bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Studies on Chlorinated Rubber
Authors: Yamamoto Tatsumi 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
1. In the chlorination of rubber, the products have different combined chlorine contents which depend on the time of chlorination, but the final chlorination product seems to be C10H13Cl7, i. e., contains 64.7 per cent of chlorine. The rubber molecules disaggregate with advancing chlorination and the viscosities diminish. Accordingly the viscosity of rubbers containing the same chlorine contents vary with different conditions of preparation. 2. The properties of chlorinated rubbers vary with differences in their combined chlorine content; for a product to be thermostable and have high resistance to chemicals, it must contain over 60 per cent of chlorine. 3. The best method is to dissolve the pale crepe or F. A. Q. sheet in carbon tetrachloride and pass chlorine through the solution continuously while heating at 70–80°, with agitation. The reaction product is then separated from the solvent by distillation until the last trace of the solvent is removed, and is then washed with water free from acid impurities. 4. Chlorinated rubber has a high resistance to acids and alkalies and, above all, the permeability of films to water vapor is less than that of benzylcellulose. Moreover, chlorinated rubber is not explosive, and burns with difficulty. 5. The stability of four commercial products was studied, and an imported sample which had high stability was found to contain a stabilizer. Among various stabilizers tested, urea had the most beneficial effect. 6. As to the value of chlorinated rubber for varnish, there are many reports, and it is still in an experimental stage; but it has many properties which give the hope that it may be used as a special varnish after further studies by manufacturers and consumers. 7. By molding powdered chlorinated rubber under pressure and heat, a plastic which was easily removed in a short time was made. Its mechanical and electrical properties were tested and it gave attractive products with many pigments. Chlorinated rubber can be used as substitutes for plastics such as Bakelite or ebonite.
X-Ray Study of Amorphous Rubber
Authors: Simard G. L. , Warren B. E. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The density of surrounding atoms in unstretched rubber is determined by a Fourier analysis of the x-ray scattering curve. The resulting distribution curve is in good agreement with the usual picture of rubber as comprised of long chain molecules. It is concluded that but little information can be obtained as to the configuration of the chains in unstretched rubber.
A Rapid Method for Determining Sulfur and Ash in Rubber by Ignition of the Rubber in Oxygen
Authors: Kreps B. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
1. The rapid method of determination of total sulfur and ash by ignition of rubber in a current of oxygen is not less accurate than the method of Henriques. 2. The proposed method can be used with all kinds of rubber mixtures except those containing litharge. 3. In the analysis of mixtures containing barytes, all sulfur except that contained in barytes is determined. 4. The method is particularly useful in the determination of sulfur and ash in Resinites (Thiokol), and the sulfate can be determined by the volumetric method.
An Improvement on the Williams Abrasion Tester
Authors: Ookita Tadao 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The Williams abrasion apparatus for rubber has various structural defects which are discussed. Certain improvements were therefore made. 1. It was proved experimentally that the effect of the humidity of the testing room is great, and that it is necessary to remove the abraded powder by a current of dry, compressed air. 2. It was found that emery paper can be used for five successive tests, but in this case there were 20 per cent variations, and 70-mesh carborundum whetstone was found necessary to reduce the errors. The maximum deviation with this whetstone was ±5 per cent with twenty rubber samples. If this 5 per cent deviation is acceptable, carborundum can be used for 100 hours or 300 continuous tests. 3. The spring balance was constructed with an automatic recording device in order to obtain accurate weights. This improvement and the improvement of the abrasion surface increased the precision of the original Williams apparatus. 4. It is shown that large errors are encountered in testing more than two different samples at one time, as is the case in testing metals. This seems to be connected in some way with the hysteresis of the abrasive surface.
Determination of Free Sulfur in Rubber
Authors: Oldham E. W. , Baker L. M. , Craytor M. W. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Values obtained by the volumetric method herein described compare favorably with those obtained by gravimetric methods when corrections are applied to the latter for the sulfur in the organic compounds in the acetone extract. The precision of the method is excellent, as duplicates in each set usually check within 0.01 per cent of free sulfur on the compound. This method is much faster than previous methods. The cost of the reagents is low when compared with most other methods.
The Electro-Deposition of Rubber from Revertex and Revultex
Authors: Budiloff N. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
1. It was found that to obtain satisfactory deposits at the anode from Revertex, a certain quantity of ammonia must be added to the Revertex. 2. It was found that the quantity of rubber deposited depends upon the quantity of electricity, the current density, and upon the concentration of rubber in the Revertex. 3. It was found that, among the metals studied, only zinc and cadmium or metals coated with zinc can be used for the anode. 4. The problem of obtaining on the anode faultless rubber deposits from diluted Revertex (1:1) after the addition of sulfur and fillers was solved. On the contrary, it was not possible to obtain satisfactory deposits at the anode from dilute Revultex containing fillers, with the exception of carbon black and coloring agents.
