bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ising model spontaneous magnetization and form factors
Authors: McCoy Barry M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter develops and uses the theory of Wiener–Hopf sum equations to derive Szegö's theorem. This theorem is used to compute the spontaneous magnetization of the Ising model. The Wiener–Hopf methods are then used to compute the form factor expansion on the correlation functions and this expansion is used to derive the behaviour of the two-point function at large separations. These expansions give a microscopic description of the critical point and provide the basis of the scaling phenomenology presented in Chapter 4. It is explained how to use symbolic computer computations to discover Fuchsian differential equations for the diagonal correlations.
The eight-vertex and XYZ model
Authors: McCoy Barry M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter derives the matrix TQ functional equation for the eight-vertex model. The Bethe's equation for the eigenvalues of Q is derived from the matrix TQ equation. A numerical study is made of the eigenvalues of Q, and the TQ equation is used to compute the free energy of the eight-vertex model. Results on the excitations, order parameters and correlation functions of the six- and eight-vertex models and the related XYZ spin chain are presented.
Introduction
Authors: Ruger Jennifer Prah 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThe introduction summarizes the theoretical foundations of the health capability paradigm and distinguishes it from prevailing frameworks, which represent clear deficiencies in thinking and action about health and health care. The theory is rooted in a particular view of the good life —— Aristotelian human flourishing —— that values health intrinsically. An overview presents other components of the health capability paradigm, including incompletely theorized agreements, shortfall inequality, the role of internalized public moral norms in collective choice, and a joint scientific and deliberative approach, with medical necessity and medical appropriateness informing decision-making in a shared health governance framework. Health agency —— the ability to engage with and navigate one's environment and the health care system to meet health needs —— is an integral part of the health capability paradigm.
1 Approaches to Medical and Public Health Ethics
Authors: Ruger Jennifer Prah 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter critically reviews the existing frameworks in health ethics, policy and law and frames the author's ideas as a solution to a perplexing problem: the inability of current frameworks to provide adequate health promotion and protection and to solve health-related problems in the real world. These approaches include welfare economics and utilitarianism, communitarianism and liberal communitarianism, egalitarianism (encompassing applications of Rawls's Theory of Justice, Fair Equality of Opportunity and other elements), libertarianism and market based approaches (where the government's role is to protect individual rights, particularly property rights, but not to guarantee a right to health) and democratic procedures. It discusses the deficiencies associated with using these approaches in a theory of health and social justice, drawing on examples such as the Oregon Medicaid experiment. The chapter emphasizes the need for a new integrative approach —— the health capability paradigm —— that establishes health capability and a right to health, guides collective choice and integrates consequentialist and proceduralist aims.
2 Health and Human Flourishing
Authors: Ruger Jennifer Prah 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter lays the philosophical foundation for the book's theoretical framework, drawing on moral and political philosophy to argue that Aristotle's theory and Sen's capability approach provide the philosophical basis for the special moral importance of health capabilities as a central focal variable for assessing equality and efficiency in health policy. Both take a universal view of humans' capability to flourish as an end of moral and political philosophy and provide an analytical framework for addressing questions of justice and human rights in a way other philosophical schools do not. The capability approach considers human heterogeneity when assessing equality, and uses the capability to achieve valuable functionings as the main variable for evaluation. It also respects the central importance of freedom and reason in enabling humans to make choices. This is a departure from more Rawlsian resource‐based evaluation frameworks that measure equality according to the attainment of tangible rewards such as wealth, income and health care. This chapter highlights the important contributions of these philosophical theories to the author's own thinking, while at the same time recognizes their limitations and demonstrates how the health capability paradigm can address such drawbacks in the specific context of the development, organization, and delivery of health systems and policy.
4 Justice, Capability, and Health Policy
Authors: Ruger Jennifer Prah 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter provides a workable operationalization of health capabilities, and seeks a shared standard of health based on the demands of social justice and the right to health in terms of health equity. The health capability paradigm offers a trans‐positional conception of health that reflects the ‘view from everywhere’. This chapter delineates the relationship between health capabilities, health functionings, health needs and health agency, introducing shortfall in equality —— deviations of individuals or groups from a standard —— as a means for judging public policies affecting health. It emphasizes that although many factors influence health, health policy is one of the most important determinants; thus there is need for efficiency in health policy, and for joint clinical and economic solutions to achieve optimal levels of health and reduce inequalities in individuals' capabilities to be healthy. It argues for a differential allocation of resources to mitigate shortfall inequality. It critically analyzes the ethics of the social determinants of health and surveys and responds to criticisms of the capability approach.
