bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
NOxFormation, Control and Reduction Techniques
Authors: Konnov Alexander A. , Javed M. Tayyeb , Kassman Håkan , Irfan Naseem 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx) in combustion systems is an important environmental concern. The control of NOxemissions and modern reduction techniques is based on worldwide investigations performed in this field. In this chapter, developments in the understanding of nitrogen chemistry in flames during the pas twenty years following the seminal studies of Miller and Bowman [1] are summarized. The different routes of NOxformation, including the newly proposed NNH route and prompt‐NO via NCN and other precursors, are discussed. The results of recent laboratory studies on NOxcontrol through reburning are also detailed. Other approaches for NOxcontrol, including low‐NOxburners, flue gas recirculation, and over‐fire air, are also outlined. Of special and practical interest are the selective noncatalytic reduction (SNCR) techniques; these include ammonia‐based, urea‐based, ammonium carbonate‐based SNCRs, and additive‐enhanced SNCR. An example of nitrogen‐containing additives for the simultaneous reduction of NOxand minimization of corrosion is presented. Finally, potential future developments and areas of use of these reduction techniques are discussed.
Catalytic Technology for Soot and Gaseous Pollution Control
Authors: Deutschmann Olaf , Konstandopoulos Athanasios G. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractIn this chapter, stationary and automotive technologies for gaseous and particulate pollution abatement are discussed. Stationary pollution abatement technologies involve the reduction of NOxemissions from the exhaust gases of power plants, industrial boilers, and gas turbines, and are based on selective catalytic reduction (SCR) using ammonia. In automotive pollution control, internal combustion engines represent the major source for the emission of NOx, CO, and unburned hydrocarbons (HCs), whereas diesel engines contribute to the emission of soot and NOx. These gaseous pollutants can be minimized with primary measures, for example, modification of the combustion process, and with additional secondary measures (exhaust purification by catalysts). The most frequent type of catalytic converter in automobiles is the three‐way catalyst (TWC) in stoichiometric operated gasoline engines, which simultaneously converts NOx, CO, and HCs. NOxemissions from lean‐operated enginescanbe removed by urea‐SCR and NOxstorage reduction catalysts (NSC). Catalytic CO oxidation is an essential reaction of the TWC and NSC, and is also applied in diesel engines using the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) that can oxidize gaseous HCs as well as HCs adsorbed onto soot particles. Diesel particulate filters (DPFs) are used to remove soot from diesel exhaust by filtration of the particles through the porous walls of the filter. The DPF application requires regeneration; that is, oxidation of the stored soot particles, which is accomplished by indirect (NO2‐assisted) and direct (redox metal oxide‐based) catalytic oxidation of the accumulated soot particles in the DPF.
Corrosion
Authors: Włodarczyk Renata , Kobyłecki Rafał , Bis Zbigniew 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionCorrosionCorrosion ProcessesSubsurface CorrosionCorrosion in the Power IndustryTheoryEffect of Deposition on Corrosion RateEffect of Fuel Type on the Damage of Boiler ElementsMechanism of Corrosion in the Presence of Superheated SteamSulfate–Sulfide Corrosion MechanismChloride Corrosion MechanismApplications in Research and IndustryOutlookSummary
Overview of Gaseous Fuels
Authors: Ganesh Anuradda 
Published: June 2010

Abstract

Gaseous fuels are easy and convenient to handle and are fast gaining popularity. Most of the naturally occurring resources and the synthesized gases consist of one or more of the gases methane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen as the primary combustible constituents. The calorific value of the gaseous fuels vary over a wide range from 3 to 100 MJ m
−3
; however, the relative combustion properties are more influenced by combinations of various fuels and thermal and transport properties of individual gas components.
Global Warming Implication of Natural Gas Combustion
Authors: Sonibare Jacob Ademola 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionEnergy SourcesHydrocarbon Destruction in Gas FlaresA Review of Global Warming ConceptWater VaporCarbon DioxideMethaneNitrous OxideCFCsFundamentals of Natural Gas CombustionWorld Natural Gas Reserves, Production, Consumption and DestructionWorld Natural Gas ReservesWorld Natural Gas ProductionWorld Natural Gas ConsumptionWorld Natural Gas DestructionGlobal Warming Contribution from Natural Gas CombustionGlobal Warming Contribution from Natural Gas Combustion in Energy ConsumptionGlobal Warming Contribution from Natural Gas Combustion in Flaring ActivitiesControl Measures for Global Warming from Natural Gas CombustionConclusion
Theory, Modeling and Computation of Gas Explosion Phenomena
Authors: Di Benedetto Almerinda , Di Sarli Valeria 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThis chapter focuses on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling for gas explosions. Recent results obtained at both laboratory and industrial scales are reviewed. It is pointed out the central role of large eddy simulation (LES) as the most adequate tool for describing the inherently unsteady interplay of flame propagation, flow field, and geometry underlying explosion phenomena. Modeling, numerical, and computational issues yet to be afforded are discussed as relevant to realize fully the potential of explosion LES.
Flame Lift‐Off and Blow‐Out Stability Limits and Their Application in Gas Burners
Authors: Wu Yajue 
Published: June 2010

