bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
J
ohn the Baptist,
S
aint
Authors: Gillman Florence Morgan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Details about the early years of John's life are known only from Luke 1:5–25; 39–80. The material is artfully embedded in Luke's infancy narrative in a diptych‐like fashion in which the evangelist parallels the unusual origins and predictions about both Jesus and John. Luke records that John was the son of an aging couple, Zechariah of the priestly order of Abijah and his hitherto barren wife, Elizabeth, also of Aaronic descent (Luke 1:5–6). Once, as Zechariah offered incense in the temple sanctuary, the angel Gabriel told him Elizabeth would bear a son. He was to be named John and, filled with the Holy Spirit even from his mother's womb, he was never to drink either wine or strong drink. With this apparent directive that John was to be consecrated to the Lord by a Nazirite vow, the angel also foretold that John, acting in the spirit and power of Elijah, would prepare a people fit for the Lord.
P
eter,
S
aint (
d
.
c
.64)
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Simon (nicknamed Peter, “the Rock,” by Jesus) was a 1st century Galilean who, together with his brother Andrew, was working in his family fishing business when he was called by Jesus to follow him. Peter is mentioned first in all four apostolic lists in the New Testament (Matt. 10:2; Mark 3:16; Luke 6:13; Acts 1:13), which attests to his towering stature among Jesus' inner circle, the twelve disciples. Peter forged an especially close relationship with John, his former fishing partner (Luke 5:10), with whom he is linked during Jesus' ministry and in the days of the early church (Luke 5:10; 22:8; John 13:23–24; 18:15–16; 20:2–9; 21; Acts 1:13; 3–4; 8:14–25; Gal. 2:9). In the Gospels, he frequently serves as the spokesman for the twelve disciples (e.g. Matt. 14:28; 15:15; 18:21; 26:35, 40; Mark 8:29; 9:5; 10:28; John 6:68).
State of Nature
Authors: Harold Philip J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The “state of nature” refers to the imaginary descriptions of pre‐political life given by early modern political theorists. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), John Locke (1704), and Jean‐Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) all attempted to describe the state of social life prior to political society in order to be able to understand the sources of political authority. They each give different descriptions of the state of nature, and their conclusions revolve around different ideas of a “social contract.” The notion of the state of nature has its foundations, however, in the 16th century.
S
tewart,
J
ames
S
tuart (1896–1990)
Authors: Van Neste Ray 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Arguably the preeminent modern Scottish preacher (
Preaching
magazine in 1999 ranked him as the best preacher of the 20th century), James Stuart Stewart was born in Dundee to a godly family. His father, William, was secretary of the YMCA and led an effective Bible class ministry for many years. James was educated at Dundee High School and the University of St. Andrews (1916; classics). He then served in the war as a code‐breaker on the western front and in Manchester. After the war he studied for the United Free Church (UFC) of Scotland ministry at New College Edinburgh (1918–1921), followed by one year at the University of Bonn (1921–1922) as Cunningham Fellow.
Stigmata
Authors: Beiting Christopher J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

From the Greek word
stigma
meaning “sign,” stigmata — in the Christian sense — are the reproduction in a person of the wounds of Christ's Passion, either visibly or invisibly (the term is more commonly associated with the former, though examples of the latter are more common). The marks are most commonly those of the crucifixion (feet, hands, and side), though marks on the head and back (for crowning with thorns and carrying the cross, respectively) are also witnessed.
S
uárez,
F
rancisco (1548–1617)
Authors: Macy Gary 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Spanish theologian Francisco Suárez is often considered the greatest of the Jesuit theo‐logians. Titled
doctor eximius et pius
by Pope Paul V, Suárez studied philosophy and theology at Salamanca and taught there from 1564 until 1570. He later taught in Rome from 1580 until 1585, at Alcalá from 1585 until 1593 and at Coimbra from 1597 until 1616. His most famous works are
De Verbo Incarnato
(1590),
De Mysteriis Vitae Christi
(1592),
Varia Opuscula Theologica
(1599),
De Vera Intelligentia Auxilii Efficacis
(1605),
De Virtute et Statu Religionis
(1608–1609),
De Legibus
(1612),
Defensio Fidei
(against Anglicanism; 1613), and three post‐humous works,
De Necessitate Gratia
(1619),
De Gratia Habituali
(1619), and
De Gratia Actuali
(1651).
