bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Retinoic Acid Determines the Precise Tissue Tropism of Inflammatory Th17 Cells in the Intestine
Authors: Wang Chuanwu , Kang Seung G. , HogenEsch Harm , Love Paul E. , Kim Chang H. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Th17 cells are major effector T cells in the intestine, but the regulation of their tissue tropism within the gut is poorly understood. We investigated the roles of vitamin A and retinoic acid in generation of inflammatory Th17 cells with distinct tissue tropisms within the intestine. We found that Th17 cells with distinct tissue tropisms and pathogenic activities are generated depending on the available concentration of retinoic acid (RA). In contrast to the widespread perception that RA would suppress the generation of Th17 cells, we provide evidence that RA is actually required for generation of Th17 cells with specific tissue tropisms within the gut. Th17 cells induced at suboptimal serum concentrations of RA migrated and induced moderate inflammation mainly in the large intestine, whereas the Th17 cells induced with optimal levels of exogenous RA (∼10 nM) migrated to the small intestine and induced more severe inflammation. The Th17 cells, induced in the presence or absence of RA, differentially expressed the trafficking receptors CCR9 and α4β7. CCR9 is required for Th17 cell migration to the small intestine, whereas α4β7 is required for the migration of Th17 cells throughout the whole intestine. Our results identified RA as a major signal that regulates the generation of gut Th17 cells with distinct capacities in migration and inflammatory activities. The results indicate also that specific gut tropism of Th17 cells is determined by the combination of trafficking receptors regulated by the RA signal.
Variation in the Cd3ζ (Cd247) Gene Correlates with Altered T Cell Activation and Is Associated with Autoimmune Diabetes
Authors: Lundholm Marie , Mayans Sofia , Motta Vinicius , Löfgren-Burström Anna , Danska Jayne , Holmberg Dan 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Tuning of TCR-mediated activation was demonstrated to be critical for lineage fate in T cell development, as well as in the control of autoimmunity. In this study, we identify a novel diabetes susceptibility gene, Idd28, in the NOD mouse and provide evidence that Cd3ζ (Cd247) constitutes a prime candidate gene for this locus. Moreover, we show that the allele of the Cd3ζ gene expressed in NOD and DBA/2 mouse strains confers lower levels of T cell activation compared with the allele expressed by C57BL/6 (B6), BALB/c, and C3H/HeJ mice. These results support a model in which the development of autoimmune diabetes is dependent on a TCR signal mediated by a less-efficient NOD allele of the Cd3ζ gene.
ST2 Negatively Regulates TLR2 Signaling, but Is Not Required for Bacterial Lipoprotein-Induced Tolerance
Authors: Liu Jinghua , Buckley Julliette M. , Redmond H. Paul , Wang Jiang Huai 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Activation of TLR signaling is critical for host innate immunity against bacterial infection. Previous studies reported that the ST2 receptor, a member of the Toll/IL-1 receptor superfamily, functions as a negative regulator of TLR4 signaling and maintains LPS tolerance. However, it is undetermined whether ST2 negatively regulates TLR2 signaling and furthermore, whether a TLR2 agonist, bacterial lipoprotein (BLP)-induced tolerance is dependent on ST2. In this study, we show that BLP stimulation-induced production of proinflammatory cytokines and immunocomplex formation of TLR2–MyD88 and MyD88–IL-1R–associated kinase (IRAK) were significantly enhanced in ST2-deficient macrophages compared with those in wild-type controls. Furthermore, overexpression of ST2 dose-dependently attenuated BLP-induced NF-κB activation, suggesting a negative regulatory role of ST2 in TLR2 signaling. A moderate but significantly attenuated production of TNF-α and IL-6 on a second BLP stimulation was observed in BLP-pretreated, ST2-deficient macrophages, which is associated with substantially reduced IRAK-1 protein expression and downregulated TLR2–MyD88 and MyD88–IRAK immunocomplex formation. ST2-deficient mice, when pretreated with a nonlethal dose of BLP, benefitted from an improved survival against a subsequent lethal BLP challenge, indicating BLP tolerance develops in the absence of the ST2 receptor. Taken together, our results demonstrate that ST2 acts as a negative regulator of TLR2 signaling, but is not required for BLP-induced tolerance.
