bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Injury: Burns, Scalds, and Chemical
Authors: Bohnert Michael 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe purpose of the forensic investigation of deaths related to heat exposure is to determine the manner and cause of death, the vitality of the findings, and the identity of the victim. The basis of the assessment is a careful evaluation of the autopsy findings. Additional investigations, such as toxicological tests (e.g., determination of carbon monoxide concentration, cyanide concentration, and blood alcohol concentration) or histological examination (particularly of the airways), may help to complete the assessment of the case. The possible findings of burned bodies cover a broad spectrum. They can range from minor, local, superficial burns of the skin to calcined skeletal remains without any soft tissue left. The external as well as the internal findings in burned bodies depend on the temperature actually applied to the body, the time for which it is applied, the kind of transmission of the heat to the body, and other prevailing conditions. The consequences are burns of the exposed tissue, changes in the content and distribution of tissue fluid, fixation of the tissue, and shrinking processes. Only in very rare cases do the effects of the heat cease with the time of death. Consequently, many findings seen at autopsy may be of postmortem origin with fluent transitions between intravital, perimortal, and postmortem changes.
Time of Death Determinations
Authors: Madea Burkhard 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Estimation of the time since death is a practical task in daily forensic case work. The main principle of determination of the time since death is the calculation of a measurable date along a time–dependent curve back to the start point. Current parameters used for estimating the time since death are completely different in nature (physical processes, physical–chemical processes, bacterial processes, and metabolic processes). The methods currently used for estimating the time since death and the practical application of different methods are outlined.
Wounds: Sharp Injury
Authors: Pollak Stefan , Saukko Pekka J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractSharp‐force injuries are traditionally divided into stab, cut, and chop wounds. Stab wounds occur when a pointed object—usually a knife—penetrates into the body along its longitudinal axis. Cuts are caused by the slicing effect of a blade, and chop wounds are produced by blows with a sharp‐edged tool such as an axe or a machete. A morphological feature common to all wounds caused by sharp force is that the skin lesions have smooth, uncontused, more or less gaping margins. Fatal outcomes are mostly due to strong internal and/or external bleeding. Medicolegal investigations are performed for documentation of the injuries and interpretation as to how they came about and whether they were inflicted by the victims themselves or by another person. The group of self‐inflicted injuries includes completed and attempted suicides, dermal artifacts in patients with personality disorders, voluntary self‐damage among prisoners, those inflicted for the purpose of insurance fraud, and, finally, those for simulations of criminal offenses.Characteristic findings help the forensic expert to differentiate between accident, suicide, and homicide. The presence of defense injuries is a certain indicator for an attack with a sharp instrument. The article gives a short overview of the circumstances, phenomena, and consequences of sharp‐force injuries. The text is illustrated by numerous photographs from forensic routine work.
Archaeology
Authors: Hunter John 
Published: September 2009

AbstractForensic archaeology is the application of archaeological theory within modern criminal investigation, typically in the search for and recovery of buried human remains. This can apply in both individual and mass graves. The topic is broken into several key elements: methodology and stratigraphy, search, recovery, and mass graves. The methodology considers the underlying principles of stratigraphy, which can allow remains to be interpreted in terms of buried context and chronology, and the importance of treating the burial itself as a crime scene. The search for buried remains can involve the use of aerial photography and imagery, geophysical survey, cadaver dogs, fieldcraft, probing, and trial excavation. The importance of noninvasive methods is highlighted, as is the need to use complementary methods, especially in geophysics. Stress is laid on the importance of creating records and on eliminating areas with confidence. Records are also important in the recovery of buried remains, given that archaeology is a nonrepeatable process. The importance of using half‐sections is stressed, as is the need to recognize stratigraphic boundaries and avoid contamination. The application of archaeology to mass graves is relatively new; it requires archaeologists to be familiar with manifestations of human rights abuse, torture, and machine excavation and to understand issues pertaining to primary and secondary graves.
Microscopy: High Power
Authors: Robertson James 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
High power microscopes (HPM) are essential instruments in the forensic tool bits. They enable the examiner to make detailed observations of a wide variety of sample types encountered in forensic investication. With the range of illumination and specialist options available with modern HPM, in wealth of information can be obtained. However, in order to make the best use of HPM, the instrument must be properly set up and maintained. This necessarily requires a proper understanding of underlying optical theory.
Microscopy:FTIR
Authors: Kirkbride K. Paul 
Published: September 2009

