bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Hierarchies, Markets, and Networks: A Preliminary Comparison
Authors: Thompson Grahame F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter sets out the traditional analysis of network as a different organisational arrangement to either hierarchy or market. The contrast is between hierarchies, markets, and networks as first coordinating devices and then as governance mechanisms. In the first instance, these are set up as ‘rivalrously complementary’ ideal types of social organisation to demarcate the different claims they make on how the organisation of the social is to be understood. The chapter lays out the basic claims made for networks in particular, as to how they are different from hierarchical and market forms of organisation. In other words, the chapter tries to systematise what might be the logic of networks and the legitimate limits to their operation. For hierarchical forms of organisation, the key features for governance are rule-bounded bureaucracy, authority, administration, and superordination and subordination. For market forms, the key features are price, self-interest, competition, and formal contracts.
A Life of H.L.A. Hart
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book recounts the life of H. L. A. Hart, the pre-eminent legal philosopher of the 20th century, and sheds light on the genesis of Hart's ideas and the scale of his contribution to legal and political philosophy. Following Hart's life from modest origins as the son of Jewish tailor parents in Yorkshire to worldwide fame as the most influential English-speaking legal theorist of the post-War era, the book traces his successive metamorphoses; from Yorkshire schoolboy to Oxford scholar, from government intelligence officer to Professor of Jurisprudence, and from awkward bachelor to family figurehead. In the tradition of Ray Monk's biography of Wittgenstein, the book paints an absorbing picture of intellectual and psychological development, of a mind struggling to cope with intellectual self-doubt, uncertain sexuality, a difficult marriage, and an anti-semitic society. This raises fascinating questions about the nature of intellectual creativity. In depicting the evolution of Hart's life and mind, the book provides a vivid recreation of both the intellectual and social climate of Oxford in the post-War era, and develops an intellectual history of trends in 20th century legal, social, philosophical, and political thought.
Introduction: An Outsider on the Inside
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This introductory chapter discusses the life and achievements of H. L. A. Hart. From his unremarkable origins as the third child of moderately well-to-do Jewish tailor parents in Yorkshire, Hart became widely regarded as having — almost single-handedly — effected a revolution in the prevailing understanding of law as a social institution. He was credited with having more or less reinvented the philosophy of law, reviving the English positivist and utilitarian tradition, and combining it with the insights of modern linguistic philosophy. He had also had a marked influence on the social policy debates of the 1960s. Hart's writings on abortion, on the legalization of homosexuality and prostitution, and on capital punishment had a huge impact on informed opinion.
An Oxford Scholar
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter details H. L. A. Hart's experiences as an Oxford scholar. Herbert Hart arrived at New College to take up his scholarship to read for the Literae Humaniores degree — a mixture of Greek, Latin, ancient history, and philosophy — in October 1926. Herbert was in many ways well-equipped for his entry into the social and educational hierarchy of Oxford. Though reserved in manner, he was vigorous in discussion. His extraordinary erudition and his familiarity with some of the most beautiful architectural sights of Europe gave him a conversational range and, at least on the surface, a social confidence unusual in someone of his age and background. Both the aesthetic and the intellectual environments which awaited him at New College were to shape his life in vivid and decisive ways.
Trade and Transport
Authors: Adams Colin 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the role of transport in trade. Beginning with the Eastern Desert, using the evidence of archives, it considers the nature and status of transporters, and the nature of their involvement in the supply of Berenike and Myos Hormos, the ports of the Red Sea. It considers the role of transport in the trade of luxuries with India and the East, and argues for a dynamic and complex economy. In the Western Desert, communication with the Nile Valley along established routes was of considerable importance, both for supply and for trade. Caravans of camels, some of considerable size, traversed these routes. The evidence of customs receipts is deployed to analyse patterns of trade and consumption in the Fayum. Finally, the supply of food and other commodities to the cities of Egypt is considered.
Conclusion
Authors: Adams Colin 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter draws on material from the whole book together to assess the role of transport in the economy of Egypt. It draws conclusions about how transport in Egypt was affected by topography, and how this promoted the dominance of pack animals. It shows how the Roman state controlled and used a central resource of the province, essentially the meeting of the public and private spheres. It argues for a far more positive attitude towards stance on the role of transport in the Roman economy and that economic enterprise was not hindered by transport costs.
