bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Comnenus, Alexius I (ca. 1055–1118)
Authors: Frankopan Peter 
Published: November 2011

AbstractAlexius I Comnenus (or Alexios I Komnenos) rebuilt the Byzantine Empire in the wake of a series of disasters. In the decade before he seized the throne in 1071, Byzantium had lost control of vast tracts of territory in the East and the West, with Turks pouring into Asia Minor following the Battle of Manzikert (1071), and Normans bringing to an end centuries of imperial authority over southern Italy with the capture of Bari (1071). The empire had all but disintegrated in the years which followed, with one civil war after another and the economy collapsing to breaking point. Alexius's success lay first in stabilizing a precarious position, and second, in building a platform for the future.
Cossacks
Authors: Rourke Shane O' 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In late 1864 Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederacy, sought to rally his demoralized forces, telling them that “The fate that befell the army of the French Empire in its retreat from Moscow will be re‐enacted. Our cavalry and our people will harass and destroy his army, as did the Cossacks with Napoleon, and the Yankee general, like him, will escape only with a bodyguard” (McPherson 2003: 810). No introduction or further explanation was necessary, for the Cossacks had long been a byword for heroic warriors across the globe. That global reputation was forged in the service the Cossacks had provided to the Russian Empire in its various wars and, above all, in the destruction of the Grande Armée in 1812. The Cossack military tradition was, however, already centuries old by this point and was rooted in the world of the steppe and the nomadic Turkic peoples who lived there.
Crossbow
Authors: Gervase Phillips 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The crossbow is a projectile weapon composed of a bow (or lath) attached horizontally to a stock, along which runs a groove from which the bolt or quarrel (a missile of about 40 centimeters in length) is shot. The bow string is drawn down the stock and held in place, as the weapon is aimed, by a nut protruding from the top of the stock, which can then be released by a simple trigger mechanism.
Crusade, Second (1147–1149)
Authors: Marvin Laurence W. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
To see the Second Crusade as merely a sequel to the First Crusade is to ignore that its inspiration, preaching, leadership, course, and result differed greatly from its eleventh‐century ancestor. Numbered only by modern scholars, the Second Crusade has drawn less scholarly attention than the other major Crusades. This is because of the nature of the source material and the Crusade's ambiguous outcome. Twelfthcentury writers were reluctant to talk about a movement begun with such promise yet which seemingly accomplished so little.
Crusade, Fourth (1202–1204)
Authors: Laurence W. Marvin 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Fourth Crusade had its beginnings because of the Third Crusade's failure to regain Jerusalem after its fall in 1187. When Innocent III became pope in 1198, he made recovery of Jerusalem a top priority as he preached a new Crusade. After more than a century of Crusades, Muslim states were well aware of the Crusaders' goal. From the start the Crusade planners opted for an unexpected target, hoping to exchange it for Jerusalem. The organizers initially planned to capture Alexandria in Egypt, a city of great economic importance in the Muslim world. On paper this Crusade was to be well organized, though for a variety of personal and political reasons no other monarch joined except for Enrico Dandolo, doge of the Venetian state. Several of the leading nobles of France sent envoys to Venice to act on their behalf in 1201. The most notable was Geoffrey of Villehardouin, marshal of Champagne. He wrote a first‐hand account from the treaty negotiations with Venice until after Constantinople's conquest in 1204.
De Gaulle, Charles (1890–1970)
Authors: Cogan Charles 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Charles de Gaulle was born at Lille on November 22, 1890. He was the fourth, and the tallest (6 ft 5 ins) in a family of four boys and one girl. The family some generations back belonged to the so‐called
noblesse de robe
, not blood nobility but rather those who were given juridical‐related positions under the French kings. De Gaulle's father, Henri, was a history teacher in a French lycée, a position of dignity and prestige traditionally in France. He was a teacher in a Jesuit school, which necessitated the young Charles migrating for a year to Belgium to continue his studies, following the anti‐clerical laws in France passed in 1905.
