bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Collective Efficacy
Authors: Louis Winnifred R 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Collective efficacy refers to group members' perceptions of a group's competency to complete a task to achieve its goals (Bandura, 1986). Two major branches of this literature are summarized here and reviewed in detail below. The dominant branch is a continuation of earlier work on individual‐level self‐efficacy and sits within a broader literature emphasizing the value of perceived control. Researchers in this tradition see low levels of collective efficacy as leading to the breakdown of group functioning, and the buildup of collective efficacy (and its core components, trust and informal social control of conflict) as a critical means by which to safeguard against violence. Collective efficacy is conceptualized as a property of the group or collective, generalizing across different behaviors.
Comparative Case Studies
Authors: Zartman I. William 
Published: November 2011

Abstract“Case” is used here to refer to the story of instances of peacemaking, either as a single set of encounters or as a number of successive instances. Comparative case studies can probe similarities and difference among a number of individual cases or within successive instances of a single case, or can analyze individual cases against a generic collection of cases summarized as concepts and hypotheses. Comparative case studies are the best way of combining empirical data with theory and concepts on conflict reduction. Analysis begins with the identification of the element to be explained and the selection of cases that are salient and relevant to that explanation. Comparisons can be chosen according to either the most differences or the most similarities models, in a search for either basic principles or explanations of differences. Case studies can be exploratory or confirmatory providing inductive ideas for generalized explanations or deductive testing of logical constructs.
Conflict Management, Resolution, and Transformation
Authors: Tint Barbara S. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Within the last few decades the field of peace psychology and the transdisciplinary field of peace and conflict studies have experienced rapid growth in the terminology used to represent theory and practice. The concepts of conflict and conflict interventions have been central to the development of theory and practice in both fields. While we attempt to articulate the distinct ways in which conflict interventions take place, it is recognized that these interventions are not mutually exclusive or linear and depend on a variety of factors including the stage, context, and history of the conflict as well as the resources and the philosophy of the interventionist.
Conflict, Asymmetric
Authors: Mccauley Clark 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The nature of political violence is changing. War between states is becoming rare, but political violence between states and non‐state groups — asymmetric conflict — is growing more common. The origins of this trend are many, but increases in state power, at least for some states, is probably a crucial source of the problem. As modern states dispose of an increasing share of the gross national product (GNP) within their borders (Tullock, 2002), any subgroup getting less than its share of government spending — or believing that it is getting less — is falling behind. Increased government spending means that government reaches deeper into everyday lives to affect education, housing, healthcare, employment, marriage, and even the very definitions of life and death. The values expressed in state power are reinforced, and the survival of cultural groups without state support may be in danger.
Conflict, Ethos of
Authors: Bar‐Tal Daniel , Oren Neta 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Each society consists of a collective of people who have at least some feeling of belonging, share some societal beliefs (defined as widely shared cognitions that address themes and issues with which society members are particularly occupied and which contribute to their sense of uniqueness) (Bar‐Tal, 2000), experience solidarity, coordinate some activities, and have a sense of common identity. Of special importance is the system of beliefs that society members share. Talcott Parsons (1951) argued that “the sharing of common belief systems is a condition of the full integration of a system of social interactions” (p. 352). These societal beliefs contribute to the sense of uniqueness of society members as being distinct from members of other societies, while they allow a psychological connection of society members to their own society.
Conflict: Levels of Analysis
Authors: Zelizer Craig M. , Cui Ling 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In the field of peace and conflict studies one of the key aspects of effective research and practice is determining the appropriate level of analysis. Given the interdisciplinary nature of the field, which includes diverse disciplines such as psychology, sociology, law, conflict resolution, international relations, and more, to date there is no consensus regarding the core levels of analysis. Moreover, within particular disciplines, such as psychology, there are often widespread differences among the models or assumptions of analysis levels that scholars and practitioners may find appropriate. To some the group may be an appropriate unit of analysis, separate from individuals, while others would disagree. To a large degree the level of analysis that scholars or practitioners use is based on their respective disciplinary training. Despite the differences in levels of analysis, most scholars believe that a multi‐level approach is needed to develop a deeper understanding of conflicts. In this article we provide a brief review of the basic steps involved in peace and conflict studies research and practice. Then, we explore key models of analysis.
