bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Shortage of Engineers - Are We Working on the Solution or Are We Part of the Problem?
Authors: Dranchuk P.M. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
During the past decade, the mineral industries have been faced with an increasing shortage of engineers. The point has now been reached where the shortage may be termed critical. This shortage may be attributed directly to declining enrollment in the mineral science programs offered by the universities on this continent.
Although the reasons for declining enrollment are undoubtedly many, twomajor hypotheses may be postulated. The first is that high-school graduates are either unaware of the mineral industries and the opportunities in them or thatthey are aware of them but have somehow obtained a false image of their truenature. The second is that they are aware of the true nature of these industries and the opportunities they offer but find them exceedingly unattractive.
The problem of dwindling enrollments has, in recent years, been subjected toa concerted attack by the industries and professions concerned. However, theirefforts to date have been based essentially on the first hypothesis. Sufficient results are now available to suggest that either the methods of attack are inappropriate or that the first hypothesis is false. As all of the known methods of attack have been examined and exhausted, current authorities contend that the problem must yield to the pressure of intensified reapplication ofthese methods. The wiser move might well be to swallow our pride and seriously consider the second hypothesis.

Introduction
In recent years, the mineral industries have been faced with an increasing shortage of technical personnel. At present the shortage in the petroleum industry may be termed serious, whereas that in the mining industry may be moreproperly described as acute. Although this shortage was predicted as early as1951, few people accepted the prediction at that time. As the passage of time showed the prediction to be sound, industry slowly accepted it, but even thenwith reluctance and only based on the assumption that it was but a temporary phenomenon. In fact, there are at this moment members of industry who, although they realize they are about to drown, still have the feeling that if they canbut survive a bit longer the waters shall recede. The majority, however, view this as wishful thinking.
Fundamentals and Applications of the Monte Carlo Method
Authors: Stoian E. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
Perhaps no industry is more vitally concerned with risk than the oil and gas industry, and few professional men other than petroleum engineers are required to recommend higher investments on the basis of such uncertain and limited information. In recent years, the number of methods dealing with risk and uncertainty has grown extensively so that the classical approach, using analytical procedures and single-valued parameters, has undergone a significant transformation. The use of stochastic variables, such as those frequently encountered in the oil industry, is now economically feasible in the evaluation of an increasing number of problems by the application of Monte Carlo techniques.
This paper defines the Monte Carlo method as a subset of simulation techniques and a combination of sampling theory and numerical analysis. Briefly, the basic technique of Monte Carlo simulation involves the representation of a situation in logical terms so that, when the pertinent dataare inserted, a mathematical solution becomes possible. Using random numbers generated by an "automatic penny-tossing machine" and a cumulative frequency distribution, the behaviour pattern of the particular case can be determined bya process of statistical experimentation. In practical applications, the probabilistic data expressed in one or several distributions may pertain to geological exploration, discovery processes, oil-in-place evaluations or the productivity of heterogeneous reservoirs. The great variety of probability models used to date (e.g., normal, log-normal, skewed log-normal, linear, multi-modal, discontinuous, theoretical, experimental) confirms a broad rangeof experimental computations and a genuine interest in realistic representations of random impacts encountered in practice.
Emphasis in this paper is directed to the salient characteristics of the Monte Carlo method, with particular reference to applications in areas relatedto the oil and gas industry. Attention is focused on reservoir engineering models. Nevertheless. management facets of the oil and gas business are considered along with other applications in statistics, mathematics, physics and engineering. Sample size reducing techniques and the use of digitalcomputers are also discussed.
The Interpretation of Permeability Measurements
Authors: Dranchuk P.M. , Sadiq S. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
In 1941, Klinkenberg observed that although laboratory flow tests showedporous media to have greater permeabilities to gases than to liquids, this was not due to fluid solid interaction in the usual sense.
The present study shows that currently accepted test and interpretation practices yield permeability values which are less than or equal to the truevalue. A modification is suggested which allows Klinkenberg's method to yield unique results.