AbstractFlame stability is usually characterized by lift‐off velocity, lift‐off height, and blow‐out velocity. The lift‐off velocity is defined as the mean jet velocity at which the flame becomes lifted above the jet exit rim. If the jet velocity is further increased, the flame moves downstream to a position where it stabilizes. Lift‐off height is the distance between the lifted flame base and the jet exit. When the jet velocity reaches the blow‐out velocity, the reaction cannot be sustained and the flame is extinguished. For positions between the jet exit and the flame base, a turbulent mixing region exists which is very similar to that for the unignited jet. The stability limits of turbulent jet diffusion flames are important for operation of combustion systems and have safety implication for handling combustible fuels. The lift‐off and blow‐out behaviors of the turbulent jet diffusion flames have been the subject of numerous research efforts. The focus point was the physical mechanisms responsible for flame stabilization, which has become a subject of considerable confusion and controversy. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of three main theories of the lift‐off of a turbulent jet flame which have been proposed over the years. Following the review, the chapter provides the most practical theories on the prediction of the stability limits of flames for hydrocarbon fuels, including hydrogen fuel. It also provides a discussion on the uncertainties over the stabilization theories through a comparison of measured and predicted stability data. Energy‐efficient burners require the flame to operate within the stability limits yet with smallest possible fuel consumption. Industrial burners usually use air entrainment to provide partially premixed flames; this chapter reports a recent study carried out on a series of burners which examined the role of burner diameter, burner head geometry, and the flame conditions at the flame base. The practical corrections for the stability limits are extended to the partial premixed flames from the gas burner and the operating conditions for industrial gas burners are discussed.
The Combustion of Low Heating Value Gaseous Fuel Mixtures
Authors: Karim Ghazi A. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe presence of diluents such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen with methane lowers significantly the effective heating value of the fuel mixture and can bring about adverse changes to the combustion characteristics of the methane. It may undermine its effective utilization altogether depending on the composition and the type of device used and the associated operating conditions. Such fuel mixtures are often encountered with varying composition in numerous natural, industrial and biogases and represent a potential energy source that needs to be exploited effectively. This section will discuss primarily how the presence of such diluent gases with methane modifies significantly the thermodynamic, kinetic and combustion characteristics of the fuel in air. It is shown that the presence with methane of nitrogen is tolerated relatively much better in combustion systems than the corresponding similar presence of carbon dioxide. The bases for these trends are discussed with examples of some operational considerations.
Hydrogen Combustion and Emissions in a Sustainable Energy Future
Authors: Aggarwal Suresh K. , Briones Alejandro M. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe global energy landscape is undergoing a transformation driven by rising energy demand, diminishing fossil fuel supplies, deregulation of energy industry, and growing concern about climate change. While fossil fuels will continue to play a dominant role in meeting the current and future energy needs, there is worldwide interest in developing renewable and alternative energy sources to meet the growing energy demand and address concerns about the emission of greenhouse gases and hazardous pollutants. In this context, hydrogen is viewed as a viable renewable energy carrier due to its abundant supply, superior emission characteristics, and flexibility in harnessing its energy through a variety of technologies. There are, however, many technological and scientific issues pertaining to its production, storage, and utilization. This chapter provides an overview of such issues and discusses research dealing with hydrogen combustion and emissions in the context of sustainable energy future. Studies concerning laminar flames, including non‐premixed, premixed, and partially premixed flames in various configurations, and also those dealing with ignition and extinction phenomena, are reviewed. High‐pressure phenomena including explosions/ignition limits are discussed, and an overview of detonation and turbulent combustion is provided. Issues pertaining to hydrogen combustion and emissions in practical systems are also discussed. Further technological advances and fundamental research needed for hydrogen to play a major role in the sustainable energy future are identified.
Combustion in Gas‐fueled Compression Ignition Engines of the Dual Fuel Type
Authors: Karim Ghazi A. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractIn the dual fuel engine, much of the energy release comes from the combustion of the gaseous fuel and only a small amount of diesel liquid fuel provides ignition through timed cylinder injection. Such operation with optimum conversion methods has the potential to provide operational characteristics that are comparable or superior to those of the corresponding diesel or spark ignition engines. These characteristics may be realized only if sufficiently effective measures can be ensured both for the avoidance of knock, usually at high loads, and incomplete gaseous fuel utilization at relatively light loads. To overcome these problems associated with the operation of dual fuel engines over a wide range of fuels and their mixtures, better control of the relatively complex processes of combustion is essential. Both experimental and analytical modeling procedures for effecting optimum improvements to the combustion process are described.
Fuel Gas Applications in Industry
Authors: da Costa Fernando Cörner 
Published: June 2010

