bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
International Relations, Psychological Perspectives on
Authors: Stein Janice Gross 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Psychological explanations of international politics focus on the impact of cognition and emotion on choice. Through the analysis of decision‐making, political psychologists have explored a wide range of topics that are central to international politics: the onset of war, nuclear strategy, deterrence and reassurance, signaling and bargaining, conflict management and conflict resolution, and peace. Recent neuroscientific research on emotion is changing the analysis of foreign policy decision‐making and rational choice. This essay looks first at psychological theories of decision‐making. Second, it examines the consequences of new understandings of decision‐making for strategic models of interaction. Third, the essay looks at the contribution of psychological explanations to the analysis of collective beliefs and moods on international political issues.
Internet Data Collection
Authors: Hulsizer Michael R. , Woolf Linda M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Internet has been both an important research tool and an important area of inquiry for peace psychologists. As a tool, the Internet has enabled investigators to research topics through the use of email, online surveys, chat rooms, and electronic focus groups. These methods often enable researchers to access difficult‐to‐reach populations and build large participant pools and collect data amendable to complex statistical analyses (e.g., factor analysis, structural equation modeling). Anderson and Kanuka (2003) stated that “like any useful tool in the hands of a skilled practitioner, the Net can provide opportunities and techniques that enhance many components of our research practice” (p. 3).
Interrogation, Psychology and
Authors: Stephen Soldz Jean Maria Arrigo , Bennett Ray 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Interrogation refers to the process of state agents questioning captive, often unwilling individuals for state purposes. Historically, state‐recognized experts on mind–body relations have often provided the rationales for state methods of interrogation. Aristotle, for example, described the ancient Greek practice of juridical torture from the naturalistic perspective and maintained that slaves, lacking reason, tell the truth to stop the pain, whereas free men can reason to their long‐term advantage and give false testimony under torture. European juridical torture in the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries was grounded in the ascetic principle that bodily pain drives out self‐will in favor of God's will, thus resulting in true testimony. In the Korean War (1950–1953), Chinese “brainwashing” of United Nations prisoners proceeded as Maoist re‐education, wherein prisoners of war confessed their political crimes.
Laboratory Experiments
Authors: Hulsizer Michael R. , Woolf Linda M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Laboratory experimentation is an important technique in the array of research tools available to peace psychologists. Unlike other categories of research (e.g., archival research, naturalistic observation), laboratory experimentation, if done correctly, can enable the researcher to make causal inferences when explaining the relationship between variables of interest. Specifically, the laboratory environment is uniquely situated to establish causality by enabling the researcher to manipulate variables of interest, examine the impact on outcome variables, and eliminate or minimize extraneous variables. However, the usefulness of laboratory experiments hinges on the degree to which the research results can be generalized from the artificial confines of the lab to the outside world. The challenge for any laboratory researcher is to design a research paradigm that can enable the researcher to make causal inferences (i.e., internal validity) and still maintain maximum generalizability (i.e., external validity).
Language, Violent and Peaceful Uses of
Authors: Bolívar Adriana 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The importance of language and its effects for preserving or damaging peace has been acknowledged in psychology and other disciplines for a long time. However, there has been little attention to the problem from a linguistic perspective because language is often taken for granted — more or less in the same way as the air we breathe is taken for granted. We all know by experience what violent and peaceful uses of language look like, and we also know that in the private space (and in some public spaces too) words may be accompanied with gestures, screaming, yelling, and more intense bodily actions such as throwing things, kicking, bumping, breaking objects, etc. We have been warned that verbal violence often leads to physical violence and, perhaps, death. However, our interest is to call attention to the fact that language is above all a social practice in which we all participate with rights and duties and that, as speakers of a language, we are responsible for choosing the words and acts of discourse that may either mitigate or intensify conflicts and promote peaceful dialogue or not.)
Levels of Analysis Problem
Authors: Suedfeld Peter , Cross Ryan W. , Stewart Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Peace and war (and intermediate conditions) are states or events that can involve the lives or deaths of hundreds of millions of people and most of the world. The debate about how to explain, predict, and influence their occurrence has engaged political leaders as well as scholars for centuries. Substantial progress in this enterprise could enable us to forecast when the peace is imperiled or when the end of war approaches, understand the gradations and differences between different kinds of peace and of war, and perhaps to develop strategies for averting, limiting, ameliorating, or ending armed conflict.