S
ung,
J
ohn (1901–1944)
Authors: Anderson Allan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
John Sung (Siong‐ceh) was perhaps the greatest evangelist and revivalist of 20th century China. Born in the home of a Methodist pastor in Hinghwa, Fujian in southeast China, Sung went to the USA in 1920 for university studies, graduating with a Ph.D. in chemistry from Ohio State University in 1926. After an eventful year in the USA that included a semester at Union Theological Seminary, New York, he burned all his theological books and renounced theological education. After six months in a mental hospital, he returned home in early 1927. For the next 15 years he devoted himself exclusively to evangelism and healing, bringing tens of thousands to faith in Christ and revival to hundreds of Chinese churches throughout China and Southeast Asia. From 1931–1934 he worked in an evangelistic team with Andre Gih in the Bethel Mission, called the Bethel Gospel Band, until he resigned over differences with the missionary founder and began work as an independent evangelist. His hundreds of meetings were characterized by great drama and emotion, including vigorous handclapping, spontaneous prayer in unison, free‐flowing tears, and vivid illustrations. Sung dressed in informal attire and often appeared unkempt, and his messages appealed to common people, despite his education. Numerous cases of healing in Sung's ministry were reported, with overwhelming numbers of people lining up for prayer for healing and exorcism in his meetings. He became a national figure, but his critics charged him with fanaticism.
S
wedenborg,
E
manuel (1688–1772)
Authors: Lineham Peter 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Emanuel Swedenborg was born in Stockholm on January 29, 1688, third child of court chaplain Jesper Swedberg, who served from the 1690s as professor of theology at the University of Uppsala and then from 1702 until his death in 1735 as bishop of Skara. The family was ennobled and their name changed to Swedenborg in 1719. A clever young man, Emanuel was educated at the University of Uppsala, majoring in mathematics, and then traveled abroad from 1710 to 1715. On his return he was appointed by royal patronage an unpaid assessor to the Board of Mines, and in 1724 he was appointed an ordinary assessor. He published a number of Latin works, notably the large
Principa Rerum Naturalium
(1734) and then
Oeconomia Regni Animalis
(1741–1745) in which he explores various theories of the nature of life, somewhat in the tradition of Descartes and Malebranche, which he learned from his brother‐in‐law Eric Benzelius, the friend of Leibniz, and from Christopher Polhelm, Sweden's pioneer scientist.
Syriac Orthodox Church
Authors: Murre‐van den Berg Heleen 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch and all the East has almost one and a half million adherents. Of these, roughly two‐thirds (one million) live in India, somewhat more than one‐sixth (260,000) in the Middle East, whereas the remaining sixth is divided over Europe (100,000, mostly in Sweden, Germany, and the Netherlands), North and South America (up to 40,000, most of these in the US and Canada), and Australia (a few thousand). In the Middle East, in and around the towns of Mardin and Midyat in southeastern Turkey, small but vigorous communities testify to the almost 2,000 year history of this church. Its present leader, Patriarch Mor Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, has been in office since 1980 and resides in Syria, the most important country of residence (170,000), with the official see of the patriarchate in the old city of Damascus (Bab Touma) and the main headquarters, monastery, and seminary in the nearby town of Ma“arat Saidnaya. The Syriac Orthodox Church is one of the miaphysite churches of the so‐called “Non‐Chalcedonian” Oriental Orthodox family, stressing the single inseparable divine‐human nature of Christ. With the Assyrian Apostolic Church of the East it shares the common heritage of the classical Syriac language. It is in this form of Aramaic that the Bible translation, the theological and philosophical literature, and most of the liturgy are written, and it has remained in use to the present day.
Taizé Community
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Taizé is a monastic community that originated in southeast France. Taizé was founded in 1940 by Roger Schutz‐Marsauche (1915–2005) who had a strong burden for Christian groups in conflict with one another and for the concerns of humanity. Brother Roger had a vibrant ministry to refugees fleeing persecution during the 1940s and gave a home to prisoners of war after World War II.