Introduction
The rediscovery of Darcy's law during the early 1930's opened new vistas tothe petroleum industry. It made possible the prediction of the behaviour of oilwells, oil fields and more complicated systems. In order that this law beapplied the permeabilities of the porous media to be studied had to be known.It therefore became accepted practice to obtain samples of a porous medium, determine the permeabilities of these samples and, from these results, estimate the permeability of the entire medium.
Initially, the determination of the permeability of a sample of a porousmedium consisted of conducting a laboratory flow test on the sample and applying Darcy's law to the resulting data. The test itself consisted of flowing the fluid of interest through the sample at various rates and recording the flow rates and appropriate pressures. As the fluids of interest were originally reservoir crude oils, such tests were difficult, if not impossible, to perform. It was reasoned that because permeability was a unique property ofthe porous medium, any laboratory fluid could serve as the flowing fluid fortest purposes. This was found to be true provided that the fluid did not interact with the solid matrix. Unfortunately, it was observed that the mostreadily available liquids often did react with naturally occurring porousmedia. Furthermore, the use of liquids as test fluids necessitated therecleaning of samples subsequent to testing. As a result, it became accepted practice to use inert gases, such as helium or nitrogen, as test fluids.
Automatic Data Gathering and Supervisory Control System for Production and Operations in the North Pembina Cardium Unit No. 1
Authors: Fryters W.A. , Harrison G.R. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
A supervisory control and data gathering system has been installed in the North Pembina Cardium Unit No. 1, which is operated by Socony Mobil Oil of Canada, Ltd. This system provides, at one central location, read-out ofproduction data, logging of alarm conditions and supervisory control over thirty-five satellite production stations and two central treating stations, handling a total of 462 producing wells. The production data reported include well-test oil, water and gas volumes. The supervisory control system provides remote control of all production wells. This system was designed making use of essentially conventional electrical components. It has been in successful operation for more than eighteen months, effecting reduced maintenance and operating costs while providing increased speed and accuracy in the gathering and processing of production data.

Introduction
In the North Pembina Cardium Unit No.1, a total of 462 wells produce into thirty-five satellite well testing units. The production from the satellite units is moved through a pipeline gathering system and is processed at two treating plants. A map showing the production system field layout is given in Figure 1. The design of this production system has been described in previous publications (1, 2).
The satellite units provide individual well production test measurements of oil, water and gas volumes, and regulate and monitor oil production and testing. The treating plants accept crude-water emulsions from the satelliteunits, dehydrate and ship the oil, and treat and dispose of the water. Gas is separated and sold from the satellite units and the treating plants.
This production system requires that considerable measurement and operating status information be acquired from the satellites and the plants which aredistributed over an area of roughly 70 square miles. In addition, certaincontrol functions must be effected at these locations. For the purpose of both gathering the information and effecting the needed control, a centralized data gathering and supervisory control system is provided. This system has been inoperation for 18 months and is highly successful.
Physical Upgrading of Heavy Crude Oils by the Application of Heat
Authors: Henderson J.H. , Weber L. 
Published: March 2010

Summary
Subjecting a heavy crude oil to mild thermal cracking conditions effects apermanent and significant reduction in its viscosity and specific gravity. Although all crudes are susceptible to cracking, the temperatures and timesrequired usually exceed those required to crack heavy crudes such as thosefound in the Athabasca tar sands. At temperatures below 1000°F, it has already been established that cracking of both pure hydrocarbons and petroleum can bedescribed by first-order kinetic equations. To use this fact, a reference mustbe established by which the amount of upgrading or conversion of crudeconstituents can be estimated. This was done by subjecting both the original crude and the ‘heat-treated’ oil to distillation under identical conditions.The residuum from the distillation of the treated oil was compared to that from the original crude to establish the ‘degree of upgrading.’
From such laboratory tests on a variety of crude oils, it has been possible to estimate the time-temperature history necessary to produce specific degrees of viscosity reduction for each. As a result, it is possible to estimate thefeasibility of utilizing heat in the reservoir to facilitate the production of heavy oil, or of using heat to facilitate the surface handling of oil alreadyproduced.
The permanent upgrading in physical properties occurs so slowly at 500°F that the use of temperatures below this level, as currently practiced with heated pipelines, will effect only a temporary improvement in oil fluidity. Attemperatures in excess of 700°F, coking may present serious operating problems unless residence times are kept very short.

Introduction
Crude oils of low API gravity and crude oils having a high pour point present production problems both in and out of the reservoir. To overcomesurface handling problems, the oil industry currently practices extensive and expensive blending of light oils and LPG with heavy crudes to make them easily handled in pipelines and storage facilities. An alternative remedial technique involves thermal cracking. Thermal cracking, with its attendant lowering ofpour point and viscosity, was used in Russia many years ago to facilitate the pumping of heavy crudes (1). Egloff and Morrell (2) proposed, in 1926, toseverely crack a high-pour-point oil at the wellhead to eliminate the need for pipeline heaters and diluents.
Heat Transfer During Hot Fluid Injection Into an Oil Reservoir
Authors: Spillette Arthur G. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
The engineering evaluation of thermal recovery processes depends on the ability to predict their behaviour in the field. Such a prediction, whetherbased on physical or mathematical models, requires an accurate accounting of the thermal energy utilized by the process. This paper presents a criticalreview of the important contributions to the literature concerning heattransfer during hot fluid injection into an oil reservoir. The heat transfer mechanisms, the resulting energy balance equation and the restrictive assumptions necessary to obtain analytical solutions of the energy balanceequation are discussed. These solutions yield information relative to the thermal efficiency of the process and the temperature distributions within the reservoir and the surrounding impermeable media. However, to date, the published techniques have been limited to injection into a linear or radial homogeneous sand with constant physical properties and have not considered multidimensional heat transfer completely. We have applied a recently published numerical technique to the solution of the energy balance equation in order to remove these limitations. The accuracy of the numerical method for the case of one-dimensional fluid flow is demonstrated in the paper by comparing the calculated thermal efficiency for hot water injection into a water sand to the corresponding analytical solution. A comparison with published experimenta lresults demonstrates the utility of the method and confirms our understanding and analysis of the heat transfer mechanisms.

