bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The life course and adult chronic disease: an historical perspective with particular reference to coronary heart disease
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter traces the origins of the idea that experiences early in the life course may have long-term effects on the development of chronic disease. Topics discussed include research in the first half of the 20th century on the links between child health, adult vitality, and mortality risk; developmental critical periods and the early origins of constitution; the growing interest in adult lifestyle and chronic disease; and atherosclerosis and emergence of coronary heart disease. The chapter then looks at the changing role of early life factors as explanations for adult health and chronic disease in the postwar period, the revival of a life course perspective in understanding disease patterns, and the revival of interdisciplinary developmental science.
Pre-adult influences on cardiovascular disease
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
A growing body of research has highlighted the potential role of pre-adult influences that may operate through different life course models. Until recently, much of this evidence has been relatively weak and indirect, using either ecological or proxy measures, such as adult height. However, prospective and cohort studies have provided more rigorous evidence to test associations between circumstances and outcomes several decades apart. This chapter reviews this evidence in terms of its association with coronary heart disease and stroke.
Geography and migration with special reference to cardiovascular disease
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter considers two epidemiological approaches to investigating geographic variations in cardiovascular disease (CVD): ecological studies and migrant studies. Ecological studies examine the correlation between a potential explanatory variable and disease frequency both within and between countries. Migrant studies provide the opportunity to establish the etiological importance of factors acting at different points in the life course. Ecological studies have provided useful clues to important risk factors for CVD. Migrant studies have provided compelling evidence that people moving from a low- to high-blood pressure community experience a rise in blood pressure not seen in those who remain behind.
A life course approach to diabetes
Authors: Forouhi Nita , Hall Elizabeth , McKeigue Paul 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter reviews evidence that the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in adult life may be set by factors operating early in the life course of an individual. There is consistent evidence linking small size at birth to T2DM in later life. This association appears to be mediated through insulin resistance and to be at least partially explained by the effects of environmental exposure in utero. However, this small baby syndrome is unlikely to be the main explanation for ethnic differences in rates of diabetes and insulin resistance, where genetic factors are important. The effects of reduced fetal growth in diabetes risk are modest compared with the effects of other factors that may be amenable to intervention: exposure to maternal hyperglycemia and obesity.
A life course approach to blood pressure
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses blood pressure and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Topics discussed include blood pressure as a risk factor for CVD, the emergence of adult patterns of blood pressure, factors influencing blood pressure in middle age, and factors that may act at specific points in the life course with long-term effects on blood pressure. Blood pressure in middle and later life is the main influence on CVD risk. The chapter reviews the role of body mass index, alcohol, sodium, and potassium intake. It concludes that fetal influence on blood pressure is small compared to factors acting in later life.
The OPTIMA Cohort
Authors: Holodniy Mark 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter reviews the Options in Management with Antiretrovirals (OPTIMA) study. OPTIMA study is the first tri-national collaboration between the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Canadian Institutes for Health Research, and the UK Medical Research Council. It is a prospective, randomized, 2-factorial design study looking at the clinical utility of a three-month antiretroviral drug-free period (ARDFP), and whether there is a difference in effectiveness between standard and ‘mega-regimens’ (five or more active antiretroviral drugs).
Country review: Thailand
Authors: Phanuphak Praphan , Chasombat Sanchai , Ananworanich Jintanat 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter begins with a description of the epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in Thailand. It then discusses the early use of antiretrovirals, early use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), driving forces in the scale-up of HAART, antiretroviral therapy (ART) in children, and the Thai government's policy on HAART.
Cohort studies in Brazil: Projeto Praça Onze
Authors: Schechter Mauro , Tuboi Suely Hiromi 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter reviews the Projeto Praça Onze. The Projeto Praça Onze was a prospective cohort study conducted in Rio de Janeiro between 1995 and 1998 to estimate the incidence of HIV infection in high-risk seronegative men who have sex with men (MSM), and to determine whether this population would be suitable for vaccine and non-vaccine intervention studies.
Country review: Senegal
Authors: Sow Papa Salif 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins with a description of the epidemiology of HIV in Senegal. It then discusses the response to HIV, treatment of opportunistic infections, and antiretroviral therapy (ART). It argues that there remain many challenges relative to HIV and ART in Senegal, including insufficient scaleup of the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) programme, and weakness in the paediatric component of the Senegalese initiative for access to care and treatment. Access to voluntary counselling and HIV testing must be strengthened by increasing the availability of HIV care centres throughout the country.