T
elemann,
G
eorg
P
hilipp (1681–1767)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The most prolific German composer of the first half of the 18th century. In 1705 he became Kapellmeister at Sorau and moved on to a similar position at Frankfurt am Main. Finally he settled at Hamburg where he was expected to write two cantatas for every Sunday and one Passion every year. Altogether he composed 1,043 cantatas, many of them with four voices accompanied by strings and woodwinds. He published four complete cycles of church cantatas. He also set 46 Passions of which 20 are extant, six Passion oratorios, 11 Masses on chorale tunes, four short Masses, two
Magnificats
, one in Latin and the other in German, 17 psalm settings, 26 motets, and a number of sacred songs and canons and some chorale preludes and fugues for organ. From 1755 he composed his greatest liturgical music, including a series of oratorios, among them
Der Tod, Jesu
(The Death of Jesus, 1755),
Die Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt Jesus
(The Resurrection and Ascension of Jesus, 1760), and
Der Tag des Gerichts
(Judgment Day, 1762).
Temperance and Prohibition
Authors: Lay Robert F. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Temperance urges abstinence from alcohol, or drinking in moderation, as a personal choice. Prohibition aims to remove the temptation by outlawing drink altogether. Neither movement is exclusive to Christianity, but many Christians have worked to reduce the misery that accompanies excessive drinking. The Bible itself condemns the abuse but not the use of alcohol. Drunkenness, for example, is condemned in Paul's letters (Rom. 13:13; 1 Cor. 5:11, 6:10) and the apostle warns that “those who live like this will not inherit the Kingdom of God” (Gal. 5:21). Overseers, moreover, must not be “given to drunkenness,” but must be “self‐controlled” (1 Tim. 3:3; Titus 1:7); the latter term (Greek,
egkrateia
) expresses the idea of sobriety or temperance (see Gal. 5:22). Prior to the 19th century, temperance was the foremost strategy: an Eastern Church father, Chrysostom, counseled his hearers to find fault not with wine but with drunkenness (Sermon 57); a German reformer, Martin Luther, mounted the first temperance campaign, yet warned against lengthy abstention: “… not temperance but faith is the victory …” (1955: 30, 312). Methodist founder John Wesley directed his preachers not to drink liquor but considered wine “the noblest cordial in nature” — not worthy of condemnation (Journal, Oct. 9, 1771). American colonists viewed hardships as signs of God's wrath concerning drunkenness and spiritual lethargy, and prescribed occasional fasts.
T
emple,
W
illiam (1881–1944)
Authors: Watts Thomas D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
William Temple (1881–1944), Anglican bishop and theologian, served as Archbishop of Canterbury from 1942 to 1944, and developed Anglican social thought in egalitarian directions. He was the youngest child of Archbishop of Canterbury Frederick Temple, and pursued studies at Balliol College, Oxford. His years at Oxford foreshadowed his interests and his commitments in coming years: politics, social justice and equality, academics and ecumenism.
Local Church
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Local Church was founded by Witness Lee (1905–1997). Lee was initially a disciple of Watchman Nee (1903–1972; an ultra‐mystical [anthropologically and soteriologically] Chinese “apostle”) but separated himself from Nee in belief and practice. The Local Church began in the orient, and extended its influence to the western world in the early 60s. In the 1940s, Nee was a dynamic teacher in the Little Flock movement in China, which gained ascendancy subsequent to World War II, and Lee became the gifted organizer of the movement. Prior to his first visit to America in 1958, Lee established Local Churches in Hong Kong and Taiwan. In 1962, Lee established the first American Local Church in Los Angeles and founded the Stream Ministry (renamed Living Stream Ministry). Although claiming no central headquarters, the foremost Local Church is
arguably
established in Anaheim, California. The Local Church attracts individuals from mainline Protestant denominations and Plymouth Brethren assemblies. Over 2,000 Local Churches exist worldwide, and at least one is established in nearly every state in America.
Shepherd of Hermas
Authors: Scholer David M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The
Shepherd of Hermas
(
SH
) is the longest work in the collection of early 2nd century Christian writings known as the Apostolic Fathers. The
SH
is divided into three sections: Visions (five of them; chapters 1–25), Mandates (= Commandments; ten of them; chapters 29–49), and Similitudes (= Parables; twelve of them; chapters 50–114).
Theodicy
Authors: Jones Clay Butler 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

From the Greek
theos
, “God,” and
dikê
, “justice”; a theodicy attempts to explain why God is just to allow evil. That an all‐powerful and all‐good God would allow evil is called the “problem of evil.” One famous formulation of the problem of evil is by philosopher David Hume (1711–1776): “Is He willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then He is impotent. Is He able, but not willing? Then He is malevolent. Is He both able and willing? Whence then is evil?” A successful theodicy, then, will show that God's being all‐good and all‐powerful is not logically inconsistent with His allowing particular types of evil (e.g. moral evils such as rape or murder and natural evils such as tsunamis and disease). Each type of evil may require a different theodicy to answer it.
