bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Labor Relations
Authors: Kelloway E. Kevin , Hepburn C. Gail , Francis Lori 
Published: September 2009

AbstractAlthough the extent of unionization may have declined in some jurisdictions, the practice of labor relations continues to have considerable impact on both individuals and organizations. On the organizational front, labor relations practice has implications for the implementation of human resource practices in organizations. For individuals, the dynamic of labor relations has been characterized as involving both conflict and change. This article reviews research on labor relations, highlighting its impact on individuals and organizations. It begins by considering the extent and nature of unionization in various jurisdictions. The article then considers the major “events” characterizing labor relations; from an individual's decision to join a union, through the negotiation of collective agreements and related strike action, to the administration and enforcement of agreement provisions via member grievances. It concludes with a review of other research assessing consequences of labor relations that are of critical importance for human resource management.
The Boundaryless Career
Authors: Inkson Kerr 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe boundaryless career type provides a model of career development that appears to have some advantages over traditional occupational or organizational models. In a changing environment, it encourages mobility, flexibility, the development of knowledge and networks, and the taking of responsibility for one's own career. The boundaryless career also resonates effectively with the temporary organization structures and “knowledge workers” becoming characteristic of the new century. It appears a particularly appropriate way of understanding careers in industries, such as film production and software development, that are based on temporary projects rather than permanent structures, but these industries may be merely extreme examples of a wider loosening and crossing of boundaries in the world of work. The organizational career is dead or dying, and boundaryless careers are representative not just of a creative elite of workers, but of the mainstream.
Old Testament
Authors: Rogerson J. W. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article reviews Old Testament scholarship during three periods: (1) up to 1945; (2) from 1945 to 1970; and (3) from 1970. Seventy years ago, the discipline was still reacting in various ways to the theory of the history of Israelite religion and sacrifice and the theory of how and when the Old Testament had been composed, which had received classical expression fifty years earlier in J. Wellhausen's Prolegomena (1883). In Germany, the discipline faced the determined attempts of the ‘German Christian’ movement to banish the study of Hebrew and the Old Testament from universities and the use of the Old Testament from Christian worship. However, the ending of the Second World War initiated a period of consolidation with strongly marked theological interests, until the emergence, in the late 1960s, of new methodologies including structuralism, literature criticism, feminist and liberation theology, deconstruction, and canonical criticism.
New Testament
Authors: Morgan Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article reviews New Testament scholarship over the last seventy years. It focuses on three scholarly generations that differ sufficiently to be labelled as times of continuation (1935–62), transition (1960s and 1970s), and innovation (1980–2005). The changing social, political, and economic environments are reflected in a tendency towards cautious theological synthesis in the first generation; theological radicalism, internationalism, and ecumenism in the second; and a new pluralism, including some retreat from or repudiation of theology, in the third.
Study of the Graeco-Roman World
Authors: Richardson Peter 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines the impact of Graeco-Roman world studies on biblical scholarship. Classical language, rhetoric, philosophy, and culture have had a continuing impact on study of the Bible since antiquity. The rise of formal biblical scholarship during the Renaissance set the study of the Bible firmly and naturally within the humanist and intellectual context of the study of the Graeco-Roman world. The development of critical biblical studies in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries triggered another major leap in the importance of classical study upon biblical studies, for virtually all scholars of theology and biblical studies then had deep classical roots. Greek and Roman languages, literatures, and histories directly and indirectly informed the study of the Bible.
Language and Translation of the New Testament
Authors: Porter Stanley E. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The language and translation of the New Testament are two closely related issues. One addresses the question of the nature and background of the language in which the New Testament was written by its original authors, and the other addresses the varied and ongoing responses to this text by those who for various reasons have found it necessary to read the New Testament in languages other than the original. This article discusses the issues surrounding the Greek of the New Testament, with reference to theories regarding other languages that may have played a part in the linguistic milieu of the New Testament. It then considers issues surrounding the rise of modern translations, especially those into English.
Ancient Versions and Textual Transmission of the Old Testament
Authors: Norton Gerard J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article first gives a schematic outline of the history of the Hebrew text in four stages. It then presents the elements that readers will meet in modern editions of that text. These modern editions find a common focus in the great Tiberian manuscripts of about 1000 CE linked with the name of ben Asher. These manuscripts are presented in conjunction with the editions. The possibility of finding variant Hebrew traditions in manuscripts from after that date is considered, and largely rejected. The discernment of differing traditions in witnesses from before 1000 CE is discussed with reference to the ancient versions and the manuscript traditions from Qumran.
