THE GREEN SEA TURTLE, CHELONIA MYDAS (LINN.) IN MALAYA AND SARAWAK
Authors: HENDRICKSON JOHN R. 
Published: August 2010

SUMMARYA four‐year study was conducted on breeding populations of Green Sea Turtles, Chelonia mydas (Linn.), in Malaya and Sarawak. The area of study was confined to the South China Sea (Sunda Shelf) coasts of the two countries. The history of the exploitation of sea turtle populations for eggs in the Muslim areas of Malaysia is reviewed; compared with other parts of the world where turtles are killed for flesh and fat, the populations in Malaya and Sarawak appear to have suffered little reduction in size. The general aspects of the marine environment and the different types of sea turtle breeding beaches in the area are described. Chelonia mydas tends to build up large breeding concentrations around a small number of beaches, with only limited use of other beaches in the region. Possible causes and adaptive features of the observed situation are discussed. The type of beach utilised by large breeding concentrations of Green Turtles is described, and several particular beaches are described in detail.The process of nesting is described at length, drawing on extensive field notes made over a four‐year period. Particular attention is paid to behavioural aspects of the nesting process and to their possible adaptive significance. Female turtles approaching the beach for nesting are very shy while still in the water and still able to make a rapid escape; they show a clear set of reactions to visual stimuli. With progression up onto the land and isolation from the aquatic environment, the turtles show progressively less response to alarm stimuli. Ihe mechanics of terrestrial locomotion and of the various nesting activities are described, along with discussions of inhibitory and initiatory stimuli which appear to govern the different stages in the process. A table is presented showing the timing of the nesting process in three selected observations on individual females.Courtship and copulation in Chelonia mydas are described as they were observed in Malaya and Sarawak.2,720 adult female turtles were tagged on three islands off Sarawak, where the Sarawak Government operates a turtle egg industry. Through the cooperation of the industry, statistical studies were carried out. Methods of tagging are described and pertinent features of the statistical work are discussed The recorded annual egg production from the three islands averages slightly less than two million eggs a year, with a recorded minimum of 700,000 and a maximum in excess of three million eggs.While there is no non‐breeding season in Sarawak, there is a pronounced annual cyclical variation in the intensity of breeding, with a marked heavy season around June, July, and August. The absence of a non‐breeding season is considered to be related to the virtual lack of any marked annual variation in temperature. The existence of a definite peak breeding season is thought to relate to the adaptive advantage of a habit of synchronous breeding aggregation in a widely ranging species. The timing of the peak breeding season appears to relate to the period of the Northeast Monsoon, which brings relatively inclement weather from November through February.The development and decline of the breeding season as shown by egg production figures from the industry shows a remarkable consistency through “good” years and “bad”. While presumably located in time to occur when monsoon effects are minimal, it does not show correspondence to yearly fluctuations in the timing of the monsoon. The per cent contribution of each calendar month to the annual total egg production tends to remain constant regardless of whether the monsoon periods preceding or following are early or late.Individual tagged turtles returned repeatedly to the same beach to nest. Of 5,748 records of returning tagged females only 3–7 per cent failed to return to the same island previously used, despite the fact that two of the islands were only about 500 metres apart.Female turtles nested six or seven times in a season at intervals of about 10 days. Records showed a maximum of 11 successful nests made by a single individual. 8,147 clutches of eggs averaged 104‐7 eggs per clutch, with a Standard Deviation of 1–31.The return in 1956 of numbers of the turtles tagged in 1953 indicates a three‐year breeding cycle in the Sarawak turtles, and provides evidence that individuals are able to make their way back to the same nesting grounds after the long absence.The environment of the incubating nest is described and the hatchery procedures practised on the Sarawak islands are outlined. A special series of nests was transplanted to the industry's hatchery enclosure for studies on incubation. Although surface sand temperatures underwent a diurnal fluctuation of as much as 23o C, at the depths where eggs were deposited the measured temperature never fluctuated more than about 2o C. Incubating nests showed a progressive temperature rise due to the metabolic heat produced by the developing embryos, reaching temperatures as high as 35o C. by the time of hatching. Records of 354 hatchery nests showed an average of 47 per cent of the transplanted eggs resulting in hatchlings which emerged to the surface. Recorded intervals between oviposition and time of emergence of young turtles to the surface varied seasonally from an average of about 70 days during the latter part of February to an average of about 54 days during the period June to October.The process of emergence of the hatchling turtles from their subterranean chamber and their movement to the sea is described.The available data on growth rate and age of maturation is assembled and discussed. It is concluded that Asian Green Turtles probably mature in from four to six years. The carapace measurements of 200 adult females from Sarawak are plotted on a graph; the weights and carapace measurements of ten females are given in a table.Predation upon incubating nests and upon turtles at all stages is discussed. Ghost Crabs (Ocypoda sp.) were the most serious observed menace to incubating nests in the areas studied. The heaviest predation observed on hatchling turtles was by Ghost Crabs and small sharks. There is little predation by sea birds on the Malaysian beaches. Several large Tiger Sharks (Galeocerdo sp.) were caught off the Sarawak islands; two of these had the remains of adult sea turtles in their stomachs.The various parasites and commensals found on turtles during the study are reported; observations are made on the burrowing parasitic barnacle, Stephanolepas muricata, and its apparent tumour‐inducing proclivities.The paper concludes with an analysis of the problem of scientific management of wild populations of Green Turtles. It is concluded that exploitation for eggs is more logical, more profitable, and more amenable to management techniques than is exploitation for flesh and fat.