bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Encopresis
Authors: Friman Patrick C. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractEncopresis is a common, often undertreated, and often overinterpreted form of fecal incontinence. When left untreated, encopresis can lead to serious and potentially life‐threatening medical problems and seriously impaired social acceptance, relations, and development. The primary reasons for the medical problems are the possibility of organic disease (some cases have medical causes such as Hirschprung's disease) and the medical risk posed by fecal matter inexorably accumulating in an organ with a limited amount of space. The primary reason for the social impairment is that soiling evokes more revulsion from peers, parents, and important others than other forms of incontinence (and most other behavior problems).
Engineering Psychology
Authors: Durso Francis T. , Delucia Patricia R. , Jones Keith S. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractEngineering psychology is a discipline that aims to improve socio‐technical systems: driving cars, working on surgical teams, controlling nuclear power plants, improving consumer products, controlling air traffic, and the like. It does this by considering how human operators interact with technologies, with environments, and with other operators in particular contexts. Engineering psychology contributes to the understanding of human capabilities and limitations and directly or indirectly impacts the design of technologies that operators use. Cognates of engineering psychology include human factors, ergonomics, applied experimental psychology, and cognitive engineering. All have the common goal of improving socio‐technical systems, but each does so with a different approach, for example, focusing on the cognitive versus the physical factors that affect the operator. However, differences among disciplines are often subtle, and professionals in separate disciplines often conduct very similar work. In addition to the goal of improving the particular system, inducing general principles from the study of particular systems characterizes the scientific nature of what many engineering psychologists do.
Envy
Authors: Smith Richard H. , Combs David J. Y. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Envy is an unpleasant blend of discontent and ill will caused by noticing a desired advantage possessed by another person. People often confuse envy with jealousy, but they are distinct emotions (Parrott & Smith, 1993). Envy involves two people and arises when one lacks something enjoyed by another. Jealousy entails three people and arises when one fears losing someone (often a romantic partner) or something to a rival. The confusion derives partly from the dual meaning of “jealous,” which can be used to mean either envious or jealous. The term “envy” nearly always refers to the two‐person case in which a person lacks a desired thing. Thus, we can say that Salieri was envious or jealous of Mozart's musical talent, but we would not say that he flew into an envious rage if his wife showed interest in Mozart. Jealousy would be the preferred label for his emotion in the latter case.
Epidemiology of Mental Disorders
Authors: Kessler Ronald C. , Wang Philip S. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The word epidemiology is derived from the Greek words epidemos, meaning “among the people.” Epidemiology is the branch of public health concerned with understanding and controlling disease in the population by investigating correlates of illness that might provide clues about disease‐causing agents (Susser, 1973). Because the ultimate goals of epidemiological research are to understand the causes of disease and to prevent disease occurrence, epidemiology is the backbone of public health.
Epilepsy
Authors: Barrett Rowland P. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The term
epilepsy
is derived from the Greek word
epilambabein
, meaning “to attack.” It is defined by repetitive abnormal cerebral neuron firing that may or may not be accompanied by a disturbance of consciousness or an alteration in perceptual motor functioning. Recurrent seizures are a required manifestation of epilepsy.
Episodic Memory
Authors: Wheeler Mark E. , Gallo David A. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractWhen we think back to a past experience, such as a childhood birthday party, we can bring to mind faces of people in attendance, the appearance and location of the event, the sounds of voices or music, and our mood and thoughts. This contextually rich form of retrieval is the basis for episodic memory. As defined by Endel Tulving (1983), an episodic memory contains three critical elements that delineate it from other forms of memory. The first is that the memories are embedded in a spatiotemporal context in which some aspects of the location and timing of the event are available to consciousness. The second is that they are personal memories associated with a distinct impression of self‐involvement. The third is that they are accompanied by a subjective awareness of remembering in which sights, sounds, and other experiences are replayed in the present moment.
Errors, Type I and Type II
Authors: Hancock Gregory R. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The goal of most social science research is to infer whether variables relate to each other in one or more populations of interest. Statistical tests are a tool used to assist in this inferential process by evaluating data from samples drawn from the population(s) of interest; these statistical tests are, however, by no means foolproof. Occasionally sample information would seem to imply that, for example, variable
X
is related to variable
Y
in the population, when in fact no such population relation exists. Such an inaccurate inference is termed a
Type I Error
(or “alpha error”). On the other hand, sample data may seem to imply that
X
and
Y
appear unrelated, when indeed those variables do have a relation in the population. This inaccurate inference is termed a
Type II Error
(or “beta error”). These two types of errors are discussed in the context of an illustrative research example.