Conflict, Reduction of Intergroup
Authors: Cohen Taya R. , Insko Chester A. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
A hotel and its employees have a dispute regarding wages, so the employees go on strike. Republicans and Democrats cannot come to terms on a health care bill, so the legislation languishes in Congress. Two countries have ideological and political disagreements, so they decide to go to war. All of these are examples of destructive intergroup conflict. In this chapter we outline several approaches to reducing intergroup conflict grounded in psychological research. The conflict reduction methods we discuss include the consideration of future consequences, reduction of group influence, and reconciliation of underlying interests. Our hope is that the strategies we outline can and will be implemented by group members, leaders, and facilitators seeking to reduce intergroup conflict.
Conscientization
Authors: Montero Maritza 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Conscientization is the liberating process of consciousness‐mobilization that enables critical thinking about how we live and how the world we live in is ordered. This dynamic process is political because it is meant to transform the person into an ethically conscious citizen. It uncovers the effects of oppression and exclusion, and increases awareness of unjust circumstances, events, and relations that have been ignored and normalized or considered part of daily life. Persons who undergo a conscientization process arrive at a different understanding of the world, of their selves, and of their roles and possibilities. Conscientization includes the processes of problematization, de‐ideol‐ogization, and de‐alienation, from which a nonfractioned consciousness regarding social situations is constructed and reconstructed, allowing a new understanding of the lifeworld, and of the circumstances configuring this lifeworld.
Conservative Ideology
Authors: Zabel Keith L. , Christopher Andrew N. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
There is no single definition of conservative ideology; rather, conservative ideology encompasses a variety of beliefs, all centered on the foundation of resistance to change and adherence to traditional and established behavior, both at the individual and group level. Indeed, conservative ideology is associated with an intolerance for ambiguity. Conservative individuals believe the world is a predictable place in which there are clear outcomes for individuals based on which groups they belong to, how well they follow traditional and established rules, and the extent to which they do the “right” things in life. For that reason, conservative ideology has been almost exclusively studied in relation to negative outcomes, most notably prejudice towards perceived outgroups. Based on the characteristics of the ideology and level at which it occurs (group vs. individual), conservative ideology can be broken down into smaller facets of social dominance orientation, right‐wing authoritarianism, and belief in a just world.
Corporate Social Responsibility: Applying Contact Theory and Mediation
Authors: Ralph Natalie 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Potential roles for business to support peace in conflict situations have provided a new area for research, sometimes termed peace entrepreneurship, peace through commerce, peace business, or corporate peacemaking. In this essay, the term “business” encompasses microbusinesses, small and medium‐size businesses, and transnational corporate social responsibility: applying contact theory and mediation corporations (TNCs). As a key economic actor which impacts national economies, employment, investment, natural resources, and media, business can strengthen structural and cultural peacebuilding for conflict prevention and postconflict reconstruction. The potential also exists for business to support peacemaking under conditions of direct violence. Business can do this by initiating or supporting interventions such as mediation or by providing resources and administrative and logistical support for such interventions.
Counterterrorism, Psychological Aspects of
Authors: Kruglanski Arie W. , Boyatzi Lauren M. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractIn order to define counterterrorism, it is first well to understand terrorism, which counterterrorism aims to oppose. Though the definition of terrorism has varied widely, most scholars agree that terrorism includes aggression against noncombatants and is directed toward influencing an audience rather than fulfillment of a specific political goal (Schmid, 1983).
Critical and Radical Psychology
Authors: Fox Dennis 
Published: November 2011

AbstractPsychology's secession from philosophy in the nineteenth century required new approaches to speculation and investigation to clarify and shape its modern scientific identity. The emphasis on predicting and controlling human behavior, which marginalized phenomena unsuited for quantitative data production, generated techniques that proved especially useful to government, military, and corporate bureaucracies. At least as useful were explanatory models compatible with Western individualistic values. As psychology's influence and reputation in the public imagination expanded, psychologists working as researchers, therapists, teachers, and consultants became central to thepsy complex,the set of professionals from psychiatrists and guidance counselors to teachers and social workers who aim to modify the behavior of others.
Dehumanization, Infrahumanization, and Naturalization
Authors: Holtz Peter , Wagner Wolfgang 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
For most human beings, it is close to inconceivable to do harm or kill other humans unless there is the threat of being attacked. Yet the atrocities of war crimes against innocent civilians and the cruelties of genocide or ethnic cleansing are ubiquitous. The question arises: How can people commit such crimes? In the majority of cases it is ordinary people who commit these deeds; ordinary people, whose values and personality traits do not differ much from most other humans. So how can ordinary humans behave so inhumanely in certain situations?
Dispute Resolution, Online
Authors: Balvin Nikola 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Online dispute resolution (ODR) refers to alternative dispute resolution (ADR) processes such as mediation, negotiation, and arbitration, conducted with the assistance of online information and communication technologies (ICTs). ODR typically uses tools such as e‐mail, instant messaging, and bulletin boards, but some theorists expand the definition to include video‐ or telephone conferencing and even communication via mobile phones and community radio. Online information management that is part of a dispute resolution process, such as e‐filing of court documents, is also considered ODR. ODR can be used to resolve disputes that occur in the online world, such those over purchases on eBay, and also those that arise in the offline world, such as business or family disputes. However, websites that simply provide information about ODR are not included in the definition, because ODR necessitates that some resolution of the dispute is attempted. This essay briefly reviews the history and different applications of ODR and delineates some of the key topics in the literature, including legal and regulatory issues, trust, communication, efficiency, culture, and the applicability of ICTs in different regions of the world.
Drama Theory
Authors: Bryant Jim 
Published: November 2011

AbstractDrama theory provides a general model of human interaction. Its basic proposition is that each interaction presents a person with a unique set of disquieting dilemmas and an individual will look for ways of rationalizing their elimination of these dilemmas in an emotionally led response. This search is idiosyncratic and unpredictable, quite possibly involving a radical reframing of the situation and communication with the other parties involved. Nevertheless, the whole process is one that can be represented and tracked using drama theory. Drama theory explains how people use reason and emotion to exert pressure upon others within the context of a confrontation.
Emotional Appeals, Mobilizing through
Authors: Snyder Mark , Dwyer Patrick C. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Volunteerism, voting, and other forms of citizen participation are important ingredients in a healthy society. The actions of citizens, working alone and working in concert, have been instrumental in bringing about social change and addressing a wide range of social problems. In fact, it has been argued that instances in which individuals and groups take action in order to respond to society's needs are not merely helpful, but play an essential role in combating the problems that face the world (Snyder, 1993).
Emotions in Violence and Peace, Intergroup
Authors: Leach Colin Wayne , Kang Jessica Jeahae 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe twentieth century was one of the most violent in history. It has been estimated that war killed an average of over a hundred people an hour. Thus far, the twenty‐first century has continued this trend, due in part to violence in Colombia, Sudan, Iraq, Gaza, and elsewhere. Perhaps because intergroup violence rarely seems to offer any lasting reward to those who perpetrate it, many observers view such violence as an example of passion overwhelming reason. However, this view misinterprets the role of emotion in at least two ways. First, people are not slaves to irrational passion. Second, passion is just as important to the pursuit of peace as it is to violence.
Empathy, Intergroup: Regarding the Suffering of Others
Authors: Čehajić‐Clancy Sabina 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Articles in this encyclopedia have addressed various questions related to the causes, consequences, and implications of intergroup conflict, peacebuilding, justice, and reconciliation. This article will discuss the phenomenon of empathy conceptualized as an emotional reaction or an emotional response to knowing about the suffering of others. The question of how people tend to react to knowledge about the suffering or killing of others and why empathy is a desired reaction will be analyzed. First, however, it is necessary to define what empathy is and what it is not. Then it will be explained why it is important to be emotionally moved by others' suffering. Finally, the article will attempt to shed some light on the question as to why some people feel empathy while others feel nothing at all.
Empathy Training and Listening Skills
Authors: Coburn Clare 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The ability to listen to a different perspective and to choose a new response is at the heart of conflict resolution and peacebuilding. Empathy and listening are interrelated, as deep listening fosters empathy and understanding, and empathy requires the capacity to receive the communication from others in order to be active. Theorists and practitioners in psychology, peace studies, organizational development, and conflict resolution have explored these capacities and emphasized the need to develop the requisite self‐ and other‐awareness in order to enact them. (See
cognition: creeative versus dogmatic
.)
Equity Theory
Authors: Hatfield Elaine , Rapson Richard L. , Bensman Lisamarie 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
On June 4, 2009, President Barack Obama delivered his now well‐known Cairo speech, in which he proposed “a new beginning.” He pointed out that Israelis and Palestinians had suffered terribly from religious wars and conflict. The Israelis, subjected to centuries of persecution, faced annihilation as a people in the Holocaust. The Palestinians, victims of colonialism and Cold War policies, had faced the daily humiliations of occupation for more than a half‐century. Although these grievances, social injustices, horrors, and deaths could never be forgotten or forgiven, it was, he argued, time to start anew. In the end – whether the peace process took 1 year, 10 years, or 1,000 years – Palestinians and Israelis must find some way to share the Holy Land.
Gender and International Relations
Authors: Stephenson Carolyn M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The conceptualization of gender in international relations is relatively new. International relations as a field of study was one of the most reluctant to acknowledge the relevance of gender, with articles in major journals not appearing until the late 1980s and early 1990s. The majority of scholars in international relations, and especially international security studies, are male, reflecting the gender balance in the practice of international relations. While women were always a part of international relations, as Cynthia Enloe showed with her landmark book
Bananas, Beaches and Bases
(1989) they had largely been invisible. Initial feminist concerns focused on discrimination against women and on increasing the inclusion of women in political, economic, and social structures.
Gendering Peace Psychology
Authors: Schroer‐Hippel Miriam 
Published: November 2011

AbstractGender perspectives are central to peace psychology. This may be argued from the point of view of gender and conflict studies, a growing interdisciplinary field of research. Thorough analyses of gender relations and their intersections with other categories, such as ethnicity, sexuality, and class, have contributed substantially to understanding the dynamics of violent conflict. From this point of view, any discipline concerned with the study of peace and conflict cannot do without a gender analysis. Besides this, the relevance of gender perspectives to peace psychology may be argued from a normative stance. Most definitions of peace psychology emphasize a normative commitment towards negative and positive peace, towards ending direct violence and achieving social justice. It was mainly feminist scholars and activists who pointed out that this should apply to both menandwomen. In a broad debate, feminist definitions of peace, conflict, and security have been developed. They account for diverse forms of violence against women and men, including violence in the so‐called private sphere of the home, and define gender equality as an inseparable part of peace. Three threads of gendering peace psychology will be discussed in this article: (1) gendered experiences in peace and conflict, (2) gendering methods of conflict management, and (3) gender theoretical analysis of the formation of war and peace.
Globalization and Conflict
Authors: Pilisuk Marc , Pellegrini Gianina 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Globalization refers to a complex set of cultural, economic, political, and environmental changes. They reflect a transfer from diverse, separate, and local options to standardized, interconnected, centralized, and global ones. At the onset of the twenty‐first century globalization is perhaps the most potent force affecting human behavior and experience. Many symbols are recognized globally, goods and information cross borders instantaneously, and we have exciting opportunities to know about others. Globalization affects what we wear, what we eat, who shall have enough to eat, the safety of our air and water, where we reside, our options for employment, the availability of human services, the shaping of values by which we assign meaning to life, how we shape and are shaped by technologies, the potential for financial stability and equity in the world, the possibilities for survival of an endangered planet, and the arena in which individuals and communities retain a measure of control over their lives. Globalization also affects the physical composition of the planet and the selection of which forms of life are to survive and which to be eliminated. Globalization includes vast changes in the power to make economic decisions at every level. It is the economic side of globalization that is strongly linked to conflict and which assumes relevance to each individual's own work, home and community life, and political participation. The purpose here is to examine the pathways that constitute the increased global interconnectedness, the forces that are creating and using these pathways, and the consequences to quality of life and distribution of wealth and of power.
Grounded Theory
Authors: Madill Anna 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Grounded theory methodology evolved during Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss's (1965) seminal study on the awareness of dying. Grounded theory represented a radical, qualitative alternative to the quantitative sociology of the time and sought to provide a way of capturing lived experience. It was also developed as a method for bridging the gap between theory and empirical research in the social sciences. Glaser and Strauss (1967) outline the
constant comparative method
as a procedure for generating theory from qualitative data (texts such as observations, interviews, and documents) in terms of four iterative stages.
Humiliation and Dignity
Authors: Lindner Evelin G. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractHumiliation and dignity are of crucial significance for peace, and for the field of peace psychology. Already the very definition of peace is deeply interwoven with humiliation and dignity. In a normative frame defined by human rights, peace is conceptualized as successful dialogue embedded in mutual respect for every participant's equality in dignity. In contrast, throughout history, peace often meant calm and quiet achieved through success in inflicting humiliation on one's population. Still today, the latter definition of peace reigns in large parts of the world. Both definitions are mutually exclusive, and both camps tend to feel insulted and humiliated when criticized by the other, something that, in turn, can be disruptive of peace.
Identity Conflicts, Managing Intractable
Authors: Fiol C. Marlene , O'Connor Edward J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Intergroup conflicts are ubiquitous. Sometimes they stem from differences in how groups fundamentally define themselves, and from threats to their identity. When identities are implicated in a conflict, it tends to escalate to encompass an ever widening number of issues, leading parties to become trapped in an ongoing negative spiral from which it is difficult to escape.