bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Non‐conventional Water Resources Economics and Experiences in Developing Countries (II)
Authors: BREWSTER MARCIA R. , BUROS O. K. 
Published: October 2009

This two‐part article gives an overview of the use of non‐conventional water resources in developing countries. The first part (published in the January 1985 issue) reviewed United Nations involvement with the subject, and its relationship to the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade. The main emphasis of the first part was on the development of technology and markets for the various desalination processes — distillation, electrodialysis and reverse osmosis. The general costs of the various processes were compared.The second part of the article (presented here) concentrates on the other non‐conventional water resources: transport of water by tanker and iceberg, wastewater reuse and weather modification. For all of the processes examples are given and economic comparisons made. It is concluded that it is always preferable to use conventional resources where available.However, in water‐short areas, consideration might be given to non‐conventional resouces.
Fuelwood Use in the Cities of the Developing World: Two Case Studies from India
Authors: ALAM MANZOOR , DUNKERLEY JOY , REDDY AMULYA KUMAR 
Published: October 2009

A number of studies of traditional fuel supply and demand in rural areas of developing countries have been undertaken, but little has been done to make comparable studies for urban populations. This paper reports on two studies undertaken on fuelwood supplies, their transporation and distribution and utilization in the Indian cities of Bangalore and Hyderabad.Substantial amounts of fuelwood—200 000 tonnes in Hyderabad and 450 000 tonnes in Bangalore—are consumed. Seventy‐eight percent of the fuelwood is consumed by households where it is a major source of energy for cooking and heating for low income families. While the researchers did not visit the forest areas which are the source of fuelwood, the quantity consumed is so large as to indicate that deforestation is possibly severe. Recommendations are made to deal with the problem.
Managing Water Quality in Developing Countries
Authors: FANO ENZO , BREWSTER MARCIA , THOMPSON TERRENCE 
Published: October 2009

Over the next decade the management of water quality will be one of the outstanding issues relating to the protection and conservation of the national stock of water. In the past, particularly in countries well‐endowed with water resources, this has been considered to be a relatively negligible problem. However, the rapid growth of population in major urban centres, industrialization and the heavy dependence on chemical products in the agricultural sector are leading to a serious deterioration of water quality.This paper reviews the nature of the pollution issue, the institutional requirements to deal with the problem in an effective and comprehensive manner and the near‐term actions which governments should take to protect their existing water resources.
The Worldwide Availability of Fluorspar
Authors: KILGORE C. C. , PELHAM L. 
Published: October 2009

This paper reviews a recent assessment of fluorspar reserves and resources for 13 market economy countries and the People's Republic of China, and how they relate to the overall availability of fluorspar on the world market. Current world production, consumption and world trade issues are discussed.Nearly 5 million tonnes of fluorspar were produced in 1985, and approximately 60% of that enters the world export market. In recent years world trade has started to shift away from the acid, metallurgical and ceramic grades of fluorspar, as ore‐producing countries look towards higher‐value downstream products.Total potentially recoverable fluorspar from 52 major producing mines and deposits is estimated at nearly 95 million tonnes (as of January 1985). The Republic of South Africa accounts for 31% of the reserves, with Mexico and the People's Republic of China each contributing 18%.The average total cost and availability of fluorspar is evaluated. Approximately 75% of acid‐grade fluorspar evaluated is potentially available at or below a 1985 constant‐dollar cost of US$110 tonne−1. Nearly 94% of metallurgical grades are potentially available at costs of US$75 tonne−1 and below, and virtually all of the ceramic grades could be produced at costs below the 1985 reported market price of US$103 tonne−1.
Mining during the next 25 years: issues and challenges
Authors: Crowson Phillip 
Published: October 2009

This article examines possible future trends in the mining industry in the light of past developments. After a preliminary discussion, the article considers various aspects of demand, supply, corporate structures, geographic distribution of investment, and social and environmental factors influencing the minerals industry. Scepticism is expressed about the smooth, exponential growth envisaged by many commentators. Some risks are elaborated, and a digression about gold is included.The article argues that, while the minerals industry has concentrated on reducing cash costs through technical innovation and productivity improvement, new approaches may be needed in future that are not directly linked to economies of scale. Contracting out is an interesting trend with major implications.The view that the mineral industry's corporate structure is becoming increasingly concentrated is challenged. Developments in consumer countries as well as historical precedents strongly suggest a more diverse structure.The spread of minerals investment from North America and Australasia, and the resurgence of foreign direct investment in minerals projects, are placed in context and discussed from the viewpoints of both companies and host countries.Although the appropriate responses to many of these issues can only properly be made by governments at all levels, the industry has to play its part.
The sustainable intensification of agriculture
Authors: Pretty Jules N. 
Published: October 2009

