bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Applied Force and Second Order Transitions of Rubber
Authors: Wall F. T. , Miller Donald G. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Second-order transitions, which appear to mark the change from brittleness to elasticity, are well known for rubber and numerous other polymers. The temperature at which such a transition occurs depends, among other things, on the kind of polymer, on the additives that are in it, and on how much it is cross-linked. It would also appear reasonable to expect that the second-order transition temperature would depend on the deformation of the sample, such as the elongation of a rubber strip. Accordingly, the research here reported was undertaken to investigate the effect of tension on rubber, in particular on rubbers with different degrees of cross-linking. The effect of such deformations might well provide further evidence regarding the nature of the phenomenon itself. Three different cures of natural rubber were used for comparing cross-linking effects. In addition, a sample of GR-S and a sample of rubber reinforced with carbon black were included for comparison. A decrease of Tm, the transition temperature, was found for these polymers when they were subjected to elongation. This problem has also been investigated previously for other polymers, a decrease in Tm likewise having been observed. The determination of the transition temperatures was carried out by observing the length of a strip as a function of the temperature; the break observed in the slope of the length vs. temperature curve was taken to mark the transition point. The results will be discussed on the basis that transitions are caused by the onset of segmental rotations with particular reference to the effect of cross-linking and forces of extension. The effects of swelling agents on Tm will also be discussed briefly.
The Microstructure of Diene Polymers. I. Polyisoprenes and Polybutadienes Prepared at High Temperatures
Authors: Richardson W. S. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
In a previous paper a method has been described by which the microstructure of synthetic polyisoprenes can be deduced from intensity measurements in the infrared spectrum of these polymers. Similar analyses have been made in the case of polybutadienes by Hart and Meyer and by Hampton. It is the purpose of the present paper to present the results of structural determinations on polyisoprenes and polybutadienes prepared by bulk thermal polymerization in the temperature range 100 to 250° C.
Oil Sands
Authors: Dusseault Maurice B. , Shafiei Ali 
Published: February 2011

AbstractThe article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Definitions3.Chemistry4.Viscous Oil Origins, Geological Setting and Resource Base Estimates4.1.Viscous Oil Origins4.2.Geographical Distribution and Resource Base Estimates4.3.Canadian Oil Sands Deposits4.3.1.The Athabasca Oil Sands4.3.2.The Cold Lake Oil Sands4.3.3.The Peace River Viscous Oil Sands4.3.4.The Wabiskaw Viscous Oil Sands4.3.5.The Heavy Oil Belt4.3.6.Venezuelan Viscous Oil Deposits4.4.Other Major Viscous Oil Deposits4.4.1.Russia4.4.2.Kazakhstan4.4.3.Kuwait4.4.4.China4.4.5.Iran5.In situ Production Technologies5.1.Historical Development5.2.Surface Mining5.3.New Oil Production Technologies5.3.1.Technical Screening Criteria for VO Production5.3.2.VO Production Cost Estimates5.3.3.Nonthermal Commercialized Methods5.3.3.1.Cold Production5.3.3.2.Cold Heavy Oil Production With Sand5.3.3.3.Pressure Pulse Stimulation Technology5.3.4.Commercialized Thermal Methods5.3.4.1.In Situ Combustion5.3.4.2.Conventional Steam Processes5.3.4.3.Vertical Well Cyclic Steam Stimulation5.3.4.4.Horizontal Well Cyclic Steam Stimulation5.3.4.5.Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage5.3.5.Emerging Methods5.3.5.1.Vapor‐Assisted Petroleum Production5.3.5.2.Toe‐to‐Heel‐Air Injection5.3.5.3.CAPRI5.3.5.4.Deep Miscible CO2Injection5.3.6.Hybrid Approaches and Sequencing of Technologies5.3.7.Geomechanics of Thermal VO Production5.3.8.Steam Generation5.3.9.Further Technical Issues6.Upgrading and Transportation6.1.Noncatalytic Processes in VO Upgrading6.1.1.Solvent Deasphaltening6.1.2.Thermal Conversion6.1.2.1.Gasification6.1.2.2.Delayed Coking6.1.2.3.Fluid Coking and Flexicoking6.1.2.4.Visbreaking6.2.Catalytic Processes in VO Upgrading6.2.1.Fluid Catalytic Cracking6.2.2.Hydroprocessing/Hydrogenation6.3.Hydrogen Sources6.4.Coke6.5.Sulfur Removal6.6.Future Developments in Upgrading6.7.Viscous Oil Transportation7.Environmental Issues7.1.Surface Mining Solid Wastes7.2.Surface Mining Liquid Wastes and Sludges7.3.In Situ Viscous Oil Recovery Processes7.4.Sulfur and Coke7.5.General Waste Management Options7.6.Zero Emissions Targets7.7.Greenhouse Gas Emissions7.8.Water Issues
Nondestructive Testing, 5. Magnetic and Electromagnetic Engineering
Authors: Ono Kanji , Dobmann Gerd 
Published: February 2011

