bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
H
ungarian Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Hungarian Christianity traces its origins to the 3rd century when the faith was brought to the land through Pannonia and Dacia by Arian, Orthodox, and Catholic missionaries. The greatest of these missionaries were Cyril and Methodius. Moravian Catholics introduced the Greek Rite and translated the Bible and liturgy into Slavic. The Magyars who invaded the country from the east chose the Latin rather than the Byzantine Rite with the aid of Italian, German, and Bohemian missionaries and under the guidance of their rulers, Geza and his son Stephen I. The latter received from the pope the title of Apostolic King, and he and his son were canonized. Catholicism was fully established as the religion of the Magyars by 1001.
H
us,
J
ohn (c.1371–1415)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
John Hus was born of Czech (Bohemian) parents relatively close to Prague around 1371. In 1400 he was ordained as a priest, and in 1401 he became dean of the philosophy faculty. In 1409, he became rector of the University of Prague. He also held an appointment as preacher at the “Bethlehem Chapel” in Prague, where he preached in the Czech language, a language into which he also wanted the Bible translated.
Hyperdulia
Authors: Haile Getatchew 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Ethiopian Church believes that Mary is, in accordance with the witnesses of the Gospels, the virgin mother of Jesus the Messiah: “before they [Mary and Joseph] lived together, she was found to be with child [Jesus] from the Holy Spirit” (Matt. 1:18). She is described as “virgin in two [ways],” that is, in body and mind or thought. The church emphasizes that her physical virginity was not affected by the birth of Jesus, the Messiah; and the marriage between her and Joseph was never consummated. The tradition, based on
Mashafa Ledata
or “Book of Her Nativity,” the major nonbiblical source on the Blessed Virgin, states that the brothers of Jesus mentioned in the Gospels are the children of Joseph from a previous marriage. As Jesus is perfect man and perfect God, Mary is not only the mother of the man Jesus but also the mother of God Jesus; she is called
waladita amlak
, “Mother of God,” the equivalent of Cyril's
theotokos
.
H
ypostatic
U
nion
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The hypostatic union of Christ is an essential Christological designation; it answers the question relating to the amalgamation of Christ's humanity and deity. The phenomenon of the two natures is known as the “hypostatic union,” as it is derived from the definition of faith in Hebrews 11:1 (“the assurance [subsistence, essence] of
things
hoped for”). The doctrine designates the actual and complete union of the human and divine natures of Christ. At the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451), the church declared the doctrine as describing the amal‐gamation of two genuine natures (
phuseis
) into one person (
hupostasis
). One may consider four requirements of a biblically based conception of the full humanity and deity of Christ, developed by the early Church: (a) he is truly and properly God; (b) he is truly and properly human; (c) the two genuine natures of deity and humanity are united in one person; and (d) each of the two genuine natures is properly distinct in one person. The New Testament assumes that Jesus Christ is one person who is both fully divine and fully human. John 3:13 refers to his descent from heaven as authentication of his deity, and yet he was called “the Son of Man,” which was used to mean the authentication of his humanity. Christ's encounter with the woman of Samaria affirms the hypostatic union. Christ's weariness “from his journey” (John 4:6) confirms he is truly and properly human. Moreover, when the Samaritan woman confessed, “Come, see a man who told me all the things that I
have
done” (John 4:29), it was confirmation of his omniscience. He is called “a descendant of David according to the flesh” (fully human) and “the Son of God” (fully divine) (Rom. 1:3–4). Christological controversies are always characterized by a violation of the four requirements previously stated.
Icons and Iconography
Authors: Jorgenson Cameron H. J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
An icon is an image used for the purposes of religious devotion, typically depicting Christian figures (e.g. Christ, the Virgin Mary, or one or more of the saints and martyrs), or scenes from Scripture and Christian lore. Iconography, the practice of icon making, is steeped in traditions that govern the styles and themes employed by the iconographers who make the images. Icons have been a constant, though disputed, element in Christian worship throughout the history of the church.
