bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
V
aughan
W
illiams,
R
alph (1872–1958)
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Vaughan Williams (1872–1958) is often interpreted from the standpoint of his quintessential Englishness, as manifested in the clear influence of Tudor music and the English folk song and dance on his work. Simon Heffer says of him that he challenges “Elgar's hitherto unquestioned supremacy as the leading composer of the English musical renaissance.”
V
ieira,
A
ntonio (1608–1697)
Authors: Macy Gary 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Antonio Vieira, Portuguese theologian, was born in Lisbon but moved to Bahia in Brazil when he was 6. He entered the Jesuit Order in 1623 and for 17 years he taught at the Jesuit College and worked in the missions. In 1641 he returned to Lisbon along with his fellow Jesuit Vasconcelos in order to assure Joâo IV, the king of the newly independent Portugal, of the loyalty of Brazil. His preaching so earned the appreciation of the court that the king appointed him tutor to the infanta and preacher to the royal court in 1644. He went on several diplomatic missions for Portugal until he was sent back to the missions of Brazil by the Jesuits in 1652. There Vieira worked relentlessly to uphold the freedom of the indigenous peoples against the exploitation of the colonists. In 1654 he returned to Portugal where he successfully argued in the defense of the indigenous peoples, resulting in a new law protecting them as well as the appointment of a new governor. Vieira returned to Brazil only to be expelled by the landowners in 1661 for his work in behalf of the natives. Upon his return to Portugal Vieira was tried by the Inquisition for his prophetic writings. Vieira traveled to Rome in 1669 to request that the papacy overturn the condemnation of the Inquisition. Not only was he successful in his own cause, but also his sermons in defense of converted Jews won a wide audience, including Queen Christina of Sweden. In 1681, he returned to Brazil where he continued his defense of indigenous rights. From 1688 until 1691, he was visitor‐general of Brazil. Vieira is best known for his powerful sermons which have been collected and published, as have his letters. His prophetic works include, most notably, the
Históra do futuro
(History of the Future) and the
Esperanças de Portugal
(Hopes of Portugal).
v
on
S
taupitz,
J
ohann (
c
.1465–1524)
Authors: Posset Franz 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

German. Born in Motterwitz, Saxony, to a noble family. He studied at Leipzig in 1485, joined the Augustinian Order, and in 1500 earned his doctorate in theology at Tübingen. In 1503 he was elected vicar‐general of the Saxon Reform Congregation of the Augustinian Friars. His sermons treat the priority of God's mercy and sweetness. He became a friend of the humanists, and a promoter of good pastoral care. By 1506 he published in print the Constitutions of his Order at Nuremberg. He was among the founding members of the new University of Wittenberg in 1502 where he taught biblical theology. He accepted Martin Luther into his Order and made him his successor as professor in 1512. His leadership in the Order required him to travel to the Netherlands and Belgium. He became a prominent preacher and author of popular booklets on the Christian faith. He preached on Christ's passion at Salzburg in 1512 and in 1518. In 1514/1515 he may have aspired to become bishop of Salzburg‐Chiemsee. In 1515 he published a book on discipleship and the art of dying. He published his Nuremberg sermons in 1517 in Latin and in German. The humanist sodality at Nuremberg was named after him. A copy of his most successful booklet,
On the Love of God
(1517/18), was signed by Martin Luther who sent it to his mother. In 1518 Staupitz let Luther discuss his theology at the Heidelberg Disputation. He invited Luther to escape his troubles and move to the Order's facilities in Salzburg. He was at Luther's side in Augsburg when in October 1518 Cardinal Cajetan interrogated him. In 1520 Staupitz preached in Salzburg on standing up for the “Evangelical Truth.” He resigned from the office of vicar‐general in 1520, and after receiving papal dispensation to join the Benedictines in 1522, he was made abbot of St. Peter in Salzburg, after Cardinal Matthew Lang, archbishop of Salzburg, had deposed Abbot Simon. In 1520 Staupitz was requested to revoke and abjure any assumed Lutheran positions. He refused, saying that there was no need to revoke what he had never asserted. Philip Melanchthon confirmed that “Staupitz was no apostate” (that is from Luther's cause). Staupitz saved the evangelical (friendly to Luther) Augustinian Friar Stephan Agricola from further persecution in 1523. Staupitz continued to preach at Salzburg during Lent of 1523. Shortly before his death he wrote a letter to Luther expressing continued friendship, and that he wished he could meet with him for just one more hour and open the secrets of his heart to him.
