bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Angolan Civil Wars (1975–2002)
Authors: van der Waag Ian 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Angolan conflict is in many ways the foremost African insurgency case study. Not only did this conflict follow a national liberation war, but it was also cast against the backdrop of the Cold War. Moreover, it covers the full range of combat, from low‐intensity, insurgent conflict through to conventional warfare. The insurgency was fought throughout most of southern, central, and northern Angola, while the larger, semi‐conventional war, conducted in southern Angola, involved until 1989 South African and Soviet‐bloc forces (Turner 1998). The first civil war, ended by a fragile ceasefire, was followed in 1992 by renewed conflict, without the foreign forces, that continued, despite ongoing negotiations, through to the assassination of Jonas Savimbi in 2002. It had additionally become a personal war; UNITA finally became indistinguishable from Savimbi, whose termination had become the only precondition for the end of the war.
Armor, development of
Authors: Coulston J. C. N. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe design, development, and provision of protective equipment for warriors and soldiers in the ancient world depended upon a series of predictable factors. There was always a balance to be struck between the weight, heat retention, and restrictive structure of armor, which limited the wearer's actions and endurance, and the requirements of mobility and defense, particularly in missile‐rich tactical environments. Lighter or heavier construction materials, with more or less physical flexibility and efficient protective properties, were partly dictated by the technological capabilities of a particular culture, but also by socioeconomic factors. Metallic armor was especially costly in societies that were socially mobilized for war and in which the polity did not supply all the equipment for its forces. Even if the latter was the case, as, for example, in the late Roman Republic, higher‐status citizens might still have greater armor protection. Some Eurasian steppe nomad peoples were not rich in metallic resources and only a small elite might employ armor acquired from the craftsmen of sedentary neighbors, as was the case with the numerous copper‐alloy helmets of Classical Greek manufacture found in Scythian funerary contexts. Inherited traditions might dictate modes of warfare for which armor was inappropriate, as with the Numidian or Moorish light horse of North Africa. In other societies a socioeconomic elite engaged as foot warriors and drawn up in close formation might tend toward widespread and highly protective armor provision, as with the hoplite phalanxes of Archaic and Classical Greek city‐states. Indeed, the armored infantry line became the dominant Mediterranean mode of warfare for Greek, Carthaginian, and Roman armies, in contrast with the less organized and less well equipped forces of Iron Age Europe, the horse archer groups of the Eurasian steppe, and the more heavily armored cavalry armies developed in the Levant from the fourth to the first centuriesBCEonwards.
Arthashastra
Authors: Barua Pradeep P. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractTheArthashastrais an ancient Indian text that serves as a practical guide to autocratic rule. It provides advice on how to secure the most effective political, economic, and military strategies for a state's survival. It is credited to have been written by Kautilya (also known as Chanakya), the close advisor and minister to the Mauryan king Chandgrapupta Maurya (fourth century bce). However, there has been considerable scholarly debate about the text since the palm‐leaf parchment documents were discovered in 1904 by Dr. Shamasastry, the government of Mysore's chief librarian. Some scholars argue that the work dates to the second century CE at the earliest. Others have argued that there is no single author, but multiple authors of the text.
Aughrim, Battle of (1691)
Authors: Lenihan Pádraig 
Published: November 2011

AbstractWilliam III's armies defeated the Irish supporters of his deposed father‐in‐law James II at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. This did not, however, destroy the Jacobite army and let William secure the resources of the three Stuart kingdoms for the “Grand Alliance” against Louis XIV.
