bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Mozart,WolfgangAmadeus (1756–1791)
Authors: Hettrick Jane Schatkin 
Published: January 2012

AbstractMozart was a believing Catholic, although his faith was intermingled with Enlightenment ideas. He joined the Masonic lodge “Zur Wohlthätigkeit” in 1784. His letters refer to the will of God, submission to God, and belief in heaven. Although he composed in all genres of classical music, he had a special love of church music which, according to his wife Constanze, was his favorite genre. His earliest works include two masterworks of sacred music: the motetExsultate Jubilate, with its brilliant finalAlleluia; and the Mass in C Minor, K139 (Waisenhausmesse, 1768), which, because of its profundity, was until recently believed to be a much later work.
M
urray,
J
ohn
C
ourtney (1904–1967)
Authors: Barre Elizabeth A. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

American Jesuit theologian, and political theorist, John C. Murray was born and raised in Queens, New York. He attended a Jesuit high school in Manhattan and entered the New York Province of the Society of Jesus when he was 16. Over the next 13 years, he studied at Weston, Boston, and Woodstock Colleges. After he was ordained in 1933, he studied sacred theology at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome and received his doctorate in 1937. He then returned to Woodstock College, where he taught dogmatic theology and edited the popular Jesuit periodical
Theological Studies
for the remainder of his life.
Mystery Plays
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

AbstractA mystery play is a form of liturgical drama that developed in Byzantium as well as in the west in the 12th to 15th centuries. Originally part of the mass, its presentation was taken over by the guilds and cofraternities and was held in the church, its immediate confines, or in the public square. In Italy, most of the performances were initiated by theLaudesi, a penitential movement centered in Umbria. The standard scenes included paradise, nativity, transfiguration, and Gethsemane. Slowly, professionals were inducted as actors, and costumes and scenery were introduced. By the 14th and 15th centuries permanent settings and stages appeared. Several booths on the stage would be set apart for such scenes as the annunciation or the raising of Lazarus but paradise would hover over the stage while a demon or leviathan with open jaws represented hell below the stage. Another variant was the procession where the stage was on carts with the various booths portraying scenes in the life of Christ. Often these mystery plays were standard repertoire for the Holy Week, or Corpus Christi, Ascension, and the Pentecost. Their enactment was reinforced by the Black Plague, which intensified the traditions of piety among the common people.
Narrative Theology
Authors: Werntz Myles 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Narrative theology, also referred to as postliberal theology, was a 20th century movement focusing on scripture as a drama to be ecclesially enacted, rather than the material basis for a dogmatic presentation of doctrine. Viewing scripture as an ongoing narrative of God's work in the world, narrative theology sought to place the church — the community of continuing narration by the Spirit — as the locus for theological reflection and social action. Scripture re‐narrates the world, fitting the world into its ongoing story instead of being confined by preconceived categories. First emerging in the 1960s through the “Yale school” in the works of Hans Frei and George Lindbeck, the movement derived much of its theology from Karl Barth, and its understanding of the performative nature of language and communities from Ludwig Wittgenstein and Clifford Geertz. In contrast to the liberal theology preceding it, narrative theology has focused largely on communal formation and communal interpretations of scripture and doctrine, rejecting purely individualist and/or emotivist understandings of doctrine. As Mike Higton has noted, Frei and Lindbeck produced two kinds of narrative approaches. Frei's project, rooted in Christology, has been continued through the work of Stanley Hauerwas, while Lindbeck's project, rooted in cultural linguistic theory, has been carried out most clearly through the work of David Tracy.
Natural Law
Authors: Bruce James E. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractNatural law has been a primary, but not exclusive, way for Christians to think about the relationship between God and the moral order. Natural law provides answers to questions about moral goodness, obligation, and knowledge. Moral goodness is defined with reference to the nature of the thing under consideration; moral obligation arises from that nature; and knowledge of what is morally good is known naturally. What is good for humanity follows from humanity being made in the image of God, and our obligation to each other — not to murder each other, for example — follows from who we are. We know and recognize this obligation naturally, without the need of special revelation, which is why cultures without a Christian witness, e.g. Ancient Greece, nevertheless recognized that murder was wrong.