AbstractThe article contains sections titled:1.Magnetic Particle Inspection2.Magnetic Leakage Field Inspection3.Micromagnetic Testing3.1.Historical Background3.2.Fundamentals3.3.Micromagnetic Measuring Techniques, Transducers, and Sensors3.4.The 3MA Approach3.5.Applications4.Eddy‐Current Inspection4.1.Fundamentals4.2.Detector Coils4.3.Giant Magneto Resistor Sensors4.3.1.Introduction4.3.2.Applications5.Microwave Inspection
Nondestructive Testing, 6. Nondestructive Testing in Civil Engineering
Authors: Wiggenhauser Herbert , Helmerich Rosemarie , Taffe Alexander , Krause Martin , Kind Thomas , Lai Wai‐Lok , Scheel Horst , Wilsch Gerd , Niederleithinger Ernst 
Published: February 2011

AbstractThe article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Testing Requirements in Civil Engineering3.Validation3.1.Validation Process3.2.Handheld Test Methods4.Ultrasonic Pulse Echo4.1.Ultrasonic Echo Testing (UPE) of Concrete Elements4.2.Performance4.3.Spatial Resolution4.4.Tendon Duct Investigations4.5.Practical Application5.Impact Echo6.Radar in Civil Engineering7.Corrosion Detection7.1.Ground‐Penetrating Radar7.2.Acoustic Emission (AE)8.Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL)9.Laser‐Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy10.Foundation Testing10.1.Low‐Strain Pile Integrity Testing (PIT)10.2.Cross‐Hole Sonic Logging (CSL)10.3.Parallel Seismics10.4.High‐Strain Dynamic Testing11.Geophysical Methods
Nondestructive Testing, 7. Other Methods
Authors: Ono Kanji 
Published: February 2011

AbstractThe article contains sections titled:1.Visual and Optical Inspection2.Acoustic Emission2.1.Detection2.2.Material Behavior2.3.Source Location2.4.Acoustic Emission Monitoring3.Penetrant Methods4.Leak Testing4.1.Pressurized Gas Leaks4.2.Pressurized Liquid Leaks4.3.Vacuum System Leaks5.Uses5.1.Metallic Pressure Vessels and Piping5.2.Composite Pressure Vessels and Piping5.3.Weldments5.4.Other Uses
Paints and Coatings, 3. Paint Systems
Authors: Streitberger Hans‐Joachim , Urbano Edmund , Laible Richard , Meyer Bernd D. , Bagda Engin , Waite Frederick A. , Philips Michel 
Published: February 2011

Abstract

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Solventborne Paints

1.1.

Introduction

1.2.

Properties and Raw Materials

1.2.1.

Solvents

1.2.2.

Film Properties

1.3.

Application Technology and Environmental Protection

2.

Solvent‐Free and Low‐Solvent (High‐Solids) Paints

2.1.

Principles

2.2.

Production and Uses

2.2.1.

Alkyd Resins

2.2.2.

Polyester Resins

2.2.3.

Polyurethanes

2.2.4.

Acrylic Resins

2.2.5.

Epoxy Resins

2.2.6.

PVC Plastisols

3.

Waterborne Paints

3.1.

Properties

3.1.1.

Water‐Dispersible Binders (Secondary Dispersions)

3.1.2.

Polymer Dispersions (Emulsion Polymers, Primary Dispersions)

3.1.3.

Hybrid Systems

3.1.4.

Rheology Control of Waterborne Paints

3.1.5.

Internally and Externally Emulsified Binders

3.2.

Manufacturing and Application

3.3.

Uses and Environmental Aspects

4.

Coating Powders

4.1.

Introduction

4.2.

Manufacturing

4.3.

Properties

4.3.1.

Thermoplastic Binders

4.3.2.

Thermosetting Binders

4.3.3.

Colorants

4.3.4.

Other Constituents

4.4.

Testing

4.5.

Storage and Transportation

4.6.

Application

4.7.

Uses

4.7.1.

Thermosetting Coating Powders

4.7.2.

