bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Homosexuality
Authors: Williams Howell 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Since the founding of Christian churches, theologians, congregations, and religious professionals have discussed and regulated sexual ethics. In the 20th century, however, Christians confronted a new type of sexual identity: homosexuality. Churches have long debated issues and expressions of human sexuality, but the term “homosexuality,” which describes attraction and sexual behavior between people of the same sex, is relatively modern in western history. Late 19th century German psychologists first classified homosexuality as a type of pathological disorder. It was not until the second half of the 20th century that individuals and social groups adopted the term “homosexuality” as a descriptor of sexual orientation and identity. Early homosexual groups in the United States and in parts of Europe challenged pejorative medical and social‐scientific understandings of same‐sex desire. At first they began meeting secretly to share common experiences of police harassment and public discrimination. Later they extended the conversation to educating their communities about homosexuality and critiquing homophobia, or a person's irrational fear, even hatred, toward homosexuals.
Hope
Authors: Doyle Dominic 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The desire for a future, difficult, yet possible good; in theological terms, the graced movement toward union with God that is offered through God's unrestricted mercy and achieved through God's omnipotent help. Hope is the signature virtue of a people who consider themselves pilgrims “on the way” to fulfillment, and so desiring complete happiness with God, but still subject to suffering and death, and so in need of God's help.
H
opkins,
G
erard
M
anley (1844–1889)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
English poet, born in Stratford, Essex, on July 28, 1844. His father, Manley, ran an insurance company and was an amateur writer, publishing nonfiction and a volume of poetry. His mother, Kate, published a memoir of her life. Gerard was the oldest of eight children.
House Churches
Authors: Tucker J. Brian 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
House churches refer to the use of domestic structures for temporary religious purposes within the early Christ‐movement. These structures were not architecturally transformed into church buildings but continued to function as households. The biblical material provides textual evidence of this type of gathering within the earliest period of the Christ‐movement, though no archaeological evidence has been uncovered, primarily due to the fact that these structures were unchanged architecturally. The Pauline communities, built primarily on household conversions, were structured in this manner (1 Cor. 1:16; 16:15) and Paul alludes to community gatherings taking place in houses (1 Cor. 16:19; Rom. 16:5; Philem. 2). In the book of Acts, written later than Paul's letters, one finds recollections of the early Jesus‐movement following a similar pattern: building on household conversions (Acts 16:15, 34; 18:8) and temporarily meeting in houses (Acts 2:46; 5:42). Also, there is textual evidence that the second generation of Christ‐followers, for example in Laodicea, continued to meet in private homes (Col. 4:15).
H
utter,
J
acob and the Hutterites
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Jacob Hutter was born in about 1500 in the Puster Valley in Tyrol (then South Germany). His church reforming ideas had more in common with the radical reformers than with Martin Luther. He was one of the Anabaptists (rebaptizers in Latin), who rejected infant baptism, and so he and his followers had themselves rebaptized.
Hypocrisy
Authors: Spiegel James S. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe terms “hypocrite” and “hypocrisy” derive from the Greekhypokrisia(alsohypokrisis), which means “to play a part on stage.” Jesus Christ appears to have been the first to use the term as a moral pejorative, chastising the Pharisees for their sham righteousness (Mart. 6:2–5 and Matt. 23:25–27), moral inconsistency (Luke 13:10–17), and moral complacency (Matt. 23:23–24). But paradigm cases of hypocrisy are those involving pretense, as a person puts on a show of being better than she really is. Thus Aquinas conceives hypocrisy as “a lie told by the signs of outward deeds.”
Impeccability
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Impeccability is the characteristic of being unable to sin not simply the mere absence of sin. The doctrine could refer to the entire Godhead, but more often it is specifically attributed to the earthly life and ministry of Jesus Christ. Impeccability is a theological term derived from the Latin phrase
non potuit peccare
which means “unable to sin,” whereas peccable means “able not to sin” (
potuit non peccare
).