Regicide, Pamphlets, and Political Language: The Case of Elizabeth Poole
Authors: Wiseman Susan 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter asks what happened to the political and spiritual languages of women in the sects at the regicide, through an exploration of the published texts of Elizabeth Poole. The chapter continues the discussion of the political implications of printed texts emerging from the sectarian struggles of the 1640s, tracing the political languages and positions of sectaries responding to the regicide. In examining Elizabeth Poole's place in the controversies, this chapter addresses the complexity of women's relationship to the figural languages and print debate which emerged in response to that event. In this story of Poole, prominence is given to the radical publishers Giles and Elizabeth Calvert, the Baptist minister John Pendarves and his wife Thomasine, her minister William Kiffin and his old associate, John Lilburne. The chapter asks the twin questions of who bound Poole to politics, and what were the implications of her spoken, written, and published interventions.
Poetry and Politics: Anne Bradstreet and Lucy Hutchinson
Authors: Wiseman Susan 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines women's place in the mid-seventeenth century understanding of politics, what might be called the political imaginary, from distinct, even opposite, vantage points. It pursues the question of the way women's poetry imagines politics. Discussing the poetry of Anne Bradstreet and Lucy Hutchinson, this chapter investigates the political and poetic projects of these far from royalist poets during the upheavals of the 1650s and 1660s. Bradstreet's The Tenth Muse gives a disciplined typological poetic history, starting with elements and humours, and building up to an analysis of national histories that uses fifth monarchist ideas. Fifth monarchist ideas were long-lived, widespread, and part of controversies over church discipline and the future of the republic. Hutchinson is relatively unusual because of her deep and rigorous engagement with the materials of elite masculine culture. Most of her extensive writings remained in manuscript throughout her life.
Legitimizing Conspiracy: Anne Halkett, Rachel Russell, Aphra Behn
Authors: Wiseman Susan 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter investigates the discursive importance of gender in the politicised writing of the 1670s and 1680s and traces relationships among the apparently highly distinct politicised prose genres of memoirs, letters, and scandalous history. It analyses the claims to virtue made in the memoir of Lady Anne Halkett and the letters of Rachel Russell, and ends with a discussion of Aphra Behn's Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and his Sister as a response to the politicised rhetoric of authenticity. Halkett wrote two kinds of texts in which she is obliquely and fairly directly critical of some aspects of the very monarchy on which her significance as a political actor depended. It is not simply that letters and memoirs by women as well as men participate in the battle to possess political ‘truth,’ but that an acknowledgement of this allows us to begin to qualify and reinterpret the political and porno-political genres and vocabularies of the Restoration.
Naturalizing Jurisprudence
Authors: Leiter Brian 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The author is widely recognized as the leading philosophical interpreter of the jurisprudence of American Legal Realism, as well as the most influential proponent of the relevance of the naturalistic turn in philosophy to the problems of legal philosophy. This volume collects newly revised versions of ten of his best-known essays, which set out his reinterpretation of the Legal Realists as prescient philosophical naturalists; critically engage with jurisprudential responses to Legal Realism, from legal positivism to Critical Legal Studies; connect the Realist program to the methodology debate in contemporary jurisprudence; and explore the general implications of a naturalistic world view for problems about the objectivity of law and morality. He has supplied a lengthy new introductory essay, as well as postscripts to several of the essays, in which he responds to challenges to his interpretive and philosophical claims by academic lawyers and philosophers.
Is There an “American” Jurisprudence?
Authors: LEITER BRIAN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter shifts the focus from the philosophical response to Realism to that within academic law. It uses Neil Duxbury's interesting, if sometimes quite misleading, book Patterns of American Jurisprudence to explore the nature of what is often called legal formalism (which the Realists rejected), the Critical Legal Studies misunderstanding of Realism, the relationship between economic analysis of law and Realism, and the nature of jurisprudential inquiry itself.
1 General Remarks – The Creation and Jurisdiction of the ad hoc Tribunals
Authors: Mettraux Guénaél 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
On February 22, 1993, the United Nations (UN) Security Council set up an international criminal tribunal pursuant to Chapter VII of the UN Charter. This tribunal was given the authority to prosecute and judge serious violations of international humanitarian law committed on the territory of the former Yugoslavia since 1991, including war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity. On November 8, 1994, the Security Council created another international tribunal for the purpose of prosecuting persons responsible for genocide and other serious violations of humanitarian law in Rwanda in 1994. Ratione personae, the jurisdiction of both ad hoc tribunals, is limited to natural persons and excludes any official privileges or state immunities that such persons might otherwise have enjoyed before domestic courts.