Thermoplastic Coating Powders

4.8.

Economic Aspects

4.9.

Environmental Aspects and Safety

5.

Emulsion Paints (Polymer Dispersions)

5.1.

Polymers

5.2.

Pigments

5.3.

Extenders

5.4.

Additives

5.5.

Production

5.6.

Properties

5.7.

Application

6.

Nonaqueous Dispersion Paints

7.

Radiation‐Curing Systems

7.1.

Introduction

7.2.

Resin Systems

7.3.

Radiation‐Curable Systems Based on Acrylates

7.3.1.

Prepolymers

7.3.2.

Monomers

7.4.

Additives

7.5.

Equipment

7.6.

Fields of Application

7.6.1.

Coatings

7.6.2.

Inks

7.6.3.

Adhesives

7.6.4.

Other Uses

8.

Electrodeposition Paints

8.2.

Properties

8.3.

Composition of Electrodeposition Baths

8.4.

Binders

8.5.

Uses

8.6.

Environmental Protection
Blood Coagulation
Authors: Neuenschwander Pierre F , Jesty Jolyon 
Published: February 2011

Abstract

The blood coagulation system acts in concert with the platelets to seal damaged blood vessels by the formation of a clot that consists of aggregated platelets interwoven with fibrin. Coagulation is initiated by the subendothelial membrane protein tissue factor and proceeds through a highly regulated proteolytic cascade to the production of
thrombin
and the
fibrin
clot. Although stoppage of blood leakage is the primary purpose of the coagulation system, many of the direct products of coagulation have additional functions that involve communicating with surrounding cells and crosstalk with other biochemical systems (i.e. inflammation and immunity). These secondary roles of the coagulation system products are vital for regeneration of tissue normalcy and overall homeostasis. Dysregulation of any of these coagulant system functions can lead to various clinical pathologies.

Key Concepts:

The initiator of coagulation, tissue factor, surrounds the vasculature in a protective haemostatic envelope.

The cascade design and feedback reactions in blood coagulation serve to rapidly amplify and dampen the response to create a burst of activity rather than a prolonged response.

Coagulation throw‐off products serve to signal the surrounding tissue to protect against pathogen invasion as well as initiate wound healing.
Plant Chimaeras and Mosaics
Authors: Bossinger Gerd , Spokevicius Antanas V 
Published: February 2011

AbstractPlant chimaeras and mosaics are not only found in our gardens as variegated ornamentals. They also constitute valuable research tools with a range of applications in developmental and molecular biology. For example, much of our knowledge about the development of the shoot and root apical meristems is derived from studying patterns of variegation, and where patterns persist throughout the plant, deductions can be made as to the fate of individual meristematic cells and the number and arrangement of initial cells giving rise to a variety of plant organs or structures. At a molecular level, defined sectors can shed light on the cell autonomy of a certain trait, inform us about the propagation of molecular signals and indeed allow us to directly compare genetically distinct tissue sectors in an attempt to determine specific gene function.Key Concepts:Plant chimaeras comprise cells of distinct genomes, whereas in genetic mosaics, cells of different genotypes derived from the same zygote.Cells with different genotypes or even from different species can communicate to form functional meristems and other tissues.Continuous persistent sectors throughout a plant can be explained by a mosaic shoot apical meristem and can be used to create ‘developmental fate maps’.The fate of most plant cells is determined late in development by their position rather than by their ancestry.Sector boundary analysis is used to identify the number of cells set aside as progenitors of an organ.Mosaic plants are used to analyse where a molecular signal originates and how it is propagated.Sector analysis provides clues about the cell autonomy of a trait as well as specific gene function.
Methylation‐mediated Transcriptional Silencing in Tumorigenesis
Authors: Horan Martin P 
Published: February 2011

Abstract

Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) methylation of promoter CpG (cytosine/guanine) islands is a process that inhibits the expression of genes through mechanisms that interfere with transcriptional initiation. Transcriptional silencing occurs when the 5′ flanking DNA region becomes heavily methylated, either allowing transcriptional repressor proteins to directly bind to the methylated DNA region or causing a conformational change in the DNA sequence. Thus, the downstream consequence of DNA methylation is to interfere with the binding and activational activity of specific transcription factors required for gene expression. The effect of DNA hypermethylation is therefore to inhibit or reduce the expression potential of a target gene. The role of methylation in cancer has been determined by association studies where the promoter regions of tumour suppressor genes have been found to be highly methylated. This is followed by gene silencing and an increase in tumour growth. Clinical interest in the treatment of tumours has gained increased impetus because recent evidence on the use of novel therapeutic agents suggests that DNA promoter methylation is potentially reversible. This may thus allow for the development of future therapeutic intervention.