Indulgences
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas 
Published: January 2012

AbstractIndulgences (Latinindulgentia) are the full or partial remission of temporal punishment. They are a Roman Catholic practice, based on doctrines, developed in medieval times. Originally, the indulgence was received in return for acts of piety and social concern, and then increasingly for money given to a good cause. Luther's repudiation of the practice initiated the Reformation in central Europe.
Irenism
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Irenism (from the Greek for “peace”) is an ideology begun in the period of the Protestant Reformation as ecclesiastical and political interests were debated and dialogued. Irenic movements intend to resolve theological disagreements by way of consensus and generally devalue divergences. Irenics is in contrast to polemics (although it is possible to have a spirit of both). Theological literature of the late 17th century is primarily either irenic or polemic. The practice of polemics is by means of debates, dialogues, and refutations of the beliefs and/or practices of those outside the boundary (pale) of a doctrinally orthodox church, but who are insistent on being regarded as Christian. The practice of irenics is by means of debates and dialogues of Christian doctrines with other Christians who are doctrinally orthodox, but with whom there is reasonable theological disagreement. An irenic individual may be regarded as affirming a balanced approach to debated questions.
I
saac,
H
einrich (
c
.1450–1517)
Authors: McElwain Randall D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A native of Flanders, the composer Heinrich Isaac combined musical traits from Flanders, the Netherlands, Italy, France, and Germany into an international Renaissance style. Isaac was closely associated with the Medici family, the most powerful family of the Italian Renaissance. He taught the children of Lorenzo the Magnificent, including Giovanni di Lorenzo de'Medici, the future Pope Leo X. During his years with the Medici family, he composed Italian songs, motets, and masses. With Savonarola's rise to power in 1494, the Medici family was banished from Florence and Isaac was forced to seek employment elsewhere. In 1497 he was appointed court composer under Emperor Maximilian I at Vienna and Innsbruck. The last 20 years of his life were spent in this position, although he continued to visit Florence, where his wife came from.
J
acob of
S
arugh (451–521)
Authors: Amar Joseph P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Jacob is considered by many to be the finest Syriac poet after Ephrem himself. He was born in Kurtam on the Euphrates River and became a rural bishop (“Chorepiscopus”) of Batnan of Sarugh in 519. He produced a large number of
mimrê
(“metrical homilies”) composed in hemi‐styches of 12 syllables, a great number of which are as yet unpublished. Most deal with biblical topics presented in strikingly creative ways. The exegetical influence of Theodore of Mopsuestia is an obvious legacy of Jacob's education at the Persian School in Edessa. Jacob favorite topics include biblical themes, liturgical celebrations, and the ascetical life. His approach is essentially pastoral; he writes on the Virgin Mary and the saints as models of evangelical virtue and discipleship.
Jerome,Saint (331?/347–420)
Authors: Hamilton Mark W. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractBest known for his Latin translation of the Bible, the Vulgate (391–405), Jerome also was a prolific writer of letters, biblical commentaries, sermons, and theological tracts, as well as a translator of many Greek works into Latin. As a child of the Constantinian age, he helped unify the emerging Catholic Church by contributing to its emerging creedal and theological language.
JohnDamascene, Saint (c.676–c.750)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractSt. John Damascene was born in about 676 of wealthy, pious parents and baptized as John Mansour in Damascus, Syria. In ecclesiastical circles, he is also known as John of Damascus. His father held a high‐ranking civil service position as chief financial officer for Abdul Malek, under the Muslim caliph.
J
oseph of
V
olokalamsk (1439–1515)
Authors: Paffhausen Archimandrite Jonah 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Saint Joseph of Volokalamsk, or Iosif Volotsky, sometimes called “the Father of Medieval Russia,” was an influential figure in early Russian theology and ecclesiology. He was born into a wealthy family of
votchinnik
, large estate owners with legal rights over their populations, who owned a village in Volokalamsk Principality. Joseph was tonsured as a monk at Borovsk Monastery in 1459, where he attempted to introduce stricter monastic discipline. Failing in this, and disappointed with the laxity at several other monasteries, he went on in 1459 to found the important Volokalamsk Monastery near Moscow, and established a charter emphasizing stringent obedience to the abbot and strict observance of monastic rules.