G
regory of
N
azianzus,
S
aint (329–389)
Authors: Dawson Connie 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Gregory of Nazianzus, known as “The Theologian,” was one of the three Cappadocian Fathers of the Eastern Church. His mother, Nonna, was a deeply pious woman who dedicated him to God before his birth in 329. Gregory's father, also named Gregory, was converted to Christianity from Hypsistarianism (a Cappadocian pagan religion which mixed Christian and Jewish beliefs) by his wife. Within a short time of Gregory the elder's conversion, he was ordained into the priesthood and became Bishop of Nazianzus. Gregory was the second of three children; he greatly admired his elder sister, Georgiana, and his younger brother, Caesarius, became a prosperous physician in Constantinople.
N
ee,
W
atchman (1903–1972)
Authors: Anderson Allan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Ni Doushen, better known in the west as “Watchman Nee,” is founder of possibly the largest and best known of the Chinese “Old Three‐Self” churches, known in China variously as the Christian Assembly, the Local Church, and the Little Flock. Nee found traditional Christianity unsatisfactory, denounced denominations and resigned his membership of the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1924 he set up a Christian book room in Fuzhou and began writing the first of many devotional books for which he was to achieve international acclaim. The best known of these books might be
The Normal Christian Life
, a popular commentary on Romans. In 1928 he moved to Shanghai, and together with Wang Peizhen (a woman) and Li Yuanru, set up the first “Assembly Hall,” the name given to the church's meeting place. By 1932 there were over 20 Assembly Halls, each one autonomous, and with a total of 4,000 followers. In 1935 Nee had an experience of being filled with the Spirit, and a new emphasis entered his meetings. Although Nee is thought by some commentators to have rejected ecstatic manifestations like speaking in tongues, faith healing, and spiritual dance, others suggest that Nee did speak in tongues and that his movement became Pentecostal. In 1945 Nee invited his friend Li Changshou (“Witness Lee”) to work with him in Shanghai. They began teaching that Christians must “surrender” their personal possessions to the church. A training program was initiated and a strategy for the evangelization of China launched, including “gospel emigration,” when believers left the coastal cities for the unevangelized interior. In 1949, in the face of the Communist invasion, Li and many other believers fled to Taiwan, which resulted in the rapid growth of the church there.
New Technology and Christianity
Authors: Sleasman Michael J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractChristianity and the new technologies in the 21st century is a reality marked by technological immersion. Technology, according to theologian Brent Waters, “is the way we live and move and have our being in today's age.” Christians adopt technology on pace with the average cultural demographics, while their engagement with these new and emerging technologies has ranged from thoughtful critical reflections on a number of pressing bioethical issues to unhindered consumption of many information, communication, and cybertechnologies.
N
ew
Z
ealand Christianity
Authors: Lineham Peter 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
It is doubtless the case that Christian services were held on ships that visited New Zealand from the 17th century onwards, but there is no evidence of any service on the dry land of the islands before 1814, when on Christmas Day an Anglican chaplain from the New South Wales prison colony, Samuel Marsden, landed a small group of lay missionaries at the Bay of Islands in the north of the North Island. Marsden had cultivated links with the indigenous Maori people who had visited Australia. However, the sponsor of the missionaries, the chief Ruatara, died shortly after the missionaries arrived, and for several years the missionaries clung on the margins of Maori society, engaging in the supply of arms and struggling with the low reputation of the Europeans who had settled in the country. In 1823, however, a former naval captain, Henry Williams, and his wife Marianne arrived to take charge of the mission, and thereafter it grew rapidly on the basis of sternly evangelical Anglicanism, bible translation, lessons in civilization, and careful catechetical instruction.
