bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Tours/Poitiers, Battle of (732)
Authors: Rogers Clifford J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The 732 Battle of Poitiers or Tours (actually fought somewhere between those two cities) has long been viewed as one of the most important of European history, for several reasons. Even in the Middle Ages it was considered a crucial turning point in the long struggle between Islam and Christendom, which until then had gone mostly in favor of the Muslims. It was also recognized as a significant milestone in the rise of the Franks, and particularly of the Mayor of the Palace Charles Martel, founder of the Carolingian dynasty, and thus a key step on the way to the creation of the Carolingian empire under Martel's grandson Charlemagne, which had such a transformative effect on the broad sweep of European history. By the late eighteenth century, a third argument for the great significance of the battle had been put forward. In 1796, George Ellis suggested that Martel was sufficiently impressed with the Muslim cavalry he encountered at Poitiers, and sufficiently disappointed with his own inability to follow up on his battlefield victory, that in its aftermath he began a great effort to supply himself with more mounted troops. This he accomplished by taking lands from the church and redistributing them to his soldiers, with the church retaining nominal ownership. As Heinrich Brunner argued much more fully a century later, this would effectively make the Battle of Poitiers the spark that initiated the development of feudalism in Europe.
Túpac Amaru Rebellions (1572, 1780–1782)
Authors: England Shawn 
Published: November 2011

AbstractTwo separate Andean revolts against Spanish authority bear the name of Túpac Amaru. The first one in 1572 heralded the apparent final Inca resistance against the initial imposition of Spanish authority in the highland regions of Peru and Bolivia; the other transpired in 1780–1782, during the twilight of Spain's imperial might. In both cases the lineage of the rebel leadership was of utmost importance. The term “Inca” refers to a family dynasty established by Manco Inca, the original Sapa Inca, or supreme ruler of the Inca Empire. In the years following the Spanish conquest of the Andes, a number of individuals claiming descent from Manco attempted to preserve and restore the Inca Empire, and these included Túpac Amaru I and Túpac Amaru II.
Turenne, Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de (1611–1675)
Authors: Bonney Richard 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Few, if any, commanders have received considerable responsibilities at such a young age as Turenne. Born in 1611, Turenne obtained a captaincy in the army of his uncle, Frederick Henry of Nassau, stadtholder of the United Provinces, as early as 1625. He won a special commendation from his uncle for skill and courage at the siege of ’s‐Hertogenbosch in 1629. Appointed by Cardinal Richelieu as colonel of an infantry regiment, he won promotion to
maréchal de camp
after his courage displayed at the siege of La Mothe in 1634. He was at the siege of Mainz the following year and distinguished himself in a skillful retreat to Metz arising from a shortage of provisions. He was wounded at the capture of Saverne in 1636 but participated the following year at the capture of Landrecies. In 1638, he directed the ultimately successful assault on Breisach—a key fortress on the Rhine reputed to be impregnable. In 1639–1640 he served in Italy, and in 1641 was in sole command during the capture of Cuneo, Ceva, and Mondovì. In 1642 he was second‐in‐command during the capture of Roussillon, while the following year he was back in Italy, where he captured Trino before being recalled to France.
Vattel, Emmerich de (1714–1767)
Authors: Tallett Frank 
Published: November 2011

AbstractA Swiss lawyer and diplomat, Vattel was one of a distinguished group of eighteenth‐century jurists that included Montesquieu and Christian Wolff who brought the emerging discipline of international law to bear on the conduct of warfare. Vattel's most influential work,Le Droit des Gens ou Principes de la Loi NaturelleorThe Law of Nations, published in 1758, was a general manual of statesmanship and international relations that dealt also with issues of war. It built upon the earlier work of Hugo Grotius and continued to exercise a significant influence upon statesmen and diplomats until the time of World War I. Many of his underlying propositions anticipated the stipulations of the Hague and Geneva Conventions.
