bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Social Desirability
Authors: Holden Ronald R. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Social desirability is the tendency for individuals to portray themselves in a generally favorable fashion. Within the areas of psychological testing in general, and personality assessment in particular, the concept of social desirability has generated heated debates for decades. Arguments have focused on the definition of social desirability, its pervasiveness, the problems it poses for the interpretation of psychological test results, and methods for its control.
Social Learning Theory
Authors: Ormond Jeanne Ellis 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Historically, social learning theory has focused on the ways in which people learn from observing one another, with particular attention to modeling and imitation. In its early years in the 1960s, its roots were in behaviorism, giving attention to the potential roles of environmental stimuli and consequences (reinforcement and punishment) in learning and behavior. But over time, it has increasingly incorporated cognitive factors into its explanations of how people learn and why they behave as they do, and it is now sometimes called social cognitive theory. For example, it has expanded far beyond learning through observation to include people's interpretations of what they see, their expectations regarding future events, and their beliefs about their ability to successfully accomplish challenging tasks. Furthermore, it has increasingly portrayed learning and behavior as being controlled not by environmental circumstances but rather by learners themselves.
Social Projection
Authors: Krueger Joachim I. , Machunsky Maya 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

At the phenomenal level, the term
social projection
refers to the finding that, unless there is evidence to the contrary, people assume that the characteristics of individual other people (attitudes, preferences, experience, traits) or the characteristics of groups resemble their own. Social projection is therefore strongest when perceivers know their own characteristics but must guess those of others. The inference from the self to the group is an inductive one that can be modeled by Bayes's theorem, which describes the rational updating of beliefs (i.e., about social consensus) in light of relevant sample information (i.e., one's own characteristics). As the characteristics of most people are, by statistical necessity, correlated with the characteristics of most others, projection serves as a useful inferential heuristic, yielding reasonably accurate predictions under most conditions (Krueger, 2007).
Social Psychology
Authors: Park Bernadette , Smith J. Allegra 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The classic definition of social psychology, provided by Gordon W. Allport (1985), is “an attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling, and behavior of individuals is influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.” That is, social psychology studies how we are affected to our very core by the fact that we are fundamentally social creatures. If humans lived solitary and disentwined lives, the field of social psychology most certainly would not exist. Social psychologists study a wide variety of topics, many of which overlap with other areas of psychology (developmental, cognitive, clinical, neuroscience), as well as other disciplines outside psychology (sociology, education, law, business, political science). At its core are three guiding principle that weave together theory and research within the field (see Ross & Nisbett, 1991).
Social Self
Authors: Guenther Corey L. , Alicke Mark D. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The self‐concept—our understanding of our characteristics, preferences, and behavioral tendencies—derives from various sources. These sources include biological predispositions, the culture in which we are reared, and motivationally based needs and desires. However, the factor that transcends all other self‐definitional forces is that of social context.
Social Support
Authors: Friis Robert H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
At its most general level, social support refers to helpful interpersonal relationships that derive from one's friends, family members, other contacts, and the larger society (Friis & Sellers, 2009). Social support engenders the sense that one is cared for and loved, esteemed and valued, or is part of a network of mutual interpersonal commitments. However, as a formal construct, social support is not easily defined and can be subdivided approximately into structural (quantitative) and functional (qualitative) domains (Helgeson, 2003). The former pertains to the number, structure, and pattern of networks that one maintains with other people or organizations. The mere existence of social ties is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for social support, nor is the absolute number of ties strongly correlated with social support. In fact, some social ties may be intrusive, stressful, or at best, perfunctory.
Society for Child and Family Policy and Practice
Authors: Falender Carol , Tolan Patrick 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Division 37 of the American Psychological Association (APA), the Society for Child and Family Policy and Practice, was founded in 1978. The impetus for its formation was to draw together individuals interested in advocacy and social policy for children and families. The founding members were from the Section on Clinical Child Psychology, then Section 1 of the Division of Clinical Psychology, Division 12 of APA (Routh & Culbertson, 1996). Through revisions of the division name, essential components have remained: application of psychological knowledge through advocacy for the welfare of families, children, and youth. The division has been a leader within APA in child mental health efforts, opposition to violence, and child welfare. Historically, Division 37 was regarded as a public interest division, but it has also had a substantial interest in practice and education.