Newbigin,Lesslie (1909–1998)
Authors: Williams Will 
Published: January 2012

AbstractTheologian, missionary, and ecumenist, Lesslie Newbigin was born on December 8, 1909 in Newcastle upon Tyne to Presbyterian parents. He entered Queens' College, Cambridge, in 1928 as an agnostic, but through the influence of the Student Christian Movement and his reading of William James' essay “The Will to Believe” (1896) Newbigin began to explore the Christian faith more seriously. In the summer of 1929, while working at a camp in South Wales that offered aid to unemployed miners, Newbigin had a vision of the cross embracing the whole world, which indelibly affected his theological and spiritual life from that time onward.
Niagara Bible Conferences
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractNiagara Bible Conferences were part of the late 19th century Bible conference movement. In 1868, the conference was organized in New York as the Believers' Meeting for Bible Study. A new name was acquired when the conference location changed to Niagara‐on‐the‐Lake, Ontario. From 1883–1897, virtually every significant premillennial leader attended the conference. These meetings profoundly impacted Christian workers, evangelists, and preachers. James H. Brookes served as the president for many years, and beginning in 1875 (until his death in 1897), he published theTruth, a premillennial, pretribulational periodical. Another influential leader among premillennialists, Adoniram J. Gordon, began publishing theWatchwordin 1878, “an unobtrusive little monthly,” which was covenant premillennial. Controversy was developing at the conference, which was contained based on mutual respect for Brookes; after his death, the differences among leadership became more apparent and the conference no longer convened after 1900. Although he first attended the conferences as a pretribulationist, Robert Cameron later adopted the posttribulational position and became editor of theWatchword and Truthafter the deaths of Brookes and Gordon. In 1894, Arno C. Gaebelein began publishingOur Hope, a magazine that communicated pretribulationism but avoided dogmatizing on disputed points among premillennialists. In the early 1880s at the conference, Cameron influenced Nathaniel West to reconsider the imminency of the rapture. During the early 1890s, West vigorously defended posttribulationism.
N
ightingale,
F
lorence (1820–1910)
Authors: Green Todd 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Pioneer of the modern nursing profession, Florence Nightingale was born in Florence, Italy, while her English parents were on their honeymoon, and was named after the city of her birth. Nightingale received the first of four calls from God in 1837. This call was an assurance that God had a purpose for her life that went beyond the expectations of a well‐to‐do young woman in Victorian England. While the call was not specific, its influence on her life was enormous as she began to search for ways to devote her life to helping the poor and the sick. The call also influenced her decision not to marry.
Nineteenth Century Christianity
Authors: Carrigan Henry L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The 19th century is one of the richest periods in the history of Christianity. The contentious century was marked by both optimism and pessimism about the future of Christianity, skepticism about the veracity of its sacred texts, and cynicism and suspicion about the Christian religion itself. Battles about the character of the Christian faith raged both inside and outside Christianity during the 19th century, and out of these skirmishes emerged new ways of thinking about Christian doctrine, theology, faith, and biblical studies that would influence deeply the development of theological thinking in the 20th century. Historians of 19th century Christianity generally acknowledge that the period begins with the publication in 1799 of Friedrich Schleiermacher's
On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers
(generally known as
Speeches
) and draws to a close in 1914 when the century's tremendous optimism about the future of humankind died in the trenches of World War I. During this 115‐year span, theologians, churchmen, and philosophers raised questions about the nature of faith, the historical existence of Jesus, the character and authority of Scripture, the truth of revealed religion, the nature of the church, and the future of Christianity. Responding to challenges to Christianity from the 18th century, these thinkers provided new directions for Christianity as it attempted to fashion a fresh self‐definition in the midst of changing times.