9 War Crimes in Internal Armed Conflicts
Authors: Mettraux Guénaél 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the question of whether a war crime can be committed in the context of an internal armed conflict. Although an affirmative answer to this question may appear to be self-evident today, from the point of view of customary international law, the response was not such a straightforward one when the question was first raised before the ad hoc tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. The statute of the Yugoslav tribunal did not explicitly provide for, nor did it exclude, the criminalisation of serious violations of the laws or customs of war if they were committed within the context of an internal armed conflict. This chapter discusses serious violations of common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions as well as serious violations of Additional Protocol II and the statutes of the ad hoc tribunals for Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia.
17 General Remarks on Participation
Authors: Mettraux Guénaél 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The distribution of criminal responsibility takes different forms in different domestic legal systems and the scope and modes of criminal liability will be drawn more or less broadly in each one of those legal environments. Under the statutes of the ad hoc tribunals for Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia, one single statutory provision (Article 7 in the case of the latter and Article 6 of the former) regulates those forms of participation for which individual criminal responsibility may be engaged under the statute. This article, which is identical in both statutes, must be read into each and every one of the subject-matter articles of the statute so that any of the crimes listed in the statute may, in principle, be committed in any of the forms provided for in Article 7 or Article 6. Paragraph 1 contains a number of what may be called ‘traditional’ forms of criminal participation known under different nomenclature to most domestic systems: planning, instigating, ordering, committing, or otherwise aiding and abetting.
20 Article 7(1) of the ICTY Statute and Article 6(1) of the ICTR Statute: ‘Direct’ Participation
Authors: Mettraux Guénaél 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses ‘direct participation’ in international crimes pursuant to Articles 7(1) and 6(1) of the statutes of the ad hoc tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and of Rwanda, respectively. Planning envisions one or more persons formulating a method of design or action, procedure, or arrangement for the accomplishment of a particular crime. Someone who instigates another to commit a crime listed in the statute may be held responsible for his acts, if his actions are shown to have been causal to the actual commission of the crime. Ordering entails a person in a position of authority using that position to convince another to commit an offence. The chapter also explains aiding and abetting a crime, three particular forms of joint criminal enterprise which the appeals chamber has identified as being part of customary international law, and attempt to commit genocide.
21 Article 7(3) of the ICTY Statute and Article 6(3) of the ICTR Statute: Command or Superior Responsibility
Authors: Mettraux Guénaél 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Command responsibility, pursuant to Articles 7(3) and 6(3) of the statutes of the ad hoc tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda, respectively, is responsibility for the commander’s own acts or omissions in failing to prevent or punish the crimes of his subordinates whom he knew or had reason to know were about to commit serious crimes or had already done so. Customary international law provides that a superior or commander may be held criminally responsible for the acts of others if the following three conditions are met: the existence of a superior-subordinate relationship between the commander or superior and the alleged principal offenders; the superior knew or had reason to know that the subordinate was about to commit such acts or had done so; and the superior failed to take the necessary and reasonable measures to prevent such acts or to punish the perpetrators thereof.
27 Applicable Law and Purposes of Sentencing
Authors: Mettraux Guénaél 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
It would be hard to identify crimes more difficult to sentence than those provided for in the statutes of the ad hoc tribunals for Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia. The political significance of phrases such as genocide or crimes against humanity, the greatness of the harm which the judges of both tribunals are generally expected to punish, the immense suffering of the many victims involved, and the public expectation that sentences will match the abhorrence of the crimes, all combine to place a heavy burden on the shoulders of judges who are to decide upon a sentence appropriate to the crimes of the accused they must sentence. The difficulty of their task is made no easier by the fact that neither the statutes of the tribunals, nor applicable precedents, offer much guidance in respect of sentencing international crimes. As far as penalties go, the statutes of the tribunals are limited to a certain degree.
31 Concluding Remarks
Authors: Mettraux Guénaél 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The judicial activity of the ad hoc tribunals created for Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia has been more than the occasion for developing international law and punishing the guilty. The two tribunals are not in the business of writing history; they are writing criminal law judgments. However, their jurisprudence is full of those little memoranda which record the crimes of particular individuals, the suffering of their victims, and the context in which such events occurred. As they do so, the tribunals contribute to removing the obstacle to belief that the sheer horror of some of those crimes might raise and they leave for future generations some record of those events free of the burden of collective guilt. At the very least, the prosecution and punishment of crimes committed in the former Yugoslavia and in Rwanda made us realise that law and justice play a far more essential part in the life of the people than had been previously thought.
