bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Diseases, Borderless
Authors: Ali S. Harris 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Borderless diseases refer to those infectious disease agents that exhibit considerable global mobility. In particular, the increased speed of travel, a greater degree of human migration, intensified urbanization, and increasing human encroachment on untouched natural habitats have all enhanced the potential for pathogens to spread internationally in very short periods of time. In common with other transboundary issues, such as environmental pollution, international terrorism, and the international trade in narcotic drugs, the management of infectious disease spread is challenging because programs and policies aimed at disease containment necessarily implicate a myriad of other issues, especially those related to the ability of sovereign states to govern autonomously, border regulation, the tension between ensuring free trade while protecting public health, and balancing the rights of the individual versus those of the collective.
War
Authors: Mabee Bryan 
Published: March 2012

AbstractWar is in many ways a neglected dimension of globalization. Despite a chapter dedicated to military power in Held et al.'s (1999) pioneering book on globalization, and Giddens' (1990) incorporation of the military into one of the “four institutional dimensions of modernity,” there has been little integration of the military side of globalization into popular or scholarly thinking about the subject in comparison to other elements (especially the cultural, political, and economic).
War Crimes
Authors: Murphy Ray 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
War crimes are crimes committed in violation of international humanitarian law (IHL) or the laws of war applicable during armed conflict. The laws of war originated in the early efforts made to limit the violence that was a necessary part of confrontation between armed forces engaged in hostilities. The expression dates back to when it was customary to make a formal declaration of war before initiating an armed attack on another state. Among the equivalent and interchangeable expressions – the “laws of war,” the “law of armed conflict,” and “international humanitarian law,” the first is the oldest.
Water crisis
Authors: Subramaniam Mangala , Whitlock David , Williford Beth 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Several countries around the world are facing a severe water crisis. Water‐abundant regions have become water‐scarce and water‐scarce regions face water famines. It is important to consider both supply and demand factors, combined with the effects of neoliberal policies, in order to understand the water crisis. While knowledge of patterns of water use is scattered, it is estimated that about 4000 cubic kilometers of fresh water are used each year globally. Irrigation for agriculture accounts for about 70 percent of this usage, industrial use consumes 20 percent, and domestic use accounts for the remaining 10 percent. About 20 percent of this water is drawn from groundwater sources, the use of which increased fivefold in the twentieth century (World Water Assessment Programme 2009). This has led to a rapid drawdown of aquifers in some areas, and the sustainability of such usage has become the focus of much international attention. Overpumping of aquifers and falling water tables have affected northern China. India, Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Mexico, and Pakistan, as well as California in the United States, also face major water shortages.
Web 2.0
Authors: Birdsall William F. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Web 2.0 denotes a movement that appeared around 2005 with the object of exploiting technological innovations that expand the global economic potential of the World Wide Web (WWW), popularly known as the Web. Although derided as a buzzword, marketing hype, and jargon, the term is associated with technical and software applications that have altered conceptions of the Web and of the place of individuals and organizations in the globalization phenomenon. The ambiguity of Web 2.0 is such that for Tim Berners‐Lee, inventor of the Web, it is simply the continuing development of the Web's capability of connecting people. Others claim that it is among the major forces driving globalization. While debate continues, by 2010 the advent of Web 3.0 was already being heralded as the new “app economy.”
WikiLeaks
Authors: Yagatich William A. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractJulian Assange launched a Web site,WikiLeaks.org, in December 2006. Since its inception, WikiLeaks has been at the center of intense scrutiny by nation‐state governments and corporations alike. WikiLeaks is a Web site that posts confidential and sensitive information. The aim is captured by the slogan “We open governments,” and the Web site states that “Publishing improves transparency, and this transparency creates a better society for all people. Better scrutiny leads to reduced corruption and stronger democracies in all society's institutions, including government, corporations and other organizations. A healthy, vibrant and inquisitive journalistic media plays a vital role in achieving these goals” (WikiLeaks 2010). The administrators of WikiLeaks have a clear goal: information that is deemed secret by nation‐states should be open to the public, and this will lead to the strengthening of democracy. WikiLeaks depends upon individual users to submit information, documents, and various files to a drop‐box on its Web site. The drop‐box is meant to allow users to remain anonymous and submit information, just as it keeps WikiLeaks from being involved in obtaining the information directly.
World Cultural Heritage
Authors: Elliott Michael A. , Schmutz Vaughn 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

