bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
London Naval Conferences (1930, 1935–1936)
Authors: Kuehn John T. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The genesis of the London Naval Conferences, in 1930 and 1935–1936, can be found in the aftermath of the Washington Naval Conference in 1922. The five major naval powers at Washington—France, the United States, Great Britain, Japan, and Italy—were able only to limit the tonnages of capital ships (battleships and battlecruisers) and aircraft carriers at Washington. The United States and Great Britain were particularly interested in extending this promising start either through the agency of the League of Nations conferences on disarmament or through stand‐alone naval limitation conferences.
Mahdist War (1881–1899)
Authors: Stapleton Timothy J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Within the context of Islam, “Mahdi” means “the guided one” and is a person chosen by God to restore the community to its pure form as it was during the days of the Prophet Muhammad. Under the modernizing rule of Mohammed Ali, Egypt conquered Sudan in the 1820s and 1830s in a futile effort to acquire military conscripts and gold. The Egyptians imposed a westernized state that taxed the Sudanese and sent their agricultural and other products north. Sudanese frustrations were increased in the 1860s and 1870s with the start of an Egyptian anti‐slavery campaign that threatened local economic interests and brought Christian Europeans into this Muslim country. On June 29, 1881 Mohammed Ahmed, an increasingly popular Sudanese religious leader, proclaimed himself the Mahdi and organized an army for a holy war against Egyptian occupation. Political turmoil in Egypt itself meant that the Egyptians failed to control the rebellion and more followers joined the Mahdi. The first major victory for the Mahdi occurred in 1882 when his supporters captured the Egyptian military base of El‐Obeid west of the Nile. Although Mahdist forces initially tried to storm the fort and were cut down by breach‐loading rifles, they eventually undertook a successful siege. As a result of this lesson, the Mahdi formed part of his army into a near‐professional infantry corps equipped with firearms. The British occupied Egypt in 1882 to secure the Suez Canal as a vital choke point for shipping to and from India. In November 1883 an Egyptian force of 8,500 soldiers under British Colonel William Hicks, complete with artillery and early machine guns like the Nordenfelt, invaded the Sudan to suppress the rebellion. Letting Hicks's expedition advance in order for harsh desert conditions to take their toll, Mahdists eventually surrounded and annihilated them with firepower at the Battle of Shaykan. The British then decided to pull out of Sudan and in early 1884 sent Charles Gordon, former governor of part of south Sudan, to organize the withdrawal. However, Gordon was not committed to the British government's plan and he delayed long enough to be trapped in Khartoum by the Mahdi's forces. Around the same time, Sudanese leader Osman Digna led a rebellion against Egyptian rule in the eastern region of Suakin. A British column under General Gerald Graham pushed back the rebels at the hard fought battles of El Teb and Tamai but then was ordered to withdraw. A British relief expedition led by Garnet Wolseley failed to break through to Khartoum in time and Gordon was killed when the Mahdists stormed the city in January 1885. Although the Mahdi died in June 1885, a Mahdist state had been established with its capital a few miles from Khartoum at Omdurman.
Mohawk–Mahican War (1624–1628)
Authors: Hemmis Timothy C. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Mohawk–Mahican War was a conflict between the Mohawk and Mahican tribes in the upper Hudson River Valley. In the early seventeenth century the Dutch settled in present‐day New York and began trading for fur (predominantly beaver) with the local Native Americans. Although there is little historical documentation about this conflict because both combatant sides were Native American oral cultures, scholars have speculated that the Mohawk attacked the Mahicans because they wanted to eliminate their economic competition in the new European fur trade. The Mohawk were isolated from the European traders by their neighbors—the Mahicans to the east and the Algonquian tribes to the north. Consequently, the Mohawk could not directly trade with either the French in New France or the Dutch in New Amsterdam.
