bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Community-Based Health Interventions
Authors: Ansell Leah H. 
Published: January 2011

AbstractA critical analysis of past community-based interventions is integral to the design of more effective interventions in the future. The chapter begins with a discussion of the definition of community interventions and how the community is conceptualized in the designs of various studies. It then presents a comprehensive analysis of the rationale for community-based interventions. It offers a brief summary of the two pioneer cardiovascular studies of the 1970s that served as the impetus for the three major trials that were carried out in the United States in the 1980s. These latter trials are summarized and explored in greater depth. The chapter concludes by delineating the elements of community campaigns that seem to enhance intervention impact and facilitate sustainability of change. This information is assembled within the context of the current theories regarding community-based participatory research, with the hope that this information will allow interventionists to move community projects forward more effectively.
Pagans and Polytheists
Authors: Cameron Alan 
Published: January 2011

AbstractThis chapter justifies the term “pagan”. The earliest documented meaning of the Latin paganus was apparently “rural,” from pagus, a rural district. But to judge from surviving texts, the dominant meaning by the early empire was “civilian,” as opposed to “military.” Soon after the middle of the 4th century, it became the standard Latin designation for non-Christians. It is less well known that by as early as the 1st century the word had passed into Greek, where it still survives in the modern language—but only in the second of these three meanings. The chapter also discusses the use of the term “polytheist” in place of “pagan”.
Pagan Converts
Authors: Cameron Alan 
Published: January 2011

AbstractEver since Gibbon enumerated the “secondary” causes for the spread of Christianity (the primary cause, naturally, being “the convincing evidence of the doctrine itself”), historians have sought to trace, date, and account for the Christianization of the Roman world. It is clear that the conversion of Constantine was a turning point, though there is less agreement about the extent of pre-Constantinian Christianity. Thanks to the support of a succession of Christian emperors and an aggressive church, by the beginning of the 5th century paganism was in rapid decline. This chapter examines how rapid (and how defiant) this decline was.
The Poem Against the Pagans
Authors: Cameron Alan 
Published: January 2011

AbstractThis chapter examines the anti-pagan poem, Carmen contra paganos (CCP). Since the subject of the poem was both prefect and consul, as Flavian was in 394, the poem was assigned to this year and interpreted as an attack on Flavian written shortly after his death. The tirade against pagan cults it contains was read as a reflection of the pagan revival he supposedly directed. However, the structure, tenor, and themes of the poem as a whole simply do not fit with what is known of Flavian and his part in the rebellion of Eugenius.
Correctors and Critics I
Authors: Cameron Alan 
Published: January 2011

AbstractThe “editing” of classical texts has long been identified as one of the principal ways the pagan aristocracy of Rome tried to maintain and promote the old order. At the end of certain works (or individual sections or books within those works) some manuscripts preserve subscriptions—notes stating that some person with impressive sounding titles has “emended,” “reviewed,” or “checked” the text at such and such a time and place. Some of these subscribers are familiar names, and it is clear that many were members of the elite of their day. This chapter discusses Greek subscriptions, subscriptions by owners and other private subscriptions, subscriptions in manuscripts copied for friends, and subscriptions in newly copied texts.
Khirbet Qumran and Its Environs
Authors: Meyers Eric M. 
Published: January 2011

