bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
4 The Practicalities of Being Inaccurate: Steps Toward the Social Geography of Financial Risk Management
Authors: Millo Yuval , MacKenzie Donald 
Published: September 2009

AbstractFinancial risk management is an integral part of today's global markets. Yet, in spite of its critical importance and the huge interest that this area generates among practitioners and academics alike, the social and institutional geography of financial risk management is yet a little known area. Using empirical evidence that traces the emergence of financial risk management in markets for financial derivatives, one of the ‘inner cores’ of the world's financial system, this chapter charts some of the contours of this new area in social geography. It argues that rather than simply serving as evidence to the validity and accuracy of modern financial economics, financial risk management is a loosely coupled array of techno-social practices, which encompasses a large number of interrelated, yet distinctively different, communities of practice. Traders, regulators, administrator and many ‘non-financial’ specialists (lawyers, accountants, IT professionals, to name but a few), along with a large variety of technological market devices take part in the creation and performance of the heterogeneous network that makes up global financial markets. Indeed, the chapter reveals, the remarkable success of financial risk management relays on the usefulness of its practices.
5 Learning to Cope with Uncertainty: On the Spatial Distributions of Financial Innovation and Its Fallout
Authors: Engelen Ewald 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe final year of the boom will enter financial history books as a Janus-faced year. While the problems that were ultimately to unlock the triumphant course that the financial markets had taken since 2003 had been brewing for quite some time, disaster nevertheless struck like lightning. The increasing degree of self-confidence that had characterized financial agents up to July 2007 was shattered in a mere couple of weeks when calculable risk appeared to hide immeasurable uncertainty. This chapter uses the return of uncertainty to test the usefulness of a number of fundamental sociological claims concerning the importance of social, spatial, and reputational proximity for inter-organizational trust-building, and suggests that these claims are particularly relevant to understand the current responses of financial agents to the new conditions of uncertainty under which they operate.
7 Infrastructure Investment and the Management of Risk
Authors: O'Neill Phillip 
Published: September 2009

AbstractInfrastructure is a rapidly emerging urban economic sector. This arises from a variety of forces including fiscal conservatism by governments and the associated privatization and corporatization of public utilities. These have created opportunities for infrastructure to be mobilized as a financial product. The product is assigned important attributes especially a claim for predictable and stable returns over long time periods which make it attractive to pension fund managers. Importantly, the emergence of the infrastructure sector and its financial mobilization have seen its rapid evolution from a set of hard physical structures and flows to a field of urban flows and connections involving everyday commercial, public, and private life. This chapter examines the issues involved in this evolution alongside the reformulation of infrastructure as a financial product, through a case study of Macquarie Bank, one of Australia's international infrastructure banks, concentrating on the strategies devised by Macquarie to control risk. These have a number of dimensions, such as a set of human resources strategies that mobilizes its young professionals to devise and negotiate new infrastructure products within a set of risk controls. Critical to the success of the Macquarie's risk control strategy is achieving an appropriate balance between financial product invention, IPOs, and holding products for capital gains and fees generation. This means that the daily operations of the contemporary city are increasingly bound to the investment and risk management strategies of the major infrastructure banks. The implications of this entanglement are explored.
8 Balancing Risk and Return in Urban Investing
Authors: Hagerman Lisa A. , Hebb Tessa 
Published: September 2009

AbstractInvesting in the underserved urban markets is an innovative practice in which institutional investors can enjoy competitive financial returns on their investment while stimulating economic growth in urban communities. Over the last three decades, targeted investment has undergone a paradigm shift from the traditional subsidy-driven model to the market-driven model. In the capital-driven model, institutional investors perceive investing in the underserved urban areas as an overlooked economic opportunity. Public sector pension funds look for ways to maximize their overall investment returns while managing risk. In doing so, they seek alternative investment strategies and increasingly allocate a portion of their portfolio to illiquid, riskier investments in pursuit of higher returns. Key to such sound investments is recognizing and mitigating the financial and political risks to which pension funds, particularly defined benefit pension funds are prone. This chapter deconstructs how pension funds use urban investments to meet their long-term liabilities while also managing risk. It argues that pension funds can use urban investments together with risk management tools to achieve their portfolio diversification requirements, through evidence drawn from over 100 individual interviews with pension fund trustees and officers, investment vehicles, and other stakeholders in examining the targeted investing strategies of the large California, New York, and Massachusetts' public sector pension funds.
