bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Perceptual and motor interaction in unilateral spatial neglect
Authors: Ishiai Sumio 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines perceptual and motor interaction and mental representation by studying movements of the eyes and the hand in unilateral spatial neglect in order to elucidate the mechanisms of left-side underestimation and over-extension. It specifically reports the cases of a 50-year-old right-handed man, who was tested five months after onset of a middle cerebral artery territory infarction, as well as a 68-year-old right-handed man, who was studied four months after onset of a middle cerebral artery territory infarction. Results generally suggest that patients with unilateral spatial neglect adopt different visuospatial processing for the line bisection and the symmetric positioning tasks. In the line bisection task, leftward searches are absent or are accomplished with marked restriction of size. It is unlikely that the whole extent to the left of the subjective midpoint is perceived but underestimated. The left extent seems to be inferred mainly from the attended right extent, which may be a completion-like phenomenon. In the symmetric positioning task, when a response is required into the contralesional space, the representational map for that space may be activated in the brain of patients with neglect.
The neural mechanisms of attentional control
Authors: Giesbrecht Barry , Mangun George R. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter offers a snapshot of the current state of the burgeoning literature on the neural mechanisms of top-down attentional control. It starts by reviewing three neuroanatomical models of visuospatial attention. This review of these models is intended to provide an anatomical framework for understanding the empirical research presented in later sections. It then describes some of the current literature investigating the neural mechanisms of top-down control. These studies of the top-down control of visuospatial attention can be divided into two categories: those studies aimed at determining where control systems are located in cortex, and those that are aimed at determining how control is manifest in cortex. In addition, it reports some of the authors' work that is aimed at understanding the generality of spatial attentional control mechanisms. It concludes by proposing new lines of research that, when combined, will move towards a more complete understanding of top-down attentional control.
Reducing Spatial Neglect by Visual and Other Sensory Manipulations
Authors: Rossetti Yves , Rode Gilles 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter reports three main groups of physiological approaches to neglect modulation: passive physiological stimulation, active stimulation, and stimulation of sensorimotor plasticity. The main questions to be addressed concern the specificity of these methods with regard to the physiopathology of hemispatial neglect, and their possible outcome in terms of rehabilitation. Two main aims have been followed by most of the techniques proposed for relieving hemispatial neglect. The two strategies have now proved to be complementary. In addition, the sensory stimulations used to alleviate the clinical and neuropsychological manifestations of unilateral neglect have failed so far to fulfil their main objectives. First, they have not been very instructive about the fundamental basis of unilateral neglect. Second, the functional outcome of exposure to the forms of stimulation has not been sufficiently investigated and therefore they have not yet given rise to practical rehabilitation routines. Therefore, the currently frustrating overview of the status of sensory manipulations in the understanding and rehabilitation of unilateral neglect should be positively moderated by several promising approaches.
Frequency processing: a twenty-five year perspective
Authors: Zacks Rose T. , Hasher Lynn 
Published: April 2012

AbstractIt has been proposed that frequency of occurrence information is ‘automatically’ encoded in the context of a general theoretical framework relating attention and memory encoding. This chapter begins with a description of the origins of that framework, focusing on earlier evidence indicating that people of all ages and under a very broad range of circumstances reliably and unintentionally encode information about the relative frequencies of events. Notwithstanding challenges to the automatic encoding view, it is believed this empirical generalization remains valid today. Additionally, this chapter describes recent examples of findings from research on language processing and statistical reasoning that add to earlier evidence of the critical contribution of frequency knowledge to cognitive and social functioning.
Experiential and contextual heuristics in frequency judgement: ease of recall and response scales
Authors: Schwarzand Norbert , Wänke Michaela 
Published: April 2012

AbstractFrequency estimates can be based on a number of different heuristic strategies, of which this chapter addresses two. First, it revisits Tversky and Kahneman's (1973) availability heuristic. The reviewed findings indicate that individuals only rely on the subjective experience of ease of recall when its informational value is not called into question and their processing motivation is low. When the experience is not deemed informative, or processing motivation is high, individuals draw on recalled content. These diverging strategies result in markedly different frequency estimates and related judgements. This chapter also addresses what respondents learned from frequency scales provided by the researcher. The reviewed findings indicate that respondents extracted information about the assumed distribution and used this information in arriving at frequency estimates and related judgements. The consistency of these findings are highlighted with general models of human judgement.
