Genetic analysis and natural history of Parkinson’s disease due to the LRRK2 G2019S variant
Authors: Kmiecik Matthew J , Micheletti Steven , Coker Daniella , Heilbron Karl , Shi Jingchunzi , Stagaman Keaton , Filshtein Sonmez Teresa , Fontanillas Pierre , Shringarpure Suyash , Wetzel Madeleine , Rowbotham Helen M , Cannon Paul , Shelton Janie F , Hinds David A , Tung Joyce Y ,   23andMe Research Team, Auton Adam , Babalola Elizabeth , Bell Robert K , Bielenberg Jessica , Bowes Johnathan , Bryc Katarzyna , Chaudhary Ninad S , Das Sayantan , DelloRusso Emily , Elson Sarah L , Eriksson Nicholas , Freyman Will , Granka Julie M , Hernandez Alejandro , Hicks Barry , Jewett Ethan M , Jiang Yunxuan , Kukar Katelyn , Kwong Alan , Lin Keng-Han , Llamas Bianca A , Lowe Maya , McIntyre Matthew H , Moreno Meghan E , Nandakumar Priyanka , Nguyen Dominique T , O'Connell Jared , Petrakovitz Aaron A , Poznik G David , Reynoso Alexandra , Schumacher Morgan , Selcer Leah , Shastri Anjali J , Su Qiaojuan Jane , Tat Susana A , Tran Vinh , Wang Xin , Wang Wei , Weldon Catherine H , Wilton Peter , Wong Corinna D , Holmes Michael V , Aslibekyan Stella , Norcliffe-Kaufmann Lucy 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
The LRRK2 G2019S variant is the most common cause of monogenic Parkinson’s disease (PD); however, questions remain regarding the penetrance, clinical phenotype and natural history of carriers. We performed a 3.5-year prospective longitudinal online study in a large number of 1286 genotyped LRRK2 G2019S carriers and 109 154 controls, with and without PD, recruited from the 23andMe Research Cohort.
We collected self-reported motor and non-motor symptoms every 6 months, as well as demographics, family histories and environmental risk factors. Incident cases of PD (phenoconverters) were identified at follow-up. We determined lifetime risk of PD using accelerated failure time modelling and explored the impact of polygenic risk on penetrance. We also computed the genetic ancestry of all LRRK2 G2019S carriers in the 23andMe database and identified regions of the world where carrier frequencies are highest.
We observed that despite a 1 year longer disease duration (P = 0.016), LRRK2 G2019S carriers with PD had similar burden of motor symptoms, yet significantly fewer non-motor symptoms including cognitive difficulties, REM sleep behaviour disorder (RBD) and hyposmia (all P-values ≤ 0.0002). The cumulative incidence of PD in G2019S carriers by age 80 was 49%. G2019S carriers had a 10-fold risk of developing PD versus non-carriers. This rose to a 27-fold risk in G2019S carriers with a PD polygenic risk score in the top 25% versus non-carriers in the bottom 25%. In addition to identifying ancient founding events in people of North African and Ashkenazi descent, our genetic ancestry analyses infer that the G2019S variant was later introduced to Spanish colonial territories in the Americas. Our results suggest LRRK2 G2019S PD appears to be a slowly progressive predominantly motor subtype of PD with a lower prevalence of hyposmia, RBD and cognitive impairment. This suggests that the current prodromal criteria, which are based on idiopathic PD, may lack sensitivity to detect the early phases of LRRK2 PD in G2019S carriers.
We show that polygenic burden may contribute to the development of PD in the LRRK2 G2019S carrier population. Collectively, the results should help support screening programmes and candidate enrichment strategies for upcoming trials of LRRK2 inhibitors in early-stage disease.