Agricultural development is currently facing unprecedented challenges. With 800 million people already having insufficient access to food, population growth estimates project an even bleaker situation in the future. The article summarizes the major schools of thought regarding how to face the dilemma, and advocates sustainable intensification of agriculture, relying on integrated use of a wide range of technologies to manage pests, nutrients, soil and water. Local knowledge and adaptive methods are stressed rather than comprehensive packages of externally‐supplied technologies. The article shows how regenerative, low‐input agriculture, founded on full farmer participation in all stages of development and extension, can be highly productive. It is stressed that policy must not prescribe specific, concretely defined technologies or practices, as this would restrict future farmer options. Farmers and communities should be allowed and encouraged to adapt to changing conditions; what needs to be sustainable are local processes of innovation and adaptation.The article highlights environmental and economic benefits resulting from sustainable intensification practices, for farmers as well as communities and nations with examples are taken from Africa, Asia and Latin America.Despite the increasing success of sustainable agriculture, it is clear that the challenge remains to ‘scale up’ the process from small ‘islands of success’ to fundamental reform of both policies and policy formulation processes.
Towards water security: political determination and human adaptation crucial
Authors: Falkenmark Malin , Lundqvist Jan 
Published: October 2009

Although high‐level attention has been drawn to the escalating world water problems, few changes are noticeable in terms of actual management of the water resource. Politicians continue to be misled by the apparent simplicity of water. The environment‐oriented community tends to focus only on problems arising from man‐induced side‐effects, and most people tend to take water for granted. The double challenge of providing adequate water supplies and meeting increasing food requirements of expanding populations, in addition to already existing water management problems, requires special attention. In addition, the intensifying pollution of water systems will have to be dealt with. Considerable human adaptation to physical realities as well as ingenious action are needed.There is a brief discussion of the risk of hydrocide, a condition of serious water‐quality degradation where available water is no longer sufficient, or cannot be used for the purposes needed. However, the main focus of the paper is on water quantity issues, highlighting the confusion arising from different methods of assessing water scarcity. Levels of regional water scarcity predicaments are discussed in terms of distinct regional clusters. Attention is drawn to the limitations of dry climate regions to achieve food self sufficiency, and the emerging need in many areas to import food; related trade and price aspects are also discussed. A distinction is made between efficiency of use and efficiency of allocation.The need for a global ethic regarding upstream–downstream water‐sharing is stressed, especially in cases of consumptive (evaporative) use of water for cultivating crops, which may deplete river flows available to downstream users. In conclusion, four key concerns are highlighted that call for global consensus.
Making private capital flows to developing countries environmentally sustainable: the policy challenge
Authors: French Hilary 
Published: October 2009

The 1990s have seen a dramatic shift in capital flows into the developing world. Despite pledges made at the 1992 UNCED Conference in Rio de Janeiro, official development aid has declined in real terms. At the same time, private direct investment and lending to developing countries has risen from $44 billion at the beginning of this decade to $256 billion in 1997, supporting a record economic boom in the developing world. Developing countries have become significant sources of capital, as well as hosts to transnational corporations.Cases illustrating the negative impacts of large investments under environmentally lax conditions are contrasted with the rise of environmental screening of funds by commercial entities, such as banks, insurance companies and investors. Although the new inflows of foreign capital may have brought the spread of Western consumerism, this new economic potential has also contributed cutting‐edge environmental technologies, that may assist developing countries leapfrog over the most damaging phases of industrialization.The article discusses the role of public lending agencies, international organizations and NGOs in setting the investment climate that determines the effects of foreign capital on the natural resources base, communities and the environment. Various mechanisms for defining environmental standards are discussed, and a more active role for governments and the United Nations is advocated.
Regulation and private participation in the water and sanitation sector
Authors: Rees Judith A. 
Published: October 2009