Waldenses
Authors: Lee Jason K. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Waldenses (also Vaudois or Waldensians) take their name from the region of northern Italy and southern France in the Piedmont of the Alps. The Waldenses were also called “Poor Men of Lyons” because they practiced voluntary poverty. Preceding the Franciscans by several decades, the Waldenses had similar practices of preaching and begging. However, where the Franciscans became an official order in the Roman Catholic Church, the Waldenses' relationship with the church went from uneasiness to opposition. By the early 13th century, the Waldenses were the targets of persecution and inquisition. The Waldenses survived in the Piedmont region with varying numbers in southern France, northern Italy, and western Germany. Their population waxed (through furtive evangelistic efforts) and waned (through intense persecution) for three centuries, until many of the Waldenses amalgamated into the Swiss Reformed movement in the mid 16th century.
W
eil,
S
imone (1909–1943)
Authors: Meaney Marie Cabaud 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Simone Weil was born February 3, 1909, in Paris as the second child of Selma and Bernard Weil. Early on she attained the certitude that truth could be found by anyone who unremittingly searched for it. Thus her whole life as a philosophy teacher, as a writer, and even as an industrial worker in 1934 and 1935 was shaped by this search for and service to truth.
W
esley,
C
harles (1707–1788)
Authors: Loyer Kenneth M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Charles Wesley was an Anglican priest, a cofounder with his elder brother John of the Methodist movement, and a prolific hymn writer. Born into the large family of Samuel and Susanna Wesley in the parish of Epworth, Lincolnshire, Charles studied at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, where he became a leading member of a group of devout young men who met regularly for prayer, study of the scriptures, communion, and ministry to prisoners and the sick. Derided by its detractors as “Bible Moths,” the “Holy Club,” and “Methodists,” this group eventually became known by the latter designation, a reference to the methodical way of life its members embraced. In 1735 Charles was ordained and then accompanied John on a missionary trip to Georgia, where he served as secretary to the colony's leader, J. E. Oglethorpe. Charles remained in Georgia only until 1736, when he returned to England. Like John he came under the influence of Peter Böhler and the Moravians, who impressed Charles with their emphasis on robust, evangelical faith made manifest through personal assurance of having received God's pardoning grace. Charles experienced such assurance himself on May 21, 1738, and three days later John underwent a similar “heartwarming” experience of his own. In 1739 Charles entered the itinerant ministry, in which he occupied himself with preaching, traveling, and hymn writing until he settled in Bristol in 1756. For the last seven of those years he managed to balance his work in itinerant ministry with family life, having married Sarah Gwynne in April 1749. Although his days as an itinerant ended in 1756, Charles remained active in the Methodist movement, chiefly from his home in Bristol, and then later in London, where he and his family moved in 1771.
W
ilder,
R
obert
P
armelee (1863–1938)
Authors: Patterson James A. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
American. Born in Kohlapur, India, August 2, 1863, to missionary parents, Royal Gould and Eliza Jane Wilder. In 1875 the family moved to Princeton, New Jersey, because of his father's poor health. After attending preparatory schools in New Jersey and Massachusetts, Robert entered the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) in 1881, where he helped to organize the Princeton Foreign Missionary Society in 1883. Following graduation in 1886, he attended revivalist D. L. Moody's summer Bible conference at Mount Hermon, Massachusetts, where one hundred students signed a pledge to become foreign missionaries. This event laid the ground‐work for the rise of the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions and its famous motto, “The Evangelization of the World in This Generation.”