Vegetius Renatus, Flavius (ca. fourth century)
Authors: Morillo Stephen 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Flavius Renatus Vegetius was a late Roman writer on military affairs whose treatise, titled alternately
De re militari
or
Epitoma rei militaris
, enjoyed long circulation in Europe. Although its actual influence during much of that time is a matter of scholarly dispute, it is the only Republican or early imperial military manual to have survived intact, and it is therefore an important source despite its problematic nature.
War and Sexuality
Authors: Grayzel Susan R. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractEven without accepting ideas popularized by Sigmund Freud at the turn of the twentieth century that human beings are driven by drives toward sexual pleasure (the life instinct orEros) and deadly violence (the death instinct orThanatos), an understanding of war and sexuality sheds light on every type of military conflict: local, civil, and international. All wars have involved both men and women to some extent and the actions of most militaries have had an effect on sexual behavior. By suggesting that the warrior is the epitome of manhood, ideas about the relationship between military valor and human sexuality have varied. Ideas have circulated that abstinence makes for better fighters, who can channel sexual urges into those toward violence, but so too have notions that better fighters demand and require satisfaction of sexual appetites beyond the norm. The study of war provides ample examples of the core significance of gender cross‐culturally and cross‐chronologically (Goldstein 2001).
War Photography
Authors: Brandon Laura 
Published: November 2011

AbstractPhotographic images that range from dead, fly‐infested US Civil War casualties to napalmed Vietnam War victims and to the bloodied survivors of the “War on Terror” form part of our visual understanding of war. War photographs enable us to be spectators to conflict and to empathize with or react to its worst horrors and greatest successes. As a result, both the protagonists and protestors of war use photographs to document, promote, and justify their actions and attitudes to the public. Photographers themselves are complicit in these activities. In the twenty‐first century, however, more than at any other time, the boundaries between professional and amateur photography (photography is here defined as both the act of taking a photograph and the photograph itself), photojournalism, and photographic art are blurred. Amateur photographs achieve worldwide distribution through the Internet, artist–photographers participate in official military art programs, and photojournalists exhibit their photographs in art galleries. Furthermore, for the public and for photographers themselves, photography increasingly is about the spectacle of war as much as it is about its documentation. Perhaps one of the most compelling recent links between war, art, photography, and spectacle was when the shocking photographs taken by American military personnel of Iraqi prisoners in Abu Ghraib jail were printed straight off the Internet and exhibited at the International Center of Photography in New York in October and November 2004.
War Poetry
Authors: Winn James A. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The use of poetry to celebrate military victories, praise heroic acts, and mourn the slain is much older than alphabetic writing. Biblical scholars believe that the “Song of Miriam” in the book of Exodus—“Sing ye to the L
ORD
, for he hath triumphed gloriously; the horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea” (Exodus 15:21, KJV)—preserves part of a poem actually sung to celebrate the defeat of Pharaoh's pursuing army (ca. 1450
BCE
). The longer and more elaborate “Song of Deborah” (Judges 5), commemorating the defeat and death of the Canaanite captain Sisera, is also among the oldest portions of the Hebrew Bible. It probably dates from the eighth century
BCE
—the same century in which the Greek oral poet Homer composed the
Iliad
. Poetry in ancient cultures was a way to preserve knowledge, and wars were among the events these cultures most wished to remember. But ease of memorization was not the only reason why poetry became a preferred medium for tales of war. In the ancient world as in many later periods, poets embraced warfare as an opportunity to display their creative powers, and soldiers trusted poets to make their deeds immortal. So powerful were the images of war poems that allegorical poems on other topics had already begun to draw upon them in ancient times. The Sanskrit
Bhagavad‐Gita
(first written down in the first century
CE
, but composed much earlier) stages its philosophical and moral dialogue between Arjuna and Krishna in a chariot on a battlefield; the Christian
Psychomachia
of Prudentius (405
CE
) depicts the struggle between vices and virtues as a battle.