Dionysius I (432–367 BCE)
Authors: Bearzot Cinzia 
Published: November 2011

AbstractDionysius, son of Hermocritus and member of the faction of his father‐in‐law Hermocrates, the Syracusan oligarchic leader and aspiring tyrant who died in 407 BCE, was a cultivated, talented, and ambitious man. He turned into a tyrant in 406/5 when the assembly granted him the title ofstrategos autokratorfor the war against the Carthaginians who were menacing Syracuse. Assisted by mercenaries, Dionysius transformed the office of strategos into a form of tyranny characterized by strong military support and by a direct relationship with the population and the army. As common in the tradition of the Siceliots ever since the Dinomenids, Dionysius employed mercenaries on a large scale, whose service he won by his charisma as a military leader, by awarding them lands (taken from the Chalcidian cities of Naxos, Leontini, and Catana), and by allowing citizenship rights.
Dmitrii Donskoi (1350–1389)
Authors: John Lind 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In 1359, at the age of 9, Dmitrii succeeded his father on the Muscovite throne. Three years later Dmitrii, supported by the Russian Church, managed to be given the title and office of grand prince of Vladimir by the Mongol khan, who presumably saw the youngster as a minor threat to Mongol domination. As grand prince, Dmitrii was responsible for collecting taxes to the Mongols from all the Russian principalities, which, if necessary, he could enforce with the help of Mongol forces. It gave him supreme authority among the Russian princes and also allowed him to cash in on his own behalf. Nevertheless, during his early years he had to fight off more senior rivals for the title of grand prince, just as he had to defend himself against constant inroads from fast‐expanding Lithuania. However, Dmitrii proved a skillful politician, and during the 1370s he was able to create alliances with other Russian princes, who had formerly opposed him. By then Dmitrii must also have felt ready to challenge the Mongols.
Egyptian Revolution (1952)
Authors: Witty David M. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Egyptian Revolution of 1952 ended foreign domination of Egypt and marked the first time that Egyptians would rule themselves since the pharaohs. The revolution, carried out by military officers led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, would change Egypt by ending British occupation and the rule of Ottoman elites, and by establishing economic socialism. More importantly, Nasser would lead the Arab world under the banner of Pan‐Arabism, which aimed to unite all Arabs. Israel's decisive defeat of Egypt in the Six‐Day War of June 1967 marked the end of the Nasser era.
Faidherbe, Louis (1818–1889)
Authors: Barnett Singer 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Louis Léon César Faidherbe was an enlightened French imperial administrator and an accomplished military figure. He influenced the actions of future French proconsuls abroad, such as Generals Joseph Galliéni and Hubert Lyautey, and French imperial efforts more generally. Under Napoleon III's Second Empire, Faidherbe spearheaded a great push eastward from French bases on the Senegalese coast, leading eventually (if partly by improvisation of later military men) to creation of a huge French West Africa. In so doing, Faidherbe overcame dictatorial Islamic empires and groups in western Africa, both by brutal methods of colonial warfare learned during his time under Thomas‐Robert Bugeaud in Algeria in the 1840s, and by protective fairness, security, and improved infrastructure. A dedicated scholar of African languages, Faidherbe was an authentic intellectual, as well as a soldier of quality and respected administrator; and some historians emphasize his cultured side (e.g., Rivallain 2006: 143–149). Learning from his military experiences in Africa, he became one of the most capable French generals during the Franco‐Prussian War of 1870–1871. He is also renowned as the founder of a celebrated French colonial military corps, the Tirailleurs Sénégalais.
Female combatants
Authors: Goldstein Joshua S. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Female combatants are women soldiers serving in fighting roles in uniformed or irregular military forces. Women across cultures and through time have rarely participated in war as combatants. However, when they have fought, women have performed well. Important cases include the nineteenth‐century Dahomey kingdom, the Soviet Union in World War II, various irregular forces, and US forces in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Fornovo, Battle of (1495)
Authors: Mantovani Sergio 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The first part of the French invasion of Italy in 1494–1495 was a success. The Italian states, politically divided as they were, found no unity to stop the young French king, Charles VIII, in his descent towards southern Italy. In February 1495 Charles conquered Naples. A month later Milan, Venice, the pope, Spain, and Emperor Maximilian I formed a league against France. In the second half of May the French began an inland retreat toward their country, leaving some detachments to defend Naples and its conquered kingdom.