Women in Early Christianity
Authors: Gillman Florence Morgan 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe need for compilation of data and careful assessment about women in early Christianity came to the fore acutely in the late 19th century in the United States when the movement toward enfranchising women as well as the debate concerning the ordination of women in various Protestant denominations was gaining momentum. Feeling that the Bible was actually misused to undergird and defend modern patriarchy, and in response to those who argued against the ordination of women on the grounds that women were supposedly never leaders in early Christianity, some scholars increased examination of the biblical texts regarding women. Their work actually underscored that women, even within the patriarchal parameters reflected in the nascent churches' history, had in fact been among the most significant of early Christian figures. For example, women had been prominent Christian teachers, house church leaders, deacons, etc. Some 19th century female analysts of the Bible, however, also observed that even as the biblical texts reflected a measure of data about women, at the same time the texts, none of which scholarship judges to have been written by a female, were solely maleoriented due to their authors' patriarchal worldviews. The texts thus alsoconcealedto a great extent the actual role of women which they at the same time marginally recorded. A notable publication in this context was the two volume commentary on many books of the Bible entitledThe Woman's Bible(1895, 1898) by the suffragist Elizabeth Cady Stanton and a group of female colleagues called the Revising Committee, among them Susan B. Anthony. Cady Stanton and her committee literally went through the text of the complete Bible and cut out every passage which related to women, pasted those excisions on blank pages, and then placed their feminist commentary below each text. Because the various academic women who had training in biblical languages and scholarship at the time were adamantly unwilling to participate in Cady Stanton's project, and thereby jeopardize their university positions,The Woman's Biblewas not, even by the standards of its day, considered to be a scholarly compilation. Nevertheless, some groundwork had been laid for numerous developments in the second half of the next century regarding the women of the Bible.
Word of God
Authors: Thompson Mark D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The expression “Word of God” is a very significant one in almost every branch of Christianity, arising as much from its prominence in the theology of the Bible as from theological reflection over the centuries. The God of Scripture is a God who speaks. The biblical meganarrative is framed at either end by the words God speaks: “Let there be light” (Gen. 1:3) and “Behold I make all things new” (Rev. 21:5). To take God seriously is to take God's words seriously. He has determined how he is to be conceived and what is the proper response to what he has done (Deut. 12:29–32).
Y
oder,
J
ohn
H
oward (1927–1997)
Authors: Hill Bracy V. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Theologian, ethicist, historian, pacifist. Born in Smithfield, Ohio to a family with Amish Mennonite heritage, Yoder was reared in an educated Mennonite community. Yoder attended public schools and augmented his high school education with classes from the Presbyterian school, The College of Wooster. He received a Bachelor's degree from Goshen College, studying under the influential church‐historian, Harold S. Bender, who had recently published “The Anabaptist Vision” (1944).
Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ of the Apostolic Faith
Authors: Stewart Alexander Constantine 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ of the Apostolic Faith (COOLC) is the second largest African American Oneness Pentecostal denomination in the United States, following that of its parent body, the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World. Owing to its stance on sanctification, it is also known as a Holiness church. It is distinguished from other Holiness groups in that its theology is Oneness, rejecting the doctrine of the Trinity. The baptism of the Holy Spirit, evident by glossalalia (speaking in unknown languages), is necessary for salvation, water baptism is by immersion in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ, and women are not ordained to the clergy. The women are also required to dress in modest apparel and wear head coverings during worship, as a sign of submission to male headship.
V
eniaminov,
I
nnocent (1797–1878)
Authors: Gallagher Robert L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Innocent Veniaminov (John Popov) was a Russian Orthodox missionary priest to eastern Siberia and Alaska. In 1823 Veniaminov went with his wife Catherine and family to the Aleutian Islands, Alaska. His ministry from the beginning had three goals: to visit the people of the surrounding islands; to create a place where the natives could hear the word of God; and to preach in the indigenous language. He considered his first duty to teach the Bible to the inhabitants. Yet because they were scattered over large distances he also made translation a priority so that the Aleut people might read and listen to God's word in their mother tongue.