Key Concepts:

Epigenetic methylation is a key mechanism that can inhibit or reduce gene expression in the absence of DNA sequence variations.

Aberrant DNA methylation may downregulate a gene as effectively as a pathological mutation.

CpG island methylation of tumour suppressor gene promoter regions is a mechanism responsible for silencing gene expression leading to tumour development.

Methylation of CpG islands can occur in regions of DNA that reside at great distances from a target gene but still lead to a reduction in gene expression.

Aberrant methylation of tumour suppressor genes is potentially reversible in tumours allowing for therapeutic intervention.
Evolution of VaultRNAs
Authors: Mosig Axel , Stadler Peter F 
Published: February 2011

AbstractVaultribonucleic acids(RNAs) are small, about 100 nt long, polymerase transcripts contained in the vault particles of eukaryotic cells. Although vaults are present in many but by no means all eukaryotes, an RNA component has been described in metazoa only. The RNAs exhibit conserved regions at the 3′ and 5′ ends containing also internal promoter elements. They form a panhandle‐like well‐conserved secondary structure. Most genomes contain only one or a small number of closely related vault RNA sequences. Only eutheria exhibit two clearly distinguished paralogues at syntenically conserved genomic locations. Their phylogenetic distribution is characterised by losses in major clades, whereas lophotrochozoa have vault particles and vault RNAs, and the entire system has been deleted in all ecdysozoa.Key Concepts:Vault RNA can be traced evolutionarily along with the vault particle and its key protein components, most notablyMVP.Vault RNA exhibits a concserved pan‐handle secondary structure and expression patterns that are often mistaken as a microRNA.
Structure Determination by Single Particle Cryo‐electron Tomography
Authors: Hrabe Thomas , Förster Friedrich 
Published: February 2011

Abstract

Cryo‐electron Tomography (CET) is a method to image macromolecular assemblies three‐dimensionally in their native settings. Averaging of subtomograms, each containing a copy of a macromolecule of interest, offers substantially higher resolution insights into these macromolecules than CET alone. Here, we give an account of recent methodological advances in subtomogram averaging and approaches to capture structural heterogeneity of macromolecular complexes. Using these methods intermediate resolution insights (15–30 Å) into various membrane‐associated complexes and transient interactions between individual complexes in their physiological environment could be obtained. With further advances in hard‐ and software looming subtomogram analysis will play an increasingly important role in structural biology.

Key Concepts:

Cryo‐electron tomography images macromolecules in their physiological environment in 3D.

Averaging subtomograms depicting a macromolecular complex of interest yields higher resolution maps.

Subtomogram alignment and averaging is an optimisation problem.

Classification of subtomograms may separate different conformers in heterogeneous datasets and reveal corresponding densities.

Membrane‐associated complexes can be studied in their native membrane (
in situ
).

Transient interactions can be revealed from tomograms of whole cells and lysates.
Phosphoinositides – The Seven Species: Conversion and Cellular Roles
Authors: Lietha Daniel 
Published: February 2011

AbstractPhosphoinositides are phospholipids that contain a phosphorylated inositol head group. The position and number of phosphate groups varies, which results in seven phosphoinositide species. A large family of enzymes have evolved to specifically modify phosphoinositides.Phosphoinositide kinasesandphosphatasesmodify the phosphorylation state of the inositol head group, whereas phospholipases hydrolyse phosphoinositides to release the soluble head group into the cytosol. The combined action of these enzymes produces the phosphoinositide signature of a cell, where certain membrane compartments are enriched or depleted of specific phosphoinositides. The cellular response of a certain phosphoinositide signature is mediated by phosphoinositide effectors. These effectors contain phosphoinositide recognition domains, which guide the effector to the appropriate location and in many cases also modulate their activity. Phosphoinositides play crucial roles in many cellular processes, including cell signalling, cytoskeletal rearrangements, vesicle transport and control of ion channels.Key Concepts:Phosphoinositides are phospholipids that contain a negatively charged phosphoinositol head group.Phosphoinositides are modified by phosphoinositide kinases, phosphatases and phospholipases.Specific phosphoinositides are enriched in different membrane compartments.Specific phosphoinositide recognition modules are linked to effectors.Tight regulation of generation and depletion of phosphoinositides allows spatio‐temporal control of complex cellular processes.PI3KI and PTEN, which control PtdIns(3,4,5)P3levels, belong to the most frequently mutated genes in cancer.
Free Drug Monitoring
Authors: Dasgupta Amitava 
Published: February 2011