5 Grounding the Right to Health
Authors: Ruger Jennifer Prah 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter offers a philosophical justification for the elusive ‘right to health’. It provides a framework for health reform efforts and covers the degree to which the right to health is ‘justiciable’ and enforceable as prescribed in international law. The health capability paradigm argues for the right to health as a meaningful and operational right, and recognizes that realizing it requires a commitment to, and internalization of, public moral norms on the part of self and society, in addition to legal instruments for enforcement. This chapter compares positive and negative rights in the Abigail Alliance v. Eschenbach case study of the constitutional right to medical self‐defence. The chapter concludes that a right to health cannot be framed in an absolute libertarian framework of wholly individualistic rights against the state, but requires the more positive conceptualization of freedom as human flourishing.
8 Allocating Resources: A Joint Scientific and Deliberative Approach
Authors: Ruger Jennifer Prah 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter addresses the question of priority setting for competing needs when resources are scarce. It begins with the broader societal perspective, because fair decisions must balance spending on health with spending elsewhere. Next, it addresses competing claims within the health budget itself. The health capability paradigm involves reasoned consensus on allocating resources, based on scientific and deliberative processes. The paradigm emphasizes a collaborative and participatory approach to decision‐making that reinforces individual health agency, while at the same time evaluating outcomes in terms of their substantive merit. Medical appropriateness and clinical practice guidelines allow creation of evidence‐based, standardized health policy that provides optimal care and a universal benefits package of goods and services that support central health capabilities. The chapter also discusses efficiency concerns, resource allocation and age, setting limits, rationing, and how to address hard cases, such as medical futility and those invoked by the ‘bottomless pit’ objection or differing conceptions of ‘reasonable accommodation’. A framework for combining technical and ethical rationality for resource allocation is developed.
9 Political and Moral Legitimacy: A Normative Theory of Health Policy Decision‐Making
Authors: Ruger Jennifer Prah 
Published: February 2010

AbstractMany countries, including the United States, lack consensus about the core ethical principles concerning health and health care, beyond a market‐based approach to resource allocation. This chapter offers a normative theory for analyzing health policy decisions and recognizes that norms need fundamental restructuring to address existing health problems. Substantive normative principles (moral legitimacy) should be introduced into deliberative democratic process (political legitimacy) for a comprehensive, integrative theory of health and social justice. The chapter reviews the role of moral values in motivating citizens' support for public policies, and explores differences between social agreement frameworks such as incompletely theorized agreements (ITAs) and overlapping consensus and more traditional political bargaining models. ITA analysis of the American Clinton health care reform attempts reveals agreement on the mid‐level concept of universal coverage, but disagreement on both high‐ and low‐level principles. The chapter concludes that high‐level principle (e.g. health for all) or low‐level principle (e.g. willingness to pay for other's and future selves' health insurance) agreement, arising from internalization of shared public moral norms, might lead to more stable support for reform.
Probability
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter defines some basic concepts in probability theory. It begins by stating that the probability of occurrence of a particular event, taken from a finite set of possible events, is zero if that event is impossible, is one if that event is certain, and takes a value somewhere in between zero and one if that event is possible but not certain. It considers two different types of probability distribution: discrete and continuous. Variance, linear transformation, independent variables, and binomial distribution are also discussed.
Transport properties in gases
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter describes how a gas can transport momentum, energy, or particles from one place to another. It considers non-equilibrium situations, but still in the steady state, i.e., so that the system parameters are time-independent, but the surroundings will be time-dependent. The phenomena examined are called transport properties and the following are considered: (i) viscosity, which is the transport of momentum; (ii) thermal conductivity, which is the transport of heat; and (iii) diffusion, which is the transport of particles.
Thermodynamic potentials
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The internal energy U of a system is a function of state, which means that a system undergoes the same change in U when we move it from one equilibrium state to another, irrespective of which route we take through parameter space. This makes U a very useful quantity, though not a uniquely useful quantity. In fact, we can make a number of other functions of state, simply by adding to U various other combinations of the functions of state p, V , T, and S in such a way as to give the resulting quantity the dimensions of energy. These new functions of state are called thermodynamic potentials. Most thermodynamic potentials that one could pick are really not very useful but three of them are extremely useful and are given special symbols: H = U + pV, F = U - TS, and G = U + pV - TS. This chapter explores why these three quantities are so useful.
