bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
‘Living Water’
Authors: Christian David 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This book is a study of the social, economic, and political role of vodka in 19th-century Russia. Since the ‘Green Serpent’ first appeared in 16th-century Muscovy, it has played a vital part in Russian life. Vodka became an essential part of Russian working-class celebrations, whether personal, religious, or commercial. Trade in vodka redistributed wealth upwards through Russian society over several centuries. Indeed, Russia's status as a great power was underpinned by it: by the 19th century, it generated one-third of government revenue — enough to cover most of the costs of the vast army. The dependence on vodka of both people and state endured into the Gorbachev era. However, despite vodka's key role in Russian history, and the complex network of corruption associated with it, the subject has been ignored by most historians until now. This study concentrates on an important transitional era in the history of vodka: the early 19th century. During this period, vodka taxes played the role that salt taxes had played in the ancien régime in France. The abolition of the tax farm in 1863 should be seen as one of the most important of the ‘Great Reforms’ of the 1860s, an era which, in many ways, parallels the glasnost of the 1980s.
Road to Divorce
Authors: Stone Lawrence 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Despite the infamous divorce of Henry VIII in 1529, subsequent moral, political, and religious attitudes ensured that until 1857, England was the only Protestant country with virtually no facilities for full divorce on the grounds of adultery, desertion, or cruelty. Using a mass of transcribed legal testimonies, taken from hitherto unexplored court records, this book uncovers the means by which laity and lawyers reformed the divorce laws, and offers insights into our ancestors' changing views about what makes a marriage. Using personal accounts in which witnesses speak freely about their moral attitudes towards love, sex, adultery, and marriage, it reveals the full and complex story of how English men and women have contrived to use, twist, or defy the law in order to deal with marital breakdown.
General Introduction
Authors: Stone Lawrence 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter provides a broad introduction to the history of divorce, providing a background on non-separating and non-divorcing society, family history, models of legal change, the legal system, and evidence used. It sets the study from the Reformation, which reintroduced legalised divorce into Europe, up to the late twentieth century, with the rise of divorce as a commonplace event. The core of study lies between the Restoration of the Anglican Church and its canon law jurisdiction in 1660 and the passage of the first divorce law in 1857. The book identifies and explains the laxity and ambiguity of the English laws of marriage which endured up to 1753, and the extraordinary strictness of the laws of separation and divorce until 1857. It traces the tentative evolution of moral values about relations between sexes in England, and the shift from concepts of patriarchy to those of sexual equality.
The Law and Custom of Marriage
Authors: Stone Lawrence 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the law and custom of marriage. The second section discusses modes of courtship. There were three modes of courtship in early modern England, each of which was characteristic to one of three groupings that divided the population. The third section looks at customary unions and concubinage. Some scholars of the family believe that in the early modern period, more especially in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, considerable numbers of English men and women lived in a condition of customary concubinage, illegal according to the law of church or state but recognised by the neighbourhood.
Peace and the New World Order
Authors: Edwards Jill 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
With the end of World War II in sight, Republicans in Spain began to concert their efforts to engage international support for their cause. In the United States, Rep. John Coffey had tried unsuccessfully before to get Congress on record in support of an immediate break with Francisco Franco. With the Yalta Conference imminent, the new United States Secretary of State, Edward Stettinius, had many considerations to bear in mind in relation to future policy towards Spain, though little time to consider any of them. The main difficulty in formulating a coherent post-war foreign policy towards Spain which would be acceptable to public opinion arose from war-time propaganda run by the Office of War Information. As peace approached, little underlined the differences in Spanish policy between Britain and the United States more clearly than their diametrically opposed requirements of Argentina.
San Francisco and Postdam
Authors: Edwards Jill 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The spring and summer of 1945 brought government changes on both sides of the Atlantic while at the same time the post-war settlement was thrashed out at international conferences. Franklin D. Roosevelt's death at the end of April brought to the presidency Harry S. Truman, a man unknown internationally. Delegates to the San Francisco conference went along reluctantly with the general anti-Spanish feeling and supported Mexico's motion to exclude Spain, ruled by Francisco Franco, from the United Nations. Behind the scenes, diplomats expressed strong reservations in the light of the Soviet Union's renewed interest in the question. One of the distinct elements of the United States foreign policy towards Spain concerns the views of military planners, who understood the strategic importance of the Iberian peninsula. The fact that the strategic importance of the Iberian peninsula was already on the table partly accounts for the reluctance of Britain to support the general condemnation of Spain when the United Nations was formally established at the end of October 1945.
