bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Crag of Iceland: an Intercalation in the Basalt-Formation
Authors: Pjetuesson Helgi 
Published: October 2009

The existence of fossiliferous deposits on the western coast of Tjörnes (Northern Iceland) has been known to science for nearly 160 years. They were first mentioned by the famous Egbert Olafsson in his book entitled ‘Enarrationes historicæ de Islandiæ Natura & Constitutione,’ etc., published at Copenhagen in 1749.

In 1871 the Danish conchologist O. A. L. Mörch published a paper ‘On the Mollusca of the Crag-formation of Iceland,’ wherein he enumerated 61 species of molluscs, and arrived at the conclusion that in the Crag-period the temperature of the northern coast of Iceland must have been much milder than now, ‘at least as at present on the west coast by Reikiavik’ [Reykjavik],
op. cit.
p. 394.

Some years later, Mr. J. Starkie Gardner collected 33 species of Pliocene molluscs in Iceland, which were studied by Gwyn Jeffreys and Searles V. Wood. In the opinion of Wood, the deposits in question cannot be younger than Middle Red Crag, while Jeffreys thinks that they are somewhat younger. Gardner himself is, however (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xli, 1885, p. 97), ‘inclined to assign a greater age to the deposit from its general appearance on the spot, than Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys may do, or even than Mr. Searles Wood.’
The most important paper in existence on the fauna of the Icelandic Crag dates from 1884, but only exists in a manuscript, which has been deposited in the archives of the Geological Museum of Copenhagen. It is written by C. M. Poulsen, and is in
On the Upper Carboniferous Rocks of West Devon and North Cornwall
Authors: Arber E. A. Newell 
Published: October 2009

I. Introduction.
For some years past my attention has been directed to a study of the Upper Carboniferous rocks of Devon and Cornwall. The main object of enquiry has been to ascertain as much as possible of the fossil plant-remains, more especially with a view to determining the horizons to which they belong.
Some of the results attained have been already published. Inthe present, communication an account is given of more recent and concluding observations. It has been thought well to add some brief reference to the main conclusions which have appeared else-where, in order to treat of the whole area under discussion in as connected a manner as possible.
In a previous paper 1 a description was given of the fossil plants obtained from the district around Bideford, the geology of which is well known and has been repeatedly described. 2 The present paper is, in the main, concerned with a much wider area. As the result of a close search for plant-remains in the Upper Carboniferous rocks lying to the south and west of Bideford, and extending into North Cornwall, other discoveries have been made incidental to the progress of the main line of enquiry.
These, although strictly lying beyond my province, I have felt it my duty to record,if only imperfectly, since the district has not hitherto been examined. Thus, in addition to the plant-evidence, I have endeavoured to add some account of the physical characters of the beds, as well as of the invertebrate fossils which
On the Skull and greater Portion of the Skeleton of
Goniopholis crassidens
from the Wealden Shales of Atherfield (Isle of Wight)
Authors: Hooley Reginald Walter 
Published: October 2009

I. History of The Descovery of The Specimen.
In the late autumn of 1904, at a place locally called ‘Tie Pits,’ near Atherfield Point (Isle of Wight), a large mass of the cliff, comprising many thousand tons of the Wealden Shales, subsided, pushing its foot across the beach, until below low-water line. As the sea washed away the base, the mass continued sinking, and fresh horizons were denuded. In 1905 a series of heavy ‘ground-seas’ cast up blocks of limestone and ironstone, containing crocodilebones, which were discovered on the sand, between high and low water marks. The skull came ashore in six pieces, and on as many different occasions.
Scutes and fragments of bones were constantly picked up. One block found by a local fisherman was ibrwarded to the Sedgwick Museum, at Cambridge. After correspondence with Mr. Henry Keeping, the well-known Curator, I was put in communication with Prof. T. McK. Hughes, F.R.S., who, with great liberality and courtesy, wrote that in ' the interest of scientific progress' he thought that their block should be handed over to me, and this was accordingly done.
The collection of the skull, etc. would have been impossible, but for the aid of Mr. Walter White, the coxswain of the Atherfield lifeboat, who obtained the separate portions by visiting the beach at every tide. The horizon whence the specimen was derived is 80 to 90 feet below the top of the Wealden Shales.