AbstractThis article makes it clear that there is a connection between the caves and the settlement of Khirbet Qumran. Although no scrolls have been found at the site, there is evidence in the artificially cut Cave 4, and Caves 7, 8, and 9, and the pottery found in the caves. There is also strong evidence to support the idea that the majority of inhabitants from Qumran lived in the caves, and it would have been they who hid the scrolls from the advancing Roman armies either at the time of the first destruction of Qumran in 9/8 or 4 BCE or of the Great Revolt in 68 CE. Recently, some scholars have proposed that members of the elite Temple establishment or the Judaean synagogue communities fleeing the Roman armies, wanted to save the scrolls of the Jewish community and deposited them in the Qumran caves.
The Origins and History of the Teacher's
Movement
Authors: Wise Michael O. 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
Shortly after the first Dead Sea Scrolls came to light, scholars began trying to explain the ultimate origin of the deposits. This article suggests that the totality of the evidence now available offers only very uncertain support for the traditional form of the Essene hypothesis. The discussion focuses on the sectarian texts and their use in writing the history of the Teacher of Righteousness and his movement. This is proper method in the first instance, and so little has been said of the non-sectarian writings found among the scrolls. It would seem then that the non-sectarian texts tend to support the broad parameters of the reconstruction offered here, and tend to question the classical Essene hypothesis as originally conceived and often still propagated. The Teacher and his movement appear to belong to the first century BCE.
The Book of Enoch and the Qumran Scrolls
Authors: VanderKam James C. 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
The work that is today called the Book of Enoch or 1 Enoch is actually a collection of ancient booklets written at different times by several authors, almost all of them composed in the Aramaic language. They all share the trait that Enoch is the speaker and/or protagonist. Though a book of Enoch was known and fairly widely used in antiquity, most of the text was lost to Western readers until copies of the Ethiopic translation of the book were brought from Abyssinia to Europe beginning in the late eighteenth century CE. This article describes the components, the textual evidence, and influential themes in 1 Enoch. It also considers the place of the book in Second Temple Judaism and evaluates the Enochic–Essene hypothesis.
Assessing the Text‐Critical Theories of the
Hebrew Bible after Qumran
Authors: Hendel Ronald S. 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
The biblical texts from Qumran are the oldest manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible, dating from the mid-third century BCE through the first century CE. Prior to the discovery of the Qumran texts, evidence for the early history of the biblical text consisted of three major versions – the Masoretic text (MT), the Septuagint (LXX), and the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) – each with an unbroken chain of transmission to the present day. This article assesses the major text-critical theories of the Hebrew Bible after Qumran. First, it surveys the textual situation at Qumran and the relationships among the Qumran texts and the major versions (MT, LXX, and SP), using, as a perspicuous example, the texts of Exodus. Then, the article addresses the adequacy of the text-critical theories, testing their strengths and weaknesses against this evidence. The major protagonists in the theoretical discussion are Frank M. Cross, Shemaryahu Talmon, Emanuel Tov, and Eugene Ulrich.
Authoritative Scriptures and the Dead Sea
Scrolls
Authors: Lim Timothy H. 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
The approach advocated in this article is the understanding of canon as authoritative literature that is binding for the Qumran community. The distinctive features of this approach are: authority is related to a community; the pesherite is central to the understanding of authoritative literature; there is a vaguely bipartite canon where the ‘Torah of Moses’ referred to the Pentateuch; authoritative literature included the biblical lemmata cited and the pesherite interpretation; Jubilees, Enoch, and the Temple Scroll were not considered part of the Torah of Moses; the rules of the community were considered canonical and authoritative; and other books, such as the Psalms of Joshua and ‘the book of meditation’, may also have been considered authoritative.
Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek in the Qumran
Scrolls
Authors: Joosten Jan 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
From a linguist's point of view, the Qumran community was situated in the eye of a storm. In the late Second Temple period, Judaea was multilingual and culturally torn. Hebrew was favoured by Jewish nationalism and religious tradition and Aramaic had been the main language of public life, yet Greek had taken a central place in administration and politics. Under the Romans, Latin was added into the mix. Language use was never neutral in this society. At least three different languages are in fact represented in the Qumran library: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. The Hebrew and Aramaic texts discovered in Qumran are extremely precious to linguists, as they are to students of other disciplines. At the same time they raise a large number of questions. This article outlines some of the fruits of research on Qumran Hebrew and Qumran Aramaic, as well as some of the issues that remain debated.
Apocalypticism and Messianism
Authors: Knibb Michael A. 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
The beliefs of the movement that lies behind the scrolls were influenced by the eschatological ideas of the early Enochic writings and by the Book of Daniel, and although the movement does not seem to have produced many apocalypses, eschatology and messianism formed a significant part of its thought-world. But the movement was concerned above all with the proper observance of the Torah. It seems likely that the development of dualism and to some extent of eschatology was a way of coping with the fact that their interpretation of the Torah was not accepted by the leaders. The discussion also holds that the eschatological and messianic beliefs of the Dead Sea Scrolls represent a development of traditions already contained in the Hebrew Bible and form part of the spectrum of beliefs that were common to Jews of the period.
Wisdom Literature and Thought in the Dead Sea Scrolls
Authors: Lange Armin 
Published: January 2011