Tversky and Kahneman's availability approach to frequency judgement: a critical analysis
Authors: Betsch Tilmann , Pohl Devika 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines the predictive power of Tversky and Kahneman's availability approach to frequency estimation. It is shown that the original formulation of the availability approach does not provide a falsifiable theory that would allow one to derive a priori predictions about the psychological mechanisms by which people arrive at frequency judgements. Rather, availability is one among other possibilities that people might rely on when being confronted with a frequency estimation task. A brief review of the empirical evidence reveals that the availability approach indeed describes one possible estimation strategy.
Frequency, contingency and the information processing theory of conditioning
Authors: Gallistel C. R. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThe framework provided by Claude Shannon's (1948) theory of information leads to a far-reaching, more quantitatively oriented reconceptualization of the processes that mediate what is commonly called associative learning. The focus shifts from processes set in motion by individual events to processes sensitive to the information carried by the flow of events. The conception of what properties of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are important shifts from the tangible properties that excite sensory receptors to the abstract and intangible properties of number, duration, frequency, and contingency, which are the carriers of the information.
Frequency learning and order effects in belief updating
Authors: Baumann Martin , Krems Josef F. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Studies on frequency processing suggest that people can process frequency information automatically and can use this information in judgement task quite accurately. This chapter examines whether order effects in belief updating tasks will disappear if the meaning of the respective pieces of information relevant for the belief updating task is acquired through the processing of frequencies of co-occurrences of events in real event sequences. First it gives a short overview on studies addressing order effects in belief updating. Then the belief-adjustment model of Hogarth and Einhorn (1992) is described. This model is used to identify situations where order effects are to be expected. Some results of studies on frequency processing are then described and finally results from a series of experiments are summarized, testing the impact of learning of frequencies on order effects in belief updating tasks.
The psychophysics metaphor in calibration research
Authors: Kleiter Gernot D. , Doherty Michael E. , Brake Gregory L. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractAccording to the standard paradigm of behavioural decision theory, calibration refers to how well subjective probability assessments match objective frequencies. This chapter argues that conception results from a misleading metaphor that relates subjective probabilities to objective frequencies in the same way as a psychophysical function relates subjective sensations to physical dimensions. The results of four calibration studies on experts' predictions of the outcomes of baseball games are reported. The results show good calibration and underconfidence. A Brunswikian Lens model was employed to analyse the relationships between the predictability of the baseball games and the subjects' cue utilization on one hand, and calibration on the other.
Frequency effects in consumer decision making
Authors: Alba Joseph W. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter reviews research regarding the potential influence of frequency information in the competitive marketplace. Consistent with findings obtained in other contexts, consumer research demonstrates how misperception of true frequency can affect decision variables. Consumer research further demonstrates that frequency cues can be a determining influence on behaviour irrespective of accuracy of encoding, even when pitted against more diagnostic product cues. This research also suggests that the influence of frequency information varies as a function of a variety of factors internal and external to the consumer.
Song learning in birds: the relation between perception and production
Authors: NOTTEBOHM FERNANDO , ALVAREZ-BUYLLA ARTURO , CYNX JEFFREY , KIRN JOHN , LING CHANG-YING , NOTTEBOHM MARTA , SUTER ROBERT , TOLLES AMANDA , WILLIAMS HEATHER 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThe vocal control system of oscine songbirds has some perplexing properties — e.g. laterality, adult neurogenesis, neuronal replacement — that are not predicted by common views of how vocal learning takes place. Similarly, the relation between the direct pathway for the control of learned song and the recursive pathway necessary for song learning is not understood. Some of the paradoxes of the vocal system of birds may disappear once the relation between the perception and production of learned vocalizations is better understood. To some extent, perception and production may be two closely related states of the same system.
Neural mechanisms of classical conditioning in mammals
Authors: THOMPSON RICHARD F. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractEvidence supports the view that ‘memory traces’ are formed in the hippocampus and in the cerebellum in classical conditioning of discrete behavioural responses. In the hippocampus learning results in long-lasting increases in excitability of pyramidal neurons that resemble the phenomenon of long-term potentiation. Although it plays a role in certain aspects of conditioning, the hippocampus is not necessary for learning and memory of the basic conditioned responses. The cerebellum and its associated brain-stem circuitry, on the other hand, does appear to be essential (necessary and sufficient) for learning and memory of the conditioned response.