Studies in the Interfacial Relationships between Rubber and Fillers. I. The Tear Resistance of Vulcanized Rubber
Authors: Lefcaditis G. D. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
1. Interfacial affinity of rubber for fillers is suggested as mainly responsible for the phenomena of tear resistance and resistance to abrasion of vulcanized rubber mixes, whereas “reinforcement,” as indicated by increase in tensile strength and resilient energy, is thought to be caused partly by mechanical effects such as friction and thin film formation. Anisotropic fillers are particularly liable to develop such mechanical effects, and thus produce a type of reinforcement which need not necessarily imply increased resistance to wear. 2. Considerable importance is attached to the supposed fibrous network structure of rubber, indicated by recent x-ray work. Gradual destruction of the network during mastication is considered as the cause of the decrease in tear resistance of vulcanized products from overmilled rubber. Similarly the high tear resistance of latex rubber is explained by assuming the framework unimpaired. The fillers in this case are believed to play a secondary role. 3. The cause of grain effect resides in both the filler and the rubber phase. Isotropic fillers of high affinity for rubber can produce strong grain effect, due to fixation of orientated elementary rubber fibers. 4. The tear resistance and other mechanical properties of a vulcanized rubber compound are functions of the disaggregation of the rubber during milling and mixing, the speed of the accelerator, and the temperature of vulcanization. The best physical properties with any particular compound were obtained when it was either produced direct from latex or by milling in nitrogen. The faster the accelerator employed, and the lower the temperature of vulcanization, the better the physical properties of the vulcanized product.
Zinc Oxide in Rubber
Authors: Depew Harlan A. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
THERE are few secrets in the zinc industry, as in most industries, but there has been a reticence to permit the publication of articles regarding the industry that has reacted to its detriment. There is, accordingly, comparatively little literature, and much of that part of this paper that relates to the manufacture of zinc oxide is taken from carefully selected patents. The validity of many of these is questionable, since they have never been litigated, and no claims are made regarding their value except that they describe the processes used in the industry more satisfactorily than can be found elsewhere. The methods of making zinc oxide can be only outlined in the space available, and it is to be hoped that additional information will be presented by those who find the discussion incomplete.
The Influence of Rubber “Resins” in Zinc Oxide—Accelerator Mixings
Authors: Davey W. S. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
There is no doubt that the natural fatty acids in rubber have important effects on the vulcanization of many mixings containing an organic accelerator and zinc oxide. The majority of workers who have investigated these effects have confined their attention to, and drawn their conclusions from, experiments with mixings containing about 5 parts of zinc oxide per 100 parts of rubber. Martin and Davey have shown, however, that a number of accelerators which require the help of fatty acids in the presence of 5 parts of zinc oxide are very effective without fatty acids when much larger quantities of zinc oxide are present. They have suggested that the function of the fatty acids is to prevent the flocculation of the zinc oxide and so increase the surface available for reaction with the accelerator. This is important in mixings containing low proportions of zinc oxide, but not in the case of mixings containing high proportions where there is much more than sufficient zinc oxide to satisfy the requirements of the accelerator. Whitby and Evans, however, favor the view that fatty acids are generally essential to vulcanization in the presence of large quantities of zinc oxide, and that the function of the fatty acids is to form a zinc compound soluble in rubber, which is then capable of reacting with the accelerator. It is suggested that there is no reaction between insoluble zinc oxide and most accelerators.
The Constitution of Rubber
Authors: Pummerer R. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
According to the results of research which has been carried on until now, the rubber formula can hardly be formulated without a ring system. It has either a very large, closed ring of isopentene groups, or a long chain, somewhat as in Formula II, in which the terminal isoprene group has disappeared through ring formation. It is the problem of organic preparative chemistry to carry on in the most exact way the by-no-means hopeless search for the end members of the long-chain 210 natural products, and not to rely wholly upon the results of physical methods alone. The imagination of organic chemists must still more than before seek to trace the characteristic reactions of the end groups, which differ from the remaining chain members. For proteins, the determination of the increase of free terminal amino groups and carboxyl groups in cleavage reactions is already an important method of investigation, and with polysaccharides the reaction of hypoiodite with a free terminal aldehyde group has been carried out with success by Bergmann for determining the length of the chains. In the field of high molecular natural substances, which is so difficult to investigate, we shall consider a concept as certain only if it is supported equally by the results of chemical as well as physical methods of investigation.