Society for Community Research and Action
Authors: Bogat G. Anne 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Community psychology formally began in 1965 at the Swampscott, Massachusetts, conference. Its founders were concerned with the individualistic focus that dominated psychology. Community psychology was conceived as a redefinition of psychologists' roles, to empower psychologists to become change agents who studied and modified the social settings in which individuals interacted. Division 27 of the American Psychological Association, Community Psychology, was established in 1966. The division became a society and changed its name to Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA) in 1990 to better reflect its mission.
Society for Neuroscience
Authors: Marder Eve E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The Society for Neuroscience (SfN) is the world's largest organization of basic scientists and physicians who study the brain and nervous system. The society, a nonprofit membership organization, was formed in 1969 and has grown from 500 members to more than 38,000 worldwide. The society's primary goal is to promote the exchange of information among researchers. To this end, it publishes the
Journal of Neuroscience
and holds an annual meeting each fall that attracts more than 30,000 attendees from around the globe.
Society for Personality Assessment
Authors: Brabender Virginia 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Society for Personality Assessment, initially incorporated as the Rorschach Institute, was founded by Bruno Klopfer and his students in 1938 in Essex County, New Jersey. The organization was renamed the Society for Personality Assessment in 1971 to reflect the breadth of its mission, which is the furtherance of personality assessment and the ethical and legal use of these concepts and methods. Currently in its eighth decade, the society, an international and national organization, has more than 1,500 members and has developed a wide range of scholarly and educational activities devoted to the advancement of personality assessment.
Society for the Exploration of Psychotherapy Integration
Authors: Wachtel Paul L. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Society for the Exploration of Psychotherapy Integration (SEPI) is an international organization devoted to exploring potential convergences and synergies between different approaches to psychotherapy and the different theoretical orientations from which those approaches derive. Originally founded in North America in 1983, SEPI now has members in more than 30 countries on six continents, and its annual meetings have been held in many cities throughout North America, South America, and Europe.
Society for the Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts
Authors: Seifert Lauren S. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
A 1945 charter division of the American Psychological Association (APA) as Division 10, the Society for the Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts has a rich history. As a professional society, Division 10 aims to join together individuals from diverse backgrounds: researchers and clinicians, art therapists and artists, and academicians and students. Common interests in creative process, product, and perception bring them together to dialogue about myriad topics from aesthetics and the arts, to creative leadership and giftedness, to cognition and creativity in aging (e.g., Kennedy, 1993; Lindauer, 2003; Richards, 2007; Seifert, 2007; Sternberg, 2006; Zhang & Sternberg, 2006).
Society for the Study of Peace, Conflict, and Violence
Authors: Mayton Dan 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Division of Peace Psychology, established within the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1990, is a growing organization of psychologists, students, and professional affiliates from diverse disciplines. Division 48 is now also an independent organization, under the name Society for the Study of Peace, Conflict, and Violence, and it is open for membership to individuals who are not members of APA.
Society for the Teaching of Psychology
Authors: Buskist William 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Society for the Teaching of Psychology (STP), also known as Division 2 of the American Psychological Association (APA), was founded in 1945–1946 and was one of APA's original 19 divisions. As per its mission statement, STP's raison d'être is to promote excellence in teaching and learning as they pertain to psychology. In realizing this goal, STP has evolved into an expansive organization that supplies teachers at all levels (high school, community college, college, and university) with a vast array of resources and services, as well as numerous opportunities for professional development.
Society for Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology
Authors: Sugarman Jeff 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Society for Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology is Division 24 of the American Psychological Association (APA). The organization is committed to the following: furthering theoretical and philosophical work in disciplinary and professional psychology; to the recognition of such work as fundamental and indispensable to all psychological inquiry and practice; and to making psychology more responsive to philosophical and other forms of scholarship and criticism. The society promotes theoretical and philosophical psychology as a distinct specialization within psychology, a specialization that has broad applicability across the domains of psychological study and practice. Knowledge of the theory and philosophy of psychology can inform the orientations of other areas of psychology and provide means for disciplinary self‐critique. For this reason, the society also advocates for the importance of theoretical, philosophical, and historical education in programs of academic psychology.
Society of Clinical Psychology
Authors: Weiner Irving B. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Society of Clinical Psychology (SCP) was established as Division 12 of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1948 and has been organized as a society since 1997. SCP grew in time to become the largest and most diverse APA division, with more than 6,900 members representing a broad range of primary interests, professional activities, theoretical orientations, and work settings. The society decreased in size to its present membership of 4,300 after two of its sections split off to become separate APA divisions in child and adolescent psychology (Division 53) and pediatric psychology (Division 54).