AbstractThe wisdom texts from Qumran are almost all non-Essene in origin, and date mostly to the third and second centuries BCE. They provide new insights into how Jewish wisdom thought developed in this period, but are far removed from the early proverb collections that are still perceived as characteristic of Jewish wisdom literature. The sapiential texts among the Dead Sea Scrolls show that in ancient Judaism, Job and Qohelet are exceptional responses to the cognitive crises of wisdom caused by the problem of theodicy. A more common answer was Torah wisdom, which claimed that God had revealed the sapiential order of the universe on Mt Sinai in the shape of the Torah. Texts such as Musar le Mevin and the Book of Mysteries declared the sapiential order of the universe a mystery, which was accessible only by specially trained sages.
Monotheism, Principal Angels, and the Background of
Christology
Authors: Hurtado L. W. 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
In recent decades, there has been an intensively renewed interest in the origins and development of ‘Christology’, religious practices as well as ideas/beliefs, and earliest ‘devotion’. Scholars have explored in what ways Jesus-devotion may have drawn upon Jewish tradition and how it may have represented something innovative. In particular, there are questions about the means by which early believers, shaped by Jewish tradition, with its concern for the uniqueness of God, may have accommodated devotion to Jesus as in some way bearing divine significance. The Qumran texts comprise a major and unique cache of material giving access to Second Temple Jewish religious tradition, and are, thus, integral in all of this investigation. This article describes ancient Jewish monotheism, principal angels, and the origins of ‘High’ Christology.
Shared Exegetical Traditions between the Scrolls and the New Testament
Authors: Brooke George J. 
Published: January 2011