Balkan Wars (1912–1913)
Authors: Hall Richard C. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractIn the second half of the nineteenth century, the Balkan Peninsula increasingly became an area of nationalist restiveness, directed mainly against the waning power of the Ottoman Empire. During the mid‐1870s, revolts erupted in Bosnia and Bulgaria to challenge Ottoman authority, and in 1876 war broke out between Serbia and the Ottomans. In an effort to maintain stability and to safeguard their interests, the Great Powers of Europe at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 intervened to impose an overall settlement on the region. This settlement failed to meet the national aspirations of the peoples living there. The Bulgarians, Greeks, Montenegrins, and Serbs all sought additional territories from the Ottoman Empire to realize their national unity. Until the early twentieth century, however, their mutual rivalries for Ottoman territories precluded the development of any Balkan alliance directed against the Ottoman Empire. For the Bulgarians, Greeks and Serbs, these rivalries all overlapped in Macedonia. There, rival Bulgarian, Greek, and Serbian irregulars fought against the Ottoman authorities as well as against each other.
Barbarian invasions of Europe (fifth century)
Authors: Wood Ian 
Published: November 2011

AbstractFor much of its history the Roman Empire was troubled by the so‐called barbarian peoples who lived to the north of the Danube River and east of the Rhine River. During some periods of the second and third centuries the threats had been considerable, but they had ultimately been checked. In the course of the fourth and fifth centuries, however, the problems posed by the barbarians proved insoluble.
Blockades
Authors: Jones Heather 
Published: November 2011

AbstractA blockade is usually defined as a form of economic warfare whereby the enemy's supplies, and in particular their trading routes, are targeted in order to bring about capitulation. The use of the economic blockade in war is a modern variation of the older practice of the siege, whereby ancient, medieval, and early modern cities, fortresses, or similar strongholds were forced into surrender by an opposing force which surrounded them with the purpose of cutting off their access to supplies. While sieges were relatively small‐scale operations, however, usuallylimited to one geographical site, the modern economic blockade marked an escalation of the practice of targeting supply routes to the state or national level. Although blockades historically have been carried out on both land and sea, maritime blockade has been the more prevalent phenomenon of the two and is thus the main focus here. The modern maritime economic blockade is defined by one recent commentator as “essentially a method of naval economic interdiction; its purpose is to prevent the ingress and egress of state vessels moving to and from the coastal areas of the enemy, resulting in the economic and operational strangulation of the enemy's war effort” (Jones 1983: 762).
Bullard, Eugene “Jacques” (1894–1961)
Authors: Cockfield Jamie H. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
America's first black military aviator. Born in Columbus, Georgia, on October 9, 1894, he early encountered violent racism, and as a young teenager he struck out for France, where he had heard blacks were treated better than in America. Discovered as a stowaway on a German freighter several days out of Norfolk, Virginia, he was put ashore in Scotland, finally settling in Liverpool, where he learned to box. Late in 1913 a match in Paris finally brought him to France, where he first encountered a semblance of racial equality. The early months of World War I brought the death of so many of his friends that he enlisted in the French Foreign Legion in October 1914, and he fought with distinction in the 170th Infantry unit until he was seriously wounded at Verdun. He was then invalided out of the French army.
Chindits
Authors: Farrell Brian P. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Chindits were a British and Indian army formation raised in India in 1942, disbanded in 1945, trained, equipped, and deployed for special operations in the Burma campaign in World War II. The name came from mispronouncing the Burmese word chinthe, a mythical half‐dragon/half‐lion stone figure commonly used to guard temples and monasteries in Burma. The Chindits were also designated Special Force, or the 3rd (Indian) Division as a security cover. During two lengthy incursions in force behind Japanese lines in Burma in 1943 and 1944, the Chindits restored Allied morale in the region, disrupted Japanese operations, and gained lasting renown—but learned hard lessons about the difficulties of jungle warfare and combined arms operations. Their role in the Allied campaign to evict the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) from Burma remains controversial, for many reasons. Foremost among them was the British officer who founded and led the force, Orde Wingate.
