bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Metaphor and Cognition: Two Theories
Authors: Denham A. E. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractModern ‘intuitionist’ theories of metaphor have echoed Plato's views, arguing for a clear distinction between the cognitive function of conventional, literal language and the special symbolic and expressive function of aesthetic language. Intuitionism (as that term is now applied to theories of metaphor) developed in reaction against positivist efforts to reduce the meaningful content of metaphor to its literal paraphrase. On the positivist view, whatever cannot be paraphrased in literal terms is, from the standpoint of meaning, strictly eliminable. In his article ‘What Metaphors Mean’, Donald Davidson argues that metaphorical sentences have no meaning at all (other than their literal sentence meaning). This chapter discusses metaphor and cognition, the analogy between metaphors and jokes, cognitive theories of metaphor, and the interaction theory of metaphor.
Introduction: Meaning and Reference
Authors: Bach Kent 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the two kinds of reference. It then discusses the distinction between semantics and pragmatics. Pragmatics, or the theory of language use, is viewed as the theory of communication (speaker meaning) and speech acts. As for semantics, we think of it as covering truth and reference as well as (or instead of, for Quinean semantic sceptics) meaning and synonymy. Whether or not truth and reference are the semantic properties of choice for a given theory, for all semantic theories they are properties that belong to linguistic expressions. The chapter also considers the conflict between descriptive and non-descriptive theories on singular thought and singular reference.
Definite Descriptions I: Vindicating Russell
Authors: Bach Kent 
Published: October 2011

AbstractRussell's theory of descriptions has remained influential even though it has long been out of favour. It's influence may be due to the absence of a generally accepted alternative, or perhaps to the fact that it was Russell's. This chapter defends his theory against some familiar and seemingly forceful objections (e.g., Strawson's objection, Donnellan's objection, incomplete description objection) using the strategy of the previous chapter. It argues that each objection is based on a misconstrual of Russell's theory and thereby imposes unreasonable demands on it. This is viewed merely as a semantic account of definite descriptions, and as such it should not be expected to explain pragmatic phenomena not within its province. The trouble with these objections is that they expect it to do what it does not even purport to do.
Introduction
Authors: Vallance J. T. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
At the end of the second century, a Greek doctor in Rome named Asclepiades was making radical changes to the practice of medicine and described traditional Greek medicine to be a ‘preparation for death’. He was highly successful, as anyone who advocates the therapeutic benefits of ‘passive exercise’ is bound to be. His medical ideas were grounded on an extraordinary and mysterious theory which this book is attempting to reconstruct out of contradictory accounts of it which were offered in later antiquity. Answers to various questions on where his ideas may have come from have important implications in the understanding of Hellenistic philosophy as well as medicine. At the same time, they relate to one of the most intriquing doctrinal disputes in ancient science.
Prediction and Knowledge
Authors: Honderich Ted 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe distinction between conditional predictability and simple predictability is not sharp but remains to be important to draw. If something is predictable, predictable in fact or in practice, it can be predicted on the basis of knowledge that exists, which is to say knowledge actually had by someone or at any rate recorded. If something is conditionally predictable, it could be predicted if certain knowledge existed, the having or recording of which knowledge is logically or conceptually possible, although perhaps factually and nomically possible. The proposition of conditional predictability, which certainly can be said to follow from all doctrines of true determinism, has regularly been used as well by objectors to those doctrines, that is why discussion on this matter always involves various facets and viewpoints.
The Probable and The Provable
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The book was planned and written as a single, sustained argument. But earlier versions of a few parts of it have appeared separately. The object of this book is both to establish the existence of the paradoxes, and also to describe a non-Pascalian concept of probability in terms of which one can analyse the structure of forensic proof without giving rise to such typical signs of theoretical misfit. Neither the complementational principle for negation nor the multiplicative principle for conjunction applies to the central core of any forensic proof in the Anglo-American legal system. There are four parts included in this book. Accordingly, these parts have been written in such a way that they may be read in different orders by different kinds of reader.
The Assessment of Judicial Proof
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter provides the assessment of judicial proof. It is shown that the concept of inductive probability, as derived from the concept of inductive support for covering generalizations, plays an important part in human reasoning. The inferences about the behaviour of others normally rest on the large stock of rough generalizations about human behaviour that is carried in their heads. So it is possible to construe proof beyond reasonable doubt as proof at a maximum level of inductive probability. Proof of S on the preponderance of evidence may then be construed as proof at a higher grade of inductive probability than that at which not-S is proved; and other standards of proof are also intelligible in these terms. Contextual clues are normally available to determine whether a given statement of probability is to be evaluated in accordance with mathematical or with inductive criteria, though experimental psychologists have not always recognized this. In fact, experimental data confirm the thesis that normal intuitive judgements of probability are often inductive rather than mathematical.