World cultural heritage (WCH) represents a vast array of societal achievements and natural wonders that are considered to have exceptional value for humanity as a whole and, therefore, to be worthy of official recognition, protection, and preservation. The development of WCH is linked to cross‐national efforts to protect the heritage or cultural property of national societies that emerged in the second half of the nineteenth century and found sustained momentum in the League of Nations system after World War I. The articulation of a
world
cultural heritage, however, took shape primarily under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) after World War II. Since the late 1970s a rapidly growing list of official World Heritage sites has been formalized and managed by UNESCO, in cooperation with other international organizations and state parties to the World Heritage Convention of 1972. Recent assessments of the World Heritage List have sought to broaden the diversity of inscribed sites and encourage greater representation from developing countries.
World Environment Organization
Authors: Biermann Frank 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
A “world environment organization” does not exist. Yet proposals to create an international agency on environmental protection have been debated for over 40 years now (overviews in Biermann & Bauer 2005). More than 50 countries, including all the member states of the European Union, presently support the upgrading of the United Nations Environment Programme to a “United Nations Environment Organization.” This policy position is likely to form a major element in the negotiations around the 2012 international summit that will mark the twentieth anniversary of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro.
World Intellectual Property Organization
Authors: May Christopher 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is a specialist agency of the United Nations that is responsible for overseeing support for intellectual property legislation alongside the development of new agreements governing intellectual property rights (IPRs). The organization's origins stretch back to the nineteenth century and the secretariats set up to administer the first major international agreements on cross‐border recognition of IPRs: the Berne and Paris conventions. In 1970, some 80 years after these secretariats had been established and subsequently joined together (to manage these and other IPR‐related treaties), the WIPO was launched. In 1973 it became an agency of the UN.
World Trade Organization
Authors: Krueger Anne O. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe World Trade Organization (WTO) came into being in 1994 as the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). It encompasses the activities of the GATT and incorporates some new ones. As the international organization that oversees the international trading system, currently with 153 members, it has rules negotiated and agreed by member countries for the treatment of exports and imports of goods and services, a dispute‐settlement mechanism used when a country believes that its trading partner has violated the agreed rules, and facilities for support and coordination of multilateral negotiations for reductions in tariffs and trade barriers. A secretariat in Geneva of about 625 staff – much smaller than most other international organizations – supports these functions.
Trade‐Related Intellectual Property Rights
Authors: Bedirhanoglu Nazan 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The agreement on Trade‐Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, commonly referred to as TRIPS, is to date the most comprehensive international agreement on intellectual property rights. Signed in 1994, TRIPS is one of the establishing agreements of the World Trade Organization (WTO). This treaty, for the first time, rendered intellectual property rights a part of the multilateral trading system and became a milestone in the globalization of intellectual property rights.
Transborder Activism
Authors: Massicotte Marie‐Josée 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The notion of transborder activism has emerged mostly since the beginning of the 1990s, with the growing visibility of advocacy networks and mass protests against neoliberal policies (Seattle 1999; Quebec 2001; Cancun 2003) promoted by states and interstate financial institutions (International Monetary Fund, World Bank), and with the implementation of free trade agreements (North American Free Trade Agreement, World Trade Organization (WTO)). Nonetheless, the nineteenth century anti‐slavery and women's suffrage advocates were active across borders. Their strategies and emphasis on reclaiming rights and dignity also re‐emerged on a regular basis and nurture new forms of cross‐border activism, as with the numerous campaigns and networks for peace, human rights and anti‐apartheid. More recently, United Nations conferences have also fostered activism across borders that simultaneously strengthen, for instance, grassroots feminist groups locally. Transnational feminist networks have indeed been among the early attempts to recognize and value diversity in terms of cultures, races, gender and classes (horizontality and relationality among sectors) as a basis for solidarity and a globalizing praxis that respects local contexts and varied experiences (Conway 2008).
Transnational State
Authors: Sprague Jeb 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe theory of an emergent transnational state (TNS), as coined by sociologist William I. Robinson (2001), claims that through globalization a nascent political, juridical and regulatory network is coming into existence worldwide. This notion rests upon the idea that a dominant social force, a transnational capitalist class (TCC), propels globalization through transnational corporations (TNCs) (Robinson & Harris 2000). The TCC, to promote and ensure its power, requires a concomitant political project. Such a political project would involve, for example: (i) promoting investor confidence in the global economy, (ii) setting up mechanisms and institutions for responding to economic, political, and military crises that threaten the stability necessary for global markets, and (iii) establishing a degree of macroeconomic policy uniformity across borders.
United Nations Environment Programme
Authors: Lawrence Kirk S. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) was created on December 15, 1972 by the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2997 (XXVII): Institutional and financial arrangements for international environmental cooperation. The recognition of a need for UNEP was one of the outcomes of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in June of the same year in Stockholm, Sweden, which represented the first major international environmental conference attended by representatives of a large number of the world's nations. UNEP was created as the formal arm of the UN responsible for focusing international attention on the environment and safeguarding it from harm in both the present and future. Operating within the framework of the United Nations, UNEP is charged with handling international issues, while respecting the UN Charter, national sovereignty, and international law.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Authors: Elliott Michael A. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a non‐binding, international legal instrument that was drafted within the United Nations system immediately after World War II. It was intended to spell out the basic, fundamental rights that all human beings should be entitled to irrespective of political affiliations or personal attributes (e.g., citizenship, language, religion, race/ethnicity, gender, etc.). Like many human rights instruments, the UDHR is comprised of an introductory preamble that expresses general beliefs and values on the subject, followed by numerous articles or clauses that translate these generalities into concrete rights and entitlements. Drafted as “a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations” (Preamble), the historical legacy of the Declaration has been part of a larger debate about the degree to which human rights reflect a Western ideological bias and whether efforts at universal implementation constitute ethnocentrism on the part of Western nations. Nevertheless, since its debut in 1948 the UDHR has become the most prominent and celebrated human rights document in history, and arguably one of the most influential moral documents of the twentieth century.
Wage Labor
Authors: Katz‐Fishman Walda , Scott Jerome 
Published: March 2012