New Religious Movements, Nineteenth Century
Authors: Lasater Gayle Ann Spiers 
Published: January 2012

AbstractLike new religious movements historically, new religious movements during the 19th century took inspiration from larger sociocultural and religious processes, were both the product and the producer of social change, and in some cases led to enduring forms of Christianity and alternative Christianities. The advent of western modernity (which overturned medieval theology and authority), the Renaissance, the age of reason through the Enlightenment, the age of revolutions, romanticism, and western industrialization had all given rise to significant social ferment by the 19th century, for new religious thinking, democratization, and movements. By the mid 1800s, with Darwinism, the sciences had been set forth as a foundation for the hegemonic epistemology of modernity. This is not to say that religion was supplanted by secularism wholesale, but rather that competing modern epistemologies were to provide the impetus for new religious responses, both in terms of Christianity's involvement with modernity and western imperial designs, and in new religious movements.
Northern Baptist Convention
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The genesis and progress of missions on the part of American Baptists was the result of the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812. Baptists were favorable toward the Revolution, which made their reputation positive. Numerous revivals extended Baptist growth. The Second Great Awakening also augmented Baptist growth. Foreign missions began quickly in America through men such as William Carey. Religious liberty in America also contributed to Baptist growth. However, there were also difficulties due to the lack of attaining theological harmony. Some Baptists became anti‐missionary minded, whereas those who were missionary minded could not agree regarding evangelistic organization. The main events contributing to missional genesis and progress by American Baptists was the formation of “Three Great Societies,” for foreign missions (1814), tracts and publications (1824), and home missions (1832). The Second Great Awakening, which began during the late 1790s and extended until the early 1830s, would greatly enhance the labor of the “Three Great Societies.”
NouvelleThéologie,La
Authors: Allen Michael 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe so‐called “new theology” overcame the militant defensiveness that had marked Roman Catholic neoscholastic theology during the latter part of the 19th century and the early to mid 20th century. In so doingla nouvelle théologielaid the groundwork for the expansive theological engagement with modernity and history in the deliberations of the Second Vatican Council. This program of reform was led by several major figures who suffered ill repute, censure, and isolation because of the rigorous discipline of the ecclesiastical hierarchy (especially the encyclicalHumani Generis). Associated with the movement were figures such as Yves Congar, Henri de Lubac, Henri Bouillard, Hans Urs von Balthasar, Marie‐Dominique Chenu, Gaston Fessard, and Jean Daniélou.
Obedience
Authors: Van Neste Ray 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
At the center of Christianity is the idea that God has spoken and people must respond in obedience. To believe God is to obey God, as is shown throughout both Old and New Testaments. Sin entered the world through the disobedience of Adam (Gen. 3; Rom. 5), and the rest of the Bible is the story of God calling people into a right relationship with himself, which includes obedience to his commands. Abraham is blessed because he obeyed God (Gen. 22:18). In the Old Testament obedience is part of the covenant obligations of the people of God. The Lord called on the people to “obey my voice and keep my covenant,” and the people respond by saying, “All that the Lord has spoken we will do” (Exod. 19:6–8). Obedience is better than sacrifice (1 Sam. 15:22). In the New Testament, Jesus continues the call for obedience: “Blessed are those who hear the word of God and obey it” (Luke 11:28). Jesus says the wise man is the one who hears the word of God and obeys it (Matt. 7:24–27). The apostles continue this call to obedience, explicitly linking faith and obedience (e.g. Acts 6:7; Rom. 6:17; Heb. 5:9; 1 Pet. 1:22). It is also clear that obedience to God involves submission to the proper authorities (e.g. Rom. 13; Eph. 5–6).
Oberammergau
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A small village in Bavaria, not far from Munich, Oberammergau is where the most famous of all passion plays takes place every ten years, since 1634, with occasional special anniversary performances (as in 1984). This dramatic production, common in the Middle Ages but rare today, sets forth in words, tableaux, and music the biblical account of our Lord's crucifixion and resurrection. In 1633 the area had been decimated by the plague, and the villagers promised that if they were spared they would perform such a play for perpetuity. A child of the village may appear as one of the Palm Sunday crowd today; later he or she will take an adult part, and finally, perhaps in old age, he or she may play the role of Simeon or Anna.
