bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Runaway World
Authors: Stones Rob 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Runaway World: How Globalisation is Reshaping our Lives
was the title provided by the eminent British sociologist, Anthony Giddens, for the series of talks he was invited to give for the 1999 BBC Reith Lectures (Giddens 2002). Choosing to present his lectures in four different global venues – moving from London, to Hong Kong, Delhi, Washington DC and then back to London for the final lecture – Giddens's central focus was our sense of living in a world that is in many ways out of control. Giddens argued that this sense was profoundly linked to the phenomenon of globalization, which in line with his other works such as
The Consequences of Modernity
(1990) he presented as a process that involves the stretching of social relations across time and space so that powerful and dynamic international and transnational networks of connection increasingly dominate local experiences and interactions. Individuals feel that unstable and unsettling forces over which they have little or no power are pushing them around, and are doing so arbitrarily, with little reference to standards of reason, justice or respect. This provokes intense feelings of anxiety, disorientation, frustration, and anger. These experiences are directly at odds with the Enlightenment belief that the application of reason to the natural, social, and political worlds would lead to a stable, secure and predictable world (Giddens 2002: 1–3). Such a belief in order and control had informed Weber's resigned acceptance that we would all be reduced to tiny cogs in smoothly efficient bureaucratic machines.
Scales of Globalization
Authors: Herod Andrew 
Published: March 2012

AbstractGlobalization is frequently described as a process that is rescaling economic, cultural, and political life. Virilio (1997) suggests that globalization is eviscerating scales like the national and the local, whereas Sassen (2003) argues it is spurring the “denationalization” of life. Gray (1998: 57) maintains that globalization is heralding de‐localization, “the uprooting of activities and relationships from local origins and cultures [and] the displacement of activities that until recently were local into networks of relationships whose reach is distant or worldwide.” These claims raise questions about how what are typically seen as the two ends of the scalar spectrum – the local and the global – are related to each other and to the geographic scales which are understood to lie between them, for example, the national.
Semiperiphery
Authors: Reifer Tom 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The concept of the semiperiphery has been among the most significant contributions of world‐systems analysis to the study of global capitalism, and arguably the most ambiguous. The concept of the semiperiphery forwarded the notion of an intermediate zone – with in‐between levels of wealth, income and types of production processes – that are exploited by the core and yet which in turn exploit the periphery, through a combination of Schumpeterian forms of monopolistic competition, innovation and creative destruction (Arrighi & Drangel 1986; O'Hearn 1994). Semiperipheral states and regions included states as diverse as South Africa, Israel, Brazil and Russia. Semiperipheral status is sometimes the fate of declining cores (Spain and Portugal in the sixteenth century) and an aspiration for other upwardly mobile states, the United States from 1776 to the twentieth century and other smaller states such as Taiwan and South Korea, whose very success under US hegemony encourages the illusion of national development for all states and regions.
Sex Trafficking
Authors: Lee Susan Hagood 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Sex trafficking is the practice of transporting persons away from their home to a distant location where they are coerced or forced into enslaved prostitution to the profit of their traffickers. The International Labor Organization estimates that 1.39 million women and girls worldwide are victims of commercial sexual servitude. Some women and girls are initially kidnapped into prostitution while others are sold by their parents or relatives. Many are lured into initial cooperation through the fraudulent promise of respectable employment. Traffickers flourish in impoverished regions with few employment opportunities and transport their victims to more affluent areas with a market for sexual services. In many regions, legal businesses participate in trafficking under the guise of tourism or entertainment. States profit through taxes on these businesses, and corrupt officials benefit from bribes to protect the industry. In some areas, military installations and peacekeeping operations provide a customer base for trafficking. The international community has responded to trafficking with a Protocol calling on states to enact laws to criminalize all involvement in sex trafficking.
Sex Work
Authors: Williams Erica L. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Prostitution or sex work is the act of exchanging sexual services for monetary gain. Sex work can also be defined as work that uses sexual elements of the body (Kempadoo & Doezema 1998: 4). Thus, prostitution is one type of sex work. Sex work, also known as sexual labor, may also include historical forms such as wet‐nursing, temple prostitution, surrogate child‐bearing, donor sex, (Kempadoo & Doezema 1998: 4). Often referred to as the world's oldest profession, sex work is relevant to globalization because it is prevalent in many societies around the world.
