bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Representation-Reinforcing Review; Comparing Experiences in the United States and Australia
Authors: TUCKER DAVID 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the judicial supervision of elections, a key area in which judges might be expected to act to enforce the necessary conditions of democracy. It provides a comparative analysis of the performance of the Supreme Court of the United States and of the High Court of Australia. It examines the judicial policy-making with regard to electoral districting, campaign finance reform, and the ‘Australian ballot’.
Contextual, Functional, and Geometric Components in the Semantics of Projective Terms
Authors: ESCHENBACH CAROLA 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The projective terms of a natural language can differ regarding their syntactic properties, their dependence on reference systems, and their contextual dependency regarding objects or regions of comparison. While the dependence of projective prepositions on reference systems has been considered in linguistics and psycholinguistics in detail, the other aspects are less well studied. This chapter focuses on a collection of German projective terms including prepositions, postpositions, adverbs, and adjectives. The chapter identifies similarities between different items and maps them to common semantic components or syntactic regularities. The semantics of the lexemes combine geometric components representing spatial aspects and functional components representing the principal directions on the basis of a reference system. The influence of the context on the interpretation of projective terms is mapped to the distinction between variables belonging to the argument structure of the lexemes and free variables occurring in the semantic form. The description of the semantics of the German terms in this framework shows that the similarities and variations between the lexemes can be modeled by combining a small set of semantic components in different ways.
Shape: A Developmental Product
Authors: SMITH LINDA B. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers the idea that the perception of object shape — perceptions of the kind that can yield rapid and reliable object recognition — is learned by young children through their actions on objects as a product of category learning. Action-based categories create shape caricatures, abstractions that enable the systematic broadening of recognition beyond specific experiences. Thus, the processes that yield facile and reliable recognition may not be pre-specified in the visual system but rather may be experience dependent.
Syntatic Enquiry as a Cultura Activity
Authors: DILLER ANTHONY V. N. , KHANITTANAN WILAIWAN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Can there be ‘syntax’ without ‘ethno’? Answers to this question will vary depending on how the two parts of the ‘ethnosyntax’ are construed. This chapter focuses on these components, taking up a methodological issue in how ‘ethno’ — and ‘syntax’ intermesh in syntactic enquiry.
Aspects of Ku Waru Ethnosyntax and Social Life
Authors: RUMSEY ALAN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses some relationships between language and other aspects of culture and social life among the Ku Waru people of the Western Highlands of Papua New Guinea. This leads to some conclusions about the nature of connections between language and culture in general. The chapter includes a brief introduction to some relevant aspects of Ku Waru culture and language.
Introduction: The Poet and the Reader
Authors: Pearson Roger 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of how Mallarmé became a central point of reference in the history of 19th- and 20th-century literature and critical theory given the fact that he wrote so relatively few poems. It then explains the purpose of the book, which contends that all of Mallarmé's work is informed by a consistent and coherent view of the poet's role — to break the silence of a godless universe and to confer upon that silence some kind of lasting pattern.
Fatherhood and the Habit of Command: L. Aemilius Paullus and theAdelphoe
Authors: LEIGH MATTHEW 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThis chapter begins by investigating the sense that the historicist approach to the Adelphoe, for all that it was richly and excitingly suggestive, had never recovered from the perception of a hopeless discontinuity between context and content. It shows that in the case of the Adelphoe, however, the construction of two opposed father-figures immediately raises the issue of which of the two wears the mask of Paullus. It explains that the true eloquence of this identification finally emerges when the reader is ready to acknowledge that fatherhood is only part of a wider system of authority.
The Mechanisms of Repression
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRAIN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the legal mechanisms which were available, both at home and in the colonial empire, to deal with insurrection and civil disorder. These were the suspension of habeas corpus, the imposition of martial law (the theory of which was problematic), the employment of air control in the control of ‘primitive’ colonial subjects, the passage of coercion acts, and the development, from the time of the World War I onwards, of elaborate codes of emergency regulations, creating a form of statute based martial law.
The Ideological Response to War: Codes of Human Rights
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRAIN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter describes how the protection of human rights came, during World War II, to feature in schemes for creating a new world order, encouraging the drafting of comprehensive codes of rights to be protected. It considers the role of the British and American governments in this development, giving accounts both of private initiatives, such as that of H. G. Wells, and official contributions, as in the Atlantic Charter and United Nations Declaration. It describes the Dumbarton Oaks Conference, and the processes which led to the establishment of the United Nations, and the idea that it should be concerned with the international protection of human rights in the post war world. It examines the resulting expansion of the boundaries of international law at the expense of protected domestic jurisdiction.