JustinianI(483–565)
Authors: Laing Jacqueline 
Published: January 2012

AbstractByzantine emperor, born in 483 at Tauresium in Illyricum (now Skopje, Macedonia). He is best remembered for his codification of laws, military acumen, ecclesiastical contribution, and encouragement of Christian architecture. In the Orthodox Church he is regarded a saint, whose feast day falls on November 14th.
K
eble,
J
ohn (1792–1866)
Authors: Faught C. Brad 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born into an England presided over by King George III, John Keble became a leading churchman in the Victorian age and a central figure in the history of the Oxford Movement. Hailing from Fairford in Gloucestershire, Keble's father, also named John, was a saintly rural vicar, staunchly High Church in religion and firmly Tory in political conviction. His influence over the younger Keble was decisive.
K
nox,
J
ohn (1514–1572)
Authors: Whiting Michael 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Known as the “Thundering Scot,” Knox was born around the year 1514 in the small town of Haddington east of Edinburgh. Educated in theology at St. Andrews University, he was ordained as a priest in 1536. Lollard and Hussite dissent had spread to Scotland in the previous century, and by the time Knox began studies at St. Andrews the works of Protestant reformers had penetrated coastal ports. By 1541–1542 Knox had “converted” to the new faith. During a brief period of toleration, he developed a reputation as a catechist and became an armed escort for a Protestant preacher, but the ruling Regent soon broke peace with England to realign traditional ties with Ultra‐Montanist France. The execution of a Protestant preacher incited retaliation and resulted in the assassination of the archbishop of St. Andrews. Knox eventually joined revolutionaries at the castle during a truce and reluctantly became its preacher. In 1547 surrender was made to the French and Knox was enslaved on board a French galley.
K
oinonia
Authors: Hayes Patrick J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

A theological term for the church that designates a move toward unity even while affirming difference. In Greek, it conveys an idea that does not translate precisely into English and so can mean “being of one mind,” “fellowship,” “partnership,” “participation in,” “communion.” Different versions of the New Testament translate koinonia variously. The patristic era linked koinonia to baptism, which becomes an entryway into the common life of the church and binds the baptized to Christ. The medievals stressed the Eucharist. Conciliarist tendencies in the 14th and 15th centuries opened the way toward an imprecise, if well intentioned, development in the relations carried on between the pope and bishops. Vatican II employs the term koinonia or communion in several of its documents and is taken as a decisive ecclesiological key. Koinonia is often used to express ecumenical relationships that exist already or are on their way to forming a bond, such as pulpitsharing agreements like those of the Episcopal Church and the Evangelical Lutheran Church, both in America. For some, however, the true threshold of koinonia is whether two ecclesial communities or churches may engage in
communio in sacris
. It is still an open question whether that threshold is an ultimate goal of koinonia or whether it comes as a recognition of koinonia already having been established or sought. In this respect, the notion of koinonia has been criticized by some as a panacea, or even a valueless term, perhaps because it has been used so frequently that it can no longer sustain the aspects of authentic difference it was meant to carry. Current theology of koinonia denies that it is a sociological concept, nor one derived from ethics, but one suggestive of the church as a reflection of the divine koinonia — the interrelatedness of the Triune Being‐in‐Love.
L
atin
A
merica, Catholic Lay Movements In
Authors: Mallimaci Fortunato , Donatello Luis Miguel 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Catholic lay movements (CLMs), which represent the church in action, are characterized by dynamism and creativity. Though they may be based in different dioceses of the Catholic Church, these movements function with relative autonomy. One of their central features is, unsurprisingly, their engagement with the search for social cohesion and a sense of identity among the poorer people in Latin America. “The option for the poor” is not merely a rhetorical formula of the CLMs but has its basis in the Bible. Fundamental to the movements are the different social sectors that were victims of successive processes of exclusion in the continent — workers, peasants without land, indigenous peoples, and women.