10 Managing Financial Risks: the Strange Case of Housing
Authors: Smith Susan J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn the ‘home ownership’ societies of the English speaking world — where owner occupation is the tenure de rigueur, and mortgages are the respectable face of debt — borrowers, lenders, developers, and politicians are vying for the positions that gain most, and lose least, from the housing roller coaster, as it navigates a landscape of economic and environmental shocks. This jostling is hardly surprising, because housing is the world's largest class of assets, and its price appreciation has outstripped that of most other investments for more than a decade. But buying into housing can be a risky business, especially for ordinary households whose wealth tends to be concentrated within a single owned home where it increasingly forms an asset base for welfare. Strangely none of the financial instruments invented to manage this growing dependence on a narrow, sometimes volatile, and generally heavily leveraged, investment ‘portfolio’ — and which protect large institutions against the ups and downs of virtually every other major asset class (commodities, equities, bonds, and more) — are yet available for housing. Attempts to change this are, however, underway. This chapter weighs up their merits and limitations, considers whether they are likely to succeed, and comments on who gets what, where as a result.
11 Gender, Risk, and Occupational Pensions
Authors: Strauss Kendra 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThere is relatively little work that attempts to link up work on financialization with the body of research on gendered pension inequality. This is despite the fact that research on financial literacy, planning, and risk tolerance, decision-making confidence has highlighted distinct differences between men and women in all these domains. This chapter addresses that lacuna, focusing on the UK. The first section examines the gender gap in DC occupational pensions. The second part of the chapter sketches the broad contours of the financialization of UK occupational pensions in order to define the processes being addressed. The third section looks first at some of the macro-level changes associated with the financialization of occupational pensions before turning to the issues of financial literacy (financial capability) and planning, risk tolerance, and confidence in order to advance two main arguments. The first is that, in addition to highlighting compelling empirical evidence of persistent inequalities in coverage, savings rates, and employer contributions, evidence from economic geography and behavioural economics suggests a counter-narrative to the discourse of the ‘investor subject’, which recognizes the gendered nature of the assumptions that underpin both macro trends in pension policy, and the design of defined contribution (DC) occupational schemes. The second argument, the policy implications of which are discussed in the concluding section, is that when future trajectories for the evolution of occupational pensions under conditions of deepening financialization are considered, better and more widespread financial education to increase levels of capability without redistribution will fail to redress gendered pension inequality.
12 Consumer Credit, Self-Discipline, and Risk Management
Authors: Langley Paul 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the embodied economy of mass market consumer credit, an area of economic activity that ballooned at the same time as the housing market. Drawing on governmentality literature, it examines the ways in which the responsibilities of borrowers for outstanding credit obligations have been transformed in the booming mass market for credit cards, such that individual borrower subjects come to perform entrepreneurial self-disciplines that extend well-beyond simply meeting repayments. The chapter emphasizes the intersection of the legal and extra-legal in the punishment of debtors, and how risk calculations in credit scoring can be understood as a technology of government. It offers reflections on the tensions and contradictions that are lived by individual credit card holders as the crisis unfolds, specifically arguing that self-disciplines of risk management fall short of completely containing the complexities and inherent uncertainty in economic life, such as precarious labour markets.
5 Speeches Written by Other Orators
Authors: Martin Gunther 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
An analysis of the speeches of Aeschines and Lycurgus as well as Lysias' sixth speech shows all the features of religious argumentation, including those that cannot be read without acceptance of the religious notions. Lysias' speech shows the widest range, featuring divine intervention in human affairs and the opponent's pollution, Lycurgus uses only the former type of argument, Aeschines only the latter. However, these two orators are consistent in the arguments they resort to throughout their careers; the choice of religious motifs is not made for one speech alone. An excursus considers the speech Against Aristogiton, which contains religious argumentation of a type Demosthenes does not employ in the undoubtedly genuine speeches; other motifs occur in higher density and intensity. There cannot be a definite conclusion about authenticity, though the interpretation as a genuine logographic speech seems most likely.
Conclusion II: The Influence of the Genre
Authors: Martin Gunther 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The relative scarcity of religious argumentation and the restriction to certain argumentative patterns in assembly and private speeches suggest the existence of relatively strict, though unwritten, rhetorical conventions of appropriateness according to the genre. In the assembly a different, more restraint manner of speaking was practised, possibly as a consequence of a more result-oriented culture. The private speeches are as antagonistic as the public forensic speeches, but since the subject-matter is often too petty to have public significance, religion as a means of arousing attention and pathos may in such cases have seemed inappropriate and exaggerated. This is supported by the observation that the more significant and individual religious argumentation occurs in speeches that do have (or are presented as having) wider significance.