II. History of The British Goniopholid
Æ
.

The genus.
The Titaniferous Basalts of the Western Mediterranean: A Preliminary Notice
Authors: Washington Henry S. 
Published: October 2009

In the summer and autumn of 1905 the volcanic districts of Catalonia, Sardinia, Pantelleria, and Linosa were visited by me, and their rocks collected under the auspices of, and with the aid of a grant from, the Carnegie Institution of Washington. During the past year, the abundant and representative material thus brought together has been the object of microscopical and chemical study, which is still in progress. The final results of these investigations are to appear elsewhere, as separate papers dealing with the rocks of the several districts; but some observations and conclusions of a general character appear to be sufficiently well-established, and of enough interest, to justify their publication in advance of the more detailed descriptions.
It is the object of the present communication, which I have the honour of laying before the Society, to call the attention of petrologists to the existence, in the Western Mediterranean Basin, of a hitherto unrecognized petrographic province, or comagmatic region, to adopt a term used by me elsewhere, one of the most salient characters of which is the presence of salfemanes (basalts) that contain remarkably-high amounts of titanium. The data available at present are far from complete, as only a small proportion of the numerous rock-types have been analysed: the analyses so far made by me being mostly of basalts (salfemanes), with fewer of the more salic rocks. Furthermore, there are several gaps in the comagmatic zone, at localities which I was unable to visit, and the rocks of which are still
On Changes of Physical Constants which take place in certain Minerals and Igneous Rocks, on the Passage from the Crystalline to the Glassy State; with a short Note on Eutectic Mixtures
Authors: Douglas James Archibald 
Published: October 2009

The effect of high temperatures on minerals and igneous rocks has long been a subject of geological research. De Saussure, in 1779, was the first to remark the fact that igneous rocks diminished in density on fusion, and became converted into a glassy substance. Further investigations as to these phenomena were made by Dolomieu in 1788, Sir James Hall in 1790, Magnus in 1831, and Bischof in 1841. The work of these early observers inspired Delesse in 1846 to publish an important paper on the glasses formed by the fusion of igneous rocks. This paper gives a good idea of the methods employed, at a time when electrical heating was an unknown factor in scientific research. With the improved appliances of modern science, the number of investigators has so greatly increased that it is only possible to mention the more recent researches of Barus, Dœlter, Joly, Teall, Cusack, Bakhuis Roozeboom, Vogt, Åkerman, Allen, and Day.
At the present time, every well-appointed laboratory has its electrical installation, and high temperatures may thereby be easily attained. As I had a strong current at my disposal. Prof. Sollas suggested that I should melt certain minerals and igneous rocks by means of a simple platinum-resistance, and endeavour to redetermine the change of specific gravity which accompanies their fusion.
In the following paper I have given a brief account of some experiments on the fusion of igneous rocks, and the determination of their specific gravities in the glassy state; I have also added a few
On the Southern Origin attributed to the Northern Zone in the Savoy and Swiss Alps
Authors: Bonney T. G. 
Published: October 2009

In two most valuable and interesting papers contributed to our Journal, Prof. Sollas has described the results of experiments made with cobbler's wax, and designed to illustrate the internal movement of a viscous fluid or very plastic solid under the action of gravitation, which was set up originally by the wedge-like form of the mass and continued by adding new layers, more or less similarly shaped, of the same material. Complications were introduced, as described in the second paper, by attaching to the floor of the trough used for the experiment, first one, then two, mound-like obstacles over which material, once near its head, was forced by the pressure of that subsequently added: the result being the formation in the older layers of some remarkable folds, and even dislocations, especially in front of the second obstacle
These experiments, as Prof. Sollas pointed out in his first paper, throw much light on the movements of glaciers; but whether they give any real support, as is suggested in the second paper, to Prof. Lugeon's explanation of the flexures in the Chablais district and its continuation across the Rhone, is, in my opinion, very doubtful. This hypothesis may be briefly stated in the following terms:—On the northern side of the great crystalline massif, the crest of which forms the watershed of the Pennine-Lepontine Alps, is a second one—that of the Bernese Oberland. Its eastern end, before reaching the Rhine, disappears beneath a thick covering of Secondary and early Tertiary rocks.Its western end
The Geology of the Oban Hills (Southern Nigeria)
Authors: Parkinson John 
Published: October 2009