Equipartition of energy
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents the equipartition theorem, a principle that states that the internal energy of a classical system composed of a large number of particles in thermal equilibrium will distribute itself evenly among each of the quadratic degrees of freedom accessible to the particles of the system. The first section motivates and proves this theorem, and then applies it to various physical situations presented in the chapter, demonstrating that it provides a rapid and straightforward method for deriving heat capacities. The chapter then critically examines the assumptions made in the derivation of the equipartition theorem.
Relativistic gases
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter repeats the derivation of the partition function for a gas, and hence of the other thermodynamic properties that can be obtained from it, but this time includes relativistic effects. It shows that this leads to some subtle changes in these properties which have profound consequences. It first reviews the full relativistic dispersion relation for particles with non-zero mass and then derives the partition function for ultrarelativistic particles.
Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac distributions
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the effect that exchange symmetry has on the quantum wave functions of collections of identical particles. This allows the introduction of bosons and fermions, which can be used to describe the Bose-Einstein distribution and Fermi-Dirac distribution, respectively.
Quantum gases and condensates
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Exchange symmetry affects the occupation of allowed states in quantum gases. If the density of the gas is very low, we can ignore this and forget about exchange symmetry; this is what we do for gases at room temperature. But if the density is high, the effects of exchange symmetry become very important and it really starts to matter whether the particles you are considering are fermions or bosons. This chapter considers quantum gases in detail. It considers non-interacting fermion and boson gases, and discusses Bose-Einstein condensation.
Shock waves
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Shock waves occur when a disturbance is propagating through a medium faster than the sound speed of the medium. This chapter considers the nature of shocks in gases and the thermodynamic properties of the gas on either side of such a shock. It defines the Mach number and derives the Rankine-Hugoniot conditions, which allow the study of changes in density and pressure at a shock front.
Bringing Light to the Shadows and Shadows to the Light: Risk, Risk Management, and Risk Communication
Authors: Fischbacher-Smith Denis , Irwin Alan , Fischbacher-Smith Moira 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThe core premise of this chapter is that the manner in which risk-based information is constructed, tested, communicated, and validated is a multidimensional and multi-channel process. The ‘shadows’ presented within risk debates are invariably not controlled by any group, and no single group has the ability to bring the requisite amount of illumination to the debates to ‘prove’ a particular outcome. Thus, there is an indeterminate policy position in which debates range and a ‘solution’ is not made available by science, or where the ‘error cost’ of decisions is considerable. One way of capturing this new understanding of risk and risk communication is by reflecting a little on the last three decades of institutional action, practical experience, and academic investigation of these issues. This chapter makes a modest attempt at this task, starting with some of the ‘classic’ accounts of the 1970s (specifically Rowe's attempt to schematize the processes of risk assessment) and by presenting a tentative list of some of the developments in our awareness of risk, risk management, and risk communication since that time.
Where Do We Go From Here? The Evacuation of City Centres and the Communication of Public Health Risk From Extreme Threats
Authors: Fischbacher-Smith Denis , Fischbacher-Smith Moira , BaMaung David 
Published: February 2010

AbstractSeveral elements of terrorist attacks fall within the remit of public health medicine, including mass casualties requiring treatment, information regarding hazard exposure, maintenance of medical supplies to deal with damaging agents, and the raising of awareness in the event of attack. The use of chemical and biological agents, and radiological/dirty weapons has obvious implications for public health. Even more conventional forms of explosive have considerable public health implications, especially when combined with suicide terrorism, and in some countries they are already seen as a significant public health issue. Whilst debate remains about the nature and scale of the terrorist threat, there has been increased interest in the relationships between these threats and the public health response. Interest also exists around risk communication and the potential for public health practitioners to draw on their health promotion experiences in developing policy. This chapter explores these issues, examining the relationship between the nature of the city as the ‘space’ within which threats occur and the population at risk lives and works, and considering types of terrorist threat and how they are shaped by the city space. It emphasizes the structural elements of the city, showing that as a city's structure and pattern of interactions contributes to the threat of disease and the manner in which disease spreads amongst the population at risk, so too the interaction between the city and those who occupy it will shape the terrorist threat and determine how the threat unfolds. The city also shapes the potential for public health interventions around terrorism as it does around disease.