Theology of the Body
Authors: Smith Jay E. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractBody, the physical side or aspect of human beings. Since God created the human body (Gen. 2:7; cf. Ps. 139:13–18), the Bible portrays it favorably and as integral to humanity, rather than unfavorably — as an evil and perishable drag on the soul. Nevertheless, the Bible does not glorify the body as an artistic ideal of human strength, power, and beauty as did the Greeks in classical antiquity (Gardner 1980: 108–155; Gundry 1996: 150–151; cf. Rom. 8:10, 20–23; 1 Cor. 15:42–44; 2 Cor. 4:16; Phil. 3:21).
T
homas (Didymus)
Authors: Senior Donald 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Thomas is listed as an original disciple of Jesus in each of the Synoptic Gospels (see Mark 3:18; Matt. 10:3; Luke 6:15). He is also one of the disciples gathered in the upper room in Jerusalem prior to Pentecost (Acts 1:13). The name “Thomas” is probably a transliteration of the Aramaic word
tau'ma
or “twin” — “Didymus” in Latin. Thomas takes on more vivid life in John's Gospel. He first appears in John 11:16 where Jesus learns of his friend Lazarus' illness and decides to return to Judea in spite of opposition there. Thomas, sensing danger, urges his fellow disciples, “Let us also go, that we may die with him.” On the night of Jesus' arrest, Thomas is among the disciples who hear Jesus' final discourse. Hearing Jesus' speak of his “departure” Thomas expresses his consternation: “Lord, we do not know where you are going. How can we know the way?” (John 14:5). In the Fourth Gospel's typical style in which such questions trigger further development of the discourse, Jesus responds: “I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me” (John 14:6). “Thomas called the Twin” is also among the disciples who gather in Galilee after the death of Jesus and who, while fishing, encounter the Risen Christ in one of the Gospel's most beautiful resurrection stories (see John 21:1–23).
Tithe
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe word “tithe” literally means “tenth,” which is usually taken to refer to the requirement to give 10 percent of one's income to God. Both Testaments view the tithe within the larger framework of giving and worship. Prior to the giving of the Mosaic law, tithing was not a systematic, continual practice but an occasional, even exceptional, form of giving (Gen. 14:20; cf. Heb. 7:4; Gen. 28:22). The Mosaic law includes stipulations regarding the Levitical, Festival, and Poor (or Welfare) tithe (Lev. 27:30–33; Num. 18:21; Deut. 14:22–29). Taken together, the annual tithe of the Israelites surpassed 10 percent of their income, totaling more than 20 percent. Of the seven references to tithing in the Old Testament historical and prophetic books, the most important is that in Malachi 3:8 (cf. 2 Chron. 31:5–6, 12; Neh. 10:38–39; 12:44–47; 13:5, 12; Amos 4:4), where people are told to bring their (Levitical) “tithes and offerings” into God's “storehouse” and (agricultural) blessings are promised for those who comply.
Titles of Christ
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractIn developing its Christology, the early church applied several titles to Jesus. Among the most common christological titles applied to Jesus are the following: 1) Messiah or Christ (John 1:41; 4:25; Matt. 1:1, 16–18; 2:4; 11:2; 16:16, 20; etc.); 2) Son of God (Luke 3:38; John 1:34, 49; 3:18; 5:25; 10:36; 11:4, 27; 19:7; 20:31), one‐of‐a‐kind Son (John 1:14, 18; 3:16, 18), or simply the Son (John 3:17, 35–36; 5:19–26; 6:40; 8:35–36; 14:13; 17:1; Heb. 1:3); 3) Lord (Matt. 8:2, 6, 8, 21, 25; 9:28; 12:8; 14:28, 30; 15:22, 25; etc.); and 4) God (John 1:1, 18; 20:28; etc.). Jesus frequently referred to himself as the Son of Man (numerous times in all four Gospels) or as the “I am” (John 9:24, 28, 58; etc.) in continuity with the Old Testament designation of Yahweh (Exod. 3:14; Isa. 43:10–13, 25; 45:18; 48:12; 51:12; 52:6).