Chinese Warfare: Han and the Three Kingdoms (third centuryBCEto third centuryCE)
Authors: Crespigny Rafe De 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Han Dynasty of the Liu family ruled China for four hundred years from the beginning of the second century BCE. Contemporary with the late republic and early empire of Rome, it controlled a comparable area at the opposite end of the Eurasian landmass, but its nature, its enemies, and its methods of warfare were different. Most notably, whereas the Romans conquered and then controlled people as varied as the Egyptians and the Gauls, China was a unified culture, with common language and customs, based upon settled peasant agriculture. To the south there was steady colonization, reaching as far as Vietnam; but in the north the Chinese faced nomad peoples with differing levels of political organization in territory which could be neither settled nor directly controlled. The Great Wall was a symbol of this division, and the problem was central to Han military concern.
Chivalry
Authors: JONES ROBERT 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Chivalry is that which pertains to the
chevalier
or knight, the mounted martial and social elite of medieval western and central Europe. It can be used as a collective noun encompassing the entire caste, but is more normally applied to the Christian warrior ethos to which it subscribed. Although principally militaristic, chivalry presented ideals of behavior and conduct both on and off the battlefield, and was an ideology that encompassed all aspects of its adherents' lives.
Cold War
Authors: Kangas Roger 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The period between World War II (1939–1945) and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 is considered by many scholars and policy officials to be that of the Cold War, which was ostensibly a conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States, their respective allies, and affiliated security organizations. On a grander scale, the Cold War was also a relationship that pitted competing political ideologies and views of the world against each other. Each had its own view of human nature and the future state of politics and international relations. That they denied the legitimacy of the other, and felt threatened in the process, was demonstrated in the pursuit of military might and exemplified in proxy wars. While the two sides never technically engaged in military combat with each other, their cyclical tension spawned a variety of conflicts and political crises throughout the world and shaped other nations' actions. Without question, this relationship was also one of power—defined in terms of how the competing sides could exert political, economic, and military influence. One cannot look at the military history of the second half of the twentieth century without considering the influence of the Cold War.
Commemorating the Dead
Authors: Ankersen Christopher 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Ever since wars have been fought, human beings have strived to remember those who died in them. While that is most certainly true on an individual level, what is also true is that the collective practices of commemorating the dead in war have varied across time and cultures. It can be tempting to try and impose a teleology, or pattern of progress, on the evolution of commemorative practices, but the historical record is replete with twists and turns—practices and ideals that were once thought to be outdated often recur much later in different contexts.
Cromwellian Conquest of Ireland (1649–1653)
Authors: Morgan Rhys 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The attempt by the English parliament to reestablish control over Ireland following the Civil Wars was a pivotal episode in the long and bloody history of Anglo‐Irish relations. Led initially by Oliver Cromwell, a parliamentarian army defeated an alliance of royalists and Catholic Irish rebels through several years of siege warfare, followed by the brutal repression of Irish guerilla forces. War, disease, and famine killed up to a fifth of the Irish population, and English victory allowed a vast land confiscation that transformed Irish society. The horrors of the conquest left an indelible mark on Irish politics and forever blackened Cromwell's reputation.
Crusade, Third (1189–1192)
Authors: Nicholas Morton 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Third Crusade was one of the largest military undertakings of the medieval period. It was launched to recover the city of Jerusalem, which had been captured by the Muslim leader Salah ad‐Din al‐Ayyubi (“Saladin”) (1138–1193) in 1187. The campaign did not achieve its stated goal, but did succeed in regaining some of the lands and cities that had fallen previously to the forces of Islam.
Davout, Louis Nicolas
Authors: Gallaher John G. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Louis Nicolas Davout was born into an aristocratic family (D'Avout) in Burgundy, France. He entered the king's army in 1788 with the rank of second lieutenant. Serving in the armies of the north during the Wars of the French Revolution, he rose to the rank of general of brigade (1793). Napoleon named him marshal of the empire in 1804, and Davout served in the major campaigns of the empire, seeing action at Austerlitz, Auerstadt, Eylau, Wagram, and Borodino. He served as minister of war during the 100 Days.