Image of
G
od
Authors: Peterson Ryan S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The
imago Dei
, or image of God, has been central to Christian anthropology since the writings of the early fathers. Irenaeus was first to make it central to his overall theology. Not a few theologians have followed this path, and they have tended to agree that the
imago Dei
refers to a similarity that humanity had or has or will have to God.
Imitation of Christ
Authors: Maclean Iain S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Jesus throughout his ministry called men and women to follow him and become his disciples (Mark 1:17f; 2:14; 8:31f; 10:21, 32, 35–36). The call to service required leaving old relationships and professions, and might lead to humiliation, suffering and even death. This imitation was encouraged by the apostle Paul himself (1 Cor. 11:1). The early Church, persecuted during its first 300 years, gathered many examples of those who followed and so imitated Jesus in his trial and death. The imitation was often literal, following the example of the first Christian Martyr, St. Stephen (Acts 7).
I
mmaculate Conception
Authors: Lang David P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The adjective “immaculate” derives from the Latin
macula
, meaning any of the synonyms “stain,” “blot,” “blemish,” “spot,” “flaw,” or “fault” — with the prefix “im” functioning as a negating particle. The Catholic Church teaches that Mary, the mother of Christ, was free from the flaw of original sin from the very first instant of her existence in the womb of her mother. This doctrine must not be confused with the different doctrine of Mary's Perpetual Virginity (before, during, and after the birth of her divine Son), which encompasses the conception of Jesus in his mother's womb rather than the (passive) conception of Mary.
Immortality
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Immortality in its proper sense of deathlessness is an attribute of God and other celestial beings. In the Greek New Testament, the terms used are
athanasia
(deathlessness) and
aphtharasia
(incorruptibility). Human beings are by definition mortal and therefore do not qualify for immortality. However, the term has profound theological implications in the context of the resurrection of Jesus Christ.
Incarnation
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The word “incarnation” comes from the Latin
incarnatio
, being in flesh. The Christian doctrine of the incarnation (God having assumed human flesh in Jesus Christ) is a fundamental and distinctive doctrine of Christianity. It is clearly taught in the Gospel of John, which declares, “the Word (Logos) became flesh [in Jesus Christ] and dwelt among us …” (John 1:14). It was also taught by St. Paul, who wrote, “God [in Jesus Christ] was manifested in the flesh …” (1 Tim. 3:16). Similarly, in Paul's letter to the Colossian Christians he assured them that in Christ dwelt “the fullness of the Godhead bodily” (Col. 2:9). The incarnation of God in Jesus Christ was also evident in Christ's own words when he told Philip, “He who has seen me as seen the Father” (John 14:9). And it is worthy to note that, particularly during the busy Christmas season, when Christians observe Christmas Day, they are underscoring the incarnation.
Inerrancy of the Bible
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A doctrine maintained historically by all branches of the Christian church but today maintained chiefly by evangelical Protestants and by conservative American denominations (the largest being the Lutheran Church‐Missouri Synod and the Southern Baptist Convention, both of which underwent intense internal struggles over the issue). Among American evangelicals are institutions, such as the Fuller Theological Seminary, which have removed biblical inerrancy from their doctrinal stance. On the English ecclesiastical scene, the general spiritual authority of Scripture is stressed, but there is considerable reticence toward the use of the terminology of scriptural inerrancy.
I
nnocent
III
,
P
ope (1160/1161–1216; Pontificate from 1198)
Authors: Beiting Christopher J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The most powerful pope of the Middle Ages, Innocent III was famous for raising the influence and prestige of the papacy to its highest ever level. He was born Lothar of Segni, and his family was from the Lombard and Roman nobility, with extensive contacts in the Roman aristocracy. Educated at a monastery in Rome, he then studied theology in Paris and, as was traditional, law in Bologna. His intellectual ability was such that he could have achieved prominence in either field; instead, he entered papal service and rose rapidly, becoming a cardinal at 30, and pope (by unanimous election) at 38, the youngest in history.