Intensionality
Authors: Bealer George 
Published: October 2011

AbstractUsing a very small number of methodological assumptions, this chapter retraces the intuitive motivation for the theory of properties, relations, and propositions (PRPs). One tenet of the work is that the theory of PRPs, is part of logic. Specifically, it is part of natural logic, i.e., logic in the broad sense that includes the logic of natural language as a part. The chapter defends this tenet and argues, in particular, that the best representation of intensionality in natural language is provided by a first-order intensional language that is just like a first-order extensional language except that it is fitted out with an intensional abstraction operation.
The Existence of Space and Time
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis book is intended as an introduction to the philosophical problems of space and time, suitable for any reader who has an interest in the nature of the universe and who has a secondary-school knowledge of physics and mathematics. In particular, it is hoped that the book may find a use in philosophy departments and physics departments within universities and other tertiary institutions. The attempt is always to introduce the problems from a twentieth-century point of view. It is preferable to introduce the history of the topic if and when that history becomes relevant to the development and solution of the problems, rather than to introduce a problem that was of importance in some previous age and to trace the development of it down the years.
Space and Geometry
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter first reports the geometrical properties of space. One of the assumptions of Newtonian dynamics is that space is Euclidean; that is, space satisfies the axioms, and hence the theorems, of three-dimensional Euclidean geometry. Within Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, on the other hand, it becomes allowable that at various places space is curved; that is, space is non-Euclidean. The chapter then explores a couple of properties closely related to the geometrical properties. It starts by presenting the topological properties of space and also reviews the dimensionality of space. The space as physically possible types of events is discussed. It is suggested that certain statements about space might be reducible to statements about ways in which it is physically possible for bodies to move or position themselves. Furthermore, the amounts of space are explained. The nocturnal expansion problem is finally shown.
Existence and the Present
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter is primarily concerned with the attitude towards what is present or now as opposed to what is here, particularly with respect to the feeling that what is now has a preferred status of existence to what was or what will be. It also argues that the ability to describe events as being in the past or present or future is not sufficient to give the idea of a flow of time. In addition, the chapter demonstrates how reductions to purely indexical tensed discourse can eliminate reference to times and places, though it is also argued that the tensed discourse of ordinary language is not purely indexical. The chapter specifically looks at Moore's problem. Furthermore, it deals with simultaneity, the theory of The Present, and Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic radiation. Einstein's operational definition of simultaneity is also provided. The experimental confirmation of Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic radiation is finally elaborated.
The ‘Resumption of the Whole into One’
Authors: Harris H. S. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractIn the ‘Natural Law’ lectures, Hegel passed straight from political theory to the evolution of religious consciousness. This chapter examines the life story of God, the triangulation of the Trinity, the motion of the triangles, the half-triangles of Cognition, and the ‘Resting Square’. The moving principle of natural ethics is the singular consciousness of the individual. As that consciousness matures, the individual becomes aware that he lives, moves, and has his being in a naturally given whole that expresses his nature as a rational being. This natural whole is the family. The most important speculative interpretation of the Trinity that Hegel attempted in this period was probably contained in the lost manuscript on the ‘Triangle of triangles’.
Particulars, Facts, and Causal Explanations
Authors: Steward Helen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter argues that the distinction between particulars and facts is crucial to the understanding of the workings of our causal explanations; and that we need to recognize two rather different varieties of causal statement: ‘singular’ and ‘sentential’. The chapter attempts to explain the difference between the two kinds of explanation, and argues that the idea that token states must be recognized as a variety of causally efficacious particular stems from the existence of a certain class of sentential causal explanations in which the explanans is a stative predication. It is a mistake to think that these explanations have their basis in interactive or productive relationships in which token states figure. Rather, they involve us in commitment to causal relationships between facts and effects of various kinds. There is therefore no need at all to recognize token states as a class of particulars. In so far as the category is legitimate, the entities it subsumes are not particular but rather fact-like, hence the claim that events and states are not close relations but rather species very different from one another.