Napoleonic Wars (1802–1815)
Authors: Mikaberidze Alexander 
Published: November 2011

AbstractA series of conflicts fought between Napoleonic France and changing sets of coalitions of European powers. The starting point for the Napoleonic Wars is usually considered the signing of the Peace of Amiens between France and Britain in 1802, while the end point is set in the wake of Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo and his exile from France in 1815. These wars were a continuation of the Revolutionary Wars that began in 1792 and produced profound political, economic, military, and ideological changes throughout the European continent. Ideological aspects of the Napoleonic Wars are often emphasized as a main source of the conflict, but Europe, in fact, was not divided along ideological lines. While ideology did matter, the conflict was largely driven by geopolitical considerations that were similar to those existing during the wars of Louis XIV. As in the early 1700s, the rise of a powerful French state in the early 1800s threatened the balance of power in Europe and led to the creation of broad coalitions to prevent France from achieving complete dominance on the continent. In addition, the Napoleonic Wars were influenced by a long‐standing colonial and commercial rivalry between France and Britain.
Nelson, Horatio, 1st Viscount Nelson (1758–1805)
Authors: Kuehn John T. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

On September 29, 1758 Horace, later Horatio, Nelson was born in Burnham Thorpe, England. He was the sixth of eleven children, the son of Reverend Edmund Nelson and his wife Catherine. At the age of 12 Horace prevailed upon his father to gain him an appointment as a midshipman in the Royal Navy serving under his uncle Captain Maurice Suckling aboard the
Raisonable
(64 guns) in 1771. Captain Suckling detached Nelson for service on a merchant trader to the West Indies to develop his seamanship. Nelson thrived under Suckling's program, learning seamanship from the deck plates to the foretop.
Nine Years' War (1594–1603)
Authors: O'Neill Eoin 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Nine Years' War started as a local rebellion in Ireland led by Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone. With considerable tactical flexibility O'Neill alternated between fighting and negotiating, eventually turning the rebellion into a major war which attracted Spanish aid and forced Elizabeth I to intervene on a massive scale, nearly bankrupting her. In the end, despite the landing of a small Spanish force in Kinsale in 1601, Elizabeth was victorious, extending English rule over the whole country for the first time.
North–West Rebellion (1885)
Authors: England Shawn 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
This armed uprising, the largest rebellion in Canadian history, had its roots deep in the history of Canada's fur trade and the creation of Rupert's Land. This was an enormous territory created in 1670 by fiat of England's King Charles II, who also granted the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) a lucrative fur trade monopoly within the vast Hudson Bay watershed. A mixed‐race and predominantly French Catholic people known as the Métis evolved there over the next two centuries, as company employees and other Europeans formed sexual unions with indigenous women. In 1811 Thomas Douglas, the 5th Earl of Selkirk, established the Red River Colony in the heart of Rupert's Land for Scottish immigrants, but it grew slowly during the nineteenth century by attracting numerous mostly Métis settlers.
Onasander (first century CE)
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

A Platonic philosopher of Greek origin, Onasander also wrote a work on generalship (
Strategikos
) sometime in the mid‐first century. Relying on the classical Greek tradition (including the works of Xenophon and Aristotle), Onasander emphasized the idea of a just war and the importance of a commander's moral qualities and strength of character for military success. He also included interesting observations on troop psychology and gave practical advice, such as on battle formations, marching order, methods of advance and retreat, and ways of deception of the enemy.
Strategikos
was dedicated to Quintus Veranius, Roman consul (49 CE) and governor of Britain (57–58), and was used extensively during the Byzantine period. It served as the foundation for later Byzantine military treatises — the
Strategikon
allegedly authored by the emperor Maurice (r. 582–602) and the
Taktika
traditionally ascribed to the emperor Leo VI (r. 886–912). In the late Middle Ages,
Strategikos
was translated into several European languages, largely for practical purposes no doubt.