Private‐sector participation is widely perceived to be the solution to the failure of many publicly owned and managed water utilities to operate efficiently and make the investments required to meet community needs. However, there are no guarantees that privatisation will actually yield the desired performance improvements. Simply converting a public‐sector monopoly into a private one provides no competitive incentives for the utility to operate efficiently, make appropriate investments or respond to consumer demands. Likewise, privatisation per se need do little to improve sector performance if governments are unwilling or unable to tackle such underlying problems as overmanning, uneconomic water pricing policies, financing the provision of public and merit goods, and restricting over‐intrusive political intervention.Given the characteristics of the water and sanitation sector it is inevitable that some form of continued public regulation of the private companies will be necessary. The regulatory burden can be reduced by adopting a competitive form of privatisation, choosing a more competitive sector structure and devising an appropriate regulatory regime. However, it has to be recognised that there will be a trade‐off between making a venture attractive to private firms and introducing a notionally ‘ideal’ regulatory system. Regulation, in practice, is as much about creating the conditions under which private firms can operate effectively and efficiently as it is about protecting specific customer and public interests.
Restructuring the arrangements between government and state enterprises in the oil and mining sectors
Authors: Aharoni Yair , Ascher William 
Published: October 2009

The article analyses the relationship between governments and state‐owned enterprises (SOEs) in the oil and minerals sectors. The case is made that SOEs in these sectors have distinct peculiarities of behaviour, and are beset with specific difficulties in addition to typical problems common to SOEs in all sectors. The reasons for the uniqueness of SOEs in the oil and minerals sector stem mainly from their large size, their capacity to earn and borrow foreign currency, their strategic importance and other factors.The key to understanding and reforming state oil and mining enterprises lies in recognizing that their sub‐optimal behaviour is often caused by conflicts within government regarding control of the SOE's financial flows, including the natural resource rent. These conflicts are frequently aggravated by the inappropriateness of fiscal arrangements between these SOEs and their governments. Guidelines for reforming these arrangements are offered, which, in some respects, differ considerably from those applicable to conventional state‐owned enterprises outside the natural resources sector.
Criteria for equitable allocations: the heart of international water conflict
Authors: Wolf Aaron T. 
Published: October 2009

AbstractAt the heart of most international water conflicts is the question of ‘equitable’ allocations, criteria for which are vague and often contradictory. However, application of an equitable water‐sharing agreement along the volatile waterways of the globe is a prerequisite to hydropolitical stability. This article explores the question of equity measures for water‐sharing agreements in the context of global hydropolitics and is divided into three parts. The Introduction provides a brief summary of the general principles of equitable allocations. The second part of the paper describes the practice of water resources allocations as exemplified in the Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database ‐ a computerized database of 149 treaties relating to international water resources compiled at Oregon State University; 49 of these treaties delineate specific water allocations. The third and fourth parts of the article contrast the principles and practice of water equity. It is noticeable how rarely the general principles are explicitly invoked, particularly the extreme principles of absolute sovereignty or absolute riverain integrity. Most treaties favor existing uses, and/or guarantees to downstream riparians. It is interesting that, while many international water negotiations begin with differing legal interpretations of rights, they often shift to a needs‐based criteria for water allocations. Mostly, one is struck by the creativity of the negotiators in addressing specific language to each very specific local setting and concerns.
Harnessing the bonanza: economic liberalization and capacity building in the mineral sector
Authors: Bridge Gavin 
Published: October 2009

AbstractOver the past decade many developing and transition economies have liberalized their investment regimes for mining and privatized formerly state‐owned mineral assets. In response, these economies have witnessed increased foreign investment in exploration and development, growth in the number and diversity of mineral projects, and the opening up of new channels for harnessing increased economic and social benefits from development in the minerals sector. The restructuring of fiscal and regulatory regimes to encourage foreign investment, and the associated influx of mining capital, technology and skills, is transforming traditional relationships between mining firms, local communities and the government. This transformation necessitates a re‐evaluation of the most effective policy approaches to capture increased economic and social benefits from mineral production. This article considers effective mechanisms for improving the capacity of developing and transition countries to maximize the economic and social benefits of mineral production. Common challenges associated with minerals economies are reviewed. Consideration is given to the opportunities for harnessing foreign direct investment and the possibilities for creating new partnerships between local communities, industry, government, and multilateral development agencies through social investment projects. The article concludes with a series of recommendations for the design and implementation of policy approaches towards harnessing mineral production for economic and social benefit following the liberalization of investment regimes for mining.
Water resources issues of small island developing states
Authors: Falkland Tony 
Published: October 2009