Textual Transmission and Versions of the New Testament
Authors: Birdsall J. N. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article argues that the transmission of scripture has been the work of those who were primarily Christians, and must be seen in the context of their concern for the clear and true statement of the faith. They did their best to preserve the text, but saw the task in part as ensuring too that its message was comprehended. They could also make mistakes, and these were not always completely removed. It is the effects of the desire for absolute clarity, and especially for expressions that left no room for erroneous interpretation, considered useful in their day, which are today seen by a majority as hindrances to our perception of the pristine documents. However, many variant readings are early, some being errors, but others indicative of early tradition or exegesis. There is much valuable data latent in the critical apparatus as well as in the text of our modern critical editions.
Israel to the End of the Persian Period: History, Social, Political, and Economic background
Authors: Rogerson J. W. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses the social, political, and economic background of Israel to the end of the Persian period, based upon extra-biblical texts, archaeological discoveries, and anthropological models. Where appropriate, reference will be made to Old Testament material, not in order to vindicate its historical ‘truth’ through the back door, but to suggest ways of looking at it in the light of the historical and social reconstruction. The biblical narrative is silent on all but religious happenings for the first half of both the 8th and 7th centuries, as well as much of the 6th to 4th centuries. In the case of kings such as Omri, the biblical record is virtually silent on the subject of his many military achievements. However, it should not be concluded that the historical information in the biblical records is worthless; and, to be fair to the biblical editors, they refer constantly to the books of the chronicles of the kings of Judah and Israel as sources of further information.
The Life and Teaching of Jesus and the Rise of Christianity
Authors: Evans Craig A. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article reviews studies on the life and teaching of Jesus and the rise of Christianity. The beginning of critical research into the life of Jesus is traditionally traced to the posthumous publication of seven fragments of a lengthy manuscript on ‘reasonable religion’ by Hermann Samuel Reimarus (1694–1768). In the 1960s and 1970s life of Jesus research continued, but often the emphasis was placed on Jesus as a social or political figure, rather than as one relevant for faith. Some of the studies that appeared in the 1970s and 1980s, however, seem to represent a quest not governed primarily by theological or political agendas. Jewish scholars are now active participants in the discussion.
Priesthood, Temple(s), and Sacrifice
Authors: Hayward Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article draws on various biblical sources and discusses the origins and identity of the priests and the Levites, their separate duties and functions, and their status in the life of Israel as a nation under the authority of the Torah. The duties and functions of the priests in Israel included determining the will of God, sometimes through oracular means (ephod, Urim and Thummim), sometimes by their exercise of specialized knowledge; the teaching of tôrāh, offering explicit instruction in the manner in which YHWH is to be served; the setting upon YHWH's altar of the blood of animal victims, and the portions allotted to the altar; the privilege of offering incense and other non-animal offerings belonging to the category of most holy things; oversight of the purity of sanctuary, sacred objects, and worshippers; and the administration of oaths and the pronouncing of blessings in YHWH's name. The traditional records suggest that these duties varied little from one age to another. What was often at issue, however, was the question who might perform which action.
Law in the Old Testament
Authors: Wenham Gordon 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The English Bible reader understands ‘law’as the legal rulings and moral injunctions found within the Pentateuch, such as the Ten Commandments, the farming regulations of Exodus 22, the laws on sacrifice and purity in Leviticus, and the sermons of Deuteronomy. It is ‘law’ in this sense that is the focus of this article. The article also considers the administration of the law, whether by king, priest, or village elders.
Movements
Authors: Lieu Judith M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Accounts of Judaism often start from Josephus's description of the three ‘schools of thought’ (haireseis, sometimes misleadingly translated as ‘sects’), or ‘philosophies’, among the Jews, the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes. New Testament references to the Pharisees and the Sadducees seemingly confirmed this starting point, while the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, often associated with Josephus's Essenes, apparently completed the picture, although it also did much to stimulate reconsideration of Jewish faith and practice. On the other hand, Josephus also describes the Jews as holding a remarkable unity, and the tension between these two claims sets the scene for the debates about ‘unity and diversity’ that have dominated much modern scholarship.