People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN)
Authors: Stapleton Timothy J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
During World War I (1914–1918) South Africa invaded neighboring German South West Africa and after the conflict Pretoria administered the territory as a mandate of the League of Nations. White settlers moved in and South Africa ruled the territory as a new province. In 1965 the South West African People's Organization (SWAPO), frustrated by years of futile non‐violent protest and state oppression, formed the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) to pursue an armed struggle against South African occupation. Based in the west of newly independent Zambia, PLAN insurgents infiltrated northern South West Africa. In August 1966 South African paratroopers and police destroyed a PLAN camp at Omgulumbashe in the first engagement of the “Border War.” In September 1966 PLAN attacked a border town and in March 1967 ambushed police in West Caprivi. PLAN commander Tobias Hanyeko, in May 1967, was killed in a skirmish with police near the Zambezi River. After two large groups crossed the border in October 1968 and were eliminated, PLAN began to use smaller units. PLAN launched a new offensive in early 1973, which prompted the South African Defense Force (SADF) to take over counterinsurgency from the police. Initially, the SADF used medical services and development projects to win “hearts and minds,” but as the conflict expanded South African counterinsurgency became increasingly brutal.
Pequot War (1636–1637)
Authors: Hall John W. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Pequot War was the first major conflict between Native Americans and English colonists in New England. It is remembered for the sacking of the Pequots' Mystic fort, during which English colonists killed hundreds of men, women, and children, burning most of them alive. The war temporarily obliterated the Pequots as a distinct political entity and altered the balance of power between English colonists and the region's Native communities, which increasingly struggled to maintain autonomy.
Philippine–American War (1899–1913)
Authors: Mihara Robert 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Philippine–American War (or Philippine Insurrection), following the larger Spanish–American War (1898), brought into collision American political and economic ambitions with the aspirations of Filipino nationalists to establish a Philippine Republic. The conflict in the Philippines began on February 4, 1899 with the Battle of Manila when the Republican Army, under Emilio Aguinaldo, clashed with the US 8th Corps, under the command of Major General Wesley Merritt, in the capital suburbs. The two armies had jointly laid siege to Spanish‐occupied Manila the year before, but the partnership effectively ended after Merritt's corps entered the Walled City on August 13, 1898 under a secret agreement brokered between US representatives and the Spanish garrison. The armies were settled into opposing lines until Private William Grayson of the 1st Nebraska shot at a Filipino patrol in February 1899, sparking the Philippine–American War. It would drag on for another three years before President Theodore Roosevelt declared victory in July 1902.
Piłsudski, Jó zef Klemens (1867–1935)
Authors: Schwonek Matthew R. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Jó zef Klemens piłsudski, a revolutionary turned soldier, was first head of state and commander in chief of the armed forces of the Second Polish Republic. The first marshal of Poland from March 3, 1920, he is best known for his leadership during the RussoPolish War (1919–1920) and the climactic Battle of Warsaw, but his long career included contributions to the struggle for independence before 1918 as well as diplomacy and military affairs between the two world wars. His legacy is complex. Instrumental in founding an independent republic after 123 years of partition, he overthrew its democratic government in May 1926, putting in its place a military dictatorship, which he dominated until his death.
Ransoms
Authors: Ambühl Rémy 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

In Middle English raunsom or raunson derives from the old French
raencon
(or
raenson, rancon, ranson, ranchon
, etc.) and from the Latin
redemptio
. Ransom is commonly defined as the price or sum paid or demanded for the release of a prisoner. However, it has not always been strictly financial. This nuance is highlighted by the medieval use of the term finance (
fenaunce, fynance, financia
), which seemed to designate a ransom that was paid in money, whereas ransom could also be partly or entirely paid in goods.
Reagan Doctrine
Authors: Scott James M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
A strand of post‐World War II containment policy, the Reagan Doctrine was a foreign policy strategy devised by the Reagan administration (1981–1989) to challenge what it perceived as Soviet expansionism in the developing world. Its purpose was to support anti‐Soviet insurgencies, providing rebel movements with American assistance to raise the costs of maintaining or acquiring clients and perhaps even overthrow Sovietsupported regimes and hasten the end of the Cold War.