Lebanese Christianity
Authors: Childers J. W. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe origins and development of Lebanese Christianity are bound up with the history of the Maronites, by whose name the historic Lebanese Church is generally identified. The Antiochian Syrian Maronite Church is Uniate Catholic, having accepted the authority of Rome since the time of the crusades. It comprises about 20 percent of Lebanon's population and includes many other Maronite Christians worldwide. In the modern period Maronite scholars have been instrumental in making western scholarship aware of the resources of the rich Oriental Orthodox traditions, especially the Syriac. Lebanon is presently home to many different Christian groups but the Maronite Church is by far the largest.
L
iszt,
F
ranz (1811–1886)
Authors: McElwain Randall D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
One of the most forward‐looking musicians of the Romantic era, the Hungarian composer Franz Liszt excelled in various musical pursuits. As a composer he developed new compositional techniques; as a pianist he formed a new style of pianism; as a conductor he tirelessly promoted the music of his contemporaries; as a teacher he influenced most of the leading pianists of the next generation; and as a Christian Liszt fought a lifelong battle to balance his worldly ambitions and spiritual aspirations.
L
ord's
P
rayer
Authors: Gagnon Robert A. J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Lord's Prayer has exerted an enormous influence on Christian civilization for the simple reason that it is the only model prayer that Jesus taught his disciples to pray. This prayer, then, and not the recently popularized “Prayer of Jabez” (1 Chr. 4:9–10), is entitled to the preeminent place in the church's prayer life, not merely as a rote verbatim liturgical recitation but as a pedagogical tool for teaching people the epitome of Jesus' teaching and specifically
what
his followers should and should not desire and ask for in their prayer life.
M
aritain,
J
acques (1882–1973)
Authors: Coulter Michael 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Jacques Maritain (1882–1973) is regarded as one of the most important Catholic intellectuals of the 20th century. Born in Paris, the son of Paul Maritain and Geneviève Favre, Maritain studied at the Lycée Henri IV (1898–1899) in Paris and pursued degrees in philosophy and the natural sciences at the Sorbonne (1900–1902). At the Sorbonne, or University of Paris, Maritain met his future wife Raissa Oumansoff, a Russian Jew. Together Maritain and Raissa attended lectures by Henri Bergson, an important Catholic intellectual at the Collège de France, that led to their 1906 conversion to Catholicism.
M
ason,
L
owell (1792–1872)
Authors: McElwain Randall D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The American music educator and hymnist Lowell Mason was born in Bedford, Massachusetts on January 8, 1792, and died in Orange, New Jersey on August 11, 1872. Mason began directing choir and organizing singing schools at the age of 16; at the age of 20 he took a position as organist and choir director at Independent Presbyterian Church in Savannah, Georgia. An early example of his lifelong social activism was his successful effort to admit black children to the Sunday School program he directed in Savannah.
Maximus the Confessor (580–662)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
St. Maximus the Confessor has long been seen within the Byzantine tradition as both its greatest theologian and its most important philosopher, and his significance is now becoming increasingly recognized in the West. Maximus was a Byzantine aristocrat, once serving as head of the Imperial Chancellery under the Emperor Heraclius in Constantinople. In 614, he entered the monastery at Chrysopolis, across the Bosphorus from Constantinople, where he became its abbot. Persian incursions into Anatolia and the great siege of Constantinople caused him to flee the area in 626, first to Crete and Cyprus, and finally to Byzantine North Africa in 630, where he did some of his most important writing. It was here that he was drawn into the Monothelite Controversy, theological successor to the Monophysite Controversy that had earlier split the unity of the church with its claim that Christ had only one nature. Conceding the Chalcedonian teaching that affirmed two natures, both divine and human, the Monothelites maintained rather that Christ had only one will, a divine will but not a human will, a view that was favored by the Emperor and by the Patriarch of Constantinople as a sensible compromise, and who both sought to restore the unity lost in the Monophysite Controversy. Maximus strongly opposed the Monthelite view, which still seemed to compromise the humanity of Christ, and entered into a famous debate at Carthage with the former Byzantine Patriarch, Pyrrhus, in 645. Maximus prevailed in the debate, convincing even Pyrrhus, and went to Rome in 647, where he served as advisor to the Lateran Council of 649, which affirmed Chalcedon against the Monothelites. For this, he was arrested by the Emperor, Constans II, and brought to Constantinople in 653 for a series of interrogations and trials. For his refusal to recant, he was tortured, hence his designation as “confessor.” According to tradition, the appendages by means of which he had defied the emperor, his tongue and his right hand, were both severed from his body. After this mutilation, he was sent into exile in the Caucasus Mountains, probably in Georgia, but he died soon thereafter, most likely from his injuries.
