bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Piracy
Authors: Kraska James 
Published: March 2012

AbstractPiracy is a maritime act of armed robbery, criminal violence or other depredation at sea that is not associated with official governmental action. In this respect, piracy is a private act that does not enjoy a privileged status, either in peacetime or as a lawful belligerent act during time of war. The renowned English jurist Sir William Blackstone wrote that the crime of piracy or robbery and depredation upon the high seas was an offense against the universal laws of civilized society – what we refer to today as “international law” (Blackstone & Wendell 1850). Having renounced all the norms and mores of human progress and enlightened government, pirates were considered by the common law to have reverted to a “savage state of nature” – and their criminal enterprise was held to be tantamount to declaring war against mankind. Anglo‐American law has held pirates to behostis humani generis, or “enemy of all mankind” (The Lotus (Fr. v. Turk.) 1927 PCIJ (ser. A) No. 10, September 7)). As such, piracy is the original crime of universal jurisdiction. Pirates “attack the rights of mankind, and menace the lives and property of all who resist their unlawful acts” (The Ambrose Light, 24 F. 408, 413 (SDNY 1885)). In response, all nations were deemed to be free to declare war against piracy; indeed, not only did every community enjoy the right of self‐defense against piracy, but all civilized states had an affirmative obligation to do so.
Political Capitalism, Markets, and the Global Financial Crisis
Authors: Prechel Harland 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
In response to the acceleration of globalization in the late twentieth century, sociologists reformulated and further specified concepts and theories to explain this process. One such concept is political capitalism, which identifies linkages between politics and economic globalization. There are two parts to this essay. First, it summarizes the development of theory and research on political capitalism. Second, it illustrates how political capitalism in nation‐states created organizational and political structures that permitted financial managers to engage in the high‐risk behaviors that resulted in the global financial crisis in the early twenty‐first century.
Pollution, Water
Authors: Jorgenson Andrew K. , Givens Jennifer 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Much of the human‐caused water pollution in the modern era results from various manufacturing processes, agricultural production, and from the inadequate treatment and handling of fecal matter. While the latter has been reduced in most developed countries, perhaps billions of citizens of less developed countries still lack access to adequate sanitation systems. Furthermore, in both more and less developed countries, runoff from agricultural production, storm water, and forms of mining all continue to contribute to the pollution of water (World Resources Institute 2005). While all forms of water pollution pose environmental and health problems, the most rigorous comparative international studies of globalization and water pollution in the social sciences focus on industrial‐based organic water pollutants, particularly in less developed countries. This is largely due to the availability of data from the World Bank (e.g., 2010) and other sources for such pollutants for a large proportion of the world's nations. Further, these pollutants are known to increase the mortality rates of infants and young children in poorer nations (Jorgenson 2009b).
Postmodernity
Authors: Rossi Ino 
Published: March 2012

AbstractPerhaps the only agreement regarding postmodernism is a total disagreement on what the term means. During the 1970s and 1980s, some authors argued that we were still living in the modern period (Habermas 1983), others argued that we were in a period of radicalized modernity (Giddens 1990, Beck 1992) or re‐modernization (Latour 2003), but postmodernists were proclaiming the end of the “modern era.” However, postmodernists were not in agreement on the beginning of the postmodern era, which was located anywhere in the period from the 1920s to the 1980s. Moreover, some writers identified as “postmodernists” were refusing the label. The term “postmodern” obviously refers to something posterior to and different from or in opposition to “modernity,” but the problem is that the latter term has been used in the arts, humanities and social sciences with different meanings and, at times, interchangeably with the term “modernism.” A terminological confusion can be avoided by reserving the term “modernism” for the nineteenth‐ and twentieth‐century movement that spread throughout the visual arts, literature, and music as well as through philosophical and theological disciplines. “Modernism” originated in opposition to the version of “modernity” that was officially emphasized during the nineteenth‐century era of industrialization, urbanization and scientific innovations. However, the term “modernity” has also been used with different shades of meaning so that a clarification of this term is necessary to minimize the confusion surrounding the term “postmodernism.”
Post‐secularism
Authors: McLennan Gregor 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