Zeigarnik Effect
Authors: Denmark Florence L. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Work by Bluma Zeigarnik (1927), a Russian psychologist, established the fact that subjects ranging widely in age tended to remember interrupted tasks better (and with greater frequency) than they remembered tasks they had completed. She first noticed that waiters seemed to remember orders only so long as the order was in the process of being served, not once it was finished and therefore a complete task. What amounted to commonsense observations became the impetus for a series of germinal experiments by Zeigarnik.
Somatization Disorder
Authors: Bursch Brenda 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR) defines somatization disorder as belonging to the diagnostic category of somatoform disorders; it is one of this group of psychiatric disorders defined by the presence of physical symptoms that are not fully explained by a known general medical condition, physical exam, or lab findings (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). DSM‐IV‐TR diagnostic criteria for somatization disorder require several years of physical complaints, beginning before the age of 30 years, with associated treatment seeking or disability. The symptoms must include at least four pain symptoms, two gastrointestinal symptoms, one sexual symptom, and one pseudo‐neurological symptom. Common symptoms include headaches, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, menstrual cramps, fatigue, fainting, painful intercourse, sexual dysfunction, or loss of sexual desire. Symptoms are not intentionally falsified. If there is a related medical problem, the symptoms or impairment in functioning must be in excess of what would be expected from an objective medical evaluation. Somatization disorder normally begins in late childhood, adolescence, or early adulthood; it frequently runs in families, and it is much more common in females. Somatization disorder has a poor prognosis and, therefore, can be a source of significant frustration to both patients and clinicians. Somatization disorder can wax and wane in severity but normally persists throughout life.
Speech Production
Authors: Fowler Carol A. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractSpeech production is a skill of considerable intricacy whereby prosodically marked (meaningless) language forms are implemented as vocal tract activity that generates an audible acoustic signal. Speech production contrasts in scope with language production, which encompasses the whole set of processes, starting with a plan to produce a meaningful message and ending with an acoustic speech signal. It contrasts in level of analysis with speech motor control, the study of which focuses on neural control systems and muscle activations.
S
pence,
K
enneth
W
. (1907–1967)
Authors: Staff  
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Kenneth W. Spence was born in Chicago in 1907, but his family soon moved to Montreal where he spent most of his early years. He attended McGill University, graduated in 1929, and went on to earn a master's degree in 1930. He completed his graduate work at Yale, primarily under the direction of Robert Yerkes, and he was also influenced by Clark Hull. Hence his early research was with primates and was focused on learning and visual discrimination. Spence received his PhD from Yale in 1933 and then moved to the Yale (later Yerkes) Laboratory of Primate Biology in Orange Park, Florida. He worked there for four years, after which he accepted his first faculty position, a one‐year temporary appointment, in psychology at the University of Virginia, where he spent the 1937–1938 academic year. In 1938, he moved to the University of Iowa (then the State University of Iowa), where he remained until 1964. He moved to the University of Texas in 1964 and stayed there until his death in Austin in 1967. In 1959, he married Janet Taylor Spence, who has had a long and distinguished career of her own.
Sport Performance Interventions
Authors: Van Raalte Judy L. , Brewer Britton W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In a variation of an old joke, a boy asks a taxi driver, “How do I get to Fenway Park?” The cabbie replies, “Practice, practice, practice.” Although conventional wisdom suggests that physical practice is the path to sport performance excellence, enhancement of mental skills can also help athletes reach their sport goals. Sport performance interventions focusing on the ability to reach optimal performance states (i.e., “the zone”), management of arousal and anxiety, self‐talk, imagery, goal setting, mindfulness, biofeedback, and modeling have been identified as techniques that contribute positively to sport performance. Research on performance enhancement treatment packages indicates that combining two or more of these psychological techniques is particularly effective.
Standard Deviation
Authors: Reichardt Charles S. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The standard deviation is a measure of the variability of a set of scores and is defined in relationship to the average of the scores. The average of a set of scores is called the mean. The standard deviation is a measure of how far the scores vary from their mean. If all the scores in a set of data are close to the mean, the standard deviation is small. If all the scores in a set of data are far away from the mean, the standard deviation is large.