Ethology
Authors: Vetreno Ryan P. , Anzolone Steven J. , Savage Lisa M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The study of animal behavior in their natural environment is termed
ethology
and arose as a consequence of the seminal early works of zoologists and field naturalists, such as Nikolaas Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz. These researchers stressed the importance of examining the evolution (phylogeny) and development (ontology) of behavior in the context of the animals' unique ecological niche. One goal of ethology is to determine which behaviors are learned and can be modified via an organism's interaction with the environment and which are “built‐in” or passed on through genes. A key finding is that very complex behavior patterns are a function of genetics and are instinctive to specific environmental “stimuli” or events.
Evolutionary Psychology
Authors: Jackson Russell E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Human psychology is a product of the human nervous system. Neural mechanisms, often clustered in the brain, gather and process information from the environment, interact, and execute actions. All conscious and unconscious mental phenomena, such as motivations, emotions, or planning, derive from neural activity. Even the most mundane behaviors require precise unconscious calculations. Walking, for instance, requires extensive feedback, calculation, and integration in order to coordinate intricate muscle movement.
Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses
Authors: Micheva Kristina D. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Chemical synapses—that is, synapses that use a chemical neurotransmitter to transfer information from one neuron to another—can be excitatory or inhibitory, depending on their effect on the postsynaptic neuron. Synapses releasing a neurotransmitter that brings the membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron toward the threshold for generating action potentials are said to be excitatory. Alternatively, inhibitory synapses drive the membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron away from the threshold for generating action potentials.
Experimental Psychology
Authors: Bourne Lyle E. , Healy Alice F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Experimental psychology is a branch of the broad academic discipline of psychology. As its name suggests, experimental psychology is defined primarily by its methodology. Like all branches of psychology, experimental psychology aims to understand the behavior of organisms, both human and nonhuman. However, it does so exclusively by using the experimental method of science. Experimental psychology includes any aspect of behavior that is amenable to examination by the experimental method.
Expert Testimony
Authors: Bank Steven C. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
As the world becomes more complex, expert testimony assumes an increasingly important and controversial role in the Anglo‐American judicial system. The Federal Rules of Evidence specify that expert testimony occurs when a witness, qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education, testifies by providing opinions or facts that assist the judge to understand evidence or to determine a fact in issue. For justice to be served, expert witnesses present unbiased opinions and facts based on sound science or technical knowledge.
Exposure Therapy
Authors: Taylor Steven , Abramowitz Jonathan S. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Exposure therapy is used to treat excessive fears, which are central to many anxiety disorders. During exposure therapy, the person is presented with a fear‐evoking stimulus in a controlled fashion, until the fear diminishes. Treatment is collaborative, with the patient and therapist working together to decide how and when exposure will take place. Exposure duration depends on many factors, including the type of feared stimuli and the severity of the person's fears. Typically, an exposure session lasts 40–90 minutes, and sessions are repeated until the fear is substantially reduced or eliminated. Sessions may be either therapist‐assisted or completed by the patient as homework assignments. In order to ensure that exposure is optimally effective, the patient is exposed to fear‐evoking stimuli in a variety of different contexts to promote the generalization of therapeutic effects (Bouton, 2002).
Extremism
Authors: McGregor Ian 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Moderation has long been identified as a hallmark of virtue. Pythagoras preached virtue from proper proportion among one's feelings, intuitions, and reasons. Plato depicted virtue as arising from reason's skill at bridling the extremes of appetite and spirit. Confucius, the Buddha, and Aristotle all promoted their own versions of a golden mean or middle‐way between extremes. Given such praise for moderation, why are people so readily drawn to extremes of thought and action? Extremes seem especially enigmatic when one considers that they are so often self‐destructive. For example, in the first century CE a group of religious fanatics who were uncompromising in their opposition to Roman rule carried daggers under their cloaks and killed anyone who did not fully support their views. Their extremism brought reprisals that crushed their “Zealot” sect, but the example of their rabid idealism persists as the origin of the word, “zeal.” Zealous extremism has accordingly come to refer to ideological conviction that belligerently insists on consensus, with apparent disregard for practical consequences.
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing
Authors: Shapiro Francine , Solomon Roger M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is an integrative psychotherapeutic approach that emphasizes the role of the brain's information processing system in ameliorating the somatic and psychological consequences of distressing events. Current emotional problems not caused by organic deficit or physical insults are conceptualized as the result of inappropriately processed memories of disturbing or traumatic experiences. EMDR is an eight‐phase treatment, including a tripartite protocol that focuses on the memories underlying current problems and those that must be specifically addressed to bring the client to a robust state of psychological health. One of its distinguishing characteristics is its use of bilateral physical stimulation, such as side‐to‐side eye movements, alternating hand taps, or alternating auditory tones while the person undergoing treatment is mentally focusing on aspects of various life experiences.