I
renaeus,
S
aint (
d
. 202)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Irenaeus' name is derived from the Greek work
irene
(peace). Even though he is known as one of the more important church fathers, relatively little is known regarding his life. Some historians believe he was born in Proconsular Asia, a Roman province in the western part of Asia Minor, where the seven churches mentioned in the book of Revelation were located. The exact year of his birth is not known. Some sources list his birth between AD 115 and 125, and some think he was born between AD 130 and 142. The exact year of his death is also not known, although some sources indicate he died in 202.
I
sidore of
S
eville (c.560–636)
Authors: O'Loughlin Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Educated in a Latin Christian milieu where there were still clashes between Byzantine forces and the new rulers of Spain, the Visigoths, Isidore of Seville can be regarded as a transition figure between the world of late antique Latin theology and the world of early medieval theology in the new kingdoms of the west. He was educated in Seville under his brother Leander (Seville's bishop from c.580, and a friend of Gregory the Great), succeeding him as bishop c.600. Isidore devoted his episcopate to clerical education (most of his writings serve this end), promoting uniformity of practice in liturgy and canon law (several works promote these themes; he presided over the Second Council of Seville (619) and the Fourth Council of Toledo (633), and became a force in collecting canonical materials into great reference collections), and toward establishing a stable Visigothic kingdom (he forged close links with King Sisebut (r. 612–621) and worked to evolve a model of close support between the monarchy and the church: the legislation of Fourth Toledo setting out the ideal relationship). While today he is not remembered as a major theologian, his work in digesting virtually all the Latin theologians prior to his time allowed him to establish the structures in which their theology was approached in later centuries; and in some areas, such as his approach to the Eucharist as a sacred object, his influence is still felt.
Islam and Christianity
Authors: Cate Patrick O. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractFor 14 centuries followers of Islam and for two millennia followers of Christianity have each claimed that their scripture is God's final written revelation and that salvation comes uniquely through their faith. Both are missionary religions. So inherently there have been 14 centuries of conflicts, theologically, socially, and politically. Muslims have been more resistant to Christianity than any other community of faith and make up the largest religious bloc outside of Christianity (1.5 billion).
I
talian Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christianity took deep root in Italy early in the 1st century although it remained a minority religion until the 4th century. The faith was introduced by Peter and Paul and their fellow believers soon after the resurrection and the earliest adherents of the new religion outside of the Near East and Asia Minor were found in Italy, particularly in Rome. After the 11th century Rome became the capital of Catholicism just as Byzantium (Constantinople) became the capital of Orthodoxy. Rome was the scene of the severest persecutions and the greatest triumphs of the early church. Other cities like Milan, Ravenna, Aquileia, and Florence became cradles of Christian art, music, and architecture. Some of the greatest Christian artists, musicians, and architects have been Italians. Cassiodorus and John Cassian introduced monasticism to the west, Benedict of Nursia drafted the rule that became the standard for all monastic communities, and Ambrose defended the church against the ravages of heresy. After the Napoleonic era the eventual unification of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II in 1870 led to the emergence of the Holy See as a separate state.
J
aki,
S
tanley (1924–2009)
Authors: Watts Thomas D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Stanley L. Jaki O.S.B. was a Benedictine priest and physicist, and a seminal thinker in the philosophy of science, theology, and the intersecting points where these disciplines meet. He was born in Gyôr, Hungary, in 1924. After his undergraduate studies in philosophy, theology, and mathematics, Fr. Jaki completed a Doctorate in Theology in 1950 from the Pontifical Institute in Rome, and then obtained a Doctorate in Physics from Fordham University in 1958. He also did postdoctoral research in philosophy of science at several universities. He lectured at several universities, in the US, Europe, and Australia. He was awarded the prestigious Templeton Prize for his work in furthering science and religion in 1987.
J
ansenism
Authors: Oderberg David S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Jansenism was a heretical sect that sprang up within the Catholic Church during the 17th century. Its adherents were at the centre of the church's bitterest religious quarrels of the period — particularly in France where Jansenism took hold — concerning such matters as grace, free will, predestination, and the proper interpretation of St. Augustine.