From around the 1960s, the prevailing tenor of Western critical thinking about democratic culture was broadly but firmly secularist, and “methodological atheism” was felt to be prerequisite for social scientific endeavor. Such academic inclinations corresponded to general expectations of increasing secularization in the wider postindustrial society. But through the 1990s these assumptions came under challenge, both empirically and philosophically, in a shift towards “post‐secular” understanding. The development of a fully global perspective reminded Western academics of the panoply of religious traditions that were still active across the world. And in the Western nations, most obviously in the United States but in Europe too, a “revival of religion” appeared to be gathering momentum. Accordingly, arguments were made that religious beliefs and sensibilities, contrary to the political and social science
myth
of inexorable secularization, had never disappeared, and might even be expected to intensify as consumerist hedonism and intellectual materialism alike were perceived to be spiritually impoverishing.
Qaedaism
Authors: McDonald Kevin 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
During the 1980s camps were set up in Afghanistan to welcome fighters, mainly from Arab countries, who came to participate in the war against the Soviet‐backed Najibullah government (1979–1988) and who remained active during the chronic war until the eventual consolidation of Taliban power in 1996. The largely Arab group of fighters formed around the Saudi Arabian, Osama Bin Laden, and became known as al‐Qaeda, an Arabic term for “the base,” which is believed to refer to one of three camps in Afghanistan linked to Bin Laden during this period.
Reflexive modernization
Authors: Rossi Ino 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
In the 1970s thinkers like Habermas, Offe, and O'Connor raised questions about the legitimacy of social order, especially about the ability of the capitalist state to reconcile the promotion of economic growth and social welfare. Habermas argued that cultural themes lose their genuine cultural character, and hence their reproducibility, once they are used by the state to legitimize social welfare policies. With the increasing number of administrative functions the state eventually depletes the cultural capital and, therefore, cannot any longer legitimize conflicting class claims.
Religion
Authors: McDonald Kevin 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Globalization and religion have emerged as an intensely contested domain at the beginnings of the twenty‐first century, the issues at stake among the most central reshaping global social life, but also among the most difficult to grapple with. In part this is because debates and controversies around globalization and religion are not the preserve of social scientists, but involve actors ranging from religious institutions and movements, political movements, secularists and terrorists, to states, governments and courts. These all have views about what religion is and what constitutes the appropriate social and political spaces for religious expression and action. This contestation takes very different forms in different countries, reflections of different religious histories and vocabularies as well as political traditions. Scientology, for example, is recognized as a religion in the United States but not in many European countries, while school students may wear religious symbols in schools in the United States but not in France. The term
religion
itself is the product of a particular historical configuration, involving a separation of private belief and public expression that emerged during the formation of the European systems of states. Many languages do not possess a term for religion, while practices and traditions that have become constituted as religions – as for example Hinduism or Buddhism – did so only recently, and in the context of responses to colonial power. All of these complexities are at stake in the reconfiguration of the religious sphere in the context of globalization.
Religions, Global
Authors: Abrutyn Seth 
Published: March 2012

AbstractAround 800bce, a set of cultural revolutions began to foment in India, China, ancient Israel, Greece, and Persia. A period labeled theAxial Ageby numerous scholars (Eisenstadt 1986) witnessed the birth of world or global religions as well as the germ of the two late‐comers – Christianity and Islam. Previously, religion was either rooted deeply in particularisms founded on kinship and tribal logic (Wallace 1966) or, in the case of the earliest states in Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, Peru, and Mesoamerica, in needs and self‐aggrandizing efforts of the polity – especially kings (see Oppenheim 1964). Yet, under enormous sociocultural and sociopolitical pressures following the beginning of the Iron Age (c. 1200–1000bce) movements of resistance to the old traditional political cores emerged on the physical margins of the largest‐to‐date empires – the Assyrian in the Middle East and the Zhou Dynasty in China – or, in the case of India, on the cognitive and somewhat physical margins of the old Vedic sociopolitical configuration.
Resistance Movements
Authors: Tormey Simon 
Published: March 2012