Fortifications, Development of
Authors: Murray Nicholas 
Published: November 2011

AbstractFortification exists for a reason. It is used because there is a threat of some sort, whether perceived or real. Without that threat, there would be no need to spend time and resources constructing defenses. Ever since humankind emerged, one of the main problems faced was that of protecting vital resources. Once early humans started to settle, as agriculture began to supersede hunter gathering, they were increasingly also concerned with protecting the resources they had accumulated. Fortifications do this. They also provide more than a mere barrier to an enemy. They fulfill a number of purposes: they act as a force multiplier, allowing fewer troops to engage larger numbers of the enemy, or poorer quality troops to stand and fight. Fortifications provide a secure base and help to secure, or control, lines of communications. They provide, and reinforce, key tactical and strategic points. Further, they protect or dominate an area and they provide physical protection for troops manning them (Murray 2007: 28). There are myriad examples of the above uses, ranging from the Great Wall of China, to the Roman fortifications along the Danube River, and to fortified home sites such as the brochs in Scotland. It should not be forgotten that they can also fulfill a political role; fortifications demonstrate control, and they can act as a symbol of power.
Frederick Barbarossa (1122–1190)
Authors: Holger Berwinkel 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
It might seem curious to rank the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick I Barbarossa among the most important military leaders of his age, since many of his ventures were unsuccessful. But for almost forty years, Frederick dominated the scene and employed large military resources in pursuit of ambitious goals with considerable skill, though political reasons and tactical misfortune often thwarted his plans. His career illustrates the potential and the limits of strategy in the central Middle Ages.
French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802)
Authors: Forrest Alan 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
It may seem a supreme paradox that a revolution which preached the liberty of humankind should have devoted so much of its energy to waging war. Less than three years, indeed, after the Estates‐General assembled at Versailles, Europe was plunged into a conflict that would last, with only a short truce at Amiens, until Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo, 23 years later. The first phase of that conflict, from 1792 until 1802, is usually referred to as the French Revolutionary Wars.
Fuller, Major General John Frederick Charles (1878–1966)
Authors: Holiden Reid Brian 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

A pioneering military thinker, Fuller was born on September 1, 1878 in Chichester, Sussex. He was educated at Malvern College and the Royal Military College Sandhurst, and in 1898 commissioned into the 1st Battalion, Oxfordshire Light Infantry. Fuller saw service in Ireland, South Africa (1899–1902), and India (1903–1906). On returning to England he befriended the occultist, Aleister Crowley; his first book,
The Star in the West
(1907), discusses Crowley's mystical poetry. The mysteries of “hidden wisdom” were a lifelong pre‐occupation. Also in 1906 he married Margarethe Augusta Karnatz (d. 1968), always known as Sonia.
Galliéni, General Joseph (1849–1916)
Authors: Greenhalgh Elizabeth 
Published: November 2011

AbstractA well‐known and respected figure in France's nineteenth‐century colonial expansion, General Galliéni came out of retirement on the outbreak of war in 1914 and served as military governor of Paris and later as minister of war until his death in May 1916. He exemplifies both the rivalries in the French army during World War I and the struggle to achieve a satisfactory balance in civil—military relations in wartime.
Gamelin, General Maurice (1872–1958)
Authors: Singer Barnett 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Maurice Gamelin is best known as commander in chief of the French army in 1940, and as such, considered one key reason that France fell so quickly to the lightning German invasion beginning May 10 of that year. Though replaced by General Maxime Weygand on May 19, many feel that Gamelin's weak leadership and strategic errors had already made the defeat inevitable.