AbstractWage labor is the process by which workers sell their labor power to capitalists, that is, their employers, in exchange for wages, which they use to purchase the necessaries of life in the market. Wage labor becomes the predominant form of labor with the rise of capitalism, markets, commodity production, and nation‐states in the modern era. Over the capitalist epoch, wage labor is employed in a production process that transitions from small‐scale manufacturing – using hand tools in factories – to large‐scale machine‐based industry, to electronic‐based automated production and new aspects of capitalist globalization. The unique quality of labor power is that it is the only commodity that produces new value; and, as wage labor within capitalism, this means producing surplus value and thus profit for capital. This relationship between capital and labor is fraught with contradictions (Marx 1967; Marx 1986). Under the current conditions of twenty‐first century globalization, these contradictions are intensifying and giving rise to deepening systemic crises and various forms of struggle (Davis et al. 1997; Amin 2003; Robinson 2004; Katz‐Fishman et al. 2005; Berberoglu 2009).
Design to Self‐Assembly
Authors: Tibbits Skylar 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe increasing power of design software, the widespread availability of digital fabrication and growing complexity of our built environment are in stark contrast to the inefficient techniques that currently plague the construction industry. Today's processes of assembly can be fundamentally re‐imagined by looking at biological systems that are building structures with far more complexity, information capacity and assembly instructions than even the most advanced structures possible with current technologies. Skylar Tibbits explains that the key ingredient embedded within these natural systems is self‐assembly. He outlines four principles for designing systems that build themselves, and shows a number of projects that demonstrate first steps towards this new mode of architectural production. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Aggregate Structures: Material and Machine Computation of Designed Granular Substances
Authors: Dierichs Karola , Menges Achim 
Published: March 2012

AbstractIn inanimate nature, large masses of granular substances are in constant processes of formation through perpetual cycles of erosion and accretion. What if architecture was to emulate this behaviour and allow for its own continuous reconfiguration? Karola Dierichs and Achim Menges establish the notion of an ‘aggregate architecture’. Composed of large numbers of unbound yet designed granules, aggregates are based on a fundamentally different logic of construction. In contrast to assembly systems, aggregates materially compute their overall constructional configuration and shape as spatiotemporal behavioural patterns, with an equal ability for both: the stable character of a solid material and the rapid reconfigurability of a fluid. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Living Systems: Designing Growth in Baubotanik
Authors: Ludwig Ferdinand , Schwertfreger Hannes , Storz Oliver 
Published: March 2012