Britain and the Western Option
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRAIN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter analyses British post 1945 foreign policy, as adopted by Foreign Secretary Bevin, and of the origin of the idea of forming a Western European bloc, which Bevin was unwilling to pursue until relations with the Soviet Union had become impossible. It provides a history of the European federalist movement, and of the British government's skeptical attitude to it, and explains the change of policy in favour of forming a Western Union, announced by Bevin in early 1948 as a spiritual union. It gives an account of the Brussels Treaty of 1948, which embodied in its text the notion that the protection and furtherance of human rights should be central to the ideology of the western European democratic states, offering an alternative to Soviet communism.
The Conclusion of Negotiations and the Rearguard Action
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRAIN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter describes the conclusion of the negotiations which produced the text of the European Convention, signed on 4 November 1950 in Rome. The final text reflected a number of compromises, most importantly between those who wanted a system of juridical protection, based ultimately on binding decisions from a court of human rights, and a right of individual petition, those who, like the UK, were not prepared to accept the loss of sovereignty which this would involve. Hence, acceptance of the court and right of individual petition was made optional. The chapter also describes the somewhat belated opposition to the acceptance of the convention led by Lord Chancellor Jowitt, and the steps whereby in spite of his opposition, and unease from other members of the British cabinet, the text, with its compromises, was accepted by the UK.
The First Protocol
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRIAN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In the negotiations which produced the convention great difficulty had been met over the drafting of articles dealing with the protection of the right of property, which raised delicate political issues — the right to education, and the right to participate in the democratic process; the last two of which presented acute problems for colonial powers. So these rights were not included in the text of the convention, and came to be covered in a protocol to the convention, signed in Paris in 1952. This chapter describes the disagreements and conflicts between the Consultative Assembly and the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe over the drafting of the protocol, and the serious conflicts which also arose within the UK governmental machine.
Canada's Voluntary, Market-Based Approach to Energy Security
Authors: Lucas Alastair R. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses that no explicit Canadian policy addresses either the physical security or supply adequacy and reliability aspects of energy security. It notes that the primary objective of the Canadian Energy Security is to secure a US market for reliable Canadian energy exports, and for this purpose, cooperates with the US in its energy security initiatives. It adds that new legislation concerning physical security of energy facilities and activities is limited to Alberta, the major oil- and gas-producing province. It explains that Federal legislation in relation to security of pipelines and international power lines within federal constitutional jurisdiction went before Parliament in 2003.
Energy Security and Energy Sovereignty in Mexico
Authors: Máarquez José Juan González 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses that the demand for all sources of energy is growing in Mexico. It adds that financial resources are needed to support the investments which will satisfy the demands. It notes that the growing incorporation of Mexico into the global economy demands the privatisation of the energy sector. It explains that the challenge for Mexico in the twenty-first century is to design a new legal regime which allows the participation of private investment, but at the same time guarantees the national sovereignty of the resources, and the sustainable development in the sector.
Energy Security and Conflict with Other Values: The Case of Germany
Authors: Kühne Gunther 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter demonstrates that in Germany there exists a relatively dense complex of rules and regulations designed to ensure security of energy supply. It notes that this relates to both aspects of energy security: the availability of energy, and the technical continuity of the energy supply system. It explains that whether both sets of rules are sufficient to cope with a crisis can be finally determined only when an emergency arises. It discusses that the security of supply will find it even more difficult to prevail over conflicting values where the balancing process takes place on the basis of statutory provisions which primarily serve those other values. It clarifies that whether security of energy supply will be given its necessary weight in the future will often depend on the balancing of considerations under legislation not primarily concerned with energy.
Security, Continuity, and Regularity of Energy Supply: The Case of Spain
Authors: Guayo Iñigo Del 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses that Spain relies upon foreign sources of energy, and so security issues are of paramount importance. It notes that under these conditions, Spain tries to diversify the sources of energy supplies to build stocks for emergency situations, promote the use of indigenous resources such as coal and renewable energy, and foster a rational and efficient use of energy. It adds that international interconnections — international gas pipelines and electricity lines — are vital. It explains that from the perspective of the continuity and regularity of electricity supply, some regulatory reforms are needed, and some are already being implemented by the government, in order to avoid further blackouts like those which took place on December 17, 2001.