Country review: Zambia
Authors: Sinkala Moses , Chi Benjamin H. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes the implementation and rapid scale-up of antiretroviral therapy (ART) services in Zambia, and reports early patient outcomes from a large programmatic cohort. Although the history of ART in Zambia is limited thus far, the country's experience provides unique insight into the potential impact of HIV treatment in settings of high prevalence and low resources.
The clinical challenges of lifetime HAART
Authors: Paredes Roger , Sherer Renslow , Clotet Bonaventura 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter summarizes the principal challenges of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in both resource-rich and developing world settings as of the end of year 2006 and discusses the options available to address them. It shows that long-term ART involves problems of adherence, resistance and toxicity as well as cost. It also shows how the successes of HAART have modified the clinical presentation of cancers in HIV-infected individuals and how the aging of HIV-positive patients is gradually increasing the development of geriatric syndromes that were rarely seen just a few years ago. Early detection and aggressive management of hepatitis co-infections are needed in order to avoid the severe complications and elevated mortality of end-stage liver disease.
Redefining HIV/AIDS care delivery in the face of human resource scarcity
Authors: Dal Poz Mario Roberto , Dreesch Norbert , Rensburg Dingie van 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the growing demands of HIV/AIDS care on existing human resources for health (HRH). The pressures on these resources have multiplied and steered many national health systems into ever deeper troubled waters as a result of dire and aggravating human resource shortages and deficits. This is especially the case in those countries hardest hit by the epidemic, and with the recent scale-up of antiretroviral therapy (ART). The crux of the crisis is related to growing mismatches between demand and supply of human resources.
Challenges and limitations of applying branding in social marketing
Authors: McCormack Lauren A. , Lewis Megan A. , Driscoll David 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThere are some key differences between social marketing and commercial marketing that have implications for branding. While branded messages can still be persuasive, they should take a less directional and more informational tone when the clinical or epidemiological evidence limited or weak. All forms of persuasion, including branding, should be handled with care when used in directive health promotion because it has the potential to breech the ethical boundaries of public health practice. Applying branding in combination with other communication strategies can enhance its effectiveness.
Advances in the Casimir Effect
Authors: Bordag Michael , Klimchitskaya Galina Leonidovna , Mohideen Umar , Mostepanenko Vladimir Mikhaylovich 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe subject of this book is the Casimir effect, i.e., a manifestation of zero-point oscillations of the quantum vacuum in the form of forces acting between closely spaced bodies. It is a purely quantum effect. There is no force acting between neutral bodies in classical electrodynamics. The Casimir effect has become an interdisciplinary subject. It plays an important role in various fields of physics such as condensed matter physics, quantum field theory, atomic and molecular physics, gravitation and cosmology, and mathematical physics. Most recently, the Casimir effect has been applied to nanotechnology and for obtaining constraints on the predictions of unification theories beyond the Standard Model. The book assembles together the field-theoretical foundations of this phenomenon, the application of the general theory to real materials, and a comprehensive description of all recently performed measurements of the Casimir force, including the comparison between experiment and theory. There is increasing interest in forces of vacuum origin. Numerous new results have been obtained during the last few years which are not reflected in the literature, but are very promising for fundamental science and nanotechnology. The book provides a source of information which presents a critical assessment of all of the main results and approaches contained in published journal papers. It also proposes new ideas which are not yet universally accepted but are finding increasing support from experiment.
Regularization and Renormalization of the Vacuum Energy
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter uses the method of heat kernel expansion together with cutoff regularization to separate the divergent part of the vacuum energy. After the vacuum energy has been regularized, the procedure of renormalization is considered. The divergent contributions have a structure which allows their removal by a redefinition of the parameters in the ‘noninteracting theory’ (including the parameters of a classical background field if one is present). However, this procedure is not always possible. In the case of background fields (if these are singular or if one uses some limiting process which makes them singular) these questions are not completely settled, and they are briefly discussed. The cases of a single body and two separate bodies are considered in detail.