Eyewitness Testimony
Authors: Ogle Christin M. , Chae Yoojin , Goodman Gail S. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Eyewitness testimony is a powerful and influential source of information for juries, especially about crimes such as sexual assault in which the victim is the only witness. Because verdicts in these cases often hinge on eyewitness statements, concern over the accuracy of memory for experienced or witnessed events is magnified. Eyewitness testimony is influenced by a complex interaction of cognitive, socio‐emotional, and situational factors during encoding, storage, and retrieval of information (Lindsay, Ross, Read, & Toglia, 2006).
E
ysenck,
H
ans
J
. (1916–1997)
Authors: Staff  
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Educated in Berlin, Hans J. Eysenck left Germany in 1934 for political reasons (opposition to Hitler regime) to study in Dijon, France, and Exeter, England, before enrolling in a psychology course at the University of London in 1935. He obtained the B.A. and Ph.D. in 1940, then joined the Maudsley Hospital and later the Institute of Psychiatry, which is part of the University of London. In the newly formed Institute he founded the Department of Psychology, becoming a Professor at the university and psychologist to the Maudsley and Bethlem Royal Hospitals. He was given the task of establishing clinical psychology as a profession in the United Kingdom, and his newly created department was the first to train clinical psychologists and to use the newly developed methods of behavior therapy.
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
Authors: Mor Nilly 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) is a self‐report instrument that is based on Eysenck's theory of personality. The EPQ was developed by Hans J. Eysenck, one of the most influential personality theorists, and Sybil B. G. Eysenck, and is part of a group of scales developed by Eysenck and his colleagues. The first published scale in this line of work was the Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI; H. J. Eysenck & Knapp, 1962), which measured two personality tendencies, Neuroticism (N) and Extraversion (E). Following the publication of the MPI, a lie scale was added and two alternate forms were devised, forming the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI; H. J. Eysenck & Eysenck, 1964). Subsequently, a third personality dimension, Psychoticism (P) was added, creating the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. The psychoticism subsacle had undesirable psychometric properties and was criticized for having low reliability, a low range of scoring, and a skewed distribution. In response, in 1985 the scale was revised by removing some items from the P scale and adding some items to the P, N, and E scales. The revised measure, the EPQ‐R is the currently used form of the questionnaire (S.B.G. Eysenck, Eysenck, & Barrett, 1985) and is a prime measure of Eysenck's personality dimensions.
Factor Analysis
Authors: Byrne Barbara M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

In broad terms,
factor analysis
focuses on the link between a set of intercorrelated variables and their representation by a smaller set of conceptually meaningful megavariables, termed
factors
. Within this all‐encompassing umbrella description, factor analysis is more precisely characterized in terms of its function. If used to determine the extent to which the set of variables
can be
adequately represented by a smaller number of factors, then we are describing
exploratory factor analysis
. If, on the other hand, it is used in determining the extent to which a set of variables
are
adequately represented by a smaller number of factors as postulated by theory and/or empirical research, then we are describing
confirmatory factor analysis
. In providing a more comprehensive explanation of factor analysis, I first address the general notion of factor analysis and then follow with a more extensive description of both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, together with a comparative summary of these two factor analytic approaches. Finally, I close this article by addressing important issues and caveats associated with the application of these approaches in psychological research.
Family Development, Theories of
Authors: Clingempeel W. Glenn , Henggeler Scott W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Family development theory focuses on the stress‐induced changes that occur in families over time (White & Klein, 2008). Historically, family development theorists assumed that families move through deterministic, invariant numbers, types, and timing of stages over time consistent with ontogenetic stage theories of individual child development (e.g., Piaget's stages of cognitive development). For example, Duvall's (1957) widely‐cited model defined family development in terms of eight developmental stages: (1) married couple without children, (2) childbearing families with the oldest child between birth and 30 months, (3) families with preschool children, (4) families with school‐age children, (5) families with adolescent children, (6) launching families (first to last child is leaving home), (7) middle‐age families (“empty nest” to retirement), and (8) aging families (retirement to death of both spouses). Whereas Duvall's theory assumes a traditional nuclear family, alternative stage theories describe greater variations in types of family structures (e.g., childless couples, single‐parent families, stepfamilies, etc.), but still rely on universalistic assumptions about the number, types, and timing of stages (Laszoffy, 2002).