AbstractBaubotanik – the construction method that uses living plants for load bearing in architectural structures – provides a surprising ability to anticipate the latent convergence of non‐living and living systems in architecture. Through interdisciplinary research by architects, engineers and biologists it aims to synthesise architectural qualities, constructive requirements and biological properties in living structures. In this article, Ferdinand Ludwig, Hannes Schwertfeger and Oliver Storz of the Baubotanik research group at the Institute for Architectural Theory and Design (IGMA) at the University of Stuttgart explain how living and non‐living building elements can be designed to develop into vegetal‐technical compound structures. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Programming Matter
Authors: Oxman Neri 
Published: March 2012

AbstractA direct parallel can be made between the Modernist separation of form, structure and material and the more recent tripartite division in digital processes of modelling, analysis and fabrication, which has resulted in the predominance of geometric‐driven form‐generation. Today, though, design culture is experiencing a shift to a new level of material awareness. Inspired by nature's strategies where form‐generation is driven by maximal performance with minimal resources through local material property variation, Neri Oxman investigates a novel design approach to digital fabrication that offers the potential to program physical matter. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Material Articulation: Computing and Constructing Continuous Differentiation
Authors: Ceccato Cristiano 
Published: March 2012

AbstractFree‐form geometric designs make use of continuously differentiated components that exist within a multidimensional envelope of material performance, fabrication capabilities, logistics and cost. In this article, Cristiano Ceccato explains how geometric form‐rationalisation and analysis of constructability at the functional as well as the computational level form the basis for achieving advanced designs in terms of articulation of material through mass‐customised industrial production. Taking examples from the current work of Zaha Hadid Architects (ZHA), he presents a necessarily evolving framework of computational design and associated practice of architecture that is attempting to close the gaps between computational design, digitally controlled manufacturing and evolving mechanisms of contemporary construction and project delivery. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The Role of Additive Manufacturing and Physiomimetic Computational Design for Digital Construction
Authors: Soar Rupert , Andreen David 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe recent adoption of the term additive manufacturing (AM) to describe a broad range of digital ‘layer by layer’ fabrication techniques comes 20 years since its inception and more than 10 years since architectural practices engaged with the technology for making prototypes and models. Soon this technology will join existing CNC subtractive and formative processes within the volume and mass‐market sectors, where design complexity and increased functionality result in competitive advantage. It is also about a decade since researchers proposed additive manufacturing for construction. Rupert Soar and David Andreen introduce here the different construction‐scale additive manufacturing systems currently in development. If linked to physiomimetic computational design strategies, these technologies provide novel possibilities for addressing architecture's manufacturing challenges in the face of energy expenditure, material resources and environmental impact. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Distinguishing Between the Drawn and the Made
Authors: Sheil Bob 
Published: March 2012

AbstractHere Bob Sheil, Director of Technology and Computing at the Bartlett School of Architecture and co‐organiser of the 2011 Fabricate Conference at UCL, pulls back on the rush towards material computation. With the blurring of the projected image and the constructed artefact, there is the very real danger of reducing ‘architectural production to a systematic industrial exercise’. This fails to recognise the extent to which ideas and performance are transformed, developed and refined through the very process of making. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Lone‐Pair‐Induced Covalency as the Cause of Temperature‐ and Field‐Induced Instabilities in Bismuth Sodium Titanate
Authors: Schütz Denis , Deluca Marco , Krauss Werner , Feteira Antonio , Jackson Tim , Reichmann Klaus 
Published: March 2012

AbstractBismuth sodium titanate (BNT)‐derived materials have seen a flurry of research interest in recent years because of the existence of extended strain under applied electric fields, surpassing that of lead zirconate titanate (PZT), the most commonly used piezoelectric. The underlying physical and chemical mechanisms responsible for such extraordinary strain levels in BNT are still poorly understood, as is the nature of the successive phase transitions. A comprehensive explanation is proposed here, combining the short‐range chemical and structural sensitivity of in situ Raman spectroscopy (under an applied electric field and temperature) with macroscopic electrical measurements. The results presented clarify the causes for the extended strain, as well as the peculiar temperature‐dependent properties encountered in this system. The underlying cause is determined to be mediated by the complex‐like bonding of the octahedra at the center of the perovskite: a loss of hybridization of the 6s2bismuth lone pair interacting with the oxygen p‐orbitals occurs, which triggers both the field‐induced phase transition and the loss of macroscopic ferroelectric order at the depolarization temperature.