T
orrey,
R
euben
A
rcher (1856–1928)
Authors: Streett R. Alan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Reuben Archer Torrey (1856–1928) was a Congregationalist evangelist and leading proponent of the Bible School movement. Born on January 28, 1856 at Hoboken, New Jersey, R. A. Torrey grew up as the son of a wealthy corporate lawyer. His parents, Reuben and Elizabeth, were refined and cultured and moved freely in society circles. When Torrey was three years old, the family moved to Brooklyn, New York, and seven years later purchased a 200 acre estate in Uplands, New York. Although the family embraced Universalism, they attended an orthodox Congregational Church and observed the Sabbath.
T
ozer,
A
.
W
. (1897–1963)
Authors: King Paul L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Born in 1897 in Pennsylvania, Aiden Wilson Tozer was converted at the age of 17 by a lay preacher at a street meeting. He attended the Methodist Church and was baptized in Church of the Brethren before he became ordained with The Christian and Missionary Alliance (C&MA). He served as a pastor for 44 years in Stonewood and Morgantown, West Virginia; Indianapolis, Indiana; Chicago, Illinois; and Toronto, Ontario. A prolific writer, he became editor of
Alliance Life
for 13 years. He served as Vice President of the C&MA 1946–1950, but declined the presidency of the denomination. His writings and teachings have had an immense impact on the lives of thousands of Christians. His classic
The Pursuit of God
(1948), urging being passionate for God himself, has sold more than 1.5 million copies and been translated into 20 languages. It was chosen by
Christianity Today
readers as one of the top ten most spiritually influential books. Known for his incisive writing to issues of the times, more than 40 volumes of his writings and sermons have been published.
The Divine Conquest
(1950) and
The Knowledge of the Holy
(1961) also became classics.
Tradition
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Traditio
, or (Greek)
paradosis
, is a dynamic term that literally meant “to hand over.” It is not coincidental that Paul turned out to be the chief architect of a language of tradition for the church. Having been educated in Jerusalem under Gamaliel the Elder (Acts 22:3), he was thoroughly trained in the Law and was thereafter zealous to follow the “traditions of my fathers” (Gal. 1:4). Through his epistles, Paul either introduced or, more likely, expanded upon a terminology that articulated the process by which a uniquely Christian “tradition” was developed. While preserving the essential structure of the Jewish principle of “tradition,” Paul brought new life into it by making it the vehicle of the gospel wherein Jesus Christ became both its content and the principle of its origin (authority).
T
raherne,
T
homas (1637–1674)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Thomas Traherne was an Anglican priest and theologian, considered to be the last of the English metaphysical poets, succeeding such illustrious figures as Donne, Herbert, Crashaw, and Vaughan. He was also a notable mystic and an original thinker, whose evocative reflections on the relations between God, nature, and humanity seem especially appealing in an age of environmental crisis. Born in Herefordshire, according to some accounts the son of a shoemaker, Traherne graduated with a BA from Brasenose College, Oxford in 1656, was ordained in 1660 after the Restoration, and in 1661 was awarded an MA at Oxford. He served as rector of a small parish church in Credenhill, near his native Hereford, beginning in 1657. He also served from 1669 to 1672 as private chaplain to Sir Orlando Bridgeman, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal for Charles II, with pastoral duties in the Teddington parish near London. He died in 1674, while in residence at the Bridgeman household, with a last will providing generously for the poor. During his short and quiet life, his literary work was largely unknown, his only publication being in 1673 a scholarly and polemical treatise,
Roman Forgeries
, which is critical of certain Roman Catholic theological claims. His
Christian Ethicks: The Way to Blessedness
was published posthumously in 1675. Here, Traherne first develops his understanding of his important theme of “felicity” or happiness, undertaking to correct Hobbes' “great mistake in that arrogant
Leviathan
,” which “imprisons” our love for ourselves by making it “inconsistent with charity towards others.” Traherne argues to the contrary that it is not the isolated self at all that we desire to preserve, but only the self in love with what is other than itself. Moreover, through the proper enjoyment of what we love, we can come to an “enjoyment of God by way of gratitude,” whose culmination is what he calls “godliness” or “godlikeness,” and which bears a certain resemblance to Eastern Orthodox teachings concerning
theosis
. His
Thanksgivings
was published anonymously in 1699 as
A Serious and Pathetical Contemplation
. But Traherne's current celebrity dates from the discovery by William Brooke, in the bargain bins of two London bookstores during the winter of 1896–1897, of Traherne's poems and, even more importantly, of his
Centuries of Meditations
, where themes treated in the
Ethicks
appear with great poetic and mystical power: