bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The International Marine Minerals Society
Authors: Verlaan P. 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
The Code for Environmental Management of Marine Mining (the Code) is necessary because there is little national regulation of marine mining, especially beyond the territorial sea, and other than the work by the International Sea Bed Authority in the Area, almost none in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (ABNJ).
The Code was adopted in 2001 by the International Marine Minerals Society (IMMS) following extensive and wide-ranging consultation. The Code provides a framework and benchmarks for development and implementation of an environmental program for a marine exploration or extraction site by marine mining companies, and for stakeholders in governments, nongovernmental organizations and communities in evaluating actual and proposed applications of environmental programs at marine mining sites. The Code also assists in meeting the marine mining industry's requirement for regulatory predictability and minimization of risk, including environmental regulations and risks, and in facilitating financial and operational planning.
The Code provides for its periodic review by IMMS with a focus on modifications based on experience with its implementation and in light of developments in the field of marine mining and associated environmental practices, in consultation with the marine mining industry and with other stakeholders in marine mining operations.
The first review of the Code is now in progress. It has been circulated widely with a request for comments in particular with regard to the focus set out above. It was also assessed in the context of other mining codes from e.g., the Minerals Council of Australia, the International Council on Mining and Metals, and the International Seabed Authority, and it was examined under the international law of the sea and international environmental law.
The proposed revised draft Code, reflecting the comments received and the analysis described above, is presented. Input is welcome until 31 May 2010. Its adoption is expected in October 2010. For the foreseeable future, the IMMS Code will be the only international instrument designed specifically to guide environmentally responsible deep sea mining. It is likely to serve as an example when legally binding legislation is eventually introduced.
SS: Subsalt imaging using wide azimuth data
Authors: Kapoor S. Jerry , Moldoveanu Nick , Vigh Denes 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
Prestack depth migration and wide-azimuth towed-marine acquisition provided step-change improvements in subsalt imaging during the last decade. Incremental enhancements in image quality were also provided by the development of processing algorithms like one-way wave equation (WEM), two-way wave equation (RTM) and true-azimuth 3D surface multiple attenuation (GSMP) (Dragoset et al., 2008). These compute intensive technologies are now routinely available due to cost effective compute capacity and fast algorithms.

Introduction
In general the industry has made tremendous improvements in the quality of subsalt images, however there are challenging areas where the imaging is still quite poor and needs further advances in technology.
Progress has also been made in building better velocity models with azimuthal tomography, introduction of TTI anisotropy combined with other seismic and non seismic measurements such as VSP's, Well logs, MMT, Gravity, geomechanical stress fields and basin modeling. However interpreting and incorporating salt geometry into the velocity model is the weakest link in our ability to consistently image subsalt sediments.
Although the current wide azimuth data sets provide better illumination of complex salt geometry and subsalt data they still fail to illuminate in many challenging areas especially at steep dips.