Definite Reference in Old and Modern French: The Rise and Fall of DP
Authors: BOUCHER PAUL 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter addresses the question of the emergence and evolution of the definite article in French. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 7.2 examines the problem of bare NPs and bare (pronominal) determiners (BD) in Romance and Germanic and discusses the Restricted Quantification Condition, as well as the representation of morphological complexity developed in Kerstens (1993). Section 7.3 looks at data on NPs in Old French between the 9th and 14th centuries. Section 7.4 returns to the reanalysis of D-words in OF and to the problem of case projections in Romance and Germanic.
The Reanalysis of the French Prepositional System: A Case of Grammaticalization in Competing Grammars
Authors: TREMBLAY MIREILLE , DUPUIS FERNANDE , DUFRESNE MONIQUE 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers the evolution of French prepositions and particles. The comparative analysis of Old and Modern French shows a change in transitivity at the end of the Middle French period, followed by a split of the prepositional system into the two subsystems which characterize Modern French. It argues that both changes can be related to the lexicalization of verbal and prepositional prefixes. This study is based on the Base de français médiéval constituted by C. Marchello-Nizia (for Old French), and the corpus Lemieux (for 6th-century French). The Rabelais corpus comes from the CERHAC, Université de Clermont–Ferrand.
The Syntax of Objects in Old English
Authors: PINTZUK SUSAN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents evidence against three commonly held views of Old English syntax and verb-object order: (1) the increase in verb-object order during the Old English period can be attributed to a gradual increase in the frequency of extraposition, an increase which is not necessarily tied to internal grammatical factors; (2) all object types (negative, quantified, and nonnegative non-quantiWed) have the same syntax in Old English; and (3) Old English can be analysed as a head-initial language, with head-final order derived by the leftward movement of various constituents. The chapter argues that in diachronic syntax studies, much of the historical data are structurally ambiguous and open to a number of different interpretations.
Gradience in Grammar
Authors: FANSELOW GISBERT , FÉRY CAROLINE , VOGEL RALF , SCHLESEWSKY MATTHIAS 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins by defining gradience in terms of an individual speaker's grammar. It also identifies gradient phenomena in various domains of grammar such as semantic ambiguities, syntactic blends, and in phonological entities including intensity and length, among others. It then discusses the theories of gradience in phonology and syntax.
Linguistic and Metalinguistic Tasks in Phonology: Methods and Findings
Authors: FRISCH STEFAN A. , STEARNS ADRIENNE M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
A much closer connection between phonological grammar and mental lexicon is revealed by studies of gradience in phonology using linguistic and metalinguistic data. The discovery of these new dimensions of phonological variation would not have been possible without corpus methods and data from groups of participants in psycholinguistic experiments. The presence of gradient phonological constraints illustrates that phonological knowledge goes beyond a categorical symbolic representation of possible forms in a language. To accommodate the broader scope of phonological generalizations, models of grammar will have to become more like models of other cognitive domains, which have long recognized and debated the nature of frequency and similarity effects for mental representation and processing. Well-understood mechanisms of speech perception and speech production bind the scope of phonological variability. Phonological categories and phonological patterns give a sufficiently rich and intricate variety of alternatives to explore the full complexity of cognitive processes.
Intermediate Syntactic Variants in a Dialect-Standard Speech Repertoire and Relative Acceptability
Authors: CORNIPS LEONIE 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter proposes that acceptability judgments do not offer a direct window into an individual's competence. It discusses an intermediate speech repertoire that exists in the province of Limburg, the Netherlands. In this repertoire, some constructions are difficult to obtain. It also talks about acceptability judgments that are given by local dialect speakers in the same area. Using data from reflexive impersonal passives, reflexive ergatives, and inalienable possession constructions, the chapter argues that the occurrence of intermediate variants and the variation at the level of the individual speaker is not because of the specific task-effects, but is due to the induced language contact effects between the standard variety and the local dialects.
Gradedness and Optionality in Mature and Developing Grammars
Authors: SORACE ANTONELLA 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter highlights specific patterns of gradedness and optionality in the grammar of three types of speakers: monolingual native speakers, speakers whose native language (L1) has been influenced by a second language (L2), and very fluent non-native speakers. In all these cases, gradedness is apparent in areas of grammar that are at the interface between the syntax and other cognitive domains. First, the analysed evidence indicates that not only auxiliary selection, but also a number of syntactic manifestations of split intransitivity in Italian and other languages, are lexically constrained by aspectual properties. Second, residual optionality, with its entailed gradedness effects, is shown to occur only in interface areas of the competence of near-native speakers, and not only in purely syntactic domains. Third, the differentiation between narrow computational syntactic properties and interface properties is also relevant in other domains of language development, such as L1 attrition due to prolonged exposure to a second language.