Apocalyptic
Authors: Davies Philip 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
In the Old Testament, apocalyptic literature (or simply ‘apocalyptic’, as the genre is often called) might not seem to occupy a prominent place. Only the book of Daniel falls into this category. Despite its poor representation in the Bible, apocalyptic literature is not a fringe activity; nor are its contents peripheral to an understanding of Judaism (or Christianity, for that matter). This article focuses on the book of Daniel, the main Old Testament exemplar, and the book of 1 Enoch, which contains the earliest and in many respects most important Palestinian Jewish apocalypses.
Wisdom
Authors: Dell Katharine J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article addresses the following questions: What is this tradition of ‘wisdom’ to which the wise men ultimately belong? How far back do its roots go, and what literature specifically contains its insights? The genre of wisdom that begins with the book of Proverbs developed in a number of different directions as the canon expanded and then closed, and as the tradition continued into the Apocrypha, the Qumran documents, and the New Testament. Whilst wisdom books appear to be in a category of their own within the canon of the Old Testament, wisdom influence on other material can easily be found, even if the exchange of influence does not appear to have been two-way, at least in the earliest material. Later, however, that changed, and the boundaries between the wisdom genre and other genres became indistinct. The theological context of wisdom became increasingly important, with a significant development in Proverbs 1–9 into the realm of cosmological Wisdom, which became very significant in apocryphal material and with important theological challenges to the wisdom world-view posed by the authors of Job and Ecclesiastes, who questioned God's justice in the world in the light of human suffering and death.
Novella
Authors: Gruen Erich 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article focuses on the Jewish ‘novella’, defined as prose fiction narrating the experiences of individuals or groups, composed for entertainment but also communicating values, ideas, or guidance. The classification encompasses works as diverse as the religious fables of the book of Daniel, the morality tale of Susanna, the historical fantasy of 3 Maccabees, and the romantic/adventure story of Joseph and Aseneth. The varieties, messages, audience, and entertainment value of these novellas are discussed.
Gospels
Authors: Burridge Richard A. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The basic question of what the gospels actually are from a literary point of view should have been one of the first things biblical scholars sorted out and agreed about. However, the history of the last century or more of critical study is one in which the pendulum has swung back and forth – from a biographical approach to the gospels to considering them to be unique, and then back to biography again. In order to answer the question of the genre of the gospels properly, it is necessary to understand two key areas: the critical theory of genre and the kinds of literature contemporary with the gospels within the Graeco-Roman and Jewish worlds around the first century. This article first looks at genre theory and then sketches a brief historical overview of scholarly approaches to the gospels. This leads to the recently developing consensus that the gospels are a form of ancient biography and some current issues of debate and future directions of research.
Letters
Authors: Lieu Judith M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article focuses on New Testament (NT) letters. The development and influence of the letter-form is one of the most striking characteristics of the NT: twenty-one of the NT writings are labelled letters from early in the manuscript tradition. This sets a pattern that is consciously continued in the early Church (as already by the letters of Ignatius), and which, by the networks created and by the implicit claims to and recognition of authority, can be seen as crucial to the development of what was to become early Christianity. Although there are letters embedded within books of the Hebrew Bible, there are no books that themselves take the form of letters; however, the letters which prefix 2 Maccabees and the Letter of Jeremiah in the LXX also testify to the attraction of the genre in the Hellenistic period. Study of biblical letters, therefore, belongs to and contributes to broader debates, such as how NT literary forms are related to those of the wider Jewish or Graeco-Roman world; how their distinctiveness is to be identified and explained; and the hermeneutical problem of reading, and within the Christian tradition of treating as possessing authority, texts originally written for a specific readership and situation now accessible only through them.
Textual Criticism
Authors: Van der Kooij Arie 
Published: September 2009

AbstractSince, as is generally assumed, the biblical books in Hebrew (and Aramaic) go back to a period of a much earlier date – that of the seventh to the second centuries BCE – the question arises as to whether the text of the biblical books has been transmitted, through the ages up to its attestation in the early Middle Ages, accurately, or not. It is the task of textual criticism to examine the text's reliability from the perspective of the transmission history. This article discusses the following: the reasons why textual criticism is needed, text-critical research methods, the purpose of textual criticism, and how to realize the goal of textual criticism.
New Testament Theology
Authors: Dunn James D. G. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses the concept of New Testament (NT) theology. NT is the primary witness to the beginnings of Christian theology, and remains a primary source for Christian theology in all ages. Indeed, it can be fairly argued that the NT writings define and provide the subject matter for Christian theology, on which all subsequent Christian theologizing is ultimately commentary. And even if some would regard that last comment as something of an overstatement, it nevertheless remains an inescapable fact that the NT writings provide the literary basis for all Christian theology.