Declarations of War
Authors: Baumgartner Frederic J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
A declaration of war is a formal proclamation by one state that war now exists between that state and another. It is probably the oldest form of diplomacy. Since warfare as practiced by those stone‐age tribes that survived into historical times usually requires a ritual of inaugurating a war, it is logical to suppose that it was true for tribes in the distant past. The earliest example of declaring war is found in the Bible (Deuteronomy 20). The ancient Hebrews were told to offer terms of peace to a town that they were approaching to attack. Those who accepted would be enslaved; those who resisted would be put to the sword, and their women, children, and property taken as booty.
Edward, the Black Prince (1330–1376)
Authors: Mcglynn Sean 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Edward of Woodstock, the Black Prince, was the eldest son of Edward III, the famous warrior king of England. Earl of Chester, duke of Cornwall, prince of Wales, and prince of Aquitaine, Edward inherited all his father's martial abilities and more, but never inherited the greatest title of all, dying a year before the old king. Acknowledged by contemporaries as an outstanding soldier and a paragon of chivalrous virtue, he was arguably the foremost general in the first part of the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) and the most successful, earning his renowned reputation on the field of battle, with famous victories at Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356), and Nájera (1367), but also through his infamous
chevauchées
(ravaging expeditions) such as in 1355–1356, and his sheer ruthlessness, as displayed at Limoges in 1370.
Epameinondas (ca. 418–362BCE)
Authors: Singor H. W. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractEpameinondas, general of the city of Thebes in central Greece, enjoyed lasting fame in antiquity for his victory at Leuctra in 371 BCE over the Spartans that put an end to more than a century of Spartan military hegemony in Greece. In modern times Epameinondas has been credited with highly innovative tactics in hoplite warfare, paving the way for further tactical development in the age of Philip and Alexander. This assessment seems to be exaggerated. In fact, Epameinondas' reputation grew only a generation or so after his lifetime, whereas our best contemporary source, Xenophon, has nothing to say about him, let alone his innovations, regarding the Battle of Leuctra, and has simple words of praise for him as an inspiring leader, not a tactical innovator, at the occasion of his death in 362. Only later sources such as Diodorus and Plutarch provide the information on which a picture of far‐reaching tactical innovations has been construed.
Foch, Marshal Ferdinand (1851–1929)
Authors: Greenhalgh Elizabeth 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Ferdinand Foch is caricatured, wrongly, as the unthinking apostle of the offensive, preaching before World War I to a generation of French officers who, having absorbed his ideas, inflicted huge casualties on the French army. Yet, in March 1918, during the last year of World War I, he was appointed to coordinate the Allied armies on the Western Front with the title “General in Chief of the Allied Armies.” He was elevated to the dignity of marshal of France in August 1918 in recognition of his success in halting the German offensives of that year.
Former Nine Years' War (1051–1062)
Authors: Friday Karl 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Former Nine Years' War, waged by Minamoto Yoriyoshi (995–1082) against Abe Yoritoki (?–1057) and his son Sadatō (1019–1062), was the longest single conflict of the Heian (794–1180) period. The exploits of Yoriyoshi and his son Yoshiie (1041–1108) in this and the subsequent Latter Three Year's War of 1083–1087 helped forge the martial reputation of the Seiwa Genji line that founded the Kamakura shogunate, Japan's first warrior regime, a – century later.
French Wars of Religion (1562–1598)
Authors: Baumgartner Frederic J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
A series of civil wars in France motivated by religious divisions, political rivalries, and economic problems. Although they are called wars of religion, other factors were important, and it is often impossible to determine the major motive why a Frenchman would choose to take up arms for one side or the other. Despite the reputation of Henry II (r. 1547–1559) as an ardent defender of Catholicism, Protestantism grew rapidly during his reign. The Huguenots, as French Protestants were called, constituted about 10 percent of the French population, some 1.6 million persons, in 1560. The appeal of Protestantism was strongest among the urban bourgeoisie, and Protestants were most numerous in the cities, especially those of the southwest. Crucial for the coming civil wars were the many French nobles who became Protestants, including several of the highest‐ranking men of the realm. Constable Anne de Montmorency's three nephews provided crucial leadership for the Huguenots, especially Gaspard de Coligny, whom Henry II named admiral in 1552. Of even higher rank were Antoine de Bourbon and his brother Louis de Condé, who as members of a cadet branch of the royal family were princes of blood. Antoine married Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Navarre, who converted him to Protestantism, but he vacillated in his commitment; Condé was more ardent in his new faith.