L
awson,
R
obert
C
larence (1883–1961)
Authors: Stewart Alexander Constantine 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Robert Clarence Lawson, African American community activist and religious leader in the United States, was born on May 5, 1883 in New Iberia, Louisiana and was a nightclub and tavern singer before his conversion in 1913 at the Apostolic Faith Assembly (Pentecostal Assemblies of the World) in Indianapolis, Indiana pastored by Elder Garfield Thomas Haywood (1880–1931). Under the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, Lawson became a general elder and founded three churches, the Holy Temple Church of Christ, St. Louis, Missouri, the Greater Park Lincoln Church, San Antonio, Texas, and the Church of Christ of the Apostolic Faith, Columbus, Ohio. In 1918, he resigned from the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World over his views on divorce and remarriage and women in the clergy.
I
vanovsky,
P
aul (1875–1920)
Authors: Gallagher Robert L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Russian Orthodox monk Paul Ivanovsky was sent first as a missionary to Zabaikal (present‐day Buryat Republic) and then after studying Korean at the Vladivostok Oriental Institute, in 1906 to the Korean mission in Seoul as the second archimandrite, directing it for 6 years.
Risen Christ
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The bodily resurrection of Jesus Christ has been the very pillar of Christianity from its beginning. It stands or falls with the historicity of Christ's bodily resurrection, that is, whether it happened as an event in history. Paul in his letter to the Corinthian Christians clearly stated, “If Christ is risen, your faith is futile; you are still in our sins” (1 Cor. 15:17). Thus, if Christ's resurrection did not occur in history, a Christian's faith is no better than no faith at all.
Alexandria
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

AbstractCity in Egypt on the Mediterranean. Alexandria played an important role in the diffusion of Christianity in the Hellenistic culture of the early Christian centuries. With Athens and Antioch it was one of the three poles of Greek culture which dominated the 1st century Mediterranean world. It sheltered a strong Jewish colony and it was the center of learning, especially in theology, philology, and philosophy. Eusebius mentions St. Mark as the proto‐Evangelist of Egypt and the See of Alexandria has always been the See of St. Mark. It is today the seat of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate and the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate.
Antioch
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

City in Syria founded in 300
bc
by Seleucus I Nicator, son of Antiochus. It was the capital of the Seleucid Empire. It was the city in which the disciples of Christ were first called Christians. It became a center of Christian activity with Paul promoting the conversion of gentiles to the faith. It survived a series of persecutions and recovered under Constantine. In 390 John Chrysostom considered the city entirely Christian with few Jews and pagans. Growth of the church in the city and the evangelization of the countryside resulted in the establishment of numerous churches, especially the Great Church, with the octagonal central plan and the gilded dome begun by Constantine and finished by Constantius. John Chrysostom preached in the cathedral regularly.
B
oardman,
W
illiam
E
dwin (1810–1886)
Authors: Williams Roy 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Presbyterian pastor, American Sabbath School missionary, American Home Missionary Society missionary, Secretary of the United States Christian Commission, evangelist, author, a leader of the non‐Methodist phalanx of the Holiness Movement in the United States, Great Britain, Sweden, and Germany, and a proponent of divine healing.
Canonization
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Sainthood is the highest honor bestowed by the Catholic Church. The process of conferring this honor is known as canonization which, since the 13th century, is a function reserved to the pope. Canonization confirms that the person canonized is worthy of the veneration of the faithful. This veneration is known as
dulia
(and the veneration of Virgin Mary as
hyperdulia
) while the worship due to God is known as
latria
. Specially worthy of veneration are those saints who are invoked for miraculous interventions in human lives and martyrs who have been killed for their faith. Saints are believed to possess special charisma or
baraka
and to exude an aura of sanctity. Their resting places or graves are sites of pilgrimages. Catholics make special vows when invoking their help. Saints have special graces, and patron saints are believed to watch over entire professional groups and to dispense special favors.