AbstractFourier transform infrared (FT‐IR) microscopy is also known asinfrared microspectroscopy. It is a key technique in forensic science for the collection of infrared spectra from microscopic particles of trace evidence (such as paint, textile fibers, and particles of explosives) and individual crystals, as might be found in drug preparations. This article describes the construction of infrared microspectrometers, important considerations for their usage, and advanced techniques such as attenuated total reflectance microspectroscopy and infrared microspectral imaging.
Soil: Forensic Analysis
Authors: Fitzpatrick Robert W. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The history of forensic soil science and the importance of pedology, mineralogy, chemistry, biology, and spatial information data are reviewed from a world perspective. The significance and relevance of established concepts and standard terminologies used in pedology with practical relevance to forensic science are emphasized. A systematic approach for forensic soil examination is outlined, which combines soil morphology (e.g., color, consistency, texture, and structure), mineralogy (p owder X‐ray diffraction), chemistry (e.g., based upon infrared spectroscopy analyses), biology, and spatial field mapping information. These methods are applied in three stages: (i) rapid characterization of composite soil particles in whole soil samples for the quick screening of samples (Stage 1); (ii) detailed characterization and quantification of composite and individual soil particles following sample selection, size fractionation, and detailed mineralogical and organic matter analyses using advanced analytical methods (Stage 2); and (iii) integration and extrapolation of soil information from one scale to next, to build a coherent model of soil information from microscopic observations to the landscape scale (Stage 3). This combined information is used for geographic sourcing to identify the origin of a crime scene soil sample by placing constraints on the environment from which the sample originated. Finally, “forensic soil science” as a newly developed discipline of soil science has matured to the extent that well‐defined questions and successful crime scene investigations can be answered in increasingly refined ways.
Databases
Authors: Walsh Simon J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
In terms of forensic‐specific applications of DNA technology, few have had a more profound effect on the field than the global implementation of forensic DNA databases. The expansion of this phenomenon has not only required an appropriate level of scientific sophistication but also unprecedented legislative, political, and financial support. Forensic DNA databases have had considerable impact on the criminal justice system and have greatly augmented the contribution of forensic science.
Short Tandem Repeats
Authors: Bright Jo‐Anne 
Published: September 2009

AbstractShort tandem repeat (STR) analysis is the method used in many forensic biology testing laboratories throughout the world for identity and paternity testing. The short length of STRs, their variability between different individuals, and their ability to be amplified via the polymerase chain reaction make them extremely useful as forensic DNA markers. The topics discussed in this entry include nomenclature, common STR loci, multiplexed STRs, variants and mutation rates, and nonhuman analysis of STRs for forensic use.
Evidence Interpretation: A Logical Approach
Authors: Champod Christophe , Evett Ian Webber 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This paper provides an introduction to basic probabilities in their application to forensic science. After a definition of probabilities, odds and Bayes theorem, these concepts will be linked with the issues of inference in criminal trials. The three principles of evidence interpretation are exposed and illustrated with examples. Finally the case assessment and interpretation framework is presented, stressing upon the hierarchy of propositions, the structure of evaluative statements and the transposed conditional.
Bayesian Networks
Authors: Taroni Franco 
Published: September 2009

AbstractBayesian networks (BNs) are a mathematically and statistically rigorous technique for handling uncertainty. They allow their user to define a pictorial representation of assumed dependencies and influences among a set of variables deemed to be relevant for a particular inferential problem. Moreover, newly acquired evidence can be processed in a way that complies with the rules of probability calculus. The field of forensic science has recently attributed increased attention to the many advantages of this graphical method for assisting the evaluation and interpretation of scientific evidence.
Mixture Interpretation:
DNA
Authors: Buckleton John S. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract

DNA mixtures represent an increasing fraction of forensic DNA casework. They are currently interpreted by one of at least three methods. These are

extract from the mixed DNA profile, when feasible, a single (unmixed) profile of interest and report it using the statistical techniques used for single stain calculation;

report an exclusion probability (often termed random man not excluded (RMNE) or combined power of exclusion (CPE)); and

report a likelihood ratio.