Battle Lines
Authors: Edwards Jill 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Taunts from the Senate, damaging to President Harry S. Truman's claim that he would not tolerate religious persecution in Spain, led him to call for a study of the problem. The ensuing report estimated that there were around 25,000 Protestants in Spain. An estimation following World War I had put the numbers of Christians in Hungary, where persecution had met little response from the American government, at approximately eight million Roman Catholics, four million Greek Orthodox and Uniates, and four million Protestants. Truman's genuine anguish over the plight of the Spanish Protestants was compounded by the fact that persecution of Protestants in Spain was closely connected with the persecution of Freemasons. Truman's freemasonry, in which he followed the pattern of many previous presidents, could be proudly flaunted, but not in relation to Catholicism, from which the Democratic party drew an essential proportion of its vote. This chapter discusses the right of association versus trade and commerce in Spain, Britain, the United States, and other countries in Europe, as well as the status of trade unions and international labour.
Social Security in Developing Countries: What, Why, Who, and How?
Authors: Burgess Robin , Stern Nicholas 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter aims to help clarify some of the problems and issues raised by attempts to understand and alleviate the deprivation and fragility associated with the lives of so many people. It explains what social security means and defines the term with respect to objectives for developing countries. The chapter determines why the State should be involved in social security and investigates various general reasons for intervention that may be relevant to entities other than government. It examines arguments concerning market failure and income distribution that arise within the standard economic theory of policy and then looks more widely at questions concerning rights of individuals, at notions of State obligations, and at the concept of standard of living and the role of the State in improving it. The chapter further poses the question of who should carry responsibility for social security.
Social Security in the SADCC States of Southern Africa: Social-Welfare Programmes and the Reduction of Household Vulnerability
Authors: Richard Morgan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter premises that the greatest single factor now affecting the development and effectiveness of social-welfare policies and programmes in the Southern African Development Co-ordination Conference (SADCC) States is the external one of South African military aggression and promotion of military/economic destabilization. It reviews social-service policies and programmes in the post-independence SADCC States, discusses the discernable impact of these programmes using health indicators of welfare, and then looks at the characteristics of the main target groups for these programmes: the poor and vulnerable. The chapter presents case studies of State responses to external welfare-threatening events that occurred in the 1980s in two countries, one relatively at peace (Botswana) and one thoroughly subjected to war conditions (Mozambique). Some generalized conclusions from these studies and the review as a whole are drawn for the prioritization and design of welfare policies in the region.
Language, Rhetoric, and the Communication of Ideas
Authors: Skinner Andrew Stewart 
Published: October 2011

AbstractOne of the first major problems that Adam Smith addressed in the Rhetoric was that of language. Smith believes that the parts of speech should be studied in an analytical manner, and that the development of the means of communication reveals important features of human nature, most notably with regard to the role of analogy, the capacity for classification, abstraction, and reflection. Smith's interest in language effectively illustrates his own preoccupation with grammar. Having disposed of the issues of language and style, Smith then proceeded to consider the forms of discourse that were employed in the communication of ideas through the medium of the spoken or written word. In Smith's view, all examples of the written word could be reduced to four broad types: the poetical, the historical, the didactic, and the oratorical. Smith also claimed that existing ‘systems’ of rhetoric showed a preoccupation with figures of speech.
David Hume: Economic Writings
Authors: Skinner Andrew Stewart 
Published: October 2011

AbstractAdam Smith endeavoured to link philosophy, history, and economics as part of the grand plan announced in the closing pages of the first edition of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and repeated in the advertisement to the sixth and last edition of that work. But when we take the Treatise of Human Nature in conjunction with the Essays, it becomes apparent that the outlines of the model had already been established by David Hume. Hume identified ‘action, pleasure and indolence’ as essential to human happiness but in practice placed most emphasis on the first. This chapter also examines Hume's views on self-interest and the pursuit of gain, self-interest and constraint, historical dynamics and the exchange economy, and international trade. Hume's use of history in his economic writings is also discussed.