Fronde (1648–1653)
Authors: Bonney Richard 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Contemporaries called the period of civil disturbance in France known to historians as the Fronde a period of “troubles” akin to a civil war. The term
Fronde
literally means “sling.” A famous contemporary engraving shows an image of David (figuratively representing the opposition) armed with a sling (
fronde
), apparently having triumphed over Goliath (that is, the chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin) (Carrier 1989: ii, 251). The Fronde was a collective protest against a long foreign war (France had been fighting Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor since 1635) and an increasingly heavy burden of taxation. There were secondary, but important, objections to continuing the foreign war in a period of royal minority (the infant Louis XIV succeeded his father as king on May 14, 1643) and the autocratic style of government exercised by Cardinal Mazarin as chief minister and favorite of the queen regent, Anne of Austria. There were few coherent constitutional alternatives to the absolutist style of government that had been exercised by Louis XIII, however. In particular, the 27 reform proposals of the Parisian sovereign courts in the summer of 1648, had they been accepted by the crown, would have forced France to make peace with its enemies on disadvantageous terms. In many respects, the military campaigns fall into the category of what “might have been” rather than actual events of significance. Thus, Turenne's invasion force from the Spanish Netherlands was decisively defeated at Rethel by the royalist army under Marshal du Plessis Praslin on December, 15 1650—one of only two defeats in Turenne's career. Had the outcome of this battle gone the other way, the Frondeur opposition would have taken over the government of the kingdom.
Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO)
Authors: J.Stapleton Timothy 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
While most European powers were granting independence to their African colonies in the late 1950s and 1960s, the autocratic regime of Antonio Salazar in Lisbon refused and maintained that its African territories were overseas provinces of Portugal. In reality, Portuguese colonial rule had been particularly oppressive and exploitive, and in June 1960 security forces massacred five hundred demonstrators at Mueda in northern Mozambique. In 1962 three African nationalist groups from Mozambique, exiled in newly independent Tanzania, where they enjoyed the support of President Julius Nyerere, combined to form the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) under the leadership of American‐educated Eduardo Mondlane, who had been working for the United Nations (UN). Given increasingly violent Portuguese repression at home, FRELIMO launched a guerilla war in 1964 using Tanzania as a staging area to infiltrate northern Mozambique. FRELIMO received Soviet and Chinese military assistance, its humanitarian programs were funded by Scandinavian countries, and it was also aided by the anti‐colonial Organization of African Unity (OAU). As a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Portugal was supported directly and indirectly by the West.
Guibert, Jacques Antoine Hippolyte, Comte de (1743–1790)
Authors: Tallett Frank 
Published: November 2011

AbstractGuibert was a French soldier and one of the most eminent military theoreticians of the eighteenth century. His writings reflected contemporary concerns about France's poor military performance, notably in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), as well as embodying the Enlightenment ideal that all areas of human activity, including warfare, should be subjected to rational scrutiny. Like other lumières, Guibert claimed in his writings that he was articulating fundamental and unchanging principles. While these claims were certainly exaggerated, his ideas did have a lasting significance. Many of his views on tactics would find their way into French military manuals during the Revolutionary Wars; Napoleon declared that only an ass would fail to carry an extract from Guibert's works with him when going into battle; and his later influence can be seen in the theories of T. E. Lawrence, de Gaulle, and Liddell Hart in the twentieth century.