Abstract
This chapter relates the main fuel gas applications in industry, emphasizing the main gases available for each segment such as natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, coke oven gas, and blast furnace gas. A short history of industrial heating by fuel gases and the differences between the concepts of batch and continuous processes helps to understand the role of gas firing systems and the main equipment such as burners, flow trains, and controls. Other fuel gas applications as feedstock, protective and active atmosphere, lubricant and demolding, propellant, and foam‐blowing agent are also discussed. Some industrial segments are detailed such as steel mills, foundries, ceramic industry, glass works, thermal utilities, rubber industry, food segment, and chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Also, some highlights of synthetic natural gas and replacement of electrothermal by fuel gas are presented.
Hydrogen‐Assisted Combustion and Emission Characteristics of Fossil Fuels
Authors: Aggarwal Suresh K. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractA blended fuel strategy using mixtures of renewable and petroleum‐based fuels can play an important role in reducing our dependence on fossil fuels along with a measurable reduction in the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and local pollutants, and achieving the goal of a sustainable energy future. This chapter focuses on the fundamental and practical aspects of using hydrogen–hydrocarbon fuel blends. Flame studies dealing with the effects of hydrogen addition on the combustion and emission characteristics of hydrocarbon fuels are reviewed. The combustion characteristics include ignition, extinction, flammability limits, laminar burning velocity, flame structure, and dynamics including flame–stretch interactions and cellular instabilities. The use of hydrogen for enhancing the performance and emissions of petroleum‐based internal combustion engines is considered. The effects of hydrogen addition on the emissions of GHGs (CO2, CO, and unburned hydrocarbons), NOx, and particulate matter from flames in both laboratory‐scale and practical combustors are discussed. Future research needs pertaining to the combustion and emission characteristics of such blends are identified.
Liquid Biofuels: Biodiesel and Bioalcohols
Authors: Skevis George 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe development of alternative, renewable fuels is of global importance due to concerns regarding global warming, environmental protection and diversity and security of energy supply. Liquid oxygenated biofuels in particular, such as biodiesel and bioethanol, provide the potential for superior engine performance coupled with reduced particulate emissions, and are increasingly gaining acceptance and market share in the energy and transportation sectors. This chapter provides a concise review of the current knowledge on biodiesel and bioalcohol combustion science and technology. An overview is given of biodiesel and bioalcohol production technologies. An outline of important physical and chemical properties of biofuels is presented and the dependence of biodiesel fuel properties on alkyl ester structure is discussed. Reliable performance and emissions predictions are very much dependent on the availability and performance of detailed chemical kinetic mechanisms. The combustion chemistry of ethanol is fairly well established and is reviewed in detail. Recent developments in the kinetic modeling of propanol and butanol isomers are also presented. The combustion chemistry of biodiesel surrogates is also reviewed. The effects of using neat or blended biofuels on internal combustion engine performance and exhaust emissions is thoroughly reviewed. The feasibility of biofuel use in aviation is also explored. The chapter finally briefly reviews life cycle analyses that assess the environmental performance of liquid biofuels as compared with conventional fuels.
Combustion in a Spark Ignition Engine
Authors: Burluka Alexey A. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe modern spark ignition (SI) engine is a mature and well‐established prime mover for hundreds of millions of passenger cars and tens of millions of diverse other applications, ranging from simple single‐speed two‐stroke engines in lawnmowers and portable electric power generators to complex four‐stroke engines used in power boats and light airplanes. The main combustion mode in an SI engine is turbulent premixed combustion where a flame propagates through a mixture of homogeneous chemical composition; the combustion process within any one given engine cycle occurs under a wide range of pressures and temperatures. As a computational fluid dynamics calculation of the engine combustion remains a prospective research tool, and owing to its complexity and the uncertainty of input, the use of a simpler methodology such as the “thermodynamic” or “zonal” modeling considered in this chapter is desirable. Crucial to the engine performance, the net rate of heat release is determined by several processes, the principal one of which is flame propagation. This chapter reviews applications of modern premixed combustion models to SI engine conditions. Measurements of turbulent flame velocity and observations of the flame structure are compared with existing models. Results obtained with the described approach are presented and the relative importance of various sub‐models is discussed. It is shown that a very simple modification of existing models allows one to predict the magnitude of the cycle‐to‐cycle variations in engine performance. The chapter concludes with a brief outline of the latest trends in SI engine development and the challenges it may pose for combustion research.
Diesel Combustion
Authors: Andersson Öivind 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe diesel combustion process and combustion system are briefly described, with the aim to provide a starting point for those interested in exploring and developing these. The chapter describes the typical characteristics of the diesel combustion process and its heat release. A description is given of how hardware in the combustion system supports the combustion process, for example, the importance of the combustion chamber geometry and the fuel injection system. Furthermore, useful theoretical concepts are presented to provide the reader with simple tools for understanding limiting processes for emissions formation. These include scaling relationships for air entrainment and flame lift‐off in quasi‐stationary diesel jets. Heavy duty and light duty combustion systems are then treated separately, since differences in duty cycle and customer requirements have given them different characteristics. Due to the high‐load duty cycle, with long injections and high fueling rates, heavy duty diesel combustion can be analyzed by analogy to a quasi‐stationary jet. In light duty engines, where injections typically are short, a significant portion of the heat release takes place after the end of injection. Therefore the picture of a quasi‐stationary jet becomes inadequate. Emphasis is put on describing fluid mechanic processes supporting the late‐cycle combustion in these engines. Finally, means of in‐cylinder emissions control in diesel engines are discussed.
Overview of Solid Fuels, Characteristics and Origin
Authors: Bridgeman Toby G. , Jones Jenny M. , Williams Alan 
Published: June 2010