Cutting Edge: PulmonaryLegionella pneumophilaIs Controlled by Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells but Not Type I IFN
Authors: Ang Desmond K. Y. , Oates Clare V. L. , Schuelein Ralf , Kelly Michelle , Sansom Fiona M. , Bourges Dorothée , Boon Louis , Hertzog Paul J. , Hartland Elizabeth L. , van Driel Ian R. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractPlasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are well known as the major cell type that secretes type I IFN in response to viral infections. Their role in combating other classes of infectious organisms, including bacteria, and their mechanisms of action are poorly understood. We have found that pDCs play a significant role in the acute response to the intracellular bacterial pathogen Legionella pneumophila. pDCs were rapidly recruited to the lungs of L. pneumophila-infected mice, and depletion of pDCs resulted in increased bacterial load. The ability of pDCs to combat infection did not require type I IFN. This study points to an unappreciated role for pDCs in combating bacterial infections and indicates a novel mechanism of action for this cell type.
Requirement for BAFF and APRIL during B Cell Development in GALT
Authors: Yeramilli Venkata A. , Knight Katherine L. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
The effects of B cell-activating factor belonging to the TNF family (BAFF) on B cell maturation and survival in the mouse are relatively well understood. In contrast, little is known about the role of BAFF in B cell development in other mammals, such as rabbits, that use GALT to develop and maintain the B cell compartment. We examined the expression and requirement of BAFF and a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL) during peripheral B cell development in young rabbits. By neutralizing BAFF and APRIL in neonates with a soluble decoy receptor, transmembrane activator calcium modulator and cyclophilin ligand interactor-Fc, we found a marked reduction in the number of peripheral B cells, but found no change in the bone marrow (BM) compartment. In the appendix, the size and number of proliferating B cell follicles were greatly reduced, demonstrating that although BAFF/APRIL is dispensable for B cell development in BM, it is required for B cell development in GALT. We found that all rabbit B cells expressed BAFF receptor 3, but did not bind rBAFF, suggesting that the BAFF-binding receptors (BBRs) are bound by endogenous soluble BAFF. Further, we found that B cells themselves express BAFF, suggesting that the soluble BAFF bound to BBRs may be endogenously produced and stimulate B cells in an autocrine fashion. Additionally, we propose that this chronic occupancy of BBRs on B cells may provide a tonic and/or survival signal for the maintenance of peripheral B cells in adults after B lymphopoiesis is arrested in BM.
Carbon Fibers
Authors: Minus Marilyn L. , Kumar Satish 
Published: April 2010

AbstractCarbon fibers have been studied extensively since the 1960s due to their high strength (3–7 GPa), high modulus (200–500 GPa), compressive strength (1–3 GPa), shear modulus (10–15 GPa), and low density (1.75–2.00 g/cm3). Carbon fibers are derived from several precursors, including isotropic pitch, mesophase pitch, and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) being the predominant precursor used today. Carbon fibers made from pitch can have modulus, thermal, and electrical conductivities as high as 900 GPa, 1000 W/mK, and 106S/m, respectively. The properties of carbon fibers make them useful for reinforcements in composite applications. Carbon fibers have become a dominant material in the aerospace industry, and their usage in automotive, sporting good, and other industries continue to grow as their cost continues to come down.
Chiral Separations
Authors: Gübitz Gerald , Schmid Martin G. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractThe development of chiral separation methods became very important in recent years since it is known that the biological or pharmacological activities of compounds of biological or pharmaceutical interest is mostly restricted to one of the enantiomers. Starting in the late 1960s with classical column liquid chromatography and the first direct gc separation, subsequently methods for HPLC and TLC were developed. More recently, electromigration techniques such as capillary zone electrophoresis, capillary electrokinetic chromatography and capillary electrochromatography found application for chiral separation. A broad spectrum of chiral separation principles have been developed in the 1970s, 1980s and first half of the 1990s, in which mainly applications of these basic separation principles were published. Several thousand publications appeared in this field. Miniaturized systems such as micro‐chip capillary electrophoresis attracted increasing attention in recent years. On the other hand, preparative HPLC found access into industrial production of enantiopure drugs. This article gives an overview of the diversity of chiral separation principles and their mechanisms. Due to the nature of stereoselectivity, there will never exist a universal chiral separation method, the choice of the method always has to be adapted to the problem. However, a few predictions are possible. This article does list applications, beacuse of space constrainds.
Noble Gases
Authors: Hwang Shuen‐Cheng , Lein Robert D. , Morgan Daniel A. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractThe noble gases are characterized by completely filled valence electron shells. Helium, argon, and neon are commercially available, but krypton, xenon, and radon are quite rare. Principal uses of commercial helium include those as a lifting gas, as an inert carrier gas, and as a cryogenic refrigerant. Helium‐3 and helium‐4, which are both stable isotopes used in cryogenics, differ significantly in their liquid properties because of quantum mechanical effects. Argon finds use principally as an inert gas in industries ranging from electronic ones to steelmaking. Neon is employed as a filling gas in detection chambers and in light sources from commercial signs to lasers. Sources and properties of these gases are discussed. Production of helium from natural gas, and of argon and neon from air separation plants, is presented.
Pigments, Inorganic
Authors: Swiler Daniel R. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractInorganic pigments, black, white, or colored, are an integral part of many decorative and protective coatings. These materials are produced and marketed as fine powders that are then dispersed in the desired media. Inorganic pigments are used for the mass coloration of plastics, fibers, paper, rubber, glass, cement, glazes, and porcelain enamels, as well as for colorants in printing inks, cosmetics, and markers, such as crayons. Pigment properties including particle size, tinting power, and hiding strength are discussed.Inorganic pigments of largest commercial interest are the white titanium dioxide; the colorful natural and synthetic iron oxides; various zinc compounds; and carbon black. Many transition‐metal and some rare‐earth compounds are used as chromophores in host oxides such as spinel to produce stable and affordable pigments. Environmentally benign, colorfast replacements are being sought for the historically popular, highly colored lead and cadmium compounds which have proven toxic.
Quinolines and Isoquinolines
Authors: Finley K. Thomas 
Published: April 2010

AbstractThe fusion of a pyridine and a benzene ring produces two heterocyclic aromatic systems usually referred to by their common names, quinoline and isoquinoline. In addition to the chemistry to be expected, this combination opens a wide range of additional possibilities. It is therefore not surprising that both quinoline and isoquinoline have been the subject of extensive studies ranging from the theoretical to the most applied. The dye and photographic industries, the metallurgical, analytical, and polymer sciences all provide extensive examples. However, it continues to be the medical field and the pharmaceutical industry that provides the major driving force for an impressive array of studies of the synthesis and properties of molecules containing these structures. The toxicity of these compounds is sufficient to warrant care in their handling. The literature has been reviewed through March, 2005.
Quinones
Authors: Thomas Finley K. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractQuinones, possessing two α,β‐unsaturated carbonyl groups usually in a six carbon atom ring, represent a unique structural unit. Their centrality in the synthesis of such important commercial substances as dyes and pharmaceuticals has resulted in extensive study of a variety of synthons. In living matter, they are ubiquitous and vital to human metabolism. Quinones are of special interest to biochemists and to both synthetic and theoretical organic chemists. The types of reactions most often reported are nucleophilic addition, photochemistry, cycloaddition, electrophilic addition, radical alkylation, electrochemical, oxidation, and nucleophilic substitution. The synthesis of quinones is usually accomplished through oxidation of phenols or anilines. A wide variety of oxidants has been used, but quinones of higher oxidation potential are often the reagent of choice. Quinones of low molecular weight should be treated with care in their storage and handling.
Release Agents
Authors: Owen Michael J. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Release agents are used in a wide variety of industries to control or eliminate the adhesion between surfaces. Key product requirements and trends are reviewed and a classification based on chemical type is presented. The mechanisms of release are reviewed, emphasizing the importance of minimizing both the strength of the interaction across the interface and the degree of contact. The dominant role of materials such as those based on aliphatic hydrocarbon and fluorocarbon entities or particulate solids is thus explained. Simple thermodynamic arguments are presented stressing the need for release surfaces to have lower surface energies than the substrates they are designed to function with. Industrial applications are succinctly summarized, focusing on the specific needs of each particular application and the types of release agents currently used therein. The categories considered are metal, glass, rubber, plastics, textiles, adhesive transfer processes, furniture, and food. Economic aspects and health and safety factors are also briefly considered.
Reverse Osmosis
Authors: Meyer D. E. , Williams M. , Bhattacharyya D. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractReverse osmosis is a highly effective separation technology used industrially in several areas, including desalination of seawater and brackish water and wastewater treatment. Membrane materials and types of modules used in reverse osmosis, as well as theoretical bases and operational aspects, are presented. A discussion of flux limiting conditions caused by concentration polarization and membrane fouling is included, as is that of the pretreatments required for process feed streams. The application of reverse osmosis for the separation of hazardous organic compounds from aqueous systems, for wastewater treatment, desalination, ultrapure water production, and food processing are reviewed in terms of membrane performance. The emerging applications involving solvent resistant membranes, and functionalized membranes are also included. The concept of nanofiltration and its applications are also discussed. General design considerations and economics are reviewed.
Sonochemistry
Authors: Ashokkumar Muthupandian , Mason Timothy J. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractSonochemistry is a relatively new term that arrived on the scene in the late 1970s and was then simply defined as the uses of ultrasound in chemistry and processing. Ultrasound is part of the overall sound spectrum, but is generally classified as sound beyond the frequency that can be detected by the human ear. Sometimes called “silent sound” it ranges from 20 kHz to 10 MHz within which it can be roughly subdivided into three main regions: low frequency, high power ultrasound (20–100 kHz); intermediate frequency, medium power ultrasound (100 kHz–1 MHz); and high frequency, low power ultrasound (1–10 MHz). The range from 20 kHz to 1 MHz is generally used in sonochemistry, whereas frequencies > 1 MHz are more commonly used in nondestructive testing and medicine. The driving force for sonochemistry is acoustic cavitation, which is the formation of small cavities in a fluid produced by ultrasound that undergo highly energetic collapse. A number of text books have been published that explore different aspects of sonochemistry.This article aims to provide the readers with a fundamental understanding of acoustic cavitation and its associated physical and chemical effects. Detailed information on the events that are involved in acoustic cavitation is discussed in the first section. Among the major effects generated by acoustic cavitation is Sonoluminescence and Sonochemistry, but only brief information is provided on the former since it is not the primary focus of this article. The majority of the discussion is focused upon Sonochemistry within which reactions have been subdivided into different categories, as suggested in the literature. Although sonochemistry is useful for a variety of applications, two areas that are particularly prominent are materials synthesis and the degradation of organic pollutants.
Water Desalination
Authors: Wilf Mark 
Published: April 2010

AbstractThis article addresses water availability and use with special emphasis on the role and current level of technology of water desalination. The major desalination processes, using membranes or distillation, are described. These are multistage flash evaporation (MSF), multi‐effect distillation (ME), vapor compression distillation (VC), freeze–desalination, reverse osmosis (RO), and electrodialysis (ED). Within the membrane processes category important features of major applications: nanofiltration, brackish RO, wastewater reclamation and seawater desalination are discussed. Description of desalination hybrid systems and key references are provided. The use of renewable energy for water desalination by solar stills, ocean–thermal energy conversion plants, wind, and photovoltaic cells is presented. Two of the key technical problems in desalination, scale deposition and prevention, and corrosion and the proper choice of materials to be used for construction of desalination system, are discussed. Basic equations are provided for the evaluation and preliminary design of MSF and RO, which are currently the leading water desalination processes. The leading professional and governmental organizations involved with desalination, and their activities, are described.
Wine
Authors: Butzke Christian E. , Singleton Vernon L. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractThe unmodified wordWinesignifies the juice of grapes fermented by wine yeast and appropriately finished into an alcoholic beverage. Wine's complex composition, abundant types and styles, and elusive definition of quality represent a product that combines chemical technology and human culture like no other. The history of wine growing and making is intertwined with the development of western civilization while today the global wine industry makes a substantial contribution to modern value‐added agriculture that has far‐reaching impact on the economies of all winegrape‐producing countries. Sensory evaluation and wine appreciation in addition to analytical quality control are key aspects of crafting and marketing this unique commodity. A wine's value depends much on its typicity, particular regional character, varietal diversity and vintage‐to‐vintage variation rather than on a standardization that is often sought in other food products. Internationally, wine production techniques, including grape processing, fermentation, maturation and aging, blending and stabilization, have become rather similar leaving the location, weather and climate of the vineyards to be the crucial factor for the quality of the bottled product. The wine industry and its viticultural and enological practices are tightly regulated and controlled in most countries, while moderate consumption of wine continues to play a vital role in human nutrition, health, well‐being and social interaction.
Xylenes and Ethylbenzene
Authors: Cannella William J. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractThis article reviews the properties, commercial manufacturing aspects, and uses of the three xylene isomers, ie,o‐xylene,m‐xylene, andp‐xylene, and the ethylbenzene present in mixed xylene streams. Chemical reactions discussed are migration of the alkyl groups, including 1,2 intramolecular shifts and transalkylation; reactions of the alkyl groups, including oxidation, polycondensation, and ammoxidation; reactions of the aromatic ring; and complex formation. Aspects of commercial manufacture that are covered include initial production of mixed xylenes; separation processes used to produce high purityp‐xylene,o‐xylene, andm‐xylene; and xylene isomerization processes. Catalytic reforming and toluene disproportionation/transalkylation are the primary mixed xylene production routes discussed. The xylene isomer separation processes of crystallization, adsorption, and complex formation are described. The commercially important xylene isomerization processes are reviewed. Analytical techniques economic data, and important health and safety factors are also summarized.
Hemodialysis
Authors: Ofsthun Norma J. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractHemodialysis is the most commonly‐employed process for cleaning the blood of a patient with kidney failure. In hemodialysis, blood flows on one side of a semipermeable membrane and dialysate solution flows on the other side of the membrane. Today, the typical artificial kidney, or dialyzer, consists of approximately ten thousand cylindrical polymer membranes (“hollow fibers”) through which blood flows. The hollow fibers contain pores which are large enough to let toxins pass, but small enough to retain plasma proteins. Dialysate, a solution containing physiological concentrations of several key solutes, flows around the hollow fibers in a counter‐current direction. Hemodialysis cleans the blood by a combination of diffusion, in which toxins move across the hollow fiber wall from high concentration (blood side) to low concentration (dialysate side), and convection, in which solutes are swept along with the fluid that moves through the membrane pores (from blood to dialysate) as a result of a pressure gradient. Small molecular weight waste products (<500 kDa) normally excreted in urine are transferred across the membrane primarily by diffusion, and flow down the drain with the dialysate. Excess water that accumulates between treatments is also removed, leading to convective removal of molecules in the so‐called “middle molecule” range of 500 to ∼15,000 Da. A typical hemodialysis regimen calls for three treatments per week, with each treatment lasting 3.5–4.0 hours. Approximately one million patients worldwide receive chronic hemodialysis today.In this article, the process of hemodialysis, design requirements for dialyzers, and properties of currently available hemodialysis membranes, introducing terminology peculiar to the dialysis industry that may be unfamiliar to scientists in other fields are reviewed.