AbstractResistance movements are forms of organization that seek to confront, undermine and overthrow authoritarian or tyrannical forms of power. Unlike political parties, they do not contest power through the electoral or “official” political process, often because elections have been abolished or rendered meaningless. Resistance movements usually operate underground or in other “hidden” or subterranean spaces – including most recently in “virtual” space. They differ from social movements in that they seek actively to prevent the operation of power in a given territory, space or domain. Social movements by contrast seek to influence, reform or contest particular policies and processes.
Revolution
Authors: Berberoglu Berch 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Social change and social transformation often occur when a society undergoes a social revolution. It is through social revolution that societies become transformed from one system to another (Sanderson 2010). There are many types of revolution besides a
social
revolution (e.g., the scientific and technological revolution, the information revolution, and varieties of other revolutions in fields as diverse as engineering and medicine). Here, however, we will focus on
social
revolution that impacts society at the macro‐sociological level and has immense political implications concerning societal change, especially in the age of globalization.
Rule of Law in Global Politics
Authors: May Christopher 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The Rule of Law is both a description of a process for providing order in global politics and an aspiration about the conduct of global political relations. The Rule of Law can be contrasted with the rule of power and/or force, and as such can be said to be the underlying logic of contemporary developments in global governance. Equally, the Rule of Law is a standard that many commentators argue should be met (often as part of an evaluation that it has not). Therefore, in global politics the Rule of Law both acts as part of a political taxonomy, and is an important (increasingly globalized) norm to which states are increasingly held by international organizations, other states and non‐state actors. This operates at two levels: specified societies are judged against the taxonomy and accorded an evaluation of the extent to that they abide by the Rule of Law. However, global politics itself, and (perhaps more often) specific political actions or developments, can also be evaluated utilizing the yardstick of the Rule of Law.
Science
Authors: Drori Gili S. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractModern science is defined as the quest for and analysis of the natural and social worlds that is conducted in accordance with professionalized criteria of method and process and by credentialed professionals. Following its emergence in the sixteenth century as an investigative activity conducted by learned individuals under the sponsorship of court patrons throughout Europe, science came to be institutionalized in the nineteenth century as a professional activity that is the domain of credentialed experts whose work is guided by authoritative criteria of evaluation and review. Since the middle of the twentieth century, science has been redefined in terms of its social import: science is no longer aimed solely at the expansion of human knowledgeper se, but rather science aims to contribute to public or social good, most commonly defined as development. With that, science is a core and global social institution, as well as the conceptual axis of modernity.
Seattle Demonstrations
Authors: Corcoran Katie E. , Pfaff Steven 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Over a decade ago Seattle was the site of one of the most important anti‐globalization protest campaigns to that date. Between November 30 and December 3,1999, worldwide attention was drawn to Seattle by raucous protests that targeted the Third Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization (WTO). In particular, the events of November 30, the opening day of the ministerial, captured the imagination of activists and scholars around the world. On what organizers dubbed “N30,” tens of thousands of protesters flooded the streets of Seattle, preventing the bulk of the WTO delegates from reaching the opening session of the talks and bringing downtown business to a standstill. Civil authorities declared a protest exclusion zone in the city center and riot police moved against demonstrators with batons, tear gas, and armored vehicles. Many ad hoc events were organized with a distinctly local cast as community activists protested police brutality and staged demonstrations against the “protest‐free” zones in much of the central business district. Seattle thus presented an image of political unrest rarely seen in the United States since the Vietnam War era.
September 11th
Authors: Levine Michael 
Published: March 2012

AbstractIn assessing the significance of the events of September 11, 2001 (9/11) in relation to globalization, it is important to note the contentious and problematic character of both. The events of 9/11 itself, along with the subsequent and continuing US and global responses (allegedly) to those events, have had a wide, lasting, and arguably profound effect on globalization – including daily life for people in virtually all parts of the world. However, any account of the impact of 9/11 on globalization, or alternatively, globalization's role in the events of 9/11, is apt to reflect one's prior understanding of both. Given the widely divergent and emotionally invested views in relation to nearly every aspect of globalization as well as the events of 9/11, any account seeking to relate the two is bound to compound the contestation as well as complicate it. Such accounts will be seen as multiplying errors of interpretation and understanding, or else as offering false accounts or simplistic “just so stories” tailor‐made for the purposes of either the political left or right.
Social Class
Authors: Berberoglu Berch 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Social class and class inequality constitute a core area of study in sociology, and the social sciences in general, and are the basis of the study of class relations and class conflict on a global scale, especially under conditions of contemporary neoliberal globalization. Societies have been divided along class lines ever since the development of social classes several thousands of years ago. Based mainly on property ownership, but also income, wealth, and a number of other dimensions, social classes have developed and become a familiar feature of societies across the globe – from early despotic empires through slavery, feudalism, and modern capitalism.
Social Imaginaries
Authors: Steger Manfred B. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Social imaginaries are macro‐mappings of social and political space through which we perceive, judge, and act in the world. These deep‐seated modes of understanding provide the most general parameters within which people imagine their communal existence. Drawing on Benedict Anderson's account of the imagined community of the nation, Charles Taylor argues that social imaginaries are neither theories nor ideologies, but implicit “background understandings” that make possible communal practices and a widely shared sense of their legitimacy. They offer explanations of how “we” – the members of the social whole – fit together, how things go on between us, the expectations we have of each other, and the deeper normative notions and images that underlie those expectations. Social imaginaries are both normative and factual in the sense of providing us both with the standards of how things usually go on and how they ought to go on. In much the same vein, Pierre Bourdieu sees the social imaginary as setting the pre‐reflexive framework for our daily routines and our common‐sense social repertoires.
Social Movements
Authors: Dinerstein Ana Cecilia 
Published: March 2012