The methodology, advantages and issues relating to these approaches are discussed. Amongst the highlighted issues is the need to check that the method used does not inappropriately overstate the weight of the evidence. Circumstances where this may be a risk are highlighted and tend to centre around those times that the combinmation of genotypes required to sustain the prosecution case are not the combination most supported by the data.
Interpretation: Low Template
DNA
Authors: Buckleton John S. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
In this article we discuss the statistical interpretation of low template DNA (LTDNA) evidence. LTDNA is used in preference to the prior appellation low copy number (LCN), because it more accurately reflects the nature of the evidence rather than the technique used to produce it. The limited amount of DNA available can affect the ability of the PCR process to amplify it to detection levels. Increasing the number of PCR cycles to increase detection ability introduces issues in that low level contaminants may also be amplified, and that trace amounts of DNA may not be able to be distinguished from allelic stutter if they are in stutter positions. These stochastic phenomena, drop out, drop in (or contamination) and stutter all have a marked effect on how evidence may be interpreted.
MitochondrialDNA: Interpretation
Authors: Tully Gillian , Wetton Jon 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe interpretation of mitochondrial DNA evidence is dependant upon whether an exact or near match is observed between a questioned and a reference sample and must take into account both its high mutation rate and the potential existence of many distant relatives who share the same sequence. A range of methods of varying sophistication have been developed to estimate evidential strength and their derivation and merits are described here along with a discussion of the need for appropriate databases upon which to base the calculations. The application of these methods is illustrated by way of examples.
Interpretation: Document Evidence
Authors: Mazzella W.D. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe literature dealing with the interpretation of “printed” documents is very limited. The absence of published literature reflects the absence of formal guidelines to help a scientist in assessing the relationship between a questioned document and a printing technology. Generally every printout, independently from the printing technology, may present manufactured characteristics and acquired characteristics (individual characteristics). A logical approach to help the scientist in the formal interpretation of such evidences is to assess the results in a likelihood ratio (LR) format. Three examples aim to show the application of this approach.
Fibers
Authors: Roux Claude , Robertson James 
Published: September 2009

AbstractOwing to their size and their particular nature, fibers probably constitute the ultimate example of trace evidence. Although fibers are easily transferred during a criminal event and a large pool of techniques can be applied for their characterization, the interpretation of an apparent “fiber match” remains one of the most difficult challenges in the forensic examination of trace evidence. However, our knowledge in this area has significantly improved over the last 25 years. Nowadays, a wealth of empirical data can be used by forensic scientists to determine the value of fiber evidence in the context of a case. In addition, logical and statistical frameworks can also assist them in this endeavor. This article presents a summary of the state of the art in this topic.
Interpreting Expert Opinions: History of
Authors: Aitken Colin G. G. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractA history of interpretation in forensic science is given in chronological order. There are four stages starting with relative frequencies. Second is discriminating power, which is an answer to the problem of the determination of the quality of a method for distinguishing between two samples from different sources. Significance probabilities are described as the first part of a two‐stage process. The second stage is a comparison. If the measurements on the control and recovered groups are not significantly different, they are deemed similar. A comparison is made as to whether the similarity is that of a rare characteristic or of a common characteristic. The fourth stage is the likelihood ratio, which is the factor that converts prior odds into posterior odds. A description is given of the relationship between significance probabilities and the likelihood ratio. The article ends with a brief discussion of error and of Bayesian networks.
Examination of Fibers and Textiles
Authors: Nehse Kornelia 
Published: September 2009