The Behavior of Ebonite towards Organic Liquids
Authors: Scott J. R. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
(a) Experiments are described on the swelling of rubber-sulfur ebonites in numerous organic liquids, with special reference to the influence of the nature of the liquid, the ratio of rubber to sulfur and time of cure of the ebonite, and the temperature. (b) The rubber-sulfur compound constituting ebonite is not appreciably soluble in any of the liquids examined at 34° C. or in aliphatic hydrocarbon liquids at 100° C. (c) Ebonite may absorb as much as its own volume of some liquids but is quite unaffected by others. (d) The swelling curve often shows the same features as that for soft vulcanized rubber, but an important difference arises when the absorption is large, because the absorbed liquid progressively increases the diffusion constant and so changes the shape of the curve. For the same reason, also, the swelling capacity of the liquid has a greater influence than its viscosity on the time required to reach maximum absorption. (e) Increasing the combined sulfur content of the ebonite reduces the amount of liquid that it will absorb and renders the absorption much slower. In making ebonite to withstand the swelling action of organic liquids, therefore, the aim should be to obtain, by using an adequate proportion of sulfur and sufficiently long vulcanization, the highest combined sulfur content consistent with the required mechanical properties; over-vulcanization, however, may be detrimental. It should be noted that slowness of absorption is in itself an important advantage in uses involving only intermittent periods of contact with volatile liquids which can dry out again between these periods. (f) The extent to which swelling is reduced by increasing the combined sulfur content from the soft rubber stage to the ebonite stage varies greatly with the nature of the swelling liquid. Two important consequences of this are: firstly, with aliphatic hydrocarbon liquids the swelling action practically vanishes when the ebonite stage is reached; and secondly, conclusions regarding the swelling of ebonite cannot be based on data for soft rubber, because the relative swelling effects of various liquids are quite different in the two cases. (g) The inertness of aliphatic hydrocarbons such as paraffin and transformer oil towards ebonite persists at temperatures up to 100° C, that is, far above the “yield temperature” or softening point of the ebonite.
Permeability of Organic Polysulfide Resins to Hydrogen
Authors: Sager Theron P. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
A characteristic of balloon and airship fabrics which is of prime importance is that they shall be gas-tight or nearly so. The inherent tendency of hydrogen and of the more costly gas helium to diffuse through thin membranes of rubber provides the incentive for the study of the behavior of a large number of film-forming materials in a search for a more satisfactory material. Considering all of the requirements involved in this application, the permeability of the group of synthetic polymers which are characterized by elastic extensibility has been of particular interest. The general reaction between organic dihalides with—CH2Cl terminals and inorganic polysulfides yields products which in many cases are characterized as rubber-like. Martin and Patrick suggested that the structure of the polysulfide resins is that of long-chain polymers in which the radicals are connected through disulfide linkages and represented as —R—S—S—R—S—S—R—. According to their hypothesis, any additional sulfur in the material in excess of that required to provide the disulfide linkages is believed to be coördinately linked to the sulfur comprising the disulfide linkages.
Bonding
Authors: Habgood B. J. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
1. Neoprene and rubber can be bonded directly, provided that: (a) the composition of the two stocks are balanced; (b) the stocks are kept warm; (c) bonding is carried out with the minimum of delay. 2. Neoprene and rubber can be bonded by other methods which give greater latitude of working: (a) by the use of a high concentration of accelerator at the interface; (b) by the use of a tie-gum mix made from butadiene rubber (preferably sodium-polymerized); (c) by the use of mixtures of Neoprene, chloro derivatives of rubber, either alone or admixed with rubber. Partially hydrochlorinated rubber is particularly useful in this direction. 3. Synthetic rubbers can be bonded one to another or to natural rubber either directly or through the medium of sodium-butadiene rubber. 4. The bonding of rubber to metal has been considered and the main methods discussed, including bonding by means of ebonite; alloys, particularly brass; cyclorubbers, Thermoprenes, and cements. 5. The bonding of synthetic rubbers to metals has been examined and a new method of bonding Neoprene to a variety of metals, including iron, steel, aluminum, zinc, and lead, has been worked out, using a solution of chlorinated rubber as bonding agent. 6. By combining the various methods described in this paper, rubber may be bonded to metals such as aluminum without brass plating.