The Georgian Version
Authors: METZGER BRUCE M. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the introduction of Christianity into Georgia and the translation of the New Testament in that region. Within the Union of Soviet Socialists Republics and by the Russians, Gruziya, in the country of Georgia, was anciently known as Iberia. The earliest tradition regarding the introduction of Christianity among the Iberians tells of the missionary work of a Christian slave woman named Nino who was taken by the pagan king of Georgia. Apart from the legendary details concerning the miracles performed by Nino, historians are inclined to accept the date of about the middle of the 4th century for the introduction of Christianity among the Georgians. This chapter also examines the early manuscripts of the Georgian version, the origins and the evolution of its style and language, its textual affinities, and examples of limitations of the Georgian language in representing Greek under the headings of phonetics, morphology, and syntax.
The Pauline School: Three ‘Pastoral’ Epistles to Timothy and Titus, to Further Faith and Order in the Household of God
Authors: Reumann John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the first and second Timothy and Titus, which give a glimpse of what happened to Pauline Christianity about the end of the 1st century—or, others have maintained, late in Paul's career in the middle 60s, or, others claim, in the 2nd century. The three documents appear in the canon, after Paul's letters to congregations, in a sub-collection of four letters to individuals. They are arranged in order of decreasing length, with little Philemon coming after Titus. The three ‘pastoral letters’ so named by a Pietist, Paul Anton, even though the term ‘shepherd’ or pastor never appears in them—are ostensibly from Paul, ‘an apostle of Jesus Christ’, to assistants in the Pauline mission who are known from other New Testament books. The pastorals pose the question of variety and unity in two ways: first, with regard to the other letters of Paul, and second among themselves.
The Johannine Line of Development: Three Letters
Authors: Reumann John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
In this chapter, it is considered that the longer of the three Johannine letters contained in the New Testament canon, doubtless helped preserve the other two and pull them into the canonical collection. However, opinions vary on the origins of each, and over whether i John actually helped preserve the Fourth Gospel for orthodox Christianity or whether, on the other hand, the Gospel of John pulled the letters into the orbit of the canon by virtue of its own prestige. After vigorous debates, it was finally accepted that the Gospel of John came first and that the epistle followed, in order to clarify John's meaning. A further debate continues over the sequence of the three letters. The usual treatment takes them up in their canonical order, so that 2 and 3 John represent later facets of the basic struggle depicted in i John and, behind it, the Fourth Gospel.
Introduction
Authors: Flegg Columba Graham 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the background, purpose, and limitations of this book, which is about the theology and practice of the developed Catholic Apostolic Church in England during the 19th century. It explains Catholic Apostolic teaching and traces its history with the support of extensive selected extracts from primary sources. It describes the nature of the church, the nature of its liturgical worship, the Doctrine of Real Presence, and its relation with the Oxford Movement.
A Short History of the Catholic Apostolic Church
Authors: Flegg Columba Graham 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter presents a brief history of the Catholic Apostolic Church. The Church came into being during a historical period which was marked by the French Revolution of 1789 and the British reaction to Edmund Burke's pamphlet Reflections on the French Revolution. The Adventist root of the Church owes much to the Albury Conferences held in the private home of Henry Drummond. This chapter traces the gradual development of the Church and its existence without an ordained ministry.
Origen and the Life of the Stars
Authors: Scott Alan 
Published: October 2011

AbstractIt was widely assumed by intellectuals from antiquity to the Middle Ages that the beauty and regularity of the heavens was a sign of their superior life. Through this belief the stars gained an important position in Greek religion, and speculations on their nature figured prominently in discussions of human psychology and eschatology. In the 3rd century AD the influential Christian theologian Origen included Hellenistic theories on the life and nature of the stars in his cosmology. This marked an interesting episode in the history of the idea, but it also had important implications for early Christian theology. Although he was condemned as heretical for these (and other) speculations, he was successful in incorporating traditional philosophical theories about the stars into a biblical theology.
The Heavenly Powers
Authors: SCOTT ALAN 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter presents an evaluation of astral powers in moral terms and the subsequent impact of related debates. One idea which Origen adopted which is not present in Philo or any of the classical philosophical schools is the recognition of the possibility of evil in heaven. This view, which is of great importance in Origen in understanding the place of the stars in the divine economy, gradually developed in Hellenism and exerted a great influence on early Christianity. The first section examines the view of heavenly powers as good or as morally neutral. The second section considers the view of heavenly powers as morally evil from pagan, apocalyptic, and gnostic sources.