Approximate and Numerical Approaches
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter considers several approximate methods developed to calculate the Casimir energy and force for nontrivial geometries, where the separation of variables is not possible. One of these methods is the multiple-reflection expansion. This allows an iterative calculation of the corresponding Green's function. Another method is the semiclassical one. This is based on the idea of the WKB approximation in quantum mechanics, or, equivalently, the eikonal approximation in optics. Another approximate method for the calculation of the Casimir force considered is the numerical world line approach. Inspired by string theory, it uses the Feynman path-integral representation of transition amplitudes. Two other simple approximate methods are the pairwise summation method and the proximity force approximation. These are repeatedly used in the following chapters of the book.
The Casimir Effect For Two Ideal-Metal Planes
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter considers the simple but most important configuration of two parallel ideal-metal planes. First, the theory of the scalar and electromagnetic Casimir effects between parallel planes is presented. In comparison with Chapter 2, some basic facts are added concerning the relation between local and global approaches and the polarizations of the electromagnetic field. The radiative corrections to the Casimir force are considered. General analytical formulas for the Casimir free energy, entropy, and pressure at nonzero temperature are presented, as well as the limits of low and high temperature. The agreement between the results obtained and thermodynamics is analyzed. The spinor Casimir effect between planes and the Casimir effect for a wedge are also discussed. At the end of the chapter, the dynamic Casimir effect connected with uniformly moving or oscillating planes is briefly considered.
The Casimir Force Between Objects of Arbitrary Shape
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents a new, powerful description of the Casimir energy based on the scattering approach and functional determinants. This description allows for exact calculations of Casimir energies and forces in general geometries to be made. Special attention is paid to the cases of a spherical and cylindrical shell above a plane. In both cases, exact solutions have recently been obtained. These solutions can be compared with approximate results and thus can be used for the determination of the accuracy of those results. For nonmagnetic bodies which are mirror images of each other, it is proved that the electromagnetic and scalar Casimir forces are attractive. The electromagnetic Casimir energy between the sinusoidally corrugated surfaces is considered. This finds applications in Chapter 17, devoted to the influence of roughness and corrugations on the Casimir force.
The Lifshitz Theory of The Van Der Waals and Casimir Forces Between Plane Dielectrics
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractStarting with this chapter, the book goes on to deal with the Casimir effect for real bodies made of various materials rather than idealized boundaries. It presents Lifshitz theory, which provides a unified description of both the van der Waals and the Casimir interaction between planar dielectrics. The chapter contains various formulations of the Lifshitz theory as applied to planar, stratified dielectric media at both zero and nonzero temperatures. As an illustration, computational results for various dielectric materials are given. The consistency of the theory with the requirements of thermodynamics and its application region are discussed. The Lifshitz formula for anisotropic plates is presented as well as Lifshitz-type formulas for radiative heat transfer. Problems arising for polar dielectrics are considered.
The Casimir Interaction Between Real-Metal Plates at Zero Temperature
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter considers both analytical calculations of Casimir energies and forces between real metal plates and numerical computations using tabulated optical data for the complex index of refraction of metals. Comparison between the results of analytical and numerical computations permits one to infer the main properties of metals that affect the Casimir force, and how they enter into the Lifshitz theory. Calculations have been done with the help of the dielectric permittivity of the plasma model, the Drude model, and the generalized plasma-like model. The concept of the Leontovich surface impedance, related boundary conditions, and the application region of the impedance approach are also discussed. The chapter should be considered as a preparation for Chapter 14, where the complicated problem of the thermal Casimir force between real metal plates is considered.
The Casimir Interaction Between Real Metals at Nonzero Temperature
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter begins with a discussion of the problem of the zero-frequency term in the Lifshitz formula. The thermal Casimir free energy and pressure are computed using both the plasma and the Drude model, with the tabulated optical data for the complex refractive index extrapolated by use of the Drude model. It is shown that the plasma model combined with the Lifshitz formula agrees with thermodynamics while the Drude model does not if the metal crystal lattice is perfect. Physical arguments are presented for why the Drude model is outside the application region of the Lifshitz formula. The approximate approach, based on the Leontovich impedance, is shown to be consistent with thermodynamics. The role of evanescent and traveling waves in the Casimir effect between metals is discussed. The chapter concludes with the approach using the generalized plasma-like permittivity, which is shown to be thermodynamically consistent.