Rommel, Field Marshal Erwin (1891–1944)
Authors: Lieb Peter 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was a German military commander during World War II, chiefly in the North African theater of war. Until today he has arguably remained the best‐known and most popular military leader of World War II. His tactical brilliance and chivalrous behavior, as well as German and British propaganda, created a myth around his personality. After the failed plot against Hitler in 1944 he was forced to commit suicide, as he was seen to be closely linked with the conspirators.
Scharnhorst, General Gerhard von (1755–1813) and Gneisenau, Field Marshal August Neidhart von (1760–1831)
Authors: Kuehn John T. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The names of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, two of the most famous generals in Prussian service, are generally linked together. For many, the men as individuals remain some what opaque. There are good reasons for the German veneration of these two men. They were at the forefront of a renaissance of professional military reform in the Prussian army after Prussia's disastrous defeat at the hands of Napoleon in 1806. Nonetheless, neither man was actually a Prussian, or even a Brandenburger, despite the very Prussian von that both used in their names. Gerhard Johann David Scharnhorst was from Hanover, a German possession of the British crown, while August Wilhelm Anton Niedhart von Gneisenau was from Saxony, historically an electorate (and later kingdom) at odds with the Hohenzollern monarchy in Berlin. It is true that the men were close friends, but the real unifying thread for them can be found in a key friend they shared in common — the Prussian Carl von Clausewitz. These two German patriots were key to Clausewitz's rise. Both men mentored and protected him, seeing in him an intellect and passion of great value. Clausewitz returned the favor, writing hagiographically about both of his friends, especially Scharnhorst.
Self‐defense
Authors: Neff Stephen C. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractIn the seventeenth century, Hugo Grotius identified defense as one of the three categories of just causes for war. This notion of defense was not confined to the actual fending off of an ongoing attack, but extended to the taking of action against impending dangers as well. There were naturally some worries over the potential misuse of this right of defensive war, and international lawyers were at pains to stress that it could not be used to justify action against dangers that were merely speculative. In the nineteenth century, the idea of self‐defense played little role in international legal discourse because of the general acceptance of war as an inherent sovereign right of states. When lawyers wrote of emergency action by states, they generally spoke instead in terms of a more general right of self‐preservation (or, in modern terminology, necessity), which would justify states in taking emergency action that normally would be unlawful. The criteria for the exercise of this right of necessity were most memorably articulated by American secretary of state Daniel Webster, in 1841: when there is “a necessity… , instant, over whelming, leaving no choice of means, and no moment for deliberation.” This statement by Webster has been adopted by international lawyers as the basic standard for self‐defense. Self‐defense was not expressly mentioned in the text of the Kellogg–Briand Pact of 1928. Nevertheless, it was clear from the context that the states parties recognized that it was outside the scope of the prohibition against war. Only in 1945, with the conclusion of the United Nations Charter, did self‐defense move to the legal center stage. The Charter allows self‐defense in case of “armed attack” (Article 51) — the only important circumstance in which states may employ armed force unilaterally.
Seminole Wars (1817–1818, 1835–1842, 1855–1858)
Authors: Watson Samuel 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Seminole Wars were a series of US efforts to dispossess the Amerindians of Florida against resistance centered among the Seminoles and Mikasukis. In military campaigns punctuated by coercive diplomatic offensives over a period of nearly half a century, the national standing army, volunteers from the southern states, and militia from Georgia and Florida drove 90 percent of a population of perhaps ten thousand Indians from the region. Most of the survivors were forcibly resettled in modern‐day Oklahoma as part of Andrew Jackson's Indian removal policy during the Second Seminole War; a few fled to the Bahamas; and several hundred remained in the interior of the Everglades, forming the core of today's Florida Seminole and Mikasuki nations.