Introduction
Predictions of the field behaviour of thermal recovery processes require anaccurate accounting of the energy that is injected into (or generated within)the reservoir. Numerous heat transfer models of the basic thermal processeshave been formulated and solved analytically (c.f. ref. 6, 7, 8, 14, 16, 19).Although limited in scope because of necessary restrictive assumptions, these solutions have proved useful in the development of interpretative mathematical models of the processes (12, 20, 21). For heat transfer during the forward underground combustion process, numerical (3, 4) as well as analytical solutions have been obtained.
The following sections discuss the heat transfer mechanisms that take placeduring the injection of hot fluid into an oil reservoir, the energy balance equation and the assumptions necessary to obtain analytical solutions of the energy balance equation. All of the analytical solutions that have appeared inthe literature are limited to a consideration of one-dimensional incompressible fluid flow in a homogeneous sand with constant physical properties. This paper presents a numerical solution of the energy balance that is not hampered bysuch assumptions, and compares it with published experimental results.
Improving Waterflood Recovery of Viscous Crude Oils by Chemical Control
Authors: Scott G.R. , Collins H.N. , Flock D.L. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
A model study was carried out to determine the influence of rate, viscosity, ratio and interfacial tension on the waterflood recovery efficiency of viscouscrude oil from sands native to the Lloydminster area. Displacement tests on along sand pack showed that scaling and viscous fingering were important factorswhen comparing test recoveries. Above a certain critical displacement rate, dependent upon the viscosity ratio, breakthrough recoveries decreased withincreasing rate.
Laboratory studies of brine – crude oil interfacial tension were made on anumber of acid and alkaline solutions to determine their suitability forwaterflooding. As a result of these studies, displacement tests were run usingweak sodium hydroxide solutions to displace natural crude oil from sand packs.The tests indicated that sodium hydroxide may be added to injected brine toincrease oil recovery above that obtained by natural brine flooding.

Part A

Model Tests of Viscous Crude Recovery Using Native Brine

Introduction
The waterflooding of high-viscosity oil reservoirs has been looked uponskeptically in the past because of expected low recoveries. This may explainthe dearth of fundamental studies of the influence of viscosity ratio onwaterflood recoveries at ratios greater than 100 to 1. Viscosity ratio, as usedherein, is the ratio of the viscosity of the displaced to the displacing fluid.
A purpose of this work was to examine the influence of viscosity ratio onrecovery by waterflooding. Preliminary measurement of dead Lloydminster crudeviscosities at reservoir temperature indicated that viscosity ratios of up to 1,500 to 1 would be within the range of interest.
The scaling of a model to a reservoir requires attention to the propersimulation of the relative roles of capillary and viscous forces. Thefundamental work of Rapoport and Leas (24) and later Kyte and Rapoport (19) have detailed the theoretical and experimental basis for conducting laboratorydisplacement tests at a rate sufficient to minimize misleading capillaryeffects. Such phenomena are not usually considered to be significant in thereservoir because of the much greater length of the system.
Pressure Maintenance by Waterflooding North Virden Scallion Field, Manitoba
Authors: Park R.A. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
The North Virden Scallion field is located on the northeast flank of the Williston Basin and produces from the Virden and Scallion members of the Lodgepole formation of Mississippian age. The reservoir was highlyundersaturated initially. The sources of energy for primary production werecombinations of oil expansion, partial edgewater drive and limited bottom-waterdrive. Laboratory flooding tests and engineering calculations indicated thatwaterflooding could more than double the anticipated primary recovery andsignificantly increase the rapidly declining production rates. It was estimatedthat the ultimate primary recovery of 25,000,000 barrels could be increased to 55,000,000 barrels.
After five years of planning and negotiating, a portion of the field wasunitized and a nine-spot waterflood was installed. Water injection began in December, 1962. Results to date have been encouraging. Production has increasedfrom a pre-flood rate of 2,900 BOPD to 4,750 BOPD. Additional oil recovery dueto waterflooding is estimated to be more than 500,000 barrels to year-end 1964.To assist in predicting and controlling the advance of the flood fronts, injection profiles have been run on the injection wells and a digital computermodel to simulate the project is currently being constructed.