The Next Chapter
The industry needs another step change in improving illumination by acquiring data at all azimuths and longer offsets instead of just wide azimuth at current offset configurations of 8 × 4 km. Current datasets are also lacking in low frequencies where the subsalt signal is strongest.
So, the next step is to raise the WAZ technology to a new level by implementing a dual-coil acquisition design. This can enable the recording of full-azimuth data with a 14 × 14-km offset range. Indeed, such a program has been identified for the Gulf of Mexico. In that program, the sources and receivers will be towed at depths appropriate to optimize low-frequency content (Moldoveanu and Kapoor, 2009).
3D finite-difference (FD) modeling of the SEG advanced modeling (SEAM) model shows the illumination improvements obtained by full-azimuth 14 × 14-km data vs. wide-azimuth 8 × 4-km data.
AKPO: Early Completion of a Giant Nigerian Deep Offshore Development
Authors: Rafin Francois 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
Akpo field was discovered in January 2000 and production started ahead of schedule in March 2009 in block OML 130, 200 km offshore Nigeria in 1400 m water depth.
Akpo reservoirs exist in a 620 million recoverable barrels accumulation of a critical fluid made of very light oils up to 53° API and classified as condensate, with well head shut-in pressures up to 430 bars, fluid temperature up to 116 °C at the wellhead and very high GLR. AKPO is not only a giant condensate field, but also a gas field with 1Tcf planned gas export. Plateau production is 175,000 bbls/day of condensate for offshore loading to tankers and 320 mmscfd of gas exported by pipeline to Bonny NLNG plant, onshore Nigeria.
The AKPO field development scheme was described in the SPE document OTC-18816-PP " AKPO: A Giant Deep Offshore Development??, presented at OTC 2007.
The AKPO project faced the challenges of combining gigantism, new technological frontiers, world scale industrial execution, scarcity of resources in booming years for the offshore industry and setting new records of local content in an unstable Niger Delta.
This paper provides an insight into how TOTAL as Operator responded to these many challenges, in association with the contractors and vendors.Gigantism and new technological frontiersDevelopment of metallurgy solutionsQualification programsRisk managementSharing the risk with contractorsLocal content and Niger Delta threatsNew players in the global marketSimultaneous operations rescue late project
TOTAL, with 24% interest, is the operator on OML 130 on behalf of PETROBRAS of Brazil, SAPETRO of Nigeria, CNOOC of China and NNPC of Nigeria.
AKPO: The Subsea Production System
Authors: Nelson Stuart Graham 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
It has been said " All deep water offshore projects are challenging??. Nowhere in the world do projects have such high commercial pressures as those which take on the challenge of Deep Water. Rarely if ever can it be said that any one field is a repeat of another. Each therefore raises its own issues which each development must solve anew. Some lessons are the same, and we forget them at our peril. Some are new challenges, and we then call on our experience of the past to rise to meet them, and hence all our experience is necessary. In the case of Akpo, many of the issues were totally new and we called on all of our experience of Deep Water fields in the Gulf of Mexico and West Africa.
The Akpo field in block OML 130, 200 km offshore Nigeria is in 1400 m water depth. It is a gas/condensate field with high pressures and high temperatures. One of the greatest challenges is to ensure that condensate and gas in multiphase flow reach the production facilities without being stopped by hydrates and wax and scale deposition. The technical challenges alone are significant, but when set against the background of increasing oil prices and high commercial pressure on the suppliers from more than one operator and more than one field, the challenges take on a new dimension. Added to that for Akpo were the issues of resources of personnel and manufacturing capacity in a very buoyant market as well as the new challenge of manufacturing in Nigeria.
This paper also addresses the challenges of the Subsea Production System of the AKPO development. It shows how the conceptual design principles are encapsulated in the simple acronym - RAM and how these lead to some key issues.
The second most important issue facing all Subsea decisions is the fact that the cost of installation - whether by Drilling Rig or by Installation Vessel - FAR exceeds (in most cases) the cost of the equipment itself. Added to that is the cost of the lost production. This cost is effectively tripled if equipment has to be retrieved and then re-installed. No Subsea Engineer ever wants to see their equipment return to the surface. Nevertheless - things do go wrong even on a single well - and in a system as large as Akpo, the opportunities for something to go wrong increase. Such is the inevitable nature of large Systems. The ability to recover and install was seen as vital. Design for installation was a vital strategy in the design process. This lead to design in order to minimize installation - and retrieval - costs.
The overall Field Layout, showing the full subsea network and its connection to the FPSO is shown in Figure 1.
Material Assessment for Souring Subsea Systems
Authors: Ramirez Felipe A. , Hill Rick , martinez Soifa 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
Material selection for subsea pipelines and equipments for the cases where the well fluid analysis shows elevated levels of H2S (sour service) has been extensively studied and documented during the past years. However, several cases have been reported where the fluid analysis at the start up stage does not show evidence of H2S but the risk of sour production is still present. There are two main causes for this to occur:typically, the resolution of the gas composition measurement is only valid down to 0.01 mole% (100 ppm) leaving the possibility of H2S being present in amounts between 0-99 ppm presenting potential sour conditions for high pressure systems.The H2S contents can increase during production when water injection systems are used to pressure-support the production reservoir. Seawater injection increases the H2S levels on the fluid due to microbial activity.
This paper addresses the risk associated with sour systems which were not designed for such service. The paper presents a project specific study where the presence of H2S was determined after the system was built. A material risk assessment was performed to determine the suitability of the system. The purpose is to share the lessons learned and to provide guidelines for the material assessment of souring production systems.