O
ckeghem,
J
ohannes (
c
.1410–1497)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Franco‐Flemish church musician and composer. At around 23 he became a singer in the Church of Notre Dame at Antwerp and 3 years later a member of the chapel of Charles I, Duke of Bourbon. In 1453 he moved to the French court, serving three successive monarchs, Charles VII, Louis XI, and Charles VIII. He was the kings' first chaplain, court composer, and also the treasurer of the church of St. Martin in Tours.
O'Connor, Flannery (1925–1964)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born on March 25, 1925, in Savannah, Georgia, Flannery O'Connor was the only child of Regina and Edward O'Connor. She was baptized Mary Flannery. The O'Connors were Roman Catholics in the predominantly fundamentalist Deep South. Flannery O'Connor, with her disturbingly comic and yet profoundly Christian fiction, would become one of the 20th century's most acclaimed short story writers.
O
ecolampadius,
J
ohannes (
c
.1482–1531)
Authors: Whiting Michael 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Johannes Huszgen (“house light”) was born in Württemberg around the year 1482. He later matriculated at the University of Heidelberg and achieved his M.A. in 1503. Turning down a legal career, he became a tutor until accepting a preachership in his native Weinsberg in 1510 (where he also adopted the humanist rendering “Oecolampadius”). While matriculated at Tübingen, he met Melancthon and the famous Reuchlin, becoming an admirable humanist scholar of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Oecolampadius taught Greek at Heidelberg and developed a friendship with Wolfgang Capito, whom he eventually followed to the city of Basle (recently absorbed into the Swiss Confederation). He preached, assisted in the editing and printing of Erasmus' Greek New Testament (1516), and went on to study for a doctorate of divinity. As a result of his collegial acquaintance with Erasmus, Oecolampadius became enamored with the patristic fathers and collaborated in the publishing of an edition of Jerome. He was especially drawn to the mystical leanings of Greek writers such as Chrysostom and Gregory of Nazianzus.
Old Catholics
Authors: Poston Larry 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Old Catholicism was begun in 1870 by a group of some 1,400 German, Austrian, and Swiss Catholics who, while holding that the historic councils of the church were infallible, nevertheless rejected the doctrine of papal infallibility that had been established by Vatican I (1870). They believed that this dogma would destroy the church's historic episcopal structure and degrade the status of bishops. New churches were established independently of Rome's ecclesiastical authority with the support of the archbishop of Utrecht who agreed to ordain priests and bishops in the separatist churches. This fellowship became known as the Utrecht Union of Churches.
Openness Theology
Authors: Spiegel James S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Openness theology (also known as “open theism” and “free will theism”) is a theological movement critical of some key aspects of classical theism, including the immutability, impassibility, and timelessness of God. The positive claims of the openness theologians principally regard God's responsiveness to prayer and willingness to adjust providential plans in light of human decisions and actions. There is debate among scholars as to whether openness theology is properly seen as a brand of Arminian theology.
Ordination
Authors: Macy Gary 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Appointment to different ministries in the Christian community began early as the commissioning by Jesus of the 12 and of the 70 attests (Matt. 10:1–5; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16; Luke 10:1).
Ordinatio
(ordination) emerges as the term for such a commissioning in Latin Christianity by the 3rd century. Christians adopted the concept of
ordo
from everyday Roman usage. The Latin
ordinare
meant to organize something, and the noun
ordo
referred to that ordering.
Ordo
(plural
ordines
) also referred to the position, or role, a person played in society. So ordination for the early Christians indicated the appointment and consecration of a person to a particular ministry within the community. To quote Yves Congar (1984), “the words
ordinare
,
ordinari
,
ordinatio
signified the fact of being designated and consecrated to take up a certain place, or better a certain function,
ordo
, in the community and at its service.”