Measurements of the Casimir Force with Semiconductors
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter considers three experiments on measuring the Casimir force between an Au-coated sphere and an Si plate. The first experiment revealed that the measured Casimir force for a plate made of p-type Si was markedly different from the calculation results for dielectric Si. In the second experiment, the difference in the Casimir forces for an Au coated sphere and two plates made of n-type Si with different charge carriers densities was measured. Through this, the dependence of the Casimir force on the charge carrier density was demonstrated. Modification of the Casimir force through an optically induced change in the charge carrier density was first demonstrated in the third experiment. This experiment was also used as a test for various theoretical approaches to the description of charge carriers in dielectrics and semiconductors. All of these results are presented in the chapter.
Applications of the Casimir Force in Nanotechnology
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe advances in integrated circuit fabrication techniques based on photolithography and electron beam lithography and plasma and chemical etching have now allowed fabrication of mechanical and electromechanical devices with sizes ranging from microns to nanometers. With device dimensions shrinking to nanometers, the important role of Casimir forces in nanoscale devices is well recognized. This chapter analyzes both the theoretical and the experimental aspects of the role of electrostatic and Casimir forces in microelectromechanical systems. The first such system actuated by the Casimir force, and a nonlinear micromechanical Casimir oscillator are considered. Special attention is paid to the interaction of atoms with multiwalled and single-walled carbon nanotubes. At the end of the chapter, some prospective applications of the Casimir force in nanotechnology are discussed.
Hegelian Metaphysics
Authors: Stern Robert 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis book consists in a series of chapters that trace the development of a distinctively Hegelian approach to metaphysics and certain central metaphysical issues. It begins with an introduction that considers this theme as a whole, followed by a section of chapters on Hegel himself, concerning his idealism, his theory of truth, and his claim concerning the rationality of the actual in the Preface to the Philosophy of Right. The following chapters then focus on the way in which certain key metaphysical ideas in Hegel's system, such as his doctrine of the ‘concrete universal’ and his conception of truth, relate to the thinking of the British Idealists on the one hand, and the American Pragmatists on the other. The chapter concludes by examining a critique of Hegel's metaphysical position from the perspective of the ‘continental’ tradition, and in particular Gilles Deleuze.
Hegel, British Idealism, and the Curious Case of the Concrete Universal
Authors: Stern Robert 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter explores the way in which the British idealists took up Hegel's notion of the ‘concrete universal’. At the interpretative level, it argues that while not everything these idealists are taken to mean by the term is properly to be found in Hegel, their work nonetheless relates to a crucial and genuine strand in Hegel's position. And at a philosophical level, the question underlying the doctrine of the concrete universal is examined: namely, how far does our thought involve a mere abstraction from reality, and what are the metaphysical and epistemological implications if it turns out it does not?
Coherence as a Test For Truth
Authors: Stern Robert 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter argues that the coherentism of the British Idealism, and in particular of F. H. Bradley, is importantly different from the sort of coherentism familiar in contemporary philosophy. For, while the latter is largely a theory of justification, holding that the structure of justification does not rest on any intrinsically justified beliefs, by contrast Bradley's coherentism is a test for truth, holding that we can only discover the truth by using coherence as a criterion, because we have no set of infallible beliefs against which others can be tested. It is then argued that with this distinction firmly in mind, certain traditional objections to coherentism can be re-assessed, particularly the role that experience is to play within our acquisition of knowledge.
Hegel and Pragmatism
Authors: Stern Robert 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter considers the relation between Hegel and the pragmatist tradition. It explores the way in which Hegel puts forward a presuppositionless approach in his Logic, and considers whether this is at odds with the pragmatist, who characteristically argues for a more Neurathian picture, according to which certain claims must be taken for granted in any inquiry. The motivation behind Hegel's commitment to presuppositionlessness in the Logic is explored, and it is argued that this is neither a Cartesian desire to refute the sceptic nor a concern to think in an autonomous way without taking anything for granted; rather, it is motivated solely by the particular character of the Logic as an investigation into the nature of thought. It is then argued that whilst the first two conceptions of a presuppositionless inquiry might have set Hegel at odds with pragmatism, the latter does not, so that Hegel's approach can be made compatible with the pragmatist's concerns, and indeed is in many ways motivated by a similar set of considerations.