Introduction
Corrosion produced by hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in oil and gas production, referred to as sour corrosion, has been recognized and extensively studied for several years. The presence of H2S in the produced fluids not only generates general corrosion but also can lead to hydrogen embrittlement and cracking making the material prone to catastrophic failure. When the produced fluid is regarded as sour, the risk of hydrogen embrittlement failures due to sulfide stress cracking (SSC) or hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) may support the selection of highly priced materials reflected in abundant cost penalty on the initial capital expenditure (CAPEX) [1,2].
Several systems on the North Sea and Gulf of Mexico have been designed for sweet service (i.e. H2S is not present) since the fluid analysis at the start up stage did not show evidence of H2S. However, it has been reported that several of these systems have experienced the presence of H2S afterwards [2-5]. There are two main reasons for this to occur:Usually, the gas composition measurement resolution is only valid down to 0.01 mole% (100 ppm) and, therefore, there is the possibility of H2S being present in amounts between 0-99 ppm presenting potential sour conditions for high pressure systems.
AKPO Project Start-Up and Operation
Authors: Fournie Francois 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACT
Akpo field is located in block OML 130, 200 km offshore Nigeria in 1400 m water depth. At plateau production, Akpo produces 175,000 bbls/day of condensate and exports 320 mmscfd of gas to Bonny NLNG plant. It is the first Deep Offshore development for TOTAL in Nigeria, soon to be followed by Usan (currently in Construction phase) and Egina (currently in Basic Engineering phase).
Akpo reservoirs contain 620 million barrels recoverable reserves of a critical fluid made of very light oil up to 53° API and classified as condensate, with wellhead shut-in pressures up to 400 bars, wellhead temperatures up to 116 °C and very high GLR (Gas Liquid Ratio). AKPO is not only a giant condensate field, but also a gas field with 1Tcf planned gas export.
The Akpo Operations team has contributed to all the field development phases, from Pre-Project, Basic Engineering, Project execution (sanctioned on 25th April, 2005) to the Start-Up and Operation in a truly integrated manner with the Reservoir, Drilling and all the Project package teams.
Akpo achieved first production on 4th March, 2009, ahead of schedule, and completed the ramp-up of all the subsea and topsides facilities within only 3.5 months from the initial start-up date.
This paper presents the strategy and organization put in place by Akpo Operations to meet in a timely manner the challenges encountered for the preparation and actual start-up / ramp-up of the field, together with the actual operational performance achieved. It addresses in particular the key aspects of:The Operations organization and its evolution to adapt to the various Project locations during all phases and to match the progress pace in order to ensure full readiness for the production start-up target dateThe Operations technical preparation activities, focusing on project engineering input and validation, together with dedicated operations engineering deliverablesThe human resources mobilization and the associated training effort for the Nigerian operatorsThe management of the Site Operations during the offshore installation and hook-up / commissioning phases in Nigeria and the performance achieved in terms of coordination efficiencyThe actual production Start-Up and Ramp-Up performance and the associated lessons learned.

AKPO DEVELOPMENT
TOTAL is the Operator on OML 130 with a 24% interest. The partners are Petrobras of Brazil, Sapetro of Nigeria, CNOOC of China and NNPC of Nigeria.
Akpo is a standalone development based on a spread moored Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO) moored in 1314m water depth with a storage capacity of 2 million barrels of condensate. The stabilized condensate is exported via offloading lines and a deep water buoy located 2 km away from the FPSO.
Mirage Field Multi-Column Deep Draft Floating Platform: Graving Dock Construction and Hull Fabrication
Authors: Ocker Colin , Bordlee Corey 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
In the fourth quarter of 2006 the first prototype multi-column deep draft floating platform (DDFP) was contracted for fabrication. The hull is a patented deep-draft floating production system with three vertical columns arranged in a triangular shape. The hull looks like a semisubmersible but behaves like a spar in terms of stability and dynamic response to waves.
With the development on the " fast track??, construction began while the details of the hull were still being designed. This presented numerous opportunities for the project team to overcome. One of the initial problems that needed to be solved was how to launch hull into the water. The project team decided to construct a graving dock, the largest of its kind on the U.S. Gulf Coast. The graving dock construction began in April 2007 and was complete in February 2008.
In January 2007 hull fabrication began. The hull was fabricated in smaller subassemblies that included the upper column, lower column, pontoons, lower raft, and the access trunks. These sections were fabricated in various locations using jigs and panel lines. The smaller subassemblies were then joined to form larger subsections.
As the subsections were completed, they were assembled in the graving dock. Each section lift weighed between 450 and 3,000 short tons and were lifted using various combinations of spreader bars, crawler cranes, lifting towers and strand jacks.
After fabrication was completed, the graving dock was flooded, the front wall of the dock was removed and the hull was ready for tow.
Well Design Requirements For Deepwater And Arctic Onshore Gas Hydrate Production Wells
Authors: Hancock Steven H. , Moridis George J. , Robertson Alexandra , Wilson Scott 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
Gas hydrate wells will have a number of production challenges, including maintaining commercial gas flows with high water production rates; operating with low temperatures and low pressures in the wellbore; flow assurance issues including hydrates and freezing in the wellbore; controlling formation sand production into the wellbore; and ensuring well structural integrity with reservoir subsidence and/or changes in geo-mechanical properties along the wellbore. This paper addresses these production issues and outlines the design requirements for typical deepwater and arctic onshore gas hydrate production wells.