Beyond perception: conceptual contributions to unconscious influences of memory
Authors: Toth Jeffrey P. , Reingold Eyal M. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter discusses that conceptually driven processing and data-driven processing almost always transpire together, with each direction of processing contributing something to the total analysis. It attempts to answer the question: In what ways can a person be unconsciously influenced by the past? Its main purpose though, is to address the question of whether memory for prior meaning-based processing can unconsciously influence subsequent thought and behaviour, a question of conceptual priming. The chapter also describes how a conceptually driven or top-down process can play a role in all kinds of priming, including both perceptual and conceptual. This chapter points out the inadequacies of using indirect tests as measures of unconscious influence especially in regards to conceptual priming. It also identifies some conditions that are necessary for the transfer of meaning-based processing. In addition, it also points out an important missing factor in the contemporary theories of unconscious influences which is the subjects mind set or level of attunement for task processing. Finally, this chapter also reviews contemporary evidence for unconscious conceptual influences of memory. We simply perceive the meaning of events. These conscious memorial states are further subdivided into recollective experiences and feelings of familiarity.
How implicit is implicit learning?
Authors: Berry Dianne C. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter discusses the early demonstrations of implicit learning, which includes artificial grammar learning, sequence learning, control of complex systems, and the acquisition of invariant characteristics. Subsequent changes and the distinct properties of storage and retrieval of implicitly acquired knowledge are also discussed in this chapter. This chapter states that the term ‘implicit learning’ has been used to characterize situations were we learn to recognize and produce grammatical utterances without ever being able to describe the underlying rules of the grammar and reviews and assesses the evidence in relation to the two main features of implicit learning that was proposed by Reber (1989). The first feature states that implicit learning gives rise to abstract knowledge; while the second states that it is an unconscious process. It is suggested that with the problem of assessing implicitly acquired knowledge and interpreting the results of the different knowledge measures, seeing whether such knowledge can be distinguished on other grounds will be a profitable approach. It also analyzes whether implicitly acquired knowledge is associated with properties of storage and retrieval. It is concluded that learning may be considered to be implicit in some senses, but not in others.
Using near retinoscopy to refract infants
Authors: Thorn Frank , Gwiazda Jane , Held Richard 
Published: April 2012

AbstractNear retinoscopy has proven to be a powerful technique for measuring the optical focus of an infant's eyes. It can be used to measure easily and accurately astigmatism and anisometropia. It can be used readily to find the spherical equivalent refractive error of one infant relative to a large population of infants, similar to the use of photorefraction. It has the special advantage that it can be implemented to approximate refractive errors measured with traditional retinoscopy or to measure the optical focus of the attentive infant. The second of these possibilities has proven itself valuable in its ability to predict refractive errors years later during adolescence.
Dioptric blur, grating visual acuity, and stereoacuity in infants
Authors: Schmidt Paulette P. , Wood Ivan C. J. , Lewin Sarah , Davis Helen 
Published: April 2012

AbstractIn the assessment of visual function, visual and stereo acuity measurement play important roles in diagnosing vision problems and in monitoring the effects of clinical treatments. Grating-acuity measurement determined by preferential-looking methods is the most widely available tool for assessment of visual function in infants and toddlers. Visual acuity may be measured binocularly and monocularly but requires monocular measurements to determine the presence of unilateral blur. Stereo acuity is the perception of depth as a consequence of cortical recognition of horizontal retinal disparity between the two eyes. It is a form of hyper acuity and is measured binocularly. Stereopsis is the result of activating cortical binocular cells with identical but disparate images. Disrupted or discordant binocular vision during human infancy results in amblyopia and/or suppression thereby interrupting stereopsis. The development of stereopsis has important implications for both understanding human visual development and the clinical treatment of visual anomalies.
The organization of visual perception in early infancy
Authors: Slater Alan 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThe major characteristic of perception, which applies to all the sensory modalities, is that it is organized. With respect to visual perception, the world that we experience is immensely complex, consisting of many entities whose surfaces are a potentially bewildering array of overlapping textures, colours, contrasts and contours, undergoing constant change as their position relative to the observer changes. However, the brain does not perceive a world of fleeting, unconnected retinal images; rather, it perceives objects that move and change in an organized and coherent manner.