Radiation in London: Managing Risk Communication in the Litvinenko Affair
Authors: Troop Pat , Dittner Anton 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter discusses risk communication during the incident involving Alexander Litvinenko, who died on 23 November 2006 from a massive dose of Polonium-210 (Po-210). The primary responsibility for managing and communicating the public health risk fell to the Health Protection Agency (HPA). The Agency had been established in 2003 to bring together a range of skills and knowledge in infectious diseases, chemical and radiation hazards, and emergency response, and included specialist centres and a national network of frontline staff. The HPA had emergency plans in place, but not surprisingly did not have a ‘polonium plan’, and fell back onto basic principles in its response.
CJD: Risk Communication in a Healthcare Setting
Authors: Pryer David , Hewitt Patricia 
Published: February 2010

AbstractCreutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is an incurable and ultimately fatal degenerative neurological disease. Sporadic (or ‘classical’) CJD appears across the globe, though fortunately it is very rare. In March 1996, researchers in the UK first reported a variant of the disease, vCJD. Unlike sporadic CJD, younger people were affected, and the research suggested that infection had resulted from exposure to bovine spongiform encephalopathy — BSE, or ‘mad cow disease’ — in cattle. This discovery followed repeated and fervent denials by government that BSE posed any conceivable risk to human health. Not surprisingly, vCJD has created a new theatre of interest in risk communication. This chapter presents a short historical summary to understand why this is so. It then considers the role of the CJD Incidents Panel in helping to manage the consequences of vCJD, and in communicating both to individuals and to wider audiences.
Changes to Food Risk Management and Communication
Authors: Davies Sue 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses changes in food risk management and communication. In the aftermath of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and a series of food poisoning outbreaks, a new UK Food Standards Agency (FSA) was created with a clear remit to put consumers first and to operate openly and transparently. Wide-ranging reform at European level has also seen the separation of risk assessment and communication from the political aspects of risk management, through to the creation of a European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). New principles for analysing and handling food risks have been adopted to guide decisions at a global level, through the United Nation's body, the Codex Alimentarius Commission. Central to these across-the-board changes has been a much greater focus on risk communication. Although there have been differences in approach and level of ambition, at the heart of the new approaches has been far greater emphasis on transparent and inclusive decision making.
Communication About Persistent Environmental Risks: Problems of Knowledge Exchange and Potential of Participative Techniques
Authors: Fuller Sara , Bickerstaff Karen , Khaw Fu-Meng , Curtis Sarah 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter reviews research on the potential for knowledge exchange and participative approaches in making risk communication more effective. It focuses particularly on examples of communication concerning ‘chronic’, persistent risks associated with environments that are known to be contaminated, as well as ‘potential’ sources of environmental contamination, such as industrial facilities, in their normal operation and decommissioning.
Introduction
Authors: Black Jane 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The Introduction explains the concept of absolute power or plenitude of power, as understood in the Middle Ages, when it meant a ruler's capacity to overrule laws and rights. The author describes how the prerogative was adopted by the Visconti and Sforza rulers of Milan. A brief historiographical survey follows, showing how the relationship between the powers of rulers and the rights of subjects has been explored in the work of Ugo Nicolini, Ennio Cortese, Dieter Wyduckel, Jesus Vallejo, and Kenneth Pennington. The sources used in the book are outlined, including legal commentaries and consilia. The author touches on the character and importance of consilia, explaining that they were considered by contemporary lawyers to be even more authoritative than academic commentaries. The other main sources are acts and decrees passed by the rulers of Milan. The Introduction concludes with an outline of the main chapters.
The Early Visconti and the Claim to Absolute Power
Authors: Black Jane 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Chapter Two focuses on the difficulties the Visconti faced in claiming absolute power. Alberico da Rosciate, refused to accept that signori had any such right, but Signorolo degli Omodei supported the Visconti's claim. Azzone, Luchino, and Giovanni Visconti's initial assumption that they had been granted plenitude of power by subject communes was replaced, under their successors, with the belief that such power came with the imperial vicariate. Given that many signori lacked an imperial vicariate or had had it revoked (as with Galeazzo II and Bernabò), jurists appeared unsure about the source of rulers' absolute powers in this period, Baldo degli Ubaldi accepting that most signori had little basis for the claim.