Modelling Productivity with the Gradual Learning Algorithm: The Problem of Accidentally Exceptionless Generalizations
Authors: ALBRIGHT ADAM , HAYES BRUCE 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter develops a model that can handle all configurations of gradience and categoricalness. It believes that the solution lies in the trade-off between reliability and generality. It shows how the previous approach to the problem was not enough, and suggests a novel approach using the gradual learning algorithm (GLA), adapted to more general limitations.
Gradedness as Relative Efficiency in the Processing of Syntax and Semantics
Authors: HAWKINS JOHN A. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents a group of corpus data from English, a head-initial language, and some additional data from Japanese, a head-final language, showing clear selection preferences among competing structures. The structures include positioning of complements and adjuncts relative to the verb, and the preferences range from highly productive unattested (despite being grammatical). These ‘gradedness effects’ lead to a principle of efficiency in performance, minimize domains (MiD). This principle is evaluated on postverbal prepositional phrases (PPs) in English and on preverbal NPs and PPs in Japanese. This chapter introduces a measurement for quantifying multiple constraints and their interaction. It discusses MiD in grammars and in cross-linguistic variation.
Probabilistic Grammars as Models of Gradience in Language Processing
Authors: CROCKER MATTHEW W. , KELLER FRANK 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins by reviewing some of the key psycholinguistic evidence motivating the need for experience-based mechanisms, before turning to a discussion of recent models. It focuses on probabilistic models of human sentence processing, which attempt to assign a probability to a given sentence, as well as to alternative parse interpretations for that sentence. It discusses the association between probabilistic models of performance (gradient grammaticality). A vital result of the proposed view is that the likelihood of a partial structure is only significant relative to the likelihood of competing (partial) structures, and does not give an independently useful characterization of the grammaticality of the alternatives. Therefore, it argues that a probabilistic description of gradient grammaticality should differ from a probabilistic performance model.
The Politics of Genocide Justice in Cambodia
Authors: Etcheson Craig 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The single most sensitive issue facing Cambodia today concerns the question of accountability for the crimes committed by the Khmer Rouge regime. The matter of genocide justice in the country is not merely a legal or political question, but also personal. Public opinion surveys suggest that the overwhelming majority of Cambodians want the Khmer Rouge leadership to be prosecuted for their crimes. To date, however, the country's political elite has been very reluctant to grant this wish, in part because nobody has completely clean hands. Killings during the Khmer Rouge regime constituted war crimes, genocide, and other crimes against humanity. Yet 25 years after the regime responsible for these crimes was ousted from power, no senior leader of that regime has yet faced justice before a court of law. One reason is that the politics of achieving genocide justice in Cambodia have proven to be particularly intractable.
Procedural Law of Internationalized Criminal Courts
Authors: Friman Håkan 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the criminal procedures applied (or to be applied) by internationalized courts in Kosovo, East Timor, Cambodia, and Sierra Leone, including developments for the period up to August 2003. Following a brief presentation of the procedural law that is applicable to each of the internationalized courts, different criteria for the assessment of procedural regimes are discussed. Particular procedural features of the different regimes are compared with international standards for fair and expeditious proceedings in accordance with the International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights, and some other international instruments. Possible preparatory steps are proposed to overcome some identified shortcomings in the criminal procedures of internationalized courts, such as the ones established in Kosovo and East Timor.
Internationalized Criminal Courts and Tribunals: Are They Necessary?
Authors: Condorelli Luigi , Boutruche Théo 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines whether internationalized criminal courts and tribunals are necessary or, at least, useful. In particular, it analyses whether they are a model to be reproduced, or a development of little use in today's international judicial system. This question is difficult to answer because it encompasses a heterogeneous reality. To arrive at an answer, it is necessary to identify the common features of these courts that appear so different. The future of internationalized courts and tribunals is also tied to their relationship with the International Criminal Court (ICC). This chapter explores whether internationalized courts and tribunals are complementary to, or in competition with, the ICC, focusing on the cases of Kosovo, Sierra Leone, Cambodia, and East Timor.