Background
Methane gas hydrates are solid crystalline compounds of water and methane gas, in which the molecules of methane occupy the lattices of ice-like crystal structures. Methane hydrates can form and accumulate in sandstones, shales, or silts, where methane and water is present under the necessary conditions of low temperature and high pressure, as illustrated in the following figure. Hydrates can occupy the pore spaces of sands and silts, and can also be found in fractures or lenses, and in some cases can act as the matrix supporting sediments. In North America, onshore gas hydrates can be found under permafrost in the US and Canadian Arctic regions, and offshore gas hydrates can be found in the deepwater margins around the continent. Internationally, offshore methane hydrates have been discovered in deepwater margins in many locations around the world. There has been no consistent effort to map and evaluate this resource on a global scale; therefore, current estimates of gas in place volumes vary widely, possibly up to many thousands of TCF (Moridis 2010). Given the sheer magnitude of the resource, ever increasing global energy demand, and the finite volume of conventional fossil fuel reserves, gas hydrates are emerging as a potential energy source for a growing number of nations, even if only a small portion of gas hydrates can be economically recovered. The attractiveness of gas hydrates is further enhanced by the environmental desirability of natural gas as opposed to solid or liquid fuels. Thus, the appeal of gas hydrates accumulations as future hydrocarbon gas sources is rapidly increasing and their production potential clearly demands technical and economic evaluation. The past decade has seen a marked acceleration in gas hydrate research and development.
Development Of Mirage & Telemark Fields - Classification And Regulatory Considerations Applied To An Innovative Concept
Authors: Feijo Luiz Paulo , Frazer George Ross , Parker Wanda June 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
To meet the challenges imposed by the production of oil and gas from deepwater fields in increasingly harsher environments, new concepts of floating production facilities have been developed in recent years. These facility concepts have the ultimate goal of providing more cost effective solution through simplified construction processes, coupled with more efficient operational characteristics. They may present new technologies for which no directly applicable classification or regulatory requirements exist. To overcome the regulatory constraints, classification societies have to adapt existing requirements to the new designs to allow their development and not dampen the innovation process.
The development of the ATP Titan floating production installation for the Mirage and Telemark deepwater fields in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico using the MinDOC3 concept illustrates the process of defining the appropriate regulatory framework to be applied throughout the project. The MinDOC3 is a new concept developed for deepwater applications intended for fabrication in Gulf of Mexico yards. The early engagement of the classification and regulatory bodies proved to be instrumental in the success of the project by providing a clear explanation of the applicable standards and promoting a more thorough understanding of the concept. The cooperation between the owner, designer, classification society and regulators presented itself as a key factor in the determination of the appropriate rules and regulations to be applied.
This paper describes the process of determining the regulatory framework successfully applied throughout the development of the MinDOC3 installation for application on the Mirage field. It also describes the cooperative approach that helped the parties involved to more fully understand the concept, and to identify how innovative technology and functionalities could be harmonized with the existing classification and regulatory requirements while maintaining the feasibility of the project.

Introduction
Worldwide energy demand has been growing over the last decade and is expected to continue growing. Over the last 20 years consumption increased at an average rate of 1.92 percent annually and a steady growth is projected until 2030 (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2009). The vast majority of the energy produced in the world comes from fossil fuels, having petroleum as the primary source. Therefore, continued growth of energy demand is heavily dependent on finding and developing new oil and gas sources.
Five Dangerous Trends in Hazardous Operations
Authors: Ebot Lambert 
Published: July 2010

Abstract

Description
The 5 Dangerous Trends in Hazardous Operations is a study that identifies and analyzes the major factors that lead to the continued rise in major accidents. Past accidents in various facilities; both on-shore and off; show that trends related to operation cost, knowledge drain, and asset decay are all on the rise. The study discusses the key differences between occupational safety and inherent safety, and the importance of design in hazard management.

Application
The 5 Dangerous Trends study is used to educate organizations that operate covered and hazardous facilities about the current and ever-present dangers that exist. Furthermore, the study demonstrates the difference between the focus on occupational safety and that of inherent safety. Organizations learn more about the tools and techniques; such as QRAs and HAZIDs; so as to drive initiatives in process (inherent) safety practices.

Results, Observations, and Conclusions
The study identifies 5 dangerous trends in terms of direct and indirect costs as they relate to the operations of hazardous facilities. The data is obtained from sources such as the Centre for Research of the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) and the Baker Panel Report. The study concludes that most major accidents still occur due to the same fire and explosions that have always affected hazardous operations. Additionally, change needs to occur soon before the experienced operators and engineers are gone.

Significance of Subject Matter
Some organizations have changed design practices in order to reduce the occurrence of major disasters; many have not. Major disasters have escalated, leading to larger financial and human losses. Instead of changing design, companies have tried to implement more complex and rigid procedures and safeguards. The study uses examples of the industrial disasters to include: the Bhopal Catastrophe, the Piper Alpha disaster, and the Texas City Refinery explosion. The study delivers the message that it is the responsibility of each individual to champion inherent safety. Companies operating within hazardous industries may develop new ways of designing process systems and effectively put an end to multi-million dollar disasters.