J
ehovah's Witnesses
Authors: Lasater Gayle Ann Spiers 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Jehovah's Witnesses are one of the new religious movements that claim to restore primitive Christianity, emerging from the long shadow of the Second Great Awakening in North America, with an active missionary corps engaged in worldwide proselytizing. The movement was founded by Charles Taze Russell, a former Presbyterian influenced by the millennialism of American Adventism. Russell first published
Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence
in 1879. The faith took as its official name the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1896, incorporating in 1956. With authority centralized in New York, the publishing houses print literature in 180 languages and distribute 15,000 tons of publications annually (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1993). Today's most popular bimonthly publication,
The Watchtower
, is distributed in 235 countries. According to the annual
2006 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses
, attendance at the 2005 worldwide Memorial Service was 16,383,333. In 2005, 6,613,829 active “publishers” conducted missionary work resulting in 247,631 new baptisms around the world.
J
esus Movement
Authors: Lindley W. Terry 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Jesus Movement began in late 1967 in the Haight‐Ashbury section of San Francisco, when Ted Wise, a former drug user and born‐again Christian, set up a coffee house named the Living Room. Other such establishments soon sprang up across America, for example Arthur Blessitt's His Place in Los Angeles and Scott Ross's Love Inn in Freeville, New York. These coffee houses often became communes for hippie/counterculture believers, frequently referred to as Jesus People or Jesus Freaks. Other groups of Jesus People included the Jesus People Army in Seattle and the Milwaukee Jesus People, which split into several groups, one of which, Jesus People USA, continues to be active today in Chicago. By the early 1970s, the national news media —
Time
,
Newsweek
,
Life
, CBS News, NBC News, and even
Rolling Stone
magazine — were covering the movement. In 1971 the Jesus Movement was named the religious news event of the year by the Religious News Writers Association. However, by the mid 1970s, the movement was beginning to disappear.
J
ewish
K
abbalah, influences on
C
hristian traditions
Authors: Bush Randall 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

From the 13th to 15th centuries
ce
, a Hebraic form of Neo‐Platonism known as Kabbalah evolved that would significantly alter conventional Platonic and Neo‐Platonic interpretations of the relationship between physical and spiritual dimensions of existence.
J
ohn of the Cross (1542–1591)
Authors: Egan, S.J. Harvey D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
John of the Cross has been called the greatest mystic in the Christian tradition. His extraordinary contemplative experiences, sublime poetry, and mystical theology offer such a sure guide to the life of perfection that his writings have become almost the norm for interpreting the ascent to God. Thus, in 1926, Pope Pius XI proclaimed him a Doctor of the Church.
J
ohn
XXIII
,
P
ope (1881–1963)
Authors: Coulter Michael 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Pope John XXIII, born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli on November 25, 1881, was the 261st Pope of the Roman Catholic Church. He was elected as pope in 1958 and was best known for calling the Second Vatican Council in January 1959, just a few months after becoming pope, to achieve the
aggiornamento
(“updating”) of the Church, though he did not live to see its completion.
J
ones, Bob Sr. (1883–1968)
Authors: Mickle Allen R. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Robert Reynolds Davis Jones or simply Bob Jones (affectionately known as “Dr. Bob” by his friends and students) was born on October 30, 1883, on a farm near Dothan, Alabama. He was the 11th of 12 children in the family of William Alexander (Alex) Jones and Georgia Creel. Alex was a Confederate veteran of the Battle of Chickamauga Creek, Tennessee. Dr. Bob's father was a Methodist and his mother, a Primitive Baptist. Both parents had died by the time he was 17. He was converted at the age of 11 in a rural Methodist Episcopal (South) church, and immersed in a nearby creek.