The country worked over comprises some 1800 square miles adjacent to the Kamerun frontier, lying in the form of an ellipse, with its major axis running north and south, bounded respectively by the Cross River and the swamps east of Calabar. (see map. p. 314).
I arrive at the following conclusions :—

(1)
A study of the Eastern Province of Southern Nigeria shows the Oban Hills to be part of an extensive spur or inlier of crystal-line rocks, surrounded in British territory by Cretaceous and later sediments.

(2)
The crystalline rocks are broadly divided into two groups— the one characterized by the presence, the other by the absence of foliation.

(3)
The former consists in part of acid orthogneisses, which tend to lose their foliation and pass into granites, and when coarsely crystalline they have a pegmatoidal habit.

The commonest rock of the series is a fine-grained biotite-gneiss, but many varieties are found, and it is considered that these are the members of a differentiated magma, the various products of which took up their present positions at different times : that is, they differ slightly in age. Mica and less frequently hornblende-schists, together with sphene-sehists and rare sillimanite-gneisses (Awöfong), occur throughout the district, and it is contended that these rocks are older than the gneisses.
At Abuton (Kwa River) a garnet-tourmaline-orthogneiss is associated with a fine-grained mica-schist, so closely as to produce a banded composite gneiss by a process, apparently
The Constitution of the Interior of the Earth, as revealed by Earthquakes: (Second Communication). Some New Light on the Origin of the Oceans
Authors: Oldham Richard Dixon 
Published: October 2009

The origin of the great oceanic basins has been the subject of numerous speculations, more or less plausible, but none convincing: for the reason that we have no knowledge as to whether these depressions are mere surface-phenomena, or whether they are accompanied by, and related to, differences in the constitution of the interior of the earth beneath them. It is known that the attraction of gravity is, as a rule, greater at island-stations than on the continents, and that the plumb-line at coast-stations is frequently deflected towards the sea; but these facts do not help, for they are easily explicable by differences which may be regarded as superficial, seeing that they need not extend to a depth of even as much as one hundredth of the earth's radius. As regards greater depths, mathematical deductions can help us but little, for any deductions drawn in this way are subject to the logical objection that, while showing the possibility of one explanation of known facts, they do not exclude the possibility of some other. Direct or positive evidence is therefore desirable, and this I propose to offer: not indeed amounting to proof, but still strong enough to merit serious consideration, that the ocean-basins of the Northern Atlantic and Northern Pacific are not mere surface-departures from the perfect spheroid, but are accompanied by differences in the constitution of the matter underlying them, which extend to a considerable portion of the whole radius of the earth.
In a previous communication I showed that the
Appendix I.—On the Correlation of the Bath-Doulting Strata with those of Dorset
Authors: Buckman S. S. 
Published: October 2009

Mr. Richardson has asked me to say a few words about the correlation of the strata described by him with the Upper Inferior Oolite + the Fullers′-Earth rocks of Dorset. As I have had the opportunity of reading his careful exposition in manuscript, I very gladly accede to his wish.
To make the subject clear I append the following Table (V, p. 425), giving the generalized sequence of the strata in North and South Dorset and correlating therewith the Bath-Doulting strata.

About this Table I would make the following remarks:—There are three horizons which can be correlated without much difficulty, namely: (1) The Fullers′-Earth Rock of Dorset and the Fullers′ Earth of Midford; (2) Beds with stout-whorled
Parkinsonia
of South Dorset and the Anabacia-Limestones of Bath-Doulting; (3) The Building-Stone of Sherborne and the Upper
Trigonia
-Grit of the Cotteswolds, which Mr. Richardson has followed into the Bath-Doulting district.