Mechthild ofHackeborn (1241–c.1298)
Authors: Grimes Laura M. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractMechthild of Hackeborn was a nun and mystic of the medieval German monastery of St. Mary at Helfta. She entered the house as a 7 year old child oblate, joining her elder sister Gertrude of Hackeborn. Gertrude soon became the abbess; after Mechthild grew up she became choir director and chantress and was called “the nightingale of Christ.” Mechthild had mystical experiences from childhood, but only after her sister's death in 1291 did Mechthild begin to reveal her visions. Two other members of the community then compiled them, at first without her knowledge, into theLiber specialis gratiae, orBook of Special Grace. The work was initially composed of five books of Mechthild's visions, preceded by a brief biographical notice. Then two additional books were written expanding on the holy deaths and posthumous glory of Gertrude of Hackeborn and Mechthild herself. The book was most influential through its Middle English adaptation,The Book of Gostlye Grace. (The title change derived from an incorrect expansion of the manuscript abbreviationsp., forspecialis, tospiritualis.) Caroline Walker Bynum sums up some of the characteristics of Mechthild's spirituality as evident in theLiber. Mechthild's visions are much more vivid, poetic, and affective than Gertrude's and, to some tastes, therefore more beautiful. She has a keener sense of emotional identification with Christ's suffering and of the theological significance of the crucifixion. Her personal asceticism appears (at least in this account) to have been somewhat harsher. She seems to have been a more tender counselor to others than Gertrude (Bynum 1982: 212–213).
Mediator, Christ As
Authors: Estes Douglas 
Published: January 2012

AbstractA significant archetypal image in the Bible is Christ as mediator. In the ancient world, a mediator would act as a negotiator between two parties or between a deity and a people group, especially in times of disagreement or crisis. The parties deemed the mediator impartial, and the type of mediation performed was broadly defined — the mediator could act as negotiator, interpreter, arbiter, witness, advocate, guarantor, ambassador, proclaimer, or some or all of these roles. A legal context is often in view in many ancient examples. Mediation between deity and people was very unusual; most ancient religions bridged the gap either through a divine herald (such as the Greek Hermes), through disinterested demigods (such as in Gnosticism), or through a complex cultic system at the whim of a capricious deity (such as in pagan faiths). In early Hebrew society, the concept of mediator carried special significance as a go‐between for God and people; Moses was viewed as the greatest human mediator (Deut. 5:5). Mediation was a part of the messianic expectation, even predating Moses' example (Job 9:32–33). The New Testament portrays Jesus as the one and only true mediator between God and people (1 Tim. 2:5).
M
elanchthon,
P
hilipp (1497–1560)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Born in Bretten, Germany in 1497, as Philipp Schwartzerd (black earth), the Reformer later adopted the Greek equivalent “Melanchthon” at the urging of his great‐uncle Johann Reuchlin, a renowned scholar. As a prodigy, not yet 13 years of age, he entered Heidelberg University and obtained his baccalaureate only two years later. At age 17, Tübingen University conferred a master's degree on him, and he lectured there in the classics. In 1518, at the age of 21, he met Martin Luther who persuaded him to join him and the faculty at the university in Wittenberg. Here he initially taught Greek, and under Luther's guidance, earned the
baccalaureus biblicus
in 1519 and soon became a prominent theologian, although he was never ordained.
M
endelssohn,
F
elix (1809–1847)
Authors: Nichols Larry 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Felix Mendelssohn was born in 1809 in Hamburg, Germany. He was the son of a banker, Abraham Mendelssohn. His father later changed his surname to Mendelssohn Bartholdy. His mother was Lea Salomon. Mendelssohn's grandfather was the great German‐Jewish philosopher, Moses Mendelssohn.