The Bible in Ethics
Authors: Davies Eryl 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article begins with a discussion of the methodological issues faced by scholars of ethics in the Old Testament and New Testament. It then identifies the basis of Old Testament ethics in law, natural law, and the imitation of God. This is followed by a discussion of New Testament ethics covering Jesus and the law, Jesus and eschatology, the background of Paul's ethics, and Paul's Christology and eschatology.
Canon
Authors: McDonald Lee Martin 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article examines the notion of canon in antiquity and its application to the writings that eventually received canonical recognition in the Jewish and Christian communities of faith. The investigation of the Hebrew Bible and the ‘First’ or ‘Old’ Testament of the Church are shown to be inextricably bound together. The lack of agreement in antiquity on the definition of a biblical canon, as well as the books that comprise it, and the inconsistency in the use of terms to describe it and its processes make any investigation of the origins and stabilization of the Bible more difficult, but some inferences and conclusions can be drawn. The article begins with a focus on the context of canon formation, and then proceeds to what can be discerned in the ancient sources.
Historical Criticism and the Authority of the Bible
Authors: Rogerson J. W. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Fifty years ago hardly anyone in academic circles doubted that the historical-critical method was the principal, if not all-sufficient, way of studying the Bible responsibly. Today the situation is quite different, and it is possible, in Anglo-American academic circles, to hear the historical-critical method described as a product of the Enlightenment that has become as suspect as the Enlightenment project itself. This situation was brought about by the revolution in biblical studies worked by contact with developments such as liberation theology, feminist criticism, and structuralism and post-structuralism. There is also another important strand in this, which is that the historical-critical method is not a monolithic and unchanging phenomenon, but an approach which has subjected itself to the self-critical scrutiny characteristic of, and necessary to, any academic discipline. The fact that, within historical criticism, many of what used to be described as ‘assured results’ have been challenged or overturned, has looked to outsiders as though the approach itself has been discredited, which is far from the truth. This article begins by describing some of the modifications that have occurred within historical criticism. It then considers attacks upon the method that have been driven by ecclesiastical concerns, which then leads to a broader consideration of the relationship between biblical criticism and the authority of the Bible, including the understanding of the Bible as ‘scripture’.
Anomalous Monism
Authors: Yoo Julie 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Anomalous monism is a view about the relationship between the mind and the body, which attempts to strike a delicate balance between the thesis of materialism, on the one hand, and the irreducibility of the mental, on the other. Its current formulation is found in Donald Davidson's landmark paper, ‘Mental Events’, and concerns only intentional states — contentful mental states, such as the belief that p, the desire that q, and other propositional attitudes. Anomalous monism consists of two theses, one concerning monism, the other concerning anomalism. The ‘monism’ part of anomalous monism is the claim that all events, including the mental ones, essentially fall under one class; namely, the class of physical events.
Idealism
Authors: Robinson Howard 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Arguments specifically for and against idealism are arguments about the nature of the physical world, not about the nature of mind. This creates a problem for a would-be author of an entry on idealism, in a collection on the philosophy of mind, if he wishes to do justice both to the topic of his chapter and to the theme of the book as a whole. This article tries to resolve this conflict. Arguments for idealism usually take the form of attempted refutations of physical realism. They therefore tend to take the form of trying to prove that, in one way or another, the existence of material objects depends directly on the existence and activity of minds, other than that of the divine creator in his act of creating.
Subjectivity
Authors: Perry John 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Subjectivity is to many philosophers what the frog is to many biologists: the object of fascination that first drew them to their discipline. The first part of this article discusses what we find there in our individual consciousness or subjectivity: experiences of various sorts, including thoughts and thoughts about thoughts and thoughts about other experiences. It also briefly considers what these things are doing there. The second part discusses whether Frank Jackson's ‘knowledge argument’ provides a good reason to doubt that all these things we find in our minds are events in and states of our brain.
Higher‐Order Theories of Consciousness
Authors: Rosenthal David M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
There are several phenomena that constitute what we call consciousness, each of which gives rise to special problems and puzzles. One is the condition people and other creatures are in when they are conscious, as against when they are, for example, asleep, knocked out, or anaesthetized. And there is the related question about what distinguishes people and other creatures that can be conscious in that way from things that can not, such as stones and trees. We may call these questions the problem of creature consciousness. There is also a question about what it is for a person or other creature to be conscious of something. We may call this phenomenon transitive consciousness.