Sexualities, Globalizing
Authors: Haritaworn Jin , Bakshi Sandeep , Kuntsman Adi , Petzen Jennifer 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Feminist and gay representations are closely interlocked with current Islamophobic discourses. From the de‐veiling/outing of Afghani women or migrant Muslim women in Europe and the hypervisibility of sexual transgression in Abu Ghraib to the “sexiness” of warfare itself, gendered/sexualized images of Orientalism are spectacularly globalized and proliferated. Concurrently, they are mobilized differently in diverse local and national settings, as our research in three national locations has taught us. This entry addresses worrying resonances between local formations of Islamophobia in Israel, the United Kingdom and Germany. The aim is to address different manifestations of queer Islamophobia that for queers of color signals a backlash against multiculturalism and the permissibility (coming out of the closet) of racist discourses that reinforce Western superiority.
Sourcing
Authors: Lair Craig D. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
In the business context, sourcing is the process by which companies seek to procure needed goods, services, and/or supplies. Since there are normally many locations (i.e., sources) from which these goods, services, and supplies can be obtained, businesses often have some choice from where to acquire them. Common sources include a company's own internal (in‐house) resources; those of an outside company (outsourcing); a combination of internal and external resources, including a combination of multiple external providers (multisourcing); or the members of a community of users (crowdsourcing). Companies could even choose to take over functions generally performed by other companies (insourcing). The selection of which supplier to use can also be made by a variety of criteria including, but certainly not limited to, price, quality, speed (that is, how quickly a good, service, or supply can be delivered), and reputation (that is, does this product come from a reputable and reliable source). In cases where external suppliers are involved, sourcing relationships can also vary in terms of extensiveness of the relationship, ranging from one‐time transactions all the way to long‐term partnerships with preferred contractors (Lacity et al. 1996: 18). Variation also exists in terms of how integral the sourced activity is to a business's operations, ranging from more core elements (e.g., the forming of a strategic partnership with an external provider to help in research and development activities) to very peripheral elements (e.g., office supplies).
Spatiality
Authors: Featherstone David 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Globalization has been associated with claims of the annihilation of space by time and the erasure of the importance and distinctiveness of place. The many claims that globalization has fundamentally reworked experiences of spatiality is a testament to the importance of understanding globalization in spatial terms. Spatiality is defined here as the diverse connections, relations, and territorial formations that structure, and are generated through, social, political, and cultural life. Recent scholarship, however, has increasingly problematized claims that globalization has entailed such a fundamental shift in spatial relations. It has argued for the persistence of place in shaping social relations and has foregrounded the diverse spatialities through which globalizing processes are generated, negotiated, and contested. This entry reviews key ways in which the spatialities of globalization have been theorized and considers what is at stake in thinking globalization spatially.
Spectacles
Authors: Ieven Bram 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Introduced by French theorist Guy Debord, the spectacle stands for a specific moment in modern capitalism in which the image becomes the most important commodity. The spectacle in its entirety does not only designate the excess of images to which our world is subject today, but more importantly expresses the social relations between individuals in contemporary society that explains why images have become so dominant. The spectacle is therefore the central concept in a theory that describes the rise of modern media, but also addresses the political issues of the latter half of the twentieth century and the transformation of the economy that went along with it.
Starbucks
Authors: Simon Bryant 
Published: March 2012

AbstractStarbucks has always been a global company, really a global presence with a global sense of itself. Opened in Seattle in 1971, Starbucks seemed, and felt, at first more local than global. In its early years, it sold whole‐bean, freshly roasted coffee out of one store with the owners often standing behind the counter in aprons. Even when the company opened a second, and then a third store, it still seemed like a small mom and pop kind of place. But as much as Starbucks looked and acted local, it was already enmeshed in the global. All the beans it sold came from some place else, places like Sumatra or Ethiopia or Guatemala located on the economic fringes of the developed world. Indeed it was this physical, cultural, and economic distance that enhanced what Starbucks sold – the reworking of an ordinary everyday commodity – coffee – into a slightly exotic, affordable luxury from a far‐off place – a grande latte.
Supermarket Revolution
Authors: Humphery Kim 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Supermarkets can be broadly defined as self‐service grocery stores, offering a range of food and household goods that are organized and displayed according to product category. While supermarkets differ widely in floor size and product selection – with the largest classified as hypermarkets and superstores – they are historically differentiated from “traditional” counter‐service grocery outlets. Although now the dominant form of grocery and household goods retailing in Western and other affluent nations (and increasingly evident in developing economies), supermarkets are a relatively recent phenomenon, emerging in the United States in 1916.