As to other strata, the Lower Fullers' Earth and the
Fusca
-Beds of North Dorset are, I fancy, entirely unrepresented in the Bath-Doulting district, where, too, there is but a trace of the strata of the
zigzag
hemera; so that in this North Somerset district, as I interpret it, the strata of
subcontracti
hemera rest non-sequentially in most eases on strata of pre-
zigzag
date.

These strata are what Mr. Richardson has called the
Anabacia
-Limestones. There is little to represent them in North Dorset; but in South Dorset there are some feet of limestone earlier than
zigzag
and later than
Truellii
, characterized by certain stout-whorled
Appendix II.—Remarks on the Brachiopoda from the Fullers′ Earth
Authors: Richardson Linsdall , Walker John Francis 
Published: October 2009

The following species of brachiopods have been recorded from the ullers Earth of England: the spemes that occur in the district described in the foregoing paper being denoted by an asterisk.
Diagnosis.—Shell globose, wider than long, apical angle acute, margins of the shell rounded and somewhat fimbriated. The shell is coarsely-ribbed, the spaces between the ribs being imbricated, and the ribs are ornamented with irregularly-distributed spines. The ventral or pedicle-valve has its greatest thickness near the centre, sloping towards the anterior margin, where there is a shallow central fold which occupies about a third of the width of the shell. The beak is short, strongly incurred, and touches the umbo of the dorsal or smaller valve. The dorsal valve is moderately convex, thickest in the centre, and slightly truncated at the anterior margin, which is fimbriated.

Remarks.—This variety of
Acanthothyris
is not well-defined, but can be separated from
A. spinosa

Specimens from Midford differ somewhat from that figured, which came from Doulting, in having a few more ribs, so that in this respect the species is a little variable.
The fossil is very characteristic of the lower portion of the Fullers' Earth of the Bath-Doulting district, and has been found at the Farmcombe and Doulting-Bridge Quarries; between Doulting and Cheylinch; in the railway- and road-cuttings, and at the Fullers'-Earth Works, Midford; also at the quarry situated about a mile east of Paulton Church.
Diagnosis.—Shell rhomboidal, longer than wide, the greatest width being near the centre of the shell, whence the
The Faunal Succession in the Carboniferous Limestone (Upper Avonian) of the Midland Area [North Derbyshire and North Staffordshire]
Authors: Sibly Thomas Franklin 
Published: October 2009

1. I
ntroduction
.

The area of Avonian rocks with which this paper deals, and which I term the Midland Area, includes the large, irregularly-shaped periclinal mass of Carboniferous Limestone, forming the southern termination of the Pennine anticline, south of the Peak, and comprises also a few small inliers adjacent to this main outcrop. (See map, fig. 1, p. 35.) The main part of this area is included in Derbyshire, but a small, south-western portion lies in Staffordshire.
In the Geological-Survey Memoir on North Derbyshire, the Carboniferous-Limestone succession of this area, as shown by the extensive section between Buxton and Monsal Dale, is briefly described; details of a few other sections are given; and the nature of the junction between the Carboniferous Limestone and the overlying shales, as seen at various points, is discussed. An account of the elementary tectonics of the area, and of the general features of the Carboniferous Limestone, is contained in a paper by Mr. H. H. Arnold-Bemrose, entitled ‘A Sketch of the Geology of the Lower Carboniferous Rocks of Derbyshire,’ published in the Proceedings of the Geologis'ts’ Association, vol. xvi (1899–1900) p. 165. Details of a new sections in the area are given in papers by Mr. Arnold-Bemrose and by Dr. Wheelton Hind, published in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society and elsewhere: I refer to these in the course of the present paper.
The tectonic structure of this area has not yet been adequately investigated. However, the detailed mapping of the igneous rocks associated with
Chronology of the Glacial Epoch in North America
Authors: Wright George Frederick 
Published: October 2009