War propaganda
Authors: Marlin Randal 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Derived from the Latin “propagare,” meaning “to propagate,” the word “propaganda” can be interpreted broadly to apply to purposeful dissemination of ideas, spreading of information, or inculcation of attitudes with the aim of advancing some cause of the propagator. On this understanding it is neither good nor bad in itself, but derives its goodness or badness from the nature of the messages or attitudes communicated and the purpose of the disseminator. So understood, propaganda is, with certain qualifications, itself morally neutral. It would be wrong, though, to assume that contemporary English speakers will understand the word in this neutral sense. On the contrary, it is commonly understood in a narrower, pejorative sense. Reference to another's communications as “propaganda” is ordinarily treated as an accusation of manipulation, deceit, disingenuousness or suchlike, and can be expected to elicit some attempt at rebuttal.
Warfare by sea in the ancient Mediterranean
Authors: Potts Samuel 
Published: November 2011

AbstractAttempts to control the sea and its wealth played an intermittently important role in the history of the ancient Mediterranean. Warships represented the cutting edge of ancient military technology, and were, for those states that sought sea power, a significant investment of both money and manpower. Seafaring in the ancient Mediterranean was subject to severe limitations in comparison with the navies of later ages. Ancient warships were invariably oarpowered galleys, which combined large crews with very limited room for food and water; such vessels were obliged to put to shore daily to obtain both supplies and rest for their rowers. Most warships could be driven by sail as well as oar, but here too there were fundamental limits. Navigational charts and instruments were virtually nonexistent and wind and weather conditions made sailing practically impossible for up to a third of any given year.
White Lotus Rebellion (1796–1805)
Authors: Dai Yingcong 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The White Lotus Rebellion started as a sectarian rebellion in 1796 in central China when the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) underwent a transition from the Qianlong emperor (r. 1736–1795) to his son, the Jiaqing emperor (r. 1796–1820). In suppressing the rebellion, the Qing military commanders proactively took advantage of the war to serve their own interest, making the campaign a long‐lasting and extremely costly one.
Wilson, Woodrow (1856–1924)
Authors: LaSaine John T. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The twenty‐eighth President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson, led his nation through the turbulent years from 1913 to 1921. He was the first Southern‐born candidate, and only the second Democrat to reach the presidency since the Civil War. In 1886 he earned one of the early PhD degrees granted by an American university, subsequently gaining prominence as a political scientist and as president of Princeton University. In 1910, Wilson won the New Jersey governorship on a platform of progressive reform. Wilsonian progressivism, seeking to reconcile the circumstances of an industrialized, urbanized, multi‐ethnic world power with historic American liberal and democratic ideals, appealed across ideological, partisan and regional divisions, and set him on course for the White House. Apparently protean, Wilsonianism rested on a deep, immutable foundation of religious belief. The son of a Presbyterian minister, descended from generations of Calvinist preachers and theologians, Wilson saw history unfolding a Divine plan.
World WarI: Western Front
Authors: Woodward David R. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe general European war that followed Archduke Ferdinand's assassination at Sarajevo (June 28, 1914) soon became global, spreading to other corners of the world, from Africa to Asia to the Pacific. But the war remained an essentially European conflict; and no European front proved more crucial in determining victory for either side than the Western Front in France and Flanders. On this front, the first modern US Army also made its debut.
World War
II
: The defeat and occupation of
France
Authors: Hood Chalmers 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

In 2008 the city of Paris sponsored a photo exhibition of long‐concealed pictures of Paris during the German Occupation, 1940–1944. André Zucca, a well‐known French wedding photographer, shot them in color for
Signal
, the slick magazine for German troops serving abroad. Now, Parisians could see an entirely different image of how the war played out in France. The streets were clean. Women in the latest fashions attended the races. Parisians even swam in the Seine River and basked on its banks. Was this the war Frenchmen had known? Public outrage erupted, but the mayor held his ground and kept the exhibition doors open, adding a sign that warned visitors the images might be troubling.