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with the origin, properties and characteristics of coals, cokes, different biomass, and peat. The first section gives a brief overview of the formation of coal, and defines coal rank and coal type, the sources of biomass and peat and some of their properties. The availability of the fossil and biomass fuels is estimated in the second section. This is followed in Section 1.3 by an overview of the principal standard test methods for chemical and physical properties of coal and biomass. Section 1.4, the major part of this chapter, gives useful reference data, containing typical chemical and physical measurement test results for the common coal types, a selection of biomass and also for the lesser used fuels such as peat and waste materials. The significance of ash composition in boiler performance is outlined, and typical ash properties are also listed for several coals and biomass fuels. Trace elements can be problematic for certain types of waste fuels in particular. This section also discusses approaches to classifying solid fuels, and examines how some properties interrelate. Section 1.4 also discusses the factors that influence the reactivity of solid fuels and how thermogravimetric analysis may be applied to compare and quantify these differences. Finally, Section 1.5 outlines solid fuel preparation methods, drying, and milling and an emerging pre‐treatment method in the case of biomass, namely, torrefaction.
Solid Biomass Combustion
Authors: Suri Amit , Horio Masayuki 
Published: June 2010

AbstractTo suppress the global temperature rise so as to avoid climate disasters it is necessary to shift to a renewable energy source. Biomass is the single most abundantly available renewable energy source that can be used on demand in direct combustion/gasification technologies. For a better understanding of solid biomass combustion, in the present chapter biomass fuels from different sources have been characterized in terms of physical and chemical properties, ash behavior and pretreatment methods, and suitable combustor types. Ash‐related issues relevant to the high alkali content typical of biomasses are discussed in detail. Effects of heating rate on pyrolysis product yields are compared for biomass and coal. For a better understanding of ignition/extinction characteristics of a solid fuel, the combustion kinetics for both volatile and char combustion with and without ash layer, with different shapes, are considered. Emissions during combustion of biomass, namely, NOx, SOx, HCl, heavy metals, and dioxins are described. Various combustion technologies are reviewed, from large‐scale entrained bed combustion systems to medium‐scale FBCs and fixed bed combustion. Finally, ash behavior in different combustion technologies is discussed.
Coal Combustion
Authors: Kosowska‐Golachowska Monika 
Published: June 2010

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of coal combustion of a single coal particle. First, it outlines heating and drying, ignition of volatiles, devolatilization, char combustion and fragmentation of coal particle. The results of experimental research of combustion and fragmentation of two brown coals (lignites), seven hard coals mined in Poland and Russian anthracite are then presented. The combustion and fragmentation behavior of these coals was tested in an externally‐heated bench‐scale bubbling fluidized‐bed unit. Next, the mathematical model of primary fragmentation, including coal heating and volatile release is outlined. Finally, applications of coal combustion in industry and key clean coal technologies of the future are discussed.