Responsible Government
Authors: LUCAS J. R. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses two strands of argument that underlie our ideal of responsible government: the responsibility of office and the need for all to share responsibility for what their government does. Those who govern undertake special responsibilities, and their performance can be judged on the basis of the task they have undertaken. It is a difficult task: decision-making takes time, and often calls for exceptional ability, and it needs to be done disinterestedly in circumstances where it would be very easy to allow considerations of self-interest to creep in. The main aim of this kind of argument is to ensure that government is good government: if all decisions are responsibly taken, then there will be reasons for them, which even if not the best of all possible reasons will be faceable reasons, and so the decisions are likely to be reasonably unbad.
An Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics
Authors: McCall Storrs 
Published: October 2011

AbstractWhile it is not easy in quantum mechanics to construct a picture in space and time, the branched model provides both a picture and an explanation of some of the features of quantum mechanics that have up to now resisted attempts to understand them. This chapter focuses on the interpretation of quantum mechanics through the branched model. The branched interpretation is an interpretation, not a new quantum theory, and does not replace the elegant theoretical apparatus of state vectors and operators in Hilbert space that are used to calculate and predict quantum probabilities. The interpretation is via the concept of probability, this concept having both a theoretical and an ontological aspect.
Probability
Authors: McCall Storrs 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter is concerned with objective probability or objective chance. The entire branched model in fact can be regarded as embodying an inexhaustible variety of objective, de re probability values. This chapter explores the consequences of employing a branched definition of probability, and examines the similarities and differences between this approach and other theories of probability which philosophers have proposed and adopted. There are four main different conceptions of probability currently accepted by probability theorists: the logical, relative frequency, subjective, and propensity theories. This chapter surveys each of them briefly and then compares them with the branched interpretation.
Decision and Free Will
Authors: McCall Storrs 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter focuses on chance, deliberation, and decision. It explains various kinds of deliberation and examines what is involved in the familiar process of deliberation. Responsibility is another topic to be discussed in the context of decision. It is incorrect to assert that responsibility requires determinism. Using branched alternatives, and the concept of decision, an indeterministic account of responsibility can be constructed which accords with our intuitions as well as, or better than, any other account. The metaphysics of the branched model provides a framework for the conceiving of human beings, or indeed of any agent with similar powers of deliberation and decision, as free and responsible individuals.
Cinema: Photography, Comedy, Melodrama
Authors: Mulhall Stephen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractCavell's work on cinema can be divided into two types: analyses of specific films and examinations of the medium of cinema itself (with particular reference to the relationship between the screened image and the viewer of that image). Nonetheless, his work possesses real unity; in part, this is because he finds that the films he studies themselves study their relation to their medium and its audience; but it is also because his work focuses upon precisely the same issue at both levels — that of scepticism. In other words, Cavell claims to detect a thematic doubling or mirroring which itself is a version of the doubling examined with respect to Shakespeare: scepticism is not simply a topic examined by certain films but an issue central to the any real understanding of our relationship to the medium of cinema. This chapter begins by examining Cavell's reflections on the medium, before looking into the two genres of film to which he paid most attention in his work, i.e., melodrama and comedy.
Values and Valuing
Authors: Denham A. E. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe combination of Platonic requirements on objectivity and those imposed by the role of values in ordinary practical reasoning appears to be fatal, at least, for any theory of value which eschews appeal to transcendental postulates. Plato's transcendental metaphysics — his theory of forms — yields a conception of moral values which radically distances them from familiar human experience. Were values like Plato's forms, they would have to be eternal, invariant, and wholly mind-independent; their existence and specific character could be in no way determined by one's (merely finite and infinitely variable) evaluative beliefs and attitudes. This chapter also discusses judgement-dependent concepts of moral value and presents an analogy between values and secondary qualities.
Chapter 2
Authors: Hallaq Wael B. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The main concept for the second point has to do with the doctrine that states that definition leads to the conception of things. It is asserted against this doctrine that verifiers amongst the thinkers know that the function of a definition is to distinguish between the definiendum and other things, just like name, whose function is not to give a concept of the definiendum, nor to delimit its reality. The claim that definitions lead to forming a concept of things is that of the Greek logicians, the followers of Aristotle, as well as those Muslims and others who have followed their path by believing and imitating them. However, the majority of Muslim thinkers, theologians, and others hold a different view.
The Nature ofde reThought
Authors: Bach Kent 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter focuses on de re thoughts about concrete individuals other than oneself. It first schematizes the general form of de re thought and then characterizes the de re representations and relations associated with each of the three kinds of de re thought: perception-based, memory-based, and communication-based. All three have been recognized by others, but the author presents a different view. One theme that will gradually emerge here will prove relevant to the inquiry later into the theory of singular reference: the main insights that underlie the causal theory of names properly belong to the theory of singular thought.