World War
II
:
German
invasion of
Poland
(September 1–October 5, 1939)
Authors: Nolan Cathal J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

In older accounts of the start of World War II, what supposedly opened the door to the German invasion of Poland was the Nazi–Soviet Pact announced on August 23, 1939. In fact, Adolf Hitler had ordered the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW, or German High Command) to draw up operational plans for invading Poland four months earlier, in April 1939. These plans, code‐named
Fall Weiss
(Case White), were complete before the ink was dry on the Nazi–Soviet Pact. Moreover, his intentions to eliminate Poland as an independent state, and even as a nation, long predated any operational plans. Hitler's fellow dictator and ally, Benito Mussolini of Italy, was informed of the planned attack only on August 24. Asked at the last minute to contribute troops, he declined, recoiling in fear from what he saw as reckless aggression that might launch a general European war for which Italy was decidedly unprepared. Assurances of Germany's peaceful intentions were given to Paris and London right up until the attack. Hitler even offered a humbug alliance to Britain—against his extant Italian, Japanese, and
de facto
Soviet allies—should Britain allow him a free hand in the east. But not everything went Hitler's way. He had to postpone the attack when Mussolini refused Italian participation, which surprised Hitler. France had formally allied with Poland in the spring. Now London, too, announced a formal military alliance with Warsaw, affirming its less formal guarantee also made in the spring. That meant the British and French empires were committed to coming to Warsaw's aid if Poland was attacked. Meanwhile, Poland hastened to complete its own mobilization, which it had begun late due to a perceived need to keep workers in factories and laborers on farms during the harvest season. Warsaw was also fearful of provoking Germany during a crisis over Danzig that the Polish government still hoped to solve through diplomacy. The German Führer waited only a few days after losing his Italian ally and confirming two Great Power enemies to the potential enemy order of battle. With characteristic abruptness, he reversed course again, ordering that the planned invasion go ahead.
World War
II
: Mediterranean campaign
Authors: Baxter Colin F. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
World War II came to the Mediterranean on June 10, 1940, when Italy's Benito Mussolini declared war on Britain and France. For the next five years, the Allied and Axis powers would struggle for control of that ancient sea and its shores: a maritime highway, and a geographical link between continents and oceans. The Mediterranean campaign was and is the subject of intense debate and controversy. “What in the world are we doing in the desert? Who would fight over sand?” Not an unreasonable question posed by some of those who found themselves in North Africa. At the time, US Army Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall strongly opposed the 1942 Anglo‐American invasion of French North Africa, codenamed Operation Torch, on the grounds that the Mediterranean theater was “fundamentally unsound,” a mere sideshow that delayed a cross‐Channel invasion, the “Second Front” that would divert German forces. Some historians regard the Mediterranean campaign as barely worth an “extended footnote,” a strategic mistake that led to the socalled “blind alley” of the Italian campaign.
Yamashita Tomoyuki, General (1885–1946)
Authors: Farrell Brian P. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Yamashita Tomoyuki will always be known as the Tiger of Malaya, a sobriquet bestowed by a fawning Japanese press after he conquered Singapore in February 1942. Born on November 18, 1885 in Shikoku, Japan, Yamashita was a professional soldier in the Imperial Japanese Army. Yamashita's great ability earned him an unusually varied career, including regimental, staff, and high command appointments, foreign service, and finally the honor of being handpicked to command two of the most important campaigns the army fought during World War II. He commanded in turn a company, a regiment — the elite 3rd Regiment of the Imperial Guards Division — a brigade and a division — leading both in combat in China — an army, and finally two army groups. In staff postings Yamashita helped modernize Japanese army doctrine and organization, but was ensnared along the way in bitter factional feuding that marred the army from the 1920s onwards. This put him into conflict with Tojo Hideki, later Japan's wartime prime minister, and in 1936 he suffered the displeasure of the emperor himself. This last consequence provoked Yamashita to become a charismatic fire‐eater in command, seeking expiation by earning glory or even death in battle.