German Unification, Wars of (1864–1871)
Authors: Wawro Geoffrey 
Published: November 2011

AbstractGermany was not a nation until 1871. Napoleon Bonaparte had abolished the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and carved the German space into French‐allied satellite states. At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the victorious powers returned Germany to Austrian and Prussian control. Prussia absorbed the French satellite states on the Rhine, and Austria assumed the presidency of a new German Confederation orBundof 39 states. TheBund's mission was largely negative: not to unite the three dozen German states, but to deny their wealth and resources to a single great power. Hateful to German nationalists, the “confederation of princes” was nevertheless a pillar of the European balance of power.
Glyn Dŵr, Owain (Owen Glendower) (1359–1416)
Authors: Brough Gideon 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Born of Welsh noble lineage in Powys ca. 1359, Owain was a warrior and one of Europe's great guerilla leaders who, briefly, overthrew English rule in Wales. Although lauded by bards and poets as Wales's savior from occupation, Owain displayed no early appetite for revolt. He studied law at the Inns of Court in London and fought under English colors, twice in Scotland and finally in Flanders in 1387 under the earl of Arundel. Owain then sought quiet retirement in Powys.
Golden Spurs, Battle of the (1302)
Authors: DeVries Kelly 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
For several years King Philip IV (the Fair) of France had faced rebellion in his very wealthy Low Countries' County of Flanders, fueled mostly by the citizens of the larger towns desiring more political and economic sovereignty. Even imprisoning the count, Guy de Dampierre, had not quelled Flemish ardor. In May 1302 the king named one of his military leaders, James, Count of St. Pol, as governor of the county and sent him, with his chief advisor and negotiator, Pierre Flote, and an armed force, into Bruges to negotiate a peace with the townspeople.
Greco‐Turkish War (1897)
Authors: Pizzo David 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The Greco‐Turkish War, also referred to as the Thirty Days' War, was an armed conflict fought between the Kingdom of Greece and the Ottoman Empire. The war began initially over the unresolved issue of the island of Crete, with which many Greeks desired
enosis
, or union. The war represented the debut of the armed forces of independent Greece. While the conflict was ultimately a military disaster for the Greek Kingdom, it did result in special, autonomous status for the island under a Greek high commissioner. The Cretan revolt that provoked the conflict and the war itself also profoundly changed the ethnic composition of the island, which until that point had been a point of contention between Greece and the Ottomans in a manner similar to that presented by Cyprus in the twentieth century.
Greek Civil War (1944–1949)
Authors: Pizzo David 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Greek Civil War was a conflict fought between communist and anti‐communist forces in Greece in the wake of World War II. It resembled struggles elsewhere in Europe that followed liberation from Axis rule, though it stands out in terms of its intensity and destructiveness. “The Greek civil war was Europe's bloodiest conflict between 1945 and the breakup of Yugoslavia, and a turning point in the Cold War” (Mazower 2001: 7). The war ended in a victory for royalist and anti‐communist forces and determined the balance of power in the Aegean for the rest of the Cold War.
Haganah
Authors: Bregman Ahron 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Haganah, which means “Defense” in Hebrew, was a Jewish underground militia in British‐ruled Palestine. It was established in June 1920 following Arab attacks on the
Yishuv,
the Jewish community in Palestine, and it was aimed at providing the Palestinian Jewish community with a self‐defense organization that could reduce dependency on the British army for protection. The first volunteers to join the Haganah were mostly veterans of the Jewish Legion and Zion Mule Corps, who had fought with the British in World War I, and veterans of the Ha'shomer organization that had been formed in Palestine in 1907 to guard Jewish settlements.
Huerta, Victoriano (1850–1916)
Authors: Herrera José María 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Victoriano Huerta was a general in the Mexican army during the regime of Porfirio Díaz and subsequently served as the president of Mexico from February 1913 until his resignation on July 15, 1914. Huerta was born to Mexican Indian parents in the town of Colotla‘ n in the central state of Jalisco. Little is known of his childhood education and experiences, although it can be discerned that he was of above‐average intelligence and had some measure of leadership skills. He entered military service in 1869 as an aide to General Donato Guerra.