A Contribution to the Early History of India-Rubber. François Fresneau (1703–1770)
Authors: Hauser E. A. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
In the fall of 1936 the Revue Générale du Caoutchouc published a special issue dedicated to the memory of the French scientist La Condamine on the occasion of the bicentenary of the discovery of rubber. Quite recently the same periodical issued another special number on the occasion of the International Exposition in Paris, 1937. The title page reproduces Cochin's well-known portrait of Charles Marie de la Condamine. The first paper by Ch. Jung, entitled “History and Development of the Rubber Industry,” gives all the credit of the discovery of rubber to Condamine, and for the details refers to the publication mentioned above. In the bicentennial number, Henri de la Condamine gives a detailed biography of his ancestor, wherein the name of Fresneau as a correspondent of Condamine is mentioned in a few places. A second paper, by Auguste Chevalier, deals chronologically with the various publications presented by Condamine, and here Fresneau receives as much credit as can be justified from the contents of these papers. Finally, we owe a revival of the correspondence between Fresneau-Condamine and the French Minister of Colonies Bertin to J. Ch. Bongrand. However, when one considers the exceedingly courteous phrases and carefully couched terms characteristic of letters of that period, and bears in mind that this correspondence only refers to the last years of Fresneau's life, such documents alone cannot be taken by the historian at their full value.
Tensile Tests with Flat (Straight) Test-Specimens
Authors: Ariano R. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
It is of course a well known fact that both ring test-specimens and flat or straight test-specimens are used in testing rubber. Ring test-specimens have for a long time been the most generally used type for testing rubber mixtures, whereas in American laboratories straight test-specimens are preferred. Ring test-specimens are the more convenient to use, but they are open to one fundamental objection, that different parts of the cross section of the rubber are elongated to different extents at any particular moment. Even straight test-specimens are not free from objectionable features. With this type of test-specimen, the inequality in the deformation at any particular instant results from the necessity of having enlarged ends for the testing machine to avoid breakage of the test-specimens in the jaws. It therefore becomes necessary to study systematically the form and dimensions of the end sections of the test-specimens and of the junction of these end sections with the central section, so that the points of rupture will not become localized in the sections in the jaws or close to these sections. As a matter of fact, an extensive investigation of this problem has been made by the Physical Testing Committee of the Rubber Division of the American Chemical Society. By a proper study of the shape of the test-specimen, it is possible to design the test-specimen so that rupture occurs in the center section and therefore so that satisfactory tensile strength measurements are obtained.
X-ray Diffraction Patterns of Sol, Gel, and Total Rubber when Stretched, and when Crystallized by Freezing and from Solutions
Authors: Clark George L. , Wolthuis Enno , Smith W. Harold 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Sol, gel, and total rubber were prepared by a method which avoided the effects of light and oxygen. The total rubber when stretched and exposed to an x-ray beam behaved like other specimens, and produced the characteristic crystal fiber pattern. Stretched sol rubber produced no evidence whatever of this pattern, even at 1000 per cent elongation. With stretched gel rubber, the pattern was formed above 100 per cent elongation and at 200 per cent was sharp and intense. The measurements of interplanar spacings agree excellently with the results reported recently by Lotmar and Meyer. A large, interplanar spacing of 54 A. U. was found in the unstretched gel. It was absent in the sol. Specimens of frozen sol, gel, and total rubber were examined with a cylindrical and with a flat-film camera to compare the spacings and intensities with those of stretched gel. Within experimental error, sol, gel, and total rubber produce similar patterns. The spacings are similar to those in stretched rubber, with the exception of the (002) spacing in frozen rubber, which is 6.18 A. U. instead of 6.30 A. U., the value in stretched rubber. The pattern of gel, crystallized from solution, is similar to the patterns of stretched and frozen rubber.
The Fluorescence of Vulcanization
Authors: Oberto S. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Ultra-violet radiation of high intensity, in most cases from mercury-vapor lamps, has been employed in the rubber industry for two different purposes: (1) as a rapid, artificial aging test intended to duplicate under controlled conditions the surface changes on rubber brought about by sunlight, and (2) as a means of analysis by fluorescent light. On this last subject alone, there is rather extensive literature; in fact, almost every product, whether raw rubber, zinc oxide, accelerators plasticizing agents, antioxidants, or carbon blacks (by means of their extracts), has been examined by fluorescent light, and with at least some measure of success. However, it is much more of a problem to develop, from a qualitative test based on the equality or inequality of color and of intensity of two samples, a quantitative and therefore more precise method of evaluation. An example of this is zinc oxide, which has been examined by Nagle, Kirchhof, Morris, and Hauser. Morris was able to show that the fluorescence of this substance is evident in the ash of a vulcanizate containing it, provided that the rubber sample is incinerated under carefully controlled conditions. But for a given process of manufacture, the fluorescence of a zinc oxide varies with its fineness.