Semantics, Pragmatics, and Reference
Authors: Bach Kent 
Published: October 2011

AbstractFor both singular terms and sentences containing them, we should take care not to confuse the theory of their meaning with the theory of their use. We should avoid trying to explain their pragmatic properties semantically. Grammar is complex enough without letting it be further complicated by phenomena which can be explained independently with the help of general pragmatic principles. For example, when an expression has two uses, if we can explain one use in terms of the other pragmatically, we can regard just the one use as literal and avoid taking the expression to be (semantically) ambiguous. We should keep the semantics of sentences containing singular terms separate from the pragmatics of their use. This chapter draws certain distinctions, terminological and otherwise, to help us keep them separate. It then explains more fully the rationale of keeping them separate. The various distinctions to be drawn here will not only sharpen the boundary between semantics and pragmatics but also enable us to understand the connections between them.
Reference and Natural Kinds
Authors: Bach Kent 
Published: October 2011

AbstractBurge interprets the thought experiment in a way that is even more radical than rejecting either the Fregean claim that meaning determines extension or the Fregean conception of meaning. Burge holds that the meaning of ‘water’ does determine its extension, hence that it has a different meaning on Twin Earth, and he holds that the meaning of a term is the concept conventionally associated with it. However, he takes the radical course of denying that concepts are in the head. Thus, he is rejecting the ‘methodological solipsism’ endorsed by Putnam (1975). For Burge the Twin Earth experiment extends beyond the theory of the meaning to the theory of mental contents. He is rejecting what amounts to a Fregean conception of concepts. This chapter takes up Burge's position first, because the points to be made about identifying concepts and determining their extensions will be germane to the later discussion of Putnam's and Kripke's views about the meanings and extensions of terms.
Psychoneural Nomic Correlation
Authors: Honderich Ted 
Published: October 2011

AbstractEach of the three hypotheses making up the theory of determinism expounded in the first part of this book has to do with mental events, which is to say events within consciousness. Thus, it is important first to have a conception of consciousness. Attention is paid to the logico-linguistic conception of consciousness, in terms of independent and dependent truth-values, precisely because of its literalness and precision but those virtues are in short supply in connection with conceptions of consciousness. The objection from domains, then, appears to be like its predecessors in failing to prevent further consideration of the Correlation Hypothesis. The hypothesis may not be true, but it does not fall victim to the philosophical and theoretical objections that have been considered.
The Difficulty about Negation
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter investigates the difficulty about negation. Because of the principle that pM[S] = I − pM[not-S], the mathematicist analysis implies that in civil cases the Anglo-American system is officially prepared to tolerate a quite substantial mathematical probability that a losing defendant deserved to succeed. There is a limit to the extent that this difficulty can be avoided by supposing a higher threshold for the balance of probability. Nor are the proper amounts of damages held to be proportional to the strength of a winning plaintiff's proof. If there were a legal rule excluding statistical evidence in relation to voluntary acts much of the paradox here would disappear. But it would be unnecessary to suppose such a rule if the outcome of civil litigation could be construed as a victory for case-strength rather than as the division of a determinate quantity of case-merit.
The Incommensurability of Inductive Support and Mathematical Probability
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter provides an elaboration on the incommensurability of inductive support and mathematical probability. It begins by presenting the argument from the possibility of anomalies. If inductive support-grading is to allow for the existence of anomalies, it cannot depend on the mathematical probabilities involved. A second argument for the incommensurability of inductive support with mathematical probability may be built up on the basis of the conjunction principle for inductive support. If s[H,E] conforms to this principle, the actual value of pM[H] must be irrelevant to that of s[H,E] unless intolerable constraints are to restrict the mathematical probability of one conjunct on another. Since the actual value of pM[E,H] must also be irrelevant to that of s[H,E], and s[H,E] cannot possibly be a function of pM[E] alone, it follows that s[H,E] cannot be a function of the mathematical probabilities involved.
The Paradox of Analysis
Authors: Bealer George 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the paradox of analysis, a particularly recalcitrant problem in the logic for intentional matters and one that has deep implications for philosophical method, philosophical psychology, and cognitive psychology. The problem may be put as follows: how, if correct, can a definition (or analysis) be informative? After a critical examination of Alonzo Church's resolution of the paradox, the chapter shows how to extend the new approach to intensional logic to include a more acceptable resolution.