J
udson,
A
doniram (1788–1850)
Authors: Anderson Jeffrey 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The first American missionary to Burma, Adoniram Judson was born on August 9, 1788 in Malden, Massachusetts. Adoniram demonstrated remarkable abilities even while very young. His mother taught him to read in one week when he was only 3 years old. When he was 10 he learned navigation from a retired sea captain; and he could read classical Greek by the time he was 12.
Justification
Authors: Posset Franz 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The theological doctrine of justification was of central importance for the Lutheran Reformation of the 16th century and is defended in its Reformation shape and special valuation over against the Roman Catholic Church and theology of that time. The doctrine of justification is more than just one part of Christian doctrine. It stands in an essential relation to all truths of faith, which are to be seen as internally related to each other. It is an indispensable criterion which constantly serves to orient all the teaching and practice to Christ.
JustinMartyr,Saint (d.c.165)
Authors: Rhee Helen 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe preeminent 2nd century Christian apologist and martyr Justin Martyr was born in the Roman colony of Flavia Neapolis (Nablus) in Syrian Palestine (1 Apol. 1.1). Justin experienced a philosophical pilgrimage as a Stoic, a Peripatetic, a Pythagorean, and a Platonist. He was then led by an old man to the revealed truth of Christianity, “the only sure and worthy philosophy” (Dial. 3–9). After conversion, he continued to wear philosopher's garb and conducted a Christian school in Rome, championing Christian faith and practice against heretics (e.g. Marcion), Jewish claims, and pagan accusations and violence. He was the first theologian who seriously engaged with Greco‐Roman philosophy and culture in expounding Christian truth. His disciples included Tatian the Syrian who produced his own diatribeapology,Oration to the Greeks, and the Gospel harmony,Diatessaron. According to the reliableActs of Justin, he faced martyrdom with six other Christians under the prefect Junius Rusticus (162–168).
K
epler,
J
ohannes (1571–1630)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
This world‐renowned astronomer was born prematurely to a pauper family on December 27, 1571, in Weil der Stadt, near Stuttgart, Germany. From childhood on, his life was difficult. At the age of 4 he almost died of smallpox, which left him with defective eyesight. He was physically frail and beset with a number of ailments, consisting of skin rashes, boils, chronic putrid wounds on his feet, stomach ailments, gall problems, and a mild form of hemophilia. He had a quarrelsome mother and an illtempered, spiteful father who was a drifter. Johannes could only attend school irregularly. From the ages of 9 to 11 he was totally absent from school, for he had to do menial farm work to help alleviate the family's poverty. His schoolmates disliked him, apparently because of his precocity. In time, his exceptional intelligence stood him in good stead, for at the age of 17 in 1588 he passed the baccalaureate examination at the university in Tübingen, where in 1589 he began studying for the Lutheran ministry.
K
erygmatic Theology
Authors: Lewis B. Scott 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The descriptive term “kerygmatic” comes from the Greek word
kerygma
, meaning to preach or proclaim. The term is frequently used by kerygmatic theologians (e.g. Rudolf Bultmann, Karl Barth) to describe the act of preaching that calls for an existential faith in the meaning of Jesus. The term
kerygma
was used by theologians to denote the content of apostolic preaching which consisted of historical facts about Jesus' life and ministry (e.g. death, burial, resurrection, and ascension) for understanding the meaning Jesus (e.g. C. H. Dodd). According to kerymatic theologians, when the content of the primitive
kerygma
is preached today (i.e. Jesus' death and resurrection) it is understood that God calls upon hearers to believe in God's act in Christ, so that hearers recognize their judgment of sin and receive grace in the present. In other words, this “proclaimed word” is an existential encounter with Jesus where the saving event of God — as described in the historical content of the
kerygma
— reoccurs in the proclaiming act in the present. Although less concerned with the historical sources for understanding the meaning of Jesus, kerygmatic theologians understand the proclaiming act to be God calling upon unbelievers to encounter the meaning of Jesus in an existential manner. This kerygmatic theology as articulated by Karl Barth, Rudolf Bultmann, and others became a unified theological position during the 20th century.