Fechner's Law
Authors: Robinson George H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Gustav T. Fechner (1801–1887), professor of physics at the University of Leipzig, sought to measure the mind quantitatively. In approaching this task he studied stimuli and the sensations they aroused. His interest was in ascertaining how sensations changed with changing stimulation. While lying in bed on the morning of October 22, 1850, he conceived the essential idea of what was later to be called Fechner's law. In his subsequent derivation of the law (which appears at the beginning of the second volume of
Elemente der Psychophysik
), he began with Weber's law (that the just‐noticeable difference in stimulation is a constant proportion of the stimulus magnitude, or JND=kI) and the assumption that the sensation (R) of a stimulus is the cumulative sum of equal sensation increments. Translating this into differential form, he started with dR = dI/I and integrated, under the assumption that R = 0 at absolute threshold (I°), to get the equation R = clog (I/I°).
Femininity
Authors: Good Emily E. , Shields Stephanie A. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Within the psychological literature, femininity is a construct broad in scope with no single agreed‐upon definition. It is important to note, however, that psychological femininity, as a type of gender expression, is separate and distinct from female secondary sex characteristics, core gender identity (i.e., one's self‐definition regarding gender status), and being biologically female. Females or males can exhibit femininity to a greater or lesser degree, or not at all. Although femininity is thought to be more often expressed by females, there is variability on this dimension. Thus, femininity and identification as female are related, but not identical.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Authors: Moore Timothy E. , Gagnier Karina Royer 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is recognized by the World Health Organization as the leading cause of environment‐related birth defects and mental retardation in the western world. It results from prenatal alcohol exposure, the consequences of which fall along a continuum ranging from subtle neurodevelopmental and behavioral manifestations to FAS, the most serious outcome. Recently, the term fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) was coined to encompass all the terms that describe alcohol‐related defects, including FAS (Sokol, Delaney, & Nordstrom, 2003). Other terms, such as fetal alcohol effects (FAE), partial FAS (pFAS), alcohol‐related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND), and alcohol‐related birth defects (ARBD) describe other effects within the spectrum.
Fibromyalgia
Authors: Friedberg Fred 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Fibromyalgia (FM) is a common musculoskeletal pain syndrome defined by at least three months of generalized bodily pain and tenderness (Wolfe et al., 1990). In addition, an FM diagnosis requires a physical examination finding of at least 11 out of 18 tender points, that is, specific regions of localized pain (e.g., neck and shoulders). The current definition of FM as established by the American College of Rheumatology replaced the previous term “fibrocitis.” The literal translation of FM is “pain in the muscles and fibrous tissue.”
Fitness‐for‐Duty Evaluations
Authors: Lavin Patrick F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Fitness‐for‐duty evaluations (FFDEs) involve the application of comprehensive psychological assessment skills to address employer questions about a worker's ability to perform essential job duties safely and effectively. Such evaluations should never be undertaken lightly, as they are of importance for both employers and employees. For employers, FFDEs are often intended to help fulfill their obligation to provide a safe working environment. For employees, FFDEs concern issues related to their livelihood, self‐esteem, and privacy. In addition to employers, organizations with service oversight responsibility, such as professional licensing boards or hospitals, may also request FFDEs.
Flourishing
Authors: Keyes Corey L. M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Arguing that mental health and mental illness are not merely opposite ends of one single measurement continuum, Keyes (2002, 2005, 2006) proposes that mental health should be viewed as a complete state consisting of two dimensions: (1) the mental illness continuum and (2) the mental health continuum. Furthermore, symptoms of mental health consist of individuals' subjective well‐being, which in turn reflects their perceptions and evaluations of their lives in terms of their affective states and their psychological and social functioning.
Food Addiction
Authors: Menzel Jessie , Thompson J. Kevin 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Food addiction is a topic that has received attention in the psychological literature in part because of the role that it potentially plays in binge eating, obesity, and eating disorders. Food addiction has also received attention as an addiction in its own right, akin to widely known addictive substances and behaviors such as drugs, gambling, and sex. An addiction is defined by the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR) as (1) the use of a substance that has mood altering or psychoactive effects, (2) highly controlled or compulsive use of a substance, and (3) the used substance reinforces behavior (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Other criteria include tolerance and physical dependence. Food addiction specifically is typically characterized by a loss of control over eating certain foods, preoccupation with or craving of certain food or foods, failed attempts to overcome the eating problem despite negative consequences, and use of the food or foods to cope with negative emotions. Food addiction has been tied most often to highly palatable foods such as chocolate, confectionary foods, carbohydrate‐rich foods, and foods high in fat content.