Statistical Power
Authors: Murphy Kevin R. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

One of the most common statistical procedures in the behavioral and social sciences is testing the hypothesis that treatments or interventions have no effect, or that the correlation between two variables is equal to zero—that is, tests of the null hypothesis (H
0
). There are two ways to make errors when testing a null hypothesis: (1) Type I error, which consists of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is in fact true, and (2) Type II error, which consists of failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is in fact false. Statistical power is defined as 1 minus the conditional probability of making a Type II error. That is, power is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is in fact false.
Statistical Prediction
Authors: Garb Howard N. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

In his popular book,
Super Crunchers: Why Thinking‐by‐Numbers Is the New Way to Be Smart
(2007), Ian Ayres describes how computers are being used to make judgments and predictions in business, government, sports, and other areas, including medical and mental health practice. Ayres concluded, “We are in a historic moment of horse‐versus‐locomotive competition, where intuitive and experiential expertise is losing out time and time again to number crunching” (p. 10). The use of computers in the area of psychology will be described in this entry.
Statistical Significance
Authors: Drew C. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Researchers in psychology, education, and many other scientific fields often employ statistical tests to evaluate the results of their studies. The term
statistical significance
is commonly used in relation to the results obtained by calculating these tests. If a researcher's results or data achieve statistical significance from these calculations, then the investigator can say with confidence that the outcomes are probably not due to chance. This is very important to the researcher, because if the results are probably not due to chance, then there is basis for interpreting these results as being due to whatever treatment was part of the study. Similarly, if the researcher is investigating differences between genders, data that indicate statistically significant differences can probably be interpreted as reflecting actual distinctions between males and females. In these ways, statistical tests evaluate the results of a study by comparing them to the probability of chance occurrences.
Strong Interest Inventory
Authors: Hansen Jo‐Ida C. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The first edition of the Strong Interest Inventory (SII) was published in 1927 by E. K. Strong Jr. The SII has evolved over the decades with periodic revisions that have expanded the information provided for test takers, addressed issues of sex and cultural fairness, updated the item pool to reflect occupational and societal changes, and provided enhanced interpretive information. One constant throughout the history of the SII is the careful attention that has been paid to providing evidence of validity, as well as evidence of reliability, for the instrument's scale scores. Another constant has been the widespread use of the SII with adult and young populations. In contrast to the first edition of the SII that featured 18 Occupational scales, the profile of the current edition (Consulting Psychological Press, 2004) provides scores on 244 Occupational scales, 30 Basic Interest scales, 6 General Occupational Themes, and 5 Personal Style scales. Test takers respond to 291 items and are asked to indicate the extent to which they strongly like
,
like
,
are indifferent to, dislike, or strongly dislike various kinds of jobs, subjects, work and leisure activities, and people. The reading level for the SII is about the ninth grade, and the instrument takes about 30 minutes to complete.
Stroop Effect
Authors: MacLeod Colin M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Since psychology's earliest days, we have known that it takes considerably more time to name objects or their properties than to read the corresponding words. Cattell (1886) demonstrated this difference in his dissertation: Saying “horse” to a picture of a horse or “blue” to a blue color patch took more time than did reading the word
horse
or
blue
aloud. Cattell attributed this difference to the automaticity of word reading that is developed through extensive practice.
Structuralism
Authors: Lundin Robert W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
As a school or system of psychology, structuralism had its antecedents in the British philosophy of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. John Locke had established the empirical tradition by stating that all knowledge came from experience and that the mind at birth was a tabula rasa (blank tablet). Locke opposed the continental philosophers, such as René Descartes, who claimed that some ideas were inborn.
Structured and Semistructured Interviews
Authors: Hong Phan Y. , Ilardi Stephen S. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The past few decades have witnessed a rather striking shift toward the increased use of formal structure in the clinical interview process. It has become commonplace to categorize clinical interviews, on the basis of the degree of intrinsic structure imposed by the interviewer, into one of three distinct subtypes: structured, semistructured, and unstructured.
Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Diagnosis
Authors: First Michael B. , Caban Desiree 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Diagnosis is a semistructured interview for making the majorDSM‐IVAxis I Disorders (SCID‐I) and Axis II Personality Disorders (SCID‐II) diagnoses. Unlike fully structured clinical interviews that may be administered by lay interviewers (e.g., the Diagnostic Interview Schedule), the SCID is a semistructured interview, and it must be administered by a clinician or trained mental health professional. As the most widely used instrument for assessing Axis I disorders, the SCID‐I has been used in thousands of research studies since its introduction in 1986.