Sweatshops
Authors: Wetterberg Anna 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
A sweatshop is a workplace where laborers are exploited, abused, forced to work under unsafe conditions for excessive lengths of time, and/or denied opportunities to organize improvements. The labor standards that are ignored in sweatshops may be national laws or internationally recognized norms, such as the International Labour Organization's (ILO) core conventions, addressing forced labor, child labor, free association and collective bargaining, and discrimination. The term originated in nineteenth‐century England where unskilled garment and footwear workers were described as “sweated trades,” subject to sub‐contracting, sub‐division of labor, and outwork, resulting in reduced wages, unsafe working conditions, and impeded unionization.
Terror
Authors: McDonald Kevin 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
What is terrorism and who is a terrorist are subjects of intense dispute, reflecting the extent that naming an actor or form of violence as terrorist involves declaring that actor or action as illegitimate. Such determinations often find themselves part of conflicts where labeling one's opponent a terrorist becomes part of ideological warfare. The question is further complicated by the question of state violence. Influential government definitions of terrorism, such as that of the United States Department of State, define terrorism as the violence of ‘sub‐national' groups, meaning that by definition states cannot engage in terrorism. This view is increasingly contested as states engage in actions ranging from supporting death squads, assassinations, or remote killings through drones – killings outside judicial frameworks and military confrontation historically constituting war. For these reasons, some argue that the term “terrorism” is better replaced by more neutral terms such as “political violence.” However not all forms of political violence can be analyzed as terrorism (for example riots, insurgency, etc), while not all forms of terrorism can be explained politically (such as the violence of religious sects).
Terrorism
Authors: Bergesen Albert 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Terrorism is a distinctive form of human violence that has been employed throughout history. It can be used by
individual terrorists
, such as the twentieth century radical leftist Carlos the Jackal, or the nineteenth century French anarchists Ravanchol and Emile Henri (who threw a bomb in a Parisian café), or twenty‐first century Islamist terrorists, such as Osama Bin Laden. It can also be used by
terrorist groups
, such as the Jewish Sciari or Zealots in first century Palestine (who stabbed and poisoned Romans), or the twelfth century Muslim Assassins in Syria/Persia, along with twenty‐first century Jihadist organizations al‐Qaeda, Islamic Jihad, or Hamas. Finally, there is
state terrorism
, perpetrated by governments against their own citizens, such as the 1790s Reign of Terror during the French Revolution and the twentieth century Stalinist Purges/Trials. States also terrorize other citizens, such as the RAF incendiary bombing of Dresden, the German bombing of London, and the American bombing of Japanese cities, all during World War II.
Terrorist cells
Authors: Jackson Brian A. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Clandestine criminal and terrorist organizations generally operate under the constant threat of discovery and disruption by the law enforcement and security organizations. The term “terrorist cell” refers to one of the strategies which terrorist groups have used to address this risk: by subdividing a larger terrorist organization or movement into many semi‐independent or even entirely separate small units, the group limits the effect that discovery or disruption of one unit will have on the group overall. Such small independent units are called
cells
within the larger group, parallel to biological systems where complex animals or plants are made up of many simpler – and much smaller – distinct cells. Terrorist organizations from across the political spectrum focused on very different goals have adopted cellular structures to protect themselves from the risk of infiltration by intelligence agents, compromise by informers already inside the organization, and the collection of intelligence on the group's activities or membership from the outside.
Time‐Space Compression
Authors: Kivisto Peter 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Time‐space compression is a concept developed by the Marxist geographer David Harvey to describe contemporary developments in capitalism which have led to the speeding up of the circulation of capital and with it a speeding up of social life in general while simultaneously reducing the significance of place. Harvey's concept derives from his consideration of Marx's claim that capitalism leads to the annihilation of space by time, and from Heidegger's foreboding about the implications of the shrinking of both time and space. For Heidegger (1971: 165), this shrinking produces a “uniform distancelessness” which he views as both unsettling and terrifying because it does not promote what he refers to as “nearness,” by which he means a sense of identity rooted in the particularities associated with specific places – which he considers to be “the locale of the truth of Being.” Harvey appropriates this general orientation while rejecting the reactionary political implications of Heidegger's anti‐cosmopolitanism. He sees in Heidegger's thought a convincing articulation of the dislocation of identity from place that is a consequence of the penetration of the modern capitalist economy predicated on the ceaseless expansion of industrialization and ever‐changing technological developments.