Abstract
In the case of Plum Creek, Lorain County (Ohio), the study of the activity of the stream and of the amount of work which it has done since a certain stage of the Glacial Epoch, has yielded important results. This stream began the erosion of its trough when the temporary lake, held up in front of the ice, was maintained for a considerable period at the level of its Fort-Wayne outlet; it has never had anything more resistant than Till to act upon. From a given section, 5000 feet long, it has excavated 34,000,000 cubic feet of Boulder-Clay, removing it from exposed banks 1600 feet long. Twelve years' erosion of a 500-foot length of a part of the trough of the stream under observation, and from banks 1000 feet long, gives a rate of 8450 cubic feet per annum. Therefore, the removal of 34,000,000 cubic feet from the 5000-foot section would give a period of 2505 years. Considerations tending to lengthen the estimate are the former forestation of the area and the increased gradient in the artificial cut-off. Those tending to shorten the estimate are the present wider flood-plain, the time taken for forests to grow, and the probably greater former water-flow.
The erosion of the Niagara Gorge began considerably later than that of Plum Creek, and probably dates from midway between the disappearance of the ice from Northern Ohio and from Quebec. If conditions have been uniform, the age of the Gorge would be 7000 years. As the Niagara
On Antigorite and the Val Antigorio, with Notes on other Serpentines containing that Mineral
Authors: Bonney T. G. 
Published: October 2009

I.
The Original Specimen and the Val Antigorio
.

The exact locality of the type-specimen of antigorite is apparently unknown, as I found when preparing my portion of the paper by Miss Raisin and myself on the minerals forming serpentine. E. Schweizer, who first described it, states that the specimen (5 inches long, 2 inches wide, and 2 inches thick) was in the collection of D. F. Wiser of Zurich, who had bought it the year before
‘von einem mit Mineralien handelnden Bauer aus Oberwallis, nach dessen Aussage diese Substanz in kleineren und grösseren, bisweilen einen Fuss langen, dünnschiefrigen Platten im Antigoriothale bei Domo d'Ossola gefunden werden soil’;
and was unable to obtain any more precise information from the man. It has been subsequently noticed, among others, by Des Cloizeaux, Naumann, Hintze, Lévy & Lacroix, Tschermak, Brush, Rosenbusch, and Zirkel; the last adding to a full and precise description an extensive bibliography. But none of these authorities define the locality more exactly: each, as is not unnatural, being content with stating that the mineral came from the Val Antigorio, though Dr. Hussak and one or two of the later writers have noted its occurrence in other places. I failed, though some time was spent on the search, to obtain any better information from books on Italian geology, or the maps in our Society's Library; moreover, no serpentine is recorded in the Val Antigorio on sheet xviii of the Swiss Geological Survey-map. That, however, hardly amounted to proof of its non-occurrence, because
On the Application of Quantitative Methods to the Study of the Structure and History of Rocks
Authors: Sorby Henry Clifton 
Published: October 2009

1. I
ntroduction
.

In the case of nearly all branches of science a great advance was made when accurate quantitative methods were used instead of merely qualitative. One great advantage of this is that it necessitates more accurate thought, points out what remains to be learned, and sometimes small residual quantities, which otherwise would escape attention, indicate important facts. Since it applies to nearly all branches of geology, it is necessarily a wide subject, but so connected together that it seems undesirable to divide it.
My object is to apply experimental physics to the study of rocks.
At least six different kinds of physical questions are involved, some of which have been sufficiently studied, but others require experiments which would be very difficult to carry out, and all that I can now do is to endeavour to deduce plausible results from what is known. In doing this, it may be necessary to assume cases sufficiently simple for calculation, which may but imperfectly correspond to natural conditions, so that the results may be only approximately correct. In some cases, facts seem to show that there are important properties connected with subsiding material which cannot be explained in a satisfactory manner. Notwithstanding this, it appears desirable to do the best that I can with the material at my disposal, hoping to lead others to do what I intended to do, and correct such errors as are now unavoidable.
In order to clear the way for subsequent detail, I describe a few general facts.