Introduction
The North Virden Scallion field is located in southwest Manitoba, 30 mileseast of the Saskatchewan border and due north of the town of Virden. Thisplaces the field approximately midway between Regina and Winnipeg. Productionis obtained from the Virden and Scallion members of the Lodgepole formation of Mississippian age at a depth of 2,000 feet.
The field was discovered in December, 1953, by The California Standard Company with the drilling of Calstan Scallion 3-11-11-26 W.P.M. Developmentfollowed rapidly, and by 1961 more than 300 wells had been drilled, of which274 were capable of production. All wells were drilled on 40-acre spacing andplaced on pump soon after completion.
In early 1957, the field's production rate and pressure were decliningrapidly and the need for pressure maintenance had become obvious. Engineeringand laboratory studies conducted that year showed that waterflooding was theonly economical method of secondary recovery.
Methods of Sludge Control During Acid Stimulation Treatments
Authors: Crowe C.W. , Hendrickson A.R. , Dobberthien R.F. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
The formation of asphaltic sludge during acid stimulation has been a seriousproblem in many areas for several years. Such sludges have had adverse effectson the results of treatments in several Canadian reservoirs. Recent studieshave shown that sludge may also affect results in many areas where its effectshave not yet been recognized. These studies indicate that:Sludge is a precipitate of colloidal materials present in crude oils.The precipitates occur due to changes in the environmental conditions ofthe crude by the addition of materials such as acid.Once formed, sludge is insoluble in most treating chemicals.Sludge can be prevented or controlled by the use of stabilizing agents intreating fluid or by the use of certain solvents as the outer phase ofacid-in-oil emulsions.
The purpose of this paper will be to show how and why sludge is formed andhow it can be prevented or controlled. Simple laboratory tests to determine theprobability of sludge formation prior to treatment are discussed. Actual fieldresults point out some of the problem areas in Canada and show that sludgecontrol during acidizing treatments can increase productivity in theseareas.

Introduction
The formation of sludge by crude oil on contact with acid has beenrecognized as a serious problem in isolated areas for some time. The problemwas apparently first observed in certain California wells. In these wells, itwas noted that following acidizing treatments the wells were very slow to cleanup, and often a great deal of asphalt-like material was returned with thetreating fluids. In some cases, complete or partial plugging of the wellresulted from the treatment. A study of this problem revealed that the crudeoils produced from these wells actually formed solid precipitates upon contactwith acid. An analysis of these sludge-like precipitates showed them to be madeup mainly of asphaltenes, resins, paraffin waxes and otherhigh-molecular-weight hydrocarbons. These materials were apparentlyprecipitated from the crude by the reduction in pH as a result of acidcontact.
Applications of the Continuous Dipmeter in Western Canada
Authors: Goetz J. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
This paper discusses the application of the continuous dip meter, an instrument which not only determines dips and tops of formations but alsoyields basic information on sedimentology and stratigraphy. After a brief description of the apparatus and the methods of plotting its readings, theauthor explains the interpretation of information for various geologic features- reefs, sands and unconformities. All of the examples are from oil wells in Western Canada, and the influence of the continuous dipmeter on petroleum exploration is stressed.

Introduction
It is a basic physical fact that oil tends to migrate to a position abovewater, and that gas tends to migrate above both oil and water. It seems, therefore, that nothing is more fundamental in oil exploration than determining which way is up. Essentially, this is the purpose of the continuous dipmeter. However, interspersed with the basic information as to which way is up is awealth of other information related to deposition. So the dipmeter becomes, inaddition, a basic tool for studies of sedimentology and stratigraphy.
The down hole equipment of the continuous dipmeter, illustrated in Figure1, features three identical sets of electrodes mounted on spring-actuated wall-contact arms. The arms are spaced 120 degrees from each other. The electrodes lie in a common plane perpendicular to the axis of the tool. As this system of electrodes passes a bed boundary, similar resistivity signals fromeach electrode are sent to the surface and recorded on film. If an anomaly onthe curves is caused by a bedding plane crossing the borehole at other than a 90-degree angle, the anomalies on the individual curves occur at slightly different depths. Figure 2 illustrates the behaviour of the three curvesat a steeply dipping bedding plane.
The relative displacements of the three curves, in inches of borehole, arecombined with hole caliper and hole deviation data to compute the amount and direction of formation dip. This process is performed for many correlatable anomalies on the three resistivity curves.