Sepoy Mutiny (1857–1859)
Authors: Peers Douglas M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Sepoy Mutiny (1857–1859), also commonly known as the Indian Mutiny, Indian Rebellion, or, amongst an older generation of nationalist historians, the First War of Independence, was an armed uprising that began in locally raised units of the East India Company's Bengal Army (the other two armies of the East India Company were the Madras Army and the Bombay Army). Upwards of three‐quarters of the sepoys serving in the Bengal Army mutinied. While there were signs of discontent in some units of the other two presidency armies, the fact that these armies remained largely loyal would later prove critical to the British ability to retain their hold on India. Not only did Madras and Bombay provide the British with military forces with which they could attack the rebels in the north, but they also prevented the spread of rebellion into the wider civilian populations of the Madras and Bombay presidencies. And while the mutineers did draw support, in some cases rather grudgingly, from some key members of the Indian aristocracy who were aggrieved at their diminished authority, other princes either chose to support the British or remained neutral, thus denying the rebels the leadership that would have allowed them to break out of their circumscribed area of operation. The king of Nepal, for example, offered troops to the British. In Bengal, however, anger at British rule soon spread amongst the civilian population in the strategically vital plains of central and northern India, where it took on many of the attributes of a popular uprising. This explains the lack of consensus amongst historians as to how best to title these events. British rule in India was seriously threatened and the fighting that ensued was marked by brutality and savagery on both sides. It has been calculated that rebels killed as many as 6,000 Europeans, but there are no reliable estimates as to the numbers of Indians who died. However, if we compare the census of 1871 with earlier calculations of the population of North India, there is a noticeable decline, suggesting that Indian casualties could possibly number in the hundreds of thousands.
Siege Warfare (Early Modern)
Authors: Martens Pieter 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Early modern warfare was dominated by sieges rather than battles. Sieges were far more numerous and more decisive for the outcome of a war, and many of the major battles were actually fought between a besieging army and a relief force, as at Pavia (1525), St. Quentin (1557), Mezokeresztes (1596), Nördlingen (1634), Rocroi (1643), and Vienna (1683). Moreover a failed siege could prove just as destructive to the beleaguering army as a lost battle, and equally damaging to princely prestige; witness the ruinous defeats of the Emperor Charles V's troops before Metz (1552), the Ottomans at Malta (1565), or the French royal army at La Rochelle (1573).
Somalia Civil War (2006)
Authors: Phillips Gervase 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

In June 2006a coalition of local Sharia courts (responsible for the implementation of the Islamic code of law) seized control of the Somali capital Mogadishu, driving out the rival forces of feuding warlords. This alliance, known as the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), brought a measure of peace and stability to the war‐torn city unknown since the government of Siyad Barre had been overthrown in 1991. Yet their success would bring further conflict. As the ICU's sphere of influence expanded across southern and central Somalia, its militia clashed with the forces of the internationally recognized (but weak) Transitional Federal Government (TFG). To the north, the semi‐autonomous region of Puntland and the
de facto
independent state of Somaliland were both militantly resistant to any notion of reintegration into a unified Somali state. Furthermore, although the ICU contained a broad spectrum of religious opinion, the presence within its ranks of committed fundamentalists attracted the anxious attention of the United States and the foremost regional power, Ethiopia, leading to military intervention by both countries.
Spanish Army of Flanders
Authors: Tenace Edward 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The arrival of the duke of Alba in the Netherlands in 1568 with an army of ten thousand Spanish veterans marked the auspicious beginning of the Army of Flanders, recognized even by its foes as the leading school for military training in all of Europe. During the early stages of the Dutch rebellion, it established its fearsome reputation in such lopsided contests as Jemmingen (1568), Mook (1574), and Gembloux (1578), battles in which the army suffered only minimal casualties compared to the near annihilation of the enemy. Despite its inability to put down the Dutch rebellion, the Army of Flanders would remain a redoubtable fighting force through the 1640s, and survive until the end of the Habsburg Dynasty in Spain. Its fighting ability derived from two sources.