L
actantius,
L
ucius
C
aecilius
F
irmianus (240–330)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Latin Christian apologist. Born in proconsular Africa, he was converted to Christianity during his stay in Bithynia. At Nicomedia, he came to know the young Constantine. Once emperor, Constantine called him to Trier in Gaul and he became the emperor's counselor and friend.
Milan
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

AbstractMilan was founded in 322bcas Mediolanum and tradition has it that Barnabas preached in the city and consecrated its first bishop, Saint Anathlon. The third bishop, Castricianus, built the first domed church in the reign of Gallienus or Aurelian. The Diocletian persecutions claimed the first martyrs, Felix, Nabor, and Victor. Milan was an imperial residence until 404. Ambrose built the first basilica in 386 with the bodies of two more martyrs, Gervasius and Protasius. Earliest Christian churches included Sant'Ambrogio, San Lorenzo Maggiore, San Simpliciano, and the church on whose site was later built Sant'Eustorgio. San Lorenzo was a centrally planned church, perhaps the most magnificent basilica in the Christian West. It has three small attached chapels, all differently shaped: Sant'Aquilino, where St. Augustine was baptized, the 4th century Sant'Ippolito, and the 5th century San Sisto. Sant'Aquilino has important mosaics of the 4th and 5th centuries, including one of Christ as Sol Invictus.
Priesthood Of Believers
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Priesthood is most obviously an institution of religious office‐holders who perform duties of mediation or bridge‐building between God and human beings, in particular, believers within the Church. For Christians, in the New Testament, the priesthood of the Old Testament was abolished. In its place believers had a high priest in Jesus Christ whose one‐time sacrifice ended with his crucifixion. All those who put their faith in him could also be seen as serving not only as priests but also as prophets, evangelists, miracle workers, or servants. Until the Reformation, this priestly role of all believers was, it could be said, obscured by the institution of a clergy, but since then, some denominations, including the Roman Catholic Church, have reassessed the distinction between the laity and the clergy.
S
chaeffer,
F
rancis
A
ugust
IV
(1912–1984)
Authors: Smedley Donald C 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Francis August Schaeffer IV was born in the USA on January 30, 1912. By far one of the most influential Christian figures in the latter half of the 20th century, Schaeffer's impact ranged across a wide variety of fields. Primarily an apologist, who combined a presuppositional and evidential approach, Schaeffer offered Christian analysis and critiques of contemporary culture, including such disciplines as philosophy, art, music, science, and theology. It was this analysis which attracted many students searching for answers to L'Abri (French, shelter), Schaeffer's communal mission to intellectuals founded as a Christian study center in the Swiss Alps in 1955. As a result of his teaching and work at L'Abri Schaeffer gradually began to expand his impact beyond Europe to the United States. With the publication of the watershed books,
The God Who is There
, and
Escape from Reason
, taken mostly from his lectures at L'Abri, Schaeffer went on to become one of the most well‐known of American evangelicals. His scholarship, which soon numbered thirteen best‐selling books in just five years, helped students to see, as J. I. Packer claimed, that their faith was intellectually defensible.
Catholic Ecclesiastical Law
Authors: Hayes Patrick J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe systematic, codified laws of the Latin rite Catholic Church are practical expressions of behaviors and values based upon the divine law of revelation, the natural law, and the positive human law that rightly orders the community of faith, gives it structure, and helps to unify it. So‐called Oriental churches possess a separate, though sometimes overlapping, Code of Canons that applies to them. The primary objective of this entry is to sketch some of the rudiments of ecclesiastical law, to trace the developments of canon law to the present day, and to give some account of contemporary practice for the Roman Catholic Church.