ecological covariate. It shows how to deal with the potential bias associated with using such a proxy by extending the Bayesian model to allow for covariate measurement error. It provides a method for choosing the hyperprior distributions for the spatial variation parameters of the model, and discusses the sensitivity of the results to different choices.
Do cancers cluster?
Authors: Alexander F. E. , Boyle P. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses the issue of cancer clustering with particular reference to childhood leukaemia. Clustering is a poorly defined concept in medical literature. A distinction must be made between the notion of the individual cluster — corresponding to an excess number of cases in one small area, around one infrequent point source or subject to one source of environmental pollution — and the concept of a general tendency of cluster. It is shown that childhood leukaemia displays a general tendency to cluster at place of diagnosis, but the magnitude of extra-Poisson variation is generally small and may only be identified when large datasets are analyzed.
Current status: six established major risk factors – and low risk
Authors: Stamler J. , Neaton J. D. , Garside D. B. , Daviglus M. L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter has two interrelated purposes: to update information on the six established major coronary heart disease–cardiovascular disease (CHD–CVD) risk factors, their impact and importance, singly and especially in combination; and to highlight the decisive role of low risk, that is, favourable findings for all major risk factors — decisive for individuals and for populations. Evidence based on huge body of research amassed over many years and from many scientific disciplines testify to the strength of the relationships of the established major risk factors to coronary risk. Adverse diet is pivotal among the risk factors and plays a primary and overwhelming role in the causation of epidemic CHD and CVD.
Blood pressure and the burden of coronary heart disease
Authors: Lawes C. M. M. , Hoorn S. Vander , Law M. R. , Elliott P. , MacMahon S. , Rodgers A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents estimates of blood pressure distributions by age, sex, and world region to estimate the burden of coronary heart disease (CHD) attributable to raised blood pressure worldwide in the year 2000. It summarizes work produced for the WHO Global Burden of Disease 2000 study and the World Health Report 2002, which included estimates of the burden of disease attributable to a variety of risk factors including blood pressure.
Exercise versus heart attack
Authors: Morris J. N. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter reviews evidence on the link between physical activity and the prevention of coronary heart disease (CHD). Studies show that adequate aerobic exercise in leisure time, which is habitual and ongoing, and the training and improved cardiorespiratory fitness and performance this produces, confer substantial protection against the occurrence of CHD in middle-aged and elderly men. The total death rate is also lowered. This is the case whatever the risk status of the men with respect to other factors. Recommendations for public health practice are presented.
Strategies of prevention: the individual and the population
Authors: Rose G. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter reviews two strategies for preventing coronary heart disease. The individual or clinical approach seeks to identify and help those in whom an amalgam of genetic susceptibility and unhealthy lifestyle indicates unusual risk, but the public health approach seeks changes in those features of the population's behaviour or environment which are held responsible for the overall incidence rate. Thus, the individual strategy is a rescue operation for individuals in need, whereas the population strategy is a radical attempt to deal with the underlying causes.
Primary prevention of high blood pressure
Authors: Elliott P. , Stamler J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractRaised blood pressure (BP) is a major risk factor for coronary heart disease (CHD) and the major risk factor for stroke. It is one of the most important underlying risk factors for cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in the world today, ranking above tobacco in estimates of the worldwide attributable burden of mortality. This chapter reviews the risks of premature mortality and increased morbidity associated with raised BP, and the risk factors that lead to raised BP in individuals and populations. It then addresses how this knowledge can inform preventive strategies to reduce the population burden of BP-related diseases.
Intervention in high risk groups: hypertension
Authors: Sever P. S. , Poulter N. R. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses the treatment of hypertension for preventing cardiovascular disease. Topics covered include early trials, unresolved issues in drug treatment, benefits of more contemporary drugs over standard therapy, overview and meta-analyses to date, optimal combinations of antihypertensive therapies, thresholds and targets for antihypertensive drug therapy, and concomitant therapy.
Evaluating according to purpose and resources
Authors: Coombes Yolande 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the need to strengthen the evidence base for health promotion. It argues that this process can be done incrementally, from small-scale process evaluations through to larger evaluation. It suggests a backwards approach to evaluation, starting with the question “Why are we evaluating?” in order to guide us to the nature and scope of the evaluation that should be undertaken.
Evaluating the dissemination of health promotion research
Authors: Lewando-Hundt Gillian , Al Zaroo Salah 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The dissemination of health promotion research to policymakers, practitioners, and users is essential to bridge the gaps between research policy and practice. This chapter begins by examining the definitions of dissemination. It then looks at how research is disseminated into policy and practice and to users. It considers the barriers to dissemination and identifies ways of overcoming them. Finally, the chapter discusses ways of evaluating dissemination.