Barth, Origen, and Universal Salvation
Authors: Greggs Tom 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis book explores the dynamics of the Spirit and Son in the economy of salvation. It offers an interpretation of Barth and Origen around this theme, bringing them into a formative dialogue for a constructive theology of universal salvation. Examining Barth's doctrine of election and Origen's understanding of apokatastasis, the book proposes that a proper understanding of the eternal salvific plan of God in the person of Jesus Christ points towards universal salvation. However, salvation is not achieved through a general principle or rule; it is achieved through the very particularity of the Son in whom all humanity is saved. Further place for human particularity is established through the economy of the Spirit. Origen and Barth's economic pneumatologies indicate the reverse dynamic to that of their interpretation of the Son's economy: while the particularity of the Son has universal effects for all particulars, the universality of the Spirit particularizes that universal in individuals and communities in the present. However, this is in a manner which avoids a binary separation of Christians (as the saved) from all other humans (as the damned); instead, Christians are led into the ever greater depths of God, in a manner which allows God's Spirit to be present in diverse ways with humans and human communities in their temporal particularities. This dynamic of Spirit and Son in salvation allows for the place of faith, ongoing history, and community within a soteriological schema which offers a universal hope of salvation in Christ.
1 Introduction
Authors: Greggs Tom 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe Introduction sets out the aims and the nature of the book, and discusses the motivations that have led to it. The Introduction also advocates a formative approach to theology, and considers the nature of the relationship between historical and constructive theologies. It discusses the concerns that have led to this particular project and outlines the argument of the book. It also details the rationale behind choosing Origen and Barth, and points to potential difficulties with the task of comparing them.
Treaty Interpretation by the WTO Appellate Body
Authors: Van Damme Isabelle 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The WTO dispute settlement system is unusually strong but not necessarily unique. How the Appellate Body reads the WTO covered agreements is not a matter of WTO law, it is a technique of general international law. The Appellate Body comes to interpretation from within its function in the WTO institution as a juridical body. This book explains how the Appellate Body approaches the interpretation of the WTO covered agreements, and contributes to a more general understanding of how treaties are interpreted in practice. It is as much about general international law as it is about WTO law.
Principles of Treaty Interpretation: Meaning and Function
Authors: Van Damme Isabelle 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter examines the meaning and function of principles of treaty interpretation in general international law. Customary international law on treaty interpretation is partly and mostly codified in Articles 31 to 33 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), which are discussed in their historical context. The chapter explains that even if treaty-based, treaty interpretation is governed by principles rather than rules. It also provides an introduction to some of the Appellate Body's techniques of interpretation and reflects on the need and status of special principles of treaty interpretation.
The Interpretation of Silence in the WTO Covered Agreements
Authors: Van Damme Isabelle 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter raises the question of how and when to interpret silence in the WTO covered agreements. The notion of ‘silence’ in treaty language is used as an alternative mode of thinking about so-called gaps in treaties. The chapter attempts to categorize certain types of silence in treaty language, and analyze how the Appellate Body responds to such silences. The first section briefly sketches the debate in general international law and WTO law to illustrate the unsatisfactory standard discourse. As an alternative, the notion of ‘silence’ is suggested as a more useful point of reference. The second section distinguishes between different types of silences, such as procedural and substantive silences. One of the underlying questions is whether the Appellate Body has perceived Article 3.2 DSU as a constraint in interpreting silence. It appears that this has not been the case, at least with respect to procedural silences.
The Contextual Interpretation of the WTO Covered Agreements
Authors: Van Damme Isabelle 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter demonstrates how Article 31(1) VCLT is not merely about the ordinary meaning and its context; rather the Appellate Body has relied on this basic principle to introduce a broader concept of contextualism. After more than fourteen years of jurisprudence, the Appellate Body's methods to explain and justify its decisions about the meaning of the WTO treaty language are starting to change. This shift is yet to infiltrate the submissions of disputants and the reports of most panels.
2 Urbanization as a Proxy of Demographic and Economic Growth
Authors: Lo Cascio Elio 
Published: September 2009

AbstractEven if it is obviously impossible to give an estimate of the populations of the urban centres of the empire, numbering perhaps as many as 2000, the sheer number of those with several hundred thousands of inhabitants would suggest that either the rate of urbanization must have been higher than 10% for the empire at large, a figure often proposed, or the total population of the empire must have been larger than 50–60 million, the figure advocated by most ancient historians. Perhaps the most plausible solution is to think that both values must be higher than estimated. This conclusion is suggested by what we know about the two regions for which we have the best set of data, Egypt and Italy, apparently exhibiting an astonishing rate of urbanization. This high level of urbanization must be thought to be evidence of the high level of per capita income reached in an ‘advanced organic economy’.