Imaginary Authority in Rousseau’s Emile
Authors: Bell Michael 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter provides an exposition of Rousseau's Emile in relation to the question of pedagogy's intrinsic blindness to the limits of its own authority. In its successive drafts, Rousseau's treatise was increasingly novelised and is commonly referred to as a novel. That Rousseau should have turned to novelistic methods reflects the important affinity between the educational process and the novel form and he gives many principled suggestions which were to be taken up in the later tradition of the Bildungsroman, including his central principle of delay, his utopianism, and his historical contextualising. But Emile is not itself a novel, and indeed remains blind to what might be at stake in the slippage of categories between educational treatise and fiction. This slippage denotes Rousseau's significant blindness to the question of authority: he cannot recognise how imaginary is his own exercise of authority in the text.
The Politics of Fantasy: Bacchylides on Alexander of Macedon (fr. 20B)
Authors: FEARN DAVID 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter explores how Bacchylides' engagement with his subject opens up rival receptions of Alexander, in a poem that precariously balances praise of the future monarch against drunken visions of power and wealth; this risks sounding rather more than paraenetic, even potentially critical of the nature of monarchy. It shows how Bacchylides uses an overarching sympotic framework to explore problems pertaining to boundaries, definitions, illusion, and praise itself in relation to Alexander, at a time when political and cultural allegiance, and Greekness itself, is up for grabs, but is becoming a very serious issue in view of Persian threats from the East. The complexity of the poem's sympotic rhetoric cannot be divorced from these much broader themes.
Witnessing quantum entanglement
Authors: Vedral Vlatko 
Published: January 2010

AbstractQuantum entanglement is a key resource in quantum information. Teleportation, dense coding, and many other quantum protocols rely on the existence of entanglement, and would not be possible with just classical correlations. Furthermore, using entanglement between qubits that support computation, quantum computers can solve problems faster than classical computers. Bell's inequalities can sometimes help in discriminating between entangled and separable states. However, these inequalities are not always reliable — this is true in the sense that they may fail to detect genuinely entangled states. This question is addressed in the present chapter by focusing on an entanglement witness, a Hermitian operator winch helps us to decide whether a state is entangled or not. The basic idea is that the expectation value of the witness will be different for separable and entangled states. This chapter discusses entanglement witnesses, the Jamiolkowski isomorphism, and the Peres Horodecki criterion. More examples of entanglement witnesses are given.
Quantum entanglement in practice
Authors: Vedral Vlatko 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThis chapter explains how entanglement witnesses can be measured in practice. The main idea behind the Mach–Zehnder interferometer experiment described earlier is to test for and even measure quantum entanglement. The key idea is discussed along with its exact application. Partial transposition is not a physical operation because it is a positive map rather than a CP-map. Therefore, it cannot be implemented directly within the quantum formalism. However, an entanglement witness is the average of some Hermitian operator, and this average is a physically measurable quantity. Thus, it is possible to measure the effects of the partial transposition in some indirect way. This chapter discusses the implementation of the Peres Horodecki criterion using an interferometer. The important message is that a simple apparatus that measures quantum superpositions, such as a Mach–Zehnder interferometer, can also be used for much more complicated measurements.
Introduction
Authors: Parker Robert 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book is a kind of long commentary on the religious themes in Aristophanes and Theophrastus and the rest in ancient Athens. It is about the pervasiveness and the taken-for-grantedness of religion in Attic life. Although the book features the religious life of just one Greek city, it aspires to extend the scope of curiosity about Greek religion, not to restrict it. In anthropology, it is the precise, detailed and varied information about a particular community to be found in monographs that allows imaginative engagement with human behaviour in society. Rich and varied (and even in some measure precise and detailed) information is available about the religious life of Athens as of no other Greek city; indeed there may be no other polytheistic city in the ancient world the religious life of which is illuminated from so many different angles. This book looks at Athens' religious activities including festivals, cults, worship of gods, magic, and rituals.
4 International Religion
Authors: Parker Robert 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Not even at the level of practice, still less of the imagination, was religion in ancient Athens restricted within the confines of Attica. This international dimension of Athenian religion has four overlapping aspects. The first is the participation of Athens at the festivals held at the four great Panhellenic sanctuaries. The second international aspect was Athens' membership of Amphictyonies, which are a survival of a religious and political organisation that predates the city in the form in which it is known. At the Panhellenic games and at amphictyonic festivals, the Athenians participated along with other states. But there were also certain religious activities that they undertook at Delphi either alone or in association only with the Delphians. This is the third international dimension of Athenian religion. The final international dimension involves individuals who made offerings, attended festivals, and sought healing at foreign sanctuaries; they were initiated too in Mysteries.