AbstractFiber and textile examination offer a wide range of different and valuable information in case work. The identification of a fiber may yield valuable information on the source. However, the main value of fiber examination arises in the context of trace evidence. Fibers shed from the surface of garments and get transferred onto other surfaces. The number that transfers and the persistence of the transferred fibers on the foreign surfaces vary with the type of fiber and depend on the characteristics of the receptive surface. Examination includes fiber intelligence work in which the interpretation of trace distribution and its relevance in relation to the most likely actions at the scene of the alleged crime, reconstruction of textiles and clothing from found pieces, identification of manufacturer and distribution numbers via specific fiber types, identification of manufacturer and time frame of production via labels, and also the identification of clothes types by comparison with photographs or video images can assist the police in investigating a crime.The investigation of textile damages and physical fits and the reconstruction of knots can also play an important role in textile investigation and might offer valuable information.
Glass
Authors: Lovelock Tina J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Glass can be a highly significant evidence type that can be used to link an individual to a scene. If the pieces of broken glass are large enough, these may be physically or mechanically fitted together like a jigsaw puzzle. However, many fragments produced by a breaking or broken glass object tend to be microscopic (<1 mm) in size. Scientists can search items of clothing, footwear, and hair combings for particles of glass from an alleged perpetrator or victim and compare any found to a window or glass object broken at the scene of a crime. This article briefly discusses the following: glass technology—the composition of glass and manufacture; breaking glass—how glass breaks, how it is transferred, retained, and recovered by forensic scientists; analysis and comparison—using refractive index and elemental composition; and interpretation of findings.
Hair: Animal
Authors: Tridico Silvana R. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The forensic examination of animal hair is a well established discipline and has been so for over a century. The basis of all animal hair examination is microscopy, which may enable the hair analyst to identify a hair as animal in origin, characterize the hair to a particular family or species and to conduct comparative examinations. Animal hairs bear microscopic features or characteristics that may assist in their identification. These features can be external, such as the roots and the scale pattern present along the shaft of the hair and internal such as the medulla. Over the last century the examination of animal hairs remained essentially unchanged until the arrival of relative “newcomers” to the examination of animal hairs forum; the transfer and persistence of animal hairs; and DNA profiling. Preliminary studies conducted specifically on the transfer and persistence of animal hairs has shown that the results are comparable to the studies conducted on textile fibers. The advent of DNA profiling of animal hairs provided a degree of individualization which has not been possible with comparative microscopy.
Microchemistry
Authors: Schneck William M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Microchemistry is the application of chemical tests to characterize and identify small quantities of material using a compound microscope. Microchemistry involves the formation of characteristic crystals that can be identified. The chemical tests are performed on a microscope slide, and are simple, inexpensive, and rapid. Qualitative analysis of anions, cations, and functional groups can be performed on microscopic samples, the results of which can be used as an adjunct to instrumental methods. Microchemical tests are performed in many disciplines of forensic science including microanalysis, serology, and drug chemistry.
Trace Evidence: Transfer, Persistence, and Value
Authors: McDermott Sean D. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractTransfer and persistence studies have been undertaken on trace evidence for many years. The mechanism of transfer and the factors affecting persistence have helped in our knowledge of the nature of trace evidence.The article explores:Transfer of trace material by contact and non‐contact.Persistence of trace material and loss with timeProblems with interpretation of small amounts of trace evidenceSecondary transfer of material.
Fire Debris: Laboratory Analysis of
Authors: Lentini John J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article describes the laboratory analysis of fire evidence. The most common analysis is the examination of debris samples to determine the presence of inedible liquid residues. These analyses are used to test the field investigator's hypothesis regarding the involvement of ignitable liquids in the fire. Fire debris analysis involves separating volatile residues from the sample, then analyzing those residues by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC‐MS). Several methods of separation and concentration of residues are available, and the interpretation of GC‐MS data has been highly standardized. The article includes a discussion of the accepted criteria for identification of most major classes of ignitable liquid residues.
Explosions: Scene Investigation
Authors: Thurman James T. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Explosion scene investigations must be carried out methodically to ensure that evidence is recognized and collected, and that the parties responsible for the explosion are correctly identified. It is first necessary to determine whether the event was malicious or the result of an accident, but often that issue is clear from the outset. Explosive scene investigators must learn to recognize and properly collect and document bomb components and other kinds of forensic evidence. This article discusses the basic procedures to be carried out at the scene of a malicious explosion.
Arson Investigation: Misconceptions and Mythology
Authors: Lentini John J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractProgress in fire investigation is held back by the burden of an entrenched cache of incorrect “knowledge”. Despite the fact that it has been over 15 years since National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 921 was first published, some fire investigators still rely on “misconceptions” about the meaning of various fire effects and fire patterns. This article explores some of those.
Fire Modeling and Its Application in Fire Investigation
Authors: Carpenter Douglas J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIndividuals involved in the forensic investigation and analysis of fire and explosion incidents are usually tasked with rendering opinions as to the origin, cause, responsibility, and/or prevention of such incidents so that future incidents can be avoided or prevented. The essence of the investigation of fire and explosion incidents is embodied in the use of the scientific method, which has traditionally been used in the physical sciences and forms the basis for legitimate scientific and engineering investigations. The combustion and fire sciences involve complex phenomena, and the advancement of these sciences has helped to build a technical foundation for the discipline. The challenge for the fire investigator is the practical application of fundamental knowledge to the investigation of fires. Such fundamental knowledge can be exploited through the development of models to overcome some of the complexities of the combustion phenomena that limit practical application. Mathematical fire modeling provides the fire investigator with tools for the testing of hypotheses associated with the origin and cause of a particular fire event. Even when the origin and cause of the fire is not at issue, these modeling tools can also be used to evaluate the factors that caused damage to property or injury to people. This article provides an overview of mathematical fire modeling and its application to the investigation of fire and explosion incidents.