Tobin Tax
Authors: Patomäki Heikki 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe currency transaction tax (CTT) – better known as the Tobin tax – is a simple idea, a tax levied on every currency exchange, set at a level enough low not to hinder transactions needed to finance trade in goods and services or long‐term capital investments. Economist James Tobin adapted the idea from John Maynard Keynes's classicGeneral Theory, where Keynes suggested that “the introduction of a substantial government transfer tax on all transactions might prove the most serviceable reform available, with a view to mitigating the predominance of speculation over enterprise…” (Keynes 1961/1936: 159–160). Following Keynes, Tobin argued in the 1970s that over‐liquid and “efficient” finance is tantamount to short‐termism and thus irrational investment. Furthermore, powerful financial flows reduce the autonomy of states in determining economic policy, while misallocating resources. Thus the need to “throw some sand in the wheels of our excessively efficient international money markets” (Tobin 1978: 154).
Agency
Authors: Loyal Steven 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The concept of agency refers to the ability of an actor to act freely in the social world. It is usually contrasted with the concept of social structure wherefrom it derives its meaning relationally. “Agency” stands for the freedom of the contingently acting subject over and against the constraints that are thought to derive from enduring social structures. To the extent that human beings have agency, they may act independently of and in opposition to structural constraints, and/or may (re)constitute social structures through their freely chosen actions. To the extent that they lack agency, human beings are conceived of as automata, following the dictates of social structures and exercising no choice in what they do. Although he did not use the concept explicitly or systematically, Talcott Parsons (1937), with his “voluntaristic theory of action,” perhaps set the scene for many modern sociological discussions of agency. However, Anthony Giddens (1976), in his theory of structuration, provided perhaps the most comprehensive recent account of the concept. In attempting to transcend what he saw as the determinism inherent in a large body of Marxist and functionist analysis, Giddens insisted upon “the freedom of the acting subject.” The actor is an embodied unit and, as such, a possessor of causal powers that she may choose to employ to intervene (or not) in the ongoing sequence of events in the world. This makes her an agent. “I shall define action or agency as the stream of actual or contemplated causal interventions of corporeal beings in the ongoing process of events‐in‐the‐world” (Giddens 1976: 75). Furthermore, and this is crucial to Giddens' whole argument, it is antithetical to the concept of agency that a person (i.e., an agent) “could have acted otherwise” (1976: 75). This conception in which an actor can “act otherwise” ties agency to power and it is precisely according to this criterion of being able to “act otherwise” (and thereby make a difference) that Giddens distinguished humans from nature. Giddens' work, though influential, has been rightly criticized for over‐extending and exaggerating the concept of agency, particularly as a result of the left‐liberal conception of politics that underpinned and animated his sociology (Loyal 2003).
Domination
Authors: Langman Lauren 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
One of the most important and enduring issues of modern sociology has been the concern with domination, the condition in which one social actor has power over another, the ability to get the other, usually a subordinate, to act in ways that she might not have otherwise chosen – and may actually be contrary to her desires or best interests. The nature of domination in the globalized world has been a crucial question ever since Marx first noted how the rapid spread of capitalism transformed both nature and societies. The courses of rivers were changed, national and cultural barriers to capitalism were broken down. Marxism has always been a critique of capitalist economic domination, how the bourgeoisie, the owners of private property, secure and maintain domination over the proletariat through control of wages, ideology and ultimately force. Various neo‐Marxisms, from critical theory to structural Marxism as critiques of domination, have examined the ways culture, consciousness, and subjectivity have been used to shape understandings, values and insinuate domination within the person to secure “willing” assent to the political‐economic domination by the few. For Weber, domination and its legitimacy, e.g., traditional, rational‐legal (bureaucratic), and charismatic authority were central concerns. Simmel charted the many different kinds and dynamics of superordination and subordination, e.g., the power of a person, group or principle, over another person. Although domination is clearly evident in the organization of the economy and governance, it is present in families, organizations, indeed in most groups with a hierarchical structure.
Globalization: Alternative Perspectives
Authors: Veltmeyer Henry 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Academic discourse in diverse fields over the past two decades has been dominated by a new lexicon surrounding the notion of “globalization,” understood generally as the integration of societies and economies across the world into one system, and by a new globalist approach to analysis. The defining features of this approach is that it takes the “world” rather than “society” bound within the nation‐state, or a sub‐unit of this “society” (local communities, for example), as the fundamental unit of analysis, as the setting and context for analysis. This approach has been particularly popular in development economics and political economy, with a focus on the structure and dynamics of capitalist development and international relations. The globalist approach has also been the prevailing trend in the study of development in its many diverse permutations and dimensions – economic, social, political, cultural, and ecological. In effect, the globalist approach has provided for new forms of analysis of processes that transcend the nation‐state – that unfold on a global scale – processes that have been analyzed and theorized in terms of ‘globalization’.