Infinity and the Past
Authors: Smith Quentin 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter presents an essay which aims to refute the argument that the past is necessarily finite. It considers the arguments offered by William Lane Craig and arguments by other philosophers. It agrees that Big Bang cosmology warrants the conclusion that the past is finite but it also argues that the beginning of the universe is not caused by God or anything else. To illustrate the finiteness of the past, this chapter uses the definition of an event as being a maximal complex of whatever occurs during a temporal interval of one second.
The Uncaused Beginning of the Universe
Authors: Smith Quentin 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter argues that there is sufficient evidence at present to warrant the conclusion that the universe probably began to exist over 10 billion years ago and that it began to exist without being caused to do so. It also provides counter-arguments to the propositions that the universe was caused by God and that the universe is probably infinitely old. It analyses quantum mechanical considerations and concludes that the argument for a divine cause of the Big Bang based on the causal principle is unsuccessful.
Atheism, Theism, and Big Bang Cosmology
Authors: Smith Quentin 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter begins a debate on the relevance of Big Bang cosmology to the philosophy of religion. It deals with William Lane Craig's theistic cosmological argument that Big Bang cosmology and considerations about finitude and the past warrant the belief that God exists. This chapter provides an atheistic cosmological argument that the classical Big Bang cosmology is inconsistent with theism because of the unpredictable nature of the Big Bang singularity.
A Criticism of the Cosmological Argument for God's Non-existence
Authors: Craig William Lane 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter criticizes Quentin Smith's cosmological argument for God's non-existence. It analyses the elements of Smith's Big Bang cosmological argument for the non-existence of God and offers a counter-argument for each of them. It explains that the ontological status of the Big Bang singularity is a metaphysical question and that Smith made incorrect assumptions. Another incorrect assumption made by Smith is that animate beings that exist are those that exist in the physical universe. It explains that, according to Christian theism, the physical universe does not exhaust the created order.
Christology and Cosmology
Authors: Lyman J. Rebecca 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This book offers a fresh interpretation of the relation between Greek thought and ancient Christian theology through an analysis of three foundational and controversial thinkers: Origen, Eusebius of Caesarea, and Athanasius. Rather than opposing certain cagegories such as philosophy besides scripture, or orthodoxy besides heresy, the book examines how language about Christ and the world functions as a theological model. This allows the recovery of the theological and religious significance of certain ideas such as subordination or the obedience of Christ, which were rejected by later orthodoxy. As an urban teacher, civic apologist, and ascetic bishop, each of the three theologians discussed offered a distinctive Christian response to the religious and ecclesiastical ideas of the 3rd and 4th centuries. Each cosmology and Christology therefore reveals particular concerns about individual and social identity and salvation in the developing Christian community.
Regular Meetings and Seasonal Celebrations
Authors: Johansen Julian 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the ritual and functional aspects of the 'Ashīra and Ṭarīqa Muṭammadiyya to complete the transition from the public religious discourse to the ‘private’ world of the ṭarīqa. For the sake of convenience, these may be divided into two types of occasion. The first is the regular ṭaḍra and teaching session (dars), and the second is the extraordinary meeting, held to mark a festival ('īd) or other significant date in the Muslim calendar. It specifically discusses the order of events for each, reproducing dialogue wherever appropriate and possible, and introducing any new material against the background of the issues which already been explained.
Asceticism and Anthropology in Irenaeus and Clement
Authors: Behr John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This book examines the ways in which Irenaeus and Clement understood what it means to be human. By exploring their theological perspectives through their writings, the author also offers a theological critique of the prevailing approach to the asceticism of Late Antiquity. For Irenaeus, asceticism is the expression of man living the life of God in all dimensions of the body, that which is most characteristically human and in the image of God. Human existence as a physical being includes sexuality as a permanent part of the framework within which males and females grow towards God. In contrast, Clement depicts asceticism as man's attempt at a godlike life to protect the rational element, that which is distinctively human and in the image of God, from any possible disturbance and threat, or from the vulnerability of dependency, especially of a physical or sexual nature. Here, human sexuality is strictly limited by the finality of procreation and abandoned in the resurrection.
The Human Formation
Authors: Behr John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Irenaeus exemplifies Adam as a type of Christ and events in the economy prepare man for realizing Christ. Evidently, Irenaeus's anthropology is Christocentric. This chapter discusses Irenaeus's view on the creation and formation of man. It looks into the aspects of the creation of man involving the use of earth and the breath of life to depict man's body and soul. Also, focus is given to the role of the ‘Spirit of man or the Spirit of God’ in man's creation. The chapter also tackles the notion of ‘likeness’ as man is said to be created in Christ's likeness.