Innocent IV, Pope (ca. 1200–1254)
Authors: Neff Stephen.C 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Sinibaldo Fieschi was born, around 1200, into a Genoese noble family. In 1243 he became Pope Innocent IV. In this Golden Age of lawyer–popes, he was the most learned of all. Prior to his elevation to the papacy, he taught canon law at the University of Bologna and also served as a judge in the papal curia, becoming particularly prominent in the pontificate of Pope Gregory IX. He became cardinal–priest and vice‐chancellor in 1227, then governor of the March of Ancona (a papal possession) before being elected to the see of St. Peter. During his papacy he completed his major legal work, which was a commentary on the decretals of his predecessor, Gregory IX. He continued to work in a dual capacity as pope, doing commentaries as a scholar on legislation which he himself promulgated as pope.
Jingoism
Authors: Miller Stephen M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Among the more important transformations to take place in nineteenth‐century Europe was the development of an aggressive ethnic chauvinism, often coupled with the new Social Darwinist rhetoric of the day, which partnered with willing conservative governments and a mass market whose newspaper publishers discovered that they could influence policy while turning a profit at the same time. The language of this new patriotism was utilized by politicians like British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli to sell a political, economic, and social agenda, traditionally embraced by the landed classes, to an everwidening electorate. Many in Great Britain who had rejected the growing militarism found on the Continent in the wake of the Franco‐Prussian War (1870–1871) now shamelessly lauded its virtues, tying it to a British exceptionalism and a new imperialism, which saw the rapid expansion of their overseas empire. “Jingoism” was the term used to describe this cultural phenomenon by those who feared the culmination of these forces and felt the middle and working classes were being unfairly manipulated by the Conservatives against their own self‐interest.
Kabalega (Kabarega) of Bunyoro (ca. 1853–1923)
Authors: Reid Richard 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Kabalega, ruler of the kingdom of Bunyoro between 1870 and 1898, was one of the major figures in late nineteenth‐century eastern Africa, noted for both his remarkable military reforms and the prolonged resistance he offered to the British during their conquest of Uganda. His father was Kamurasi, ruler from 1852 to 1869, whose death sparked a succession struggle; Kabalega, whose support was drawn mostly from the army and the peasantry, was pitched against his elder brother Kabigumire, who was the candidate favored by the traditional nobility. Kabalega emerged victorious from the civil war in 1870, and two key themes would consequently dominate his reign, namely his reliance on military force to engender change in Bunyoro, and his attempt to restrict the power of the kingdom's great chiefly families. Kabalega inherited a kingdom in decline: he sought to reverse this process both militarily and politically, and also by taking advantage of the burgeoning commerce in slaves and ivory.
King, Admiral Ernest J. (1878–1956)
Authors: Bradford James C. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
As both Commander in Chief, US Fleet (CominCh) and Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), Admiral King was the senior US naval commander and the chief US naval strategist during World War II. Prior to American entry into the war, King, as commander of the US Atlantic Fleet, directed American anti‐submarine operations against Nazi Germany, a role he continued to fill as commander of the US Tenth Fleet, a purely operational headquarters established on May 20, 1943.
King William's War (1688–1699)
Authors: Pulsipher Jenny Hale 
Published: November 2011

AbstractKing William's War is the American name for the transatlantic conflict known in Europe as the War of the League of Augsburg or Nine Years' War (1689–1697). King William's War actually began a year earlier than the European war, as a struggle between Native Americans and English settlers in northern New England, and was then absorbed into the larger hostilities. Thus, it became the first in a string of American wars that would draw Indians into international contests as allies of European powers.
League of Augsburg, War of the (1688–1697)
Authors: McLAY K. A. J. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractIt is surely appropriate for a conflict which was simultaneously provincial and global in its origin and scope that the War of the League of Augsburg is variously called the War of the Grand Alliance, the Palatinate extend French control throughout the duke's lands in the duchy of Savoy, a point underlined by the capture of Susa in early November.
Lepanto, Battle of (1571)
Authors: Morillo Stephen 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Battle of Lepanto, which took place on October 7, 1571 between the naval forces of the Holy League, an alliance of Habsburg Spain, Venice, the papacy, and other allies on one side, and the navy of the Ottoman Empire on the other, was the last great naval battle between oared warships in the Mediterranean.