AbstractThe water resources of most small island developing states (SIDS) are often very limited and require special consideration to ensure that they are developed and managed in a sustainable manner. Many small islands, typically located in the humid tropics, have no surface water resources and rely on limited groundwater resources in the form of thin freshwater lenses. The exposed location of small islands makes them particularly vulnerable to natural disasters such as cyclones, floods and droughts. Pollution from population centres and from agricultural and other activities is an increasing problem. This article provides an overview of the water resources of small islands, and the main problems and issues related to water resources. Some suggested solutions, based on practical experiences, are offered for water resource assessment and monitoring programmes, and water resource development. Water resource policy, planning and management issues are also addressed, and suggested approaches for resolving some of the major water resource problems presented.
The vulnerability and resilience of small island developing states in the context of globalization
Authors: Encontre Pierre 
Published: October 2009

AbstractIn spite of the wide diversity in the economic performance of small island developing states (SIDS), the apparent prosperity of several SIDS has entailed a global misrepresentation of the economic situation of these countries. While their vulnerability to natural disasters is not denied, the general risk of economic marginalization that many SIDS face in the context of globalization may not have received sufficient attention. The paper attempts to highlight what matters most in the consideration of the economic vulnerability of SIDS and in the debate to prevent their marginalization. It examines the main types of external shocks to which SIDS are vulnerable, and discusses the economic handicaps that are fundamental causes of this vulnerability. Economic specialization (with the predominance of international trade in services) is then a central notion in the analysis of island vulnerability: a better specialization, which may involve diversification and always implies greater international competitiveness, can reduce the exposure or vulnerability of SIDS to external shocks, and induce greater economic stability in these countries. Hence the importance of developing policies to circumvent the specific handicaps of islands and facilitate the realization of new trading opportunities through an emulative use of globalization forces.
Groundwater management and socio‐economic responses
Authors: Burke Jacob J. , Sauveplane Claude , Moench Marcus 
Published: October 2009

AbstractThe socio‐economic aspects of groundwater development and management are briefly examined and set against a background of highly technical management. The variability of socio‐economic responses to groundwater and the problems of engaging large numbers of individual users are highlighted. The paper argues that social, institutional and political factors are the primary obstacles to sustainable management of the world's groundwater resources.
The mining industry and the community: joining forces for sustainable social development
Authors: Labonne Béatrice 
Published: October 2009

AbstractThis article joins the continuing policy debate over the social responsibility of corporations, particularly in the mining industry. The author argues that the ‘old school mining orthodoxy’—approaching the exploitation of mineral deposits solely from the technical and economic points of view—is long dead. Mining companies must also encompass the social dimension.New policies for the mining industry are discussed in terms of recent worldwide trends and movements, e.g. globalization, economic interdependence and decentralization of governmental authority, and the rise of civil society as a political factor. These trends, together with the United Nations policies in quest of sustainable development and the consensus expressed at international conferences during the last decade, have deepened social awareness and set the stage for enhanced social responsiveness from the private sector. Socially responsible corporate policies include decentralization of decision‐making to the field level, reaching out to stakeholders and shareholders, supporting governments which provide official development assistance for good governance and building broad partnerships to reduce social exposures.
The political economy of power generation in Zimbabwe since 1980
Authors: Söderholm Patrik 
Published: October 2009

AbstractThis article presents a historical analysis of the power generation choices in Zimbabwe since independence in 1980; their causes and consequences. In the early 1980s, the electricity supply choices of the country were dictated by a policy of self‐sufficiency, and least‐cost supply options (e.g. imports and hydropower) were rejected at a not negligible economic cost. At the end of the 1980s, a new political environment and pressures from the World Bank prompted substantial changes towards least‐cost alternatives. In the early 1990s, security of supply motives still played an important role and financial constraints were severe. At present, however, there is little evidence that imported power is still as cheap a source of electricity as it was about 15 years ago. This situation together with the ongoing trend towards higher discount rates imply that thermal power, in particular coal‐fired power, will dominate future electricity supply investments in Zimbabwe.