Zhukov, Georgii Konstantinovich (1896–1974)
Authors: Stone David R. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Soviet Union's leading general during World War II. Born a peasant, Zhukov was drafted into imperial Russia's army during World War I and decorated for valor. Joining the Communist Red Army in 1918, he fought in the Russian Civil War, rising to become commander of a cavalry squadron. He advanced quickly through the ranks of the Soviet officer corps after the Civil War, particularly when the Great Purges of 1937–1938 removed a large proportion of the Red Army's high command. Taking over the Soviet 1st Army Group in Mongolia in 1939 along with units of the Soviet puppet Mongolian People's Republic, he crushed Japanese forces at the Battle of Nomonhan on the Khalkhin‐Gol River, convincing the Japanese government to move east and south against western colonial possessions, not against the Soviet Union. In the fight against Japan, Zhukov displayed many of the hallmarks of his later command style: the application of massive force to achieve breakthroughs, the careful coordination of infantry, artillery, armor, and aviation to encircle and destroy enemy formations, and the ruthless sacrifice of soldiers to achieve victory.
Does One Keto Group Matter? Structure‐Activity Relationships of Glycyrrhetinic Acid Derivatives Modified at Position C‐11
Authors: Csuk René , Schwarz Stefan , Kluge Ralph , Ströhl Dieter 
Published: November 2011

AbstractSeveral triterpenoic acids display a remarkable cytotoxicity on tumor cells. Glycyrrhetinic acid – the main content of the licorice root – possesses an apoptotic effect on tumor cells. Previous studies pointed out the presence of a keto group at position C‐11 in glycyrrhetinic acid derivatives as the main reason for its apoptotic activity. Several pairs of derivatives were synthesized differing only at position C‐11. These compounds were tested in a sulforhodamine B colorimetric assay for cytotoxicity screening on 12 tumor cell lines and mouse embryonic fibroblasts (NIH3T3). Our results show that there is no direct relation between the existence of the C‐11 keto group and the apoptotic activity of the compounds.
ChemInform Abstract: Characterization of Acid Activated Montmorillonite and Vermiculite Clays by Thermal Desorption and Differential Scanning Calorimetric Techiques.
Authors: RAVICHANDRAN J. , SIVASANKAR B. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractChemInform is a weekly Abstracting Service, delivering concise information at a glance that was extracted from about 100 leading journals. To access a ChemInform Abstract of an article which was published elsewhere, please select a “Full Text” option. The original article is trackable via the “References” option.
ChemInform Abstract: Reaction of Quinonediimines with Nitrosation Reagents.
Authors: ZAKATOV V. V. , DUBINA V. L. , TORUBAROV I. V. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractChemInform is a weekly Abstracting Service, delivering concise information at a glance that was extracted from about 100 leading journals. To access a ChemInform Abstract of an article which was published elsewhere, please select a “Full Text” option. The original article is trackable via the “References” option.
ChemInform Abstract: One‐Step Introduction of Two Substituents onto 7‐Oxabicyclo(2.2.1)hept‐ 5‐en‐2‐one Derivatives via Radical Phenylselanyl‐Group Transfer Reactions.
Authors: RENAUD P. , VIONNET J.‐P. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractChemInform is a weekly Abstracting Service, delivering concise information at a glance that was extracted from about 100 leading journals. To access a ChemInform Abstract of an article which was published elsewhere, please select a “Full Text” option. The original article is trackable via the “References” option.
ChemInform Abstract: Synthesis and Use of New Fluorogenic Precipitating Substrates.
Authors: NALEWAY J. J. , FOX C. M. J. , ROBINHOLD D. , TERPETSCHNIG E. , OLSON N. A. , HAUGLAND R. P. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractChemInform is a weekly Abstracting Service, delivering concise information at a glance that was extracted from about 100 leading journals. To access a ChemInform Abstract of an article which was published elsewhere, please select a “Full Text” option. The original article is trackable via the “References” option.
ChemInform Abstract: Constituents of Cladanthus Arabicus.
Authors: WICHLACZ M. , DANIEWSKI W. M. , DANIEKIEWICZ W. , GUMULKA M. , DROZDZ B. , GRABARCZYK H. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractChemInform is a weekly Abstracting Service, delivering concise information at a glance that was extracted from about 100 leading journals. To access a ChemInform Abstract of an article which was published elsewhere, please select a “Full Text” option. The original article is trackable via the “References” option.