Introduction
Authors: Rolls Edmund T. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThe introduction discusses the coverage of this book, which is about the computational neuroscience of vision. It introduces some of the background for understanding brain computation and discusses how some of the essential features of this can be captured by simple formalisms. The introduction also explores three neuronal network architectures, long-term potentiation and long-term depression, and the fine structure of the cerebral neocortex.
Can disabilities resulting from attentional impairments be treated effectively?
Authors: Sohlberg McKay Moore 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThe chronic, pervasive disabilities resulting from attention impairments have rendered this cognitive domain a rehabilitation priority. Individuals along the entire spectrum, from mild to severe brain injury, report long term dysfunction caused by persistent attention impairments. Subjective client complaints include reduced speed of processing, decreased ability to maintain attention, and distractibility, in addition to impairments in the working memory processes that are responsible for temporary maintenance and mental manipulation of information. This chapter examines the literature for evidence on the effectiveness of therapies for reducing the level of disability caused by such changes in attention.
Can speech and language therapy with aphasic people affect activity and participation levels?
Authors: Marshal Jane 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter briefly discusses how the International Classification of Functioning Disability and Health (ICF) applies to aphasia, and considers the relationships between the different components of the system. It argues that despite evidence of correlations, e.g. between impairment and activity measures, these relationships are complex. In particular, one cannot assume that change in one dimension will be accompanied by change in another. The chapter also argues that change at the level of activity and participation is the primary goal of rehabilitation, regardless of the approach taken. Therapy studies are then reviewed for evidence that this change can be achieved. In conclusion, the chapter suggests that speech and language therapy should be multidimensional and driven by the life goals of the individuals involved. Diverse methods of evaluation are also required, which can explore changes in the dimensions of impairment, activity, and participation.
Assessment of executive dysfunction
Authors: Crawford John R. , Henry Julie D. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the measurement properties of putative tests of executive dysfunction and on validity information. It reviews the tests ranging from long-standing clinical tests such as verbal fluency and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test to more recent tests that are more explicitly derived from theory, such as the Cognitive Estimation Task, the Brixton and Hayling Tests, dual task methods, and the Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome (BADS). It discusses the issue of the ecological validity of tests and the need to consider a patient's premorbid ability when assessing executive functioning. It also briefly reviews the rating scales and questionnaire methods of assessing executive problems and disability.
Can executive impairments be effectively treated?
Authors: Evans Jonathan J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter addresses the question of whether impairments of executive functioning can be effectively treated. The conclusion that is drawn from a review of the literature is cautiously positive, but there are many caveats. Executive functions are poorly defined and theoretical inconsistency makes evaluation of rehabilitation studies difficult and has probably limited the number of studies undertaken. There is some evidence that pharmacological approaches may have some value, but this is mostly anecdotal or from studies with very small numbers of participants. Attempts to train problem-solving or goal management skills have had some success, though it is not clear that such training can be considered to restore executive functioning to normal or act as a form of compensatory strategy for managing impulsivity. Meanwhile, some of the most convincing work addressing rehabilitation of executive functions has been undertaken with people with a diagnosis of schizophrenia.
For a theory of cognitive rehabilitation
Authors: Hillis Argye E. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractA theory of cognitive rehabilitation should specify how change from a damaged state of cognitive processing can be modified into a normal, or more functional, state of cognitive processing. Such a theory should incorporate what is known about the cognitive representations and processes underlying normal cognition, how these are affected by brain damage, and how learning or modification of cognitive processing occurs. This chapter argues that development of a useful theory of cognitive rehabilitation requires integrating advances from cognitive neuropsychology, experimental psychology, computational neuroscience, and molecular biology of the brain, as well as empirical evidence from various branches of rehabilitation. It is likely that such a theory will specify how behavioral rehabilitation strategies can be augmented by pharmacological agents.
Introduction
Authors: Chambers Robert 
Published: April 2012

AbstractIn this chapter, a brief identification of resulting trust is first presented. Several definitions are given, these coming from several writers. Two situations where resulting trusts mostly arise as well as the distinction between presumed and automatic resulting trusts are illustrated. The importance of a proper classification of trusts is explored as well. The chapter contends that by recognizing that the resulting trust depends on the lack of intention to benefit the recipient should resolve the debate over whether it arises by operation of law or is created by the intention of the parties. Further, the chapter asserts that if the resulting trust has a greater role in the law of restitution than previously suspected, the interplay between these two subjects must be examined. The latter part of this chapter provides an outline of the plan of the book.