AbstractDrugs are bound to various serum proteins in different degrees varying from 0% protein binding to 99% protein binding, but only unbound or free drug is pharmacologically active. Although free drug concentration can be estimated from total concentration knowing the extent of protein binding of a particular drug, for strongly bound drugs (more than 80% bound to serum protein), prediction of free level is not always possible. Conditions such as uremia, liver disease and hypoalbuminemia can lead to significant increases in free drug resulting in drug toxicity although the total drug concentration may be within the established therapeutic range. Drug–drug interactions are another major cause for disproportionate increases in free drug concentrations. Currently, free drug concentrations of anticonvulsants such as phenytoin, carbamazepine and valproic acid are widely measured in clinical laboratories. Newer drugs such as mycophenolic acid mofetil and certain protease inhibitors are also considered as good candidates for monitoring free drug concentration.Key Concepts:There are rationales for monitoring free drug concentration only for drugs that are strongly bound to serum proteins (80% or more).Why free concentrations of phenytoin, valproic acid and carbamazepine are frequently monitored in certain patient population?There is a need for monitoring free drug levels in uremia due to impaired protein binding of drugs as well as displacement of certain drugs from protein binding by ceratin uremic toxins.There is a need for monitoring free drug concentrations in hepatic diseases due to impaired protein binding of certain drugs.There is a need for monitoring free drug concentration in patients with hypoalbuminemia and critically ill patients due to elevated concentrations of free levels of drugs secondary to impaired protein binding.There is a need for monitoring free drug concentrations in pregnancy due to change in protein binding and various other factors that affect clearance of certain drugs.There is a need for monitoring free drug concentrations in AIDS patients due to impaired protein binding and probable drug–drug interactions.Future candidates for monitoring free drugs include mycophenolic acid and protease inhibitors because these drugs are strongly bound to albumin and also have narrow therapeutic index.Special case of monitoring free drug concentrations is digoxin, which is only 25% bound to serum proteins, but monitoring free digoxin in patients being treated with Digibind or taking certain herbal supplements is helpful to get clinically meaningful results.
Basic Polyhedral Theory
Authors: Kaibel Volker 
Published: February 2011

AbstractThis chapter describes parts of the theory of convex polyhedra that are particularly important for optimization. The topics include polyhedral and finitely generated cones, the Weyl–Minkowski Theorem, faces of polyhedra, projections of polyhedra, integral polyhedra, total dual integrality and total unimodularity.
Product/Service Design Collaboration: Managing the Product Life Cycle
Authors: Johnson M. Eric 
Published: February 2011

AbstractProduct and service design collaboration allows supply chain partners to jointly develop and manage a product over its complete life cycle. From initial design conceptualization to end‐of‐life recycling, collaboration engages partners in a process of sharing information and decision rights. The goal of collaboration is to employ knowledge from across the supply chain to improve the product or service, reduce time to market, prevent supply chain mistakes, and ultimately increase profitability. Many web‐based tools have been developed to aid in this collaboration, creating an industry of software vendors. This article describes the role of design collaboration and illustrates its use through three case studies from different industries.
Cover Inequalities
Authors: Kaparis Konstantinos , Letchford Adam N. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Cover inequalities are a special kind of linear inequalities that are satisfied by the feasible solutions to knapsack problems. Although initially defined in the context of knapsack problems, cover inequalities and their variants can be used as cutting planes for a variety of integer programming and combinatorial optimization problems. We review the theory of these inequalities, discuss certain algorithmic aspects of them, and survey some of the applications.
Credit Risk Assessment
Authors: Novosyolov Arcady 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The article describes a few credit instruments, indicates some risks associated with the instruments, and presents methods of credit risk assessment. First, we consider bond valuation, and assessment of interest rate risk via duration and convexity. Then, we move on to default risk, and use structural models for its assessment. Finally, we present an example of a wrong usage of a credit derivative tool that might lead to creating a derivative bubble.
CTMCs
with Costs and Rewards
Authors: Gautam Natarajan 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
We consider continuous‐time Markov chains (CTMCs) where there are costs and rewards associated with each state. For such a CTMC, the objective usually is to calculate either the long‐run average costs incurred per unit time or the total discounted cost incurred over an infinite horizon. We illustrate the calculations using several examples and conclude with applications to system performance analysis.