AbstractThis article describes and discusses some aspects of biblical interpretation in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament, aspects that in some way seem to suggest common concerns, whether in terms of content, of form, or of method. It looks at the topic of exegetical traditions that are shared between the compositions preserved in the scrolls found in the eleven caves at and near Qumran and those to be found in the books of the New Testament. Amongst the key issues that need to be kept in mind are: the variety of the witnesses to the Jewish scriptures in the late Second Temple period, whether in Hebrew or in Greek; the rich variety of types of exegesis that extend far beyond eschatologically motivated prophetic fulfilment in both sets of literature; and the range of exegetical methods in both corpora.
Halakhah between the Dead Sea Scrolls and Rabbinic
Literature
Authors: Shemesh Aharon 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the Dead Sea Scrolls for knowledge of halakhah in late antiquity. Because of this finding, there is now original first-hand information on halakhah as practised by a specific Jewish group during the Second Temple period. Previously, the only other extant collections of halakhic material were the corpora of mishnah and midrash. While these incorporate some first-century material, they were redacted in the third or fourth centuries, thus postdating the scrolls by at least 200 years. This article portrays these two bodies of literature. It examines their structure and content, depicts their fundamental assumptions with regard to the origins and authority of halakhah, and explores the relationships between them. The article uses the ‘Essene hypothesis’ and refers to the laws and religious customs found in the scrolls as representing the halakhah practised by the Essenes.
The Contribution of the Qumran Scrolls to the Study
of Ancient Jewish Liturgy
Authors: Falk Daniel K. 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
Prayer as a service to God by the people is one of the most far reaching of religious practices, forming a central part of the religious practice of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam; yet there is still much uncertainty about how this developed within Judaism and why. Scrolls from Qumran provide the most important corpus of evidence to shed light on the critical period during the days of the Second Temple. This article presents a case study for prayer in ancient Judaism. It is organized around the types of questions being asked: questions of definition and classification, textual questions, historical questions, questions concerning context, and questions of ideology and theology. There is a good deal of overlap between these categories, but they are be treated separately for heuristic purposes.
Introduction
Authors: Loughlin John , Hendriks Frank , Lidström Anders 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
From 1945 to 1975, the ‘nationalization’ of governance gathered a pace through the centralization and bureaucratization of public policy programmes which left the national and regional authorities as primarily agents with the function of delivering welfare services on behalf of the central governments. Although local authorities could become powerful in this scenario, in reality, their political autonomy was diminished. Furthermore, during this period democracy was accepted primarily as representative democracy, and other forms such as direct and participatory democracy as undesirable. During the 1960s however, there was a growing interest in other forms of democracy. This and the crises of the nation-state in the 1970s and 1980s catalyzed important changes in the theory and practice of democracy in Europe. Neo-liberalism reforms were introduced to the economic policies as well as in the territorial governance of the nations. It shifted the ‘principal-agent’ model of governance in European nations to decentralized governance. In this book, twenty-nine country cases are examined through their state traditions and models of democracy to understand subnational democracy in Europe. State traditions determine the conditions within which democracy, at both national and subnational levels, is understood and practiced in each nation. And models of democracy determine each of the nation's democratic practices through the following typology of democracy: pendulum democracy, consensus democracy, voter democracy, and participatory democracy.
The United Kingdom: Is there Really an Anglo
Model?
Authors: John Peter , Copus Colin 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
Like many aspects of government and politics in the UK, it is a challenge to find one defining moment that shaped the local government systems. This lack of plan reflects the gradual decline of the local government after their heyday in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Part of the problem of the gradual decline of the local governments is the absence of a key event and clear foundation that established this institution. The closest to a defining moment was the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835, which democratized the medieval system of the government of towns and cities. While this consolidated the decision-making framework which required the whole council to be responsible for policy making and democratized existing corporations and new corporations, the Act however did not introduce a uniform system of elected local government. Rather, it reflected the lack of codification of local government in the UK which has continued to exist until the present time. This article discusses the system of local government in the UK. It explores the themes of centralization in the overall government system of the UK and how it affects the local government system of the nation. Created centuries ago and deemed significant, the local government however has struggled to maintain an effective and legitimate force in British politics and policy-making. In spite of reform efforts, such as the establishment of the Greater London Authority and the mayor for London, local government nevertheless continues to see its decline and its minimized role within the peripheries of British political life. It has continued to witness its weak visibility, representation, and influence in the centre-fold of the British government.
Belgium: A Tale of Regional Divergence?
Authors: Wayenberg Ellen , De Rynck Filip , Steyvers Kristof , Pilet Jean‐Benoît 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
Under the surface of great unity, Belgium suffered from three cleavages that have divided the small nation. This article discusses the three cleavages that have influenced and affected the political make-up of Belgian. The first two have an indirect effect on subnational democracy as they are an expression of the structural relationship between the state, civil society, and the market. The third cleavage has a more direct bearing on democracy beyond the nation-state. The first cleavage is the rise of liberals opposing rural Catholic domination of society. A logic of subsidiarity was formed which developed a system of pillarization (verzuiling) which segmented society. The second cleavage is economic, as the mass labour force stood against a capitalist regime. With the development of the labour movement and the spread of voting rights, capitalism became more state-regulated. This led to corporatism where private organizations were given privileged status and often monopolized substantial aspects of public goods and service delivery. The last cleavage is the conflicts between two linguistic communities. This conflict affected the nature of the subnational democracy of Belgium. The combined effects of the three cleavages: pillarization, corporatism, and regionalization, made Belgium local governments and local leaders amongst the weakest in Europe. While tendencies of divergence are prevalent in the Belgian context, convergence is still a possibility: the regions integrated Belgian heritage into their political systems. The most crucial is the strong political localism which led to a complex intergovernmental and party-political lobbying and to blurred responsibilities which hollow out local democracy. In general, local democracy has been the victim of such systematic features.
The Netherlands: Subnational Democracy and the
Reinvention of Tradition
Authors: Hendriks Frank , Schaap Linze 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
Cities and towns played a key role in the history of state formation in the Netherlands. From the Spanish Habsburgs to the Burgundians, the Netherlands have attempted to achieve centralization and concentration of the powerful with little success. However in 1848, J. R. Thorbecke was commissioned by the king to draft a new constitution. This led to the formation of a Thorbeckean system which focused on a decentralized unitary state that still exists today. Its unitary nature is not based on a centralized government structure, but on agreement among the three active components of the state: central government, provinces, and local authorities. The Thorbeckean system is an association of mutually restricting bodies designed to work freely. This concept of government has influenced the political and governmental structure of the Netherlands. This article discusses the Dutch government system, its efforts of reforming subnational democracy and reinventing interactive policy-making, and local politics. Of its efforts to reform the democracy at the local and regional level, the most significant move of the Dutch government is the reinvention of interactive policy-making or network governance and co-production. This move towards interactive policy-making is a reinvention of tradition rather than reinvention of the government. While the move is a retrace of a tradition, the Dutch government nevertheless have added new elements as well.
Luxembourg: The Challenge of Inclusive Democracy in a
‘Local State’
Authors: Dumont Patrick , Kies Raphaël , Poirier Philippe 
Published: January 2011

Abstract
This article focuses on the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the organization, delimitation, and democracy within the subnational government or municipality. Luxembourg is a unitary state with a single tier of subnational government. The structure of the unitary state of the Grand Duchy combines the features of a centralized unitary state of the French tradition with the consensual political system of Belgium and the Netherlands. Many of the elements of its institutional framework are inherited from former occupations. German and French influences are evident in the territorial division, in its financial means of autonomy, and in relations of the local authorities and the central state. The interdependencies between the national and local level is also influenced by the relatively small size of the nation. Within this context, the central government of the Grand Duchy exerts a strong hold over local affairs. However, the politics at the national level and territorial reform plans are also affected by the massive presence of local office holders in parliament. Although reforms and new schemes of cooperation between municipalities and the state have been introduced, these measures have not loosened the grip of the central state on subnational authorities.