5 Peopling the Countryside: Roman Demography in the Albegna Valley and Jerba
Authors: Fentress Elizabeth 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe surveys of the Albegna Valley and the Island of Jerba were carried out respectively between 1979–1983 and 1995–2000 using similar methodologies (flow data and transect sampling). Each recovered over 1,000 sites, many of them Roman. They thus provide excellent comparable data for the study of ancient demographics. Using standard parameters, approximate densities per kilometre are calculated for each area, allowing the examination of change over time. The low figures for the Albegna Valley are then considered in the light of calculations regarding the population of Italy as a whole.
10 Approaches to Quantifying Roman Trade: Response
Authors: Fulford Michael 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter highlights the need from the perspective of the consuming community for an integrated approach to the comparative analysis of quantified material culture and environmental assemblages and change over time. At the same time, given the plentiful evidence for long-distance trade in the Roman world, it is important to begin to understand what this represented to different consuming communities in terms of expectations and values. What are ‘normal’ distributions in a marine or terrestrial environment, or in different social contexts? Long-distance traded goods are common on early Roman military sites on the frontiers, but rare on native sites, though in real terms it would have cost the same to reach both communities. Were these goods luxury in the native context, but everyday in the military? What would the military have considered as exotic?
12 Roman Silver Coinage: Mints, Metallurgy, and Production
Authors: Ponting Matthew 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses issues surrounding the estimation of the silver content of Roman imperial silver coins and presents some results of ongoing research. Silver content is an important tool for the study of Roman fiscal policy and so reliable data are crucial. However, it is now clear that earlier published analyses using instrumental techniques overestimate the silver content and miss much of the structure in the fineness patterns. Nero's reform of AD 64 centred on a far more serious debasement than had been previously thought and the control of the silver bullion content of the coins was tight and change was frequent, especially during times of trouble. Modern instrumental techniques also measure other elements enabling a detailed chemical analysis and characterisation of coinages. This chapter shows how these data can be used to address questions about mint organization and metal supply.
13 Coinage and Metal Supply
Authors: Hitchner Bruce 
Published: September 2009

AbstractDid the Roman state manipulate the coinage only in response to political or economic problems or to problems of metal supply or was it in any way reacting to problems associated with growth in a hard money economy? This chapter responds to Chapter 12 arguing that manipulations of the coinage, in particular metallurgical manipulation and changes in the volume of coin emission until the mid-3rd century, were as much a consequence of overall economic growth as individual political and economic events. From the standpoint of metallurgical manipulation, it further suggests that increases or decreases in metal extraction for minting purposes may have been closely timed to perceptions of inflationary or deflationary forces, the former requiring increased production of copper, the latter leading to increased demand for new silver and gold. It also contends that state loans, tax remissions, debt cancellations may have functioned as devices to stimulate local economic development.
7 Quantifying Egyptian Agriculture
Authors: Bowman Alan 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
There is a great deal of evidence for the agricultural economy of Ptolemaic, Roman, and Byzantine Egypt, mainly in the papyri but also significantly (and increasingly) in the accumulating archaeological data. This chapter discusses the methods and approaches to using this evidence to quantifying agricultural activity in Egypt in the Ptolemaic and Roman period, with illustrations and examples under four headings: quantity and distribution of land; crop production and consumption; animal power (and transport); and wages, costs, and prices. It concludes with suggestions as to how we might relate it to the wider canvas of the Roman Mediterranean and to address the matter of generalization, or at least applicability to that wider world. Egyptian conditions are unique in some important respects but that should not prevent Egypt from making a contribution to our understanding of the wider Roman economy, especially methodologically.
Wrongs and the Law of Wrongs
Authors: Descheemaeker Eric 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter concerns itself with the identification of the subject-matter of the book, wrongs and the law of wrongs. Regarding the former, the definition offered of a wrong (or civil wrong) is that it is the violation of a right, and therefore a breach of duty. The relationship between the concepts of ‘duty’, ‘right’, and ‘wrong’ is explored; as are the notion of an ‘interest’, and the alternative analytical framework followed in particular by Nils Jansen. Concerning the delineation of the law of wrongs, this chapter explains why, in order to maintain a stable field of enquiry across jurisdictional divides, the book will exclude breach of contract and public law from its scope.