AbstractAlthough people engaged in diverse forms of collective actions before, the termsocial movementrefers to a specific form of collective action that has historical roots in Western industrial capitalism, after the second half of the eighteenth century. Industrial capitalism presented a new opportunity for collective action in that it instituted the modern idea that society could be changed. This new form of collective action (social movement) emerged in England and America with political and economic changes, the expansion of the power of Parliament and the spreading out of capital in all its forms, which went hand in hand with the formation and expansion of wage labor. The emergence and growth of social movements was entrenched in political and economic factors such as a rising governmental influence and the increase in negotiations over people's welfare; the deepening of the system of political representation, and the politicization of a free working class (Tilly 2004: 27).
Social Policy
Authors: Deacon Bob 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe subject area of global social policy (GSP) consists of two things: “first, it is the social policy prescriptions for national social policy being articulated by global actors such as international organizations; second, it is the emerging supranational social policies and mechanisms of global redistribution, global social regulation and global social rights” (Deacon 2007: 1). It is also concerned with the global governance of these two elements of GSP.
Society
Authors: Krossa Sophie 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe fact that “society” today is viewed as a rather vague concept can be interpreted either as a problem, or it can goad us to unlock its actual explanatory potential. While some critics go so far as to claim that the term should not be used at all anymore (for example Bauman 2000: 8), here, an alternative approach will be proposed that rises to the very challenge of ambiguity and interprets society generically, in such a way that the notion also becomes fully applicable to conditions in the contemporary world.
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
Authors: Bhandari Medani 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) has eight members: Afghanistan; Bangladesh; Bhutan; India; Maldives; Nepal; Pakistan; and Sri Lanka. It was long the intention of South Asian politicians to establish a platform for regional cooperation of this kind, beginning with discussions in 1980. In April 1981 seven countries' foreign secretaries met in Colombo, Sri Lanka to formalize the concept of cooperation and identified five broad areas for regional cooperation (Afghanistan joined SAARC only in 2005). In August 1983, foreign ministers of the seven countries, at their first meeting in New Delhi, India, formally launched an Integrated Program of Action (IPA) by adopting a Declaration on South Asian Regional Cooperation (SARC). Following this framework, at the first summit held in Dhaka, Bangladesh on December 7–8, 1985, the charter establishing SAARC was adopted (ILO 2000).
Southern African Development Community
Authors: Söderbaum Fredrik 
Published: March 2012

AbstractImmediately before the independence of Zimbabwe in 1980, the Frontline States created the Southern African Development Coordinating Conference (SADCC) in order to foster regional economic cooperation and diminish economic dependence on the outside world, especially apartheid South Africa. The organization was based on a rather modest strategy, which mainly emphasized economic coordination in a series of sectors and, in particular, the mobilization of development assistance to the region as part of the anti‐apartheid struggle, especially from the Nordic countries.
Space
Authors: Puleo Thomas J. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Space is one of the two fundamental dimensions of reality, the other being time. As a concept in global studies, space informs discourses on the changing scalar contexts and locational conditions of a wide range of economic, political, social, cultural, and environmental phenomena. Although the idea of space is universally applicable, some disciplines have long put space at the center of their field of study, most notably architecture, art, geography, geometry, philosophy, planning, and topology.
Space of Flows/Space of Place
Authors: Sam Jillet Sarah 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

This refers to a dualism in contemporary social geography, which incorporates fluidity in the context of globalization. First proposed in 1996, the tension between these dichotomous spatial forms constituted a key aspect of Manuel Castells'
Network Society
(1996/2000) and the increasing traffic of (global) flows that characterized it. The framework was initially developed in the early period of increasing access to the Internet. In light of the increasing and diverse Internet usage, Castells introduced some key modifications to the concepts in 1999.