Liberation Psychology
Authors: Montero Maritza 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Liberation psychology was introduced into psychology during the mid‐1980s and since then has continued to develop not as a new branch for the discipline, but as an ethical and political way to do psychology. Although liberation psychology in Latin America was originally considered a politically oriented social psychology, it has been mainly developed as a way to practice psychology which acknowledges the political implications permeating all aspects of the psychological profession. This is due to its concern for social change and economic problems traceable to inequality, oppression, and exclusion within societies. Specifically, it has been developed as an answer to the necessity to study psychological processes and conditions that oppress and liberate people.
Lucifer Effect
Authors: Zimbardo Philip G. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
By the 1970s, social psychologists had conducted a series of studies establishing the social power of groups, and of situational forces to influence individual behaviors. They showed, for example, that groups of strangers could persuade people to believe statements that were obviously false (Asch, 1955) by endorsing the false value as if it were correct. Others found that the presence of three or more people who did not respond to an emergency created a definition of that situation as one in which it is appropriate not to intervene or give aid to those in need (Darley & Latané, 1968). Dissonance theory researchers revealed that rational people could justify virtually any irrational decision they had taken in order to make it appear that their behavior was consonant with their attitudes and values (Festinger, 1957; Tavris & Arsonson, 2008). Milgram (1974/2009) and other psychologists had also found that research participants were often willing to obey authority figures even when doing so violated their morality and conscience.
Media and Peace: Traditional Outlets
Authors: Kuriansky Judy , Mountcastle Catherine 
Published: November 2011

AbstractWhile emerging technologies continue to offer new opportunities for peacebuilding, the current article focuses on the use of traditional forms of mass media that has greatly aided individuals, mental health professionals, and societies to communicate about peace and to deal with conflict. Messaging through broadcast (television and radio programming), film, print (newspapers and magazines), and live events (artistic efforts and music festivals) informs and educates the public and empowers communities by facilitating awareness about peace and healing processes, and by presenting solutions to conflict by stimulating dialogue and increased government transparency and accountability. Entertaining and informative programming has also reached rural communities of marginalized and less educated people.While such outlets have pro‐social advantages for humanitarianism and good practice, some risks exist in that media coverage can inflame conflict, as happened in places like Somalia and Bosnia (Adam & Holguin, 2003).
Media Violence, Effects of
Authors: Appel Markus , Jodlbauer Susanne 
Published: November 2011

AbstractResearch on the impact of violence in the mass media dates back to the Payne Fund Studies in the 1930s which focused on the effects of motion pictures on children. Public and scientific interest in this topic has increased with the widespread accessibility of TV in the 1950s and 1960s and the rise of computer games in the 1980s and 1990s. A number of content analyses conducted throughout the years indicate that the depiction of physical violence is widespread in mass media, e.g., in feature films, comics, animation series, TV news, popular music, and computer games. Compared to statistics about real‐life incidents, violence is by far overrepresented in various media products.
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: Fisher David M. , Stuhlmacher Alice F. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractMeta‐analysis is the process of integrating findings from primary research studies in order to estimate true values in a population. While multiple primary studies on a topic may produce conflicting findings, combining these estimates through meta‐analyses can help resolve conflicts in the literature and direct future research. Importantly, a meta‐analysis is more than a statistical method for integrating research data across studies; it involves a research process with several distinct steps requiring subjective judgments (Arthur, Bennett, & Huffcutt, 2001) that must be delineated.
Militarism and Who Benefits
Authors: Pilisuk Marc , Pellegrini Gianina 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
When psychologists hunt for the basic cause of military conflicts, we tend to stress psychological constructs. This emphasis detracts from a contextual explanation that likely goes further to explain modern war than any other. This latter viewpoint gained visibility in the 1961 farewell address by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who foresaw grave implications of the conjunction of the military establishment and the arms industry, which he labeled the military–industrial complex. Eisenhower warned against the military–industrial complex acquiring too much influence, whether it was sought or unsought. He saw the potential for a disastrous rise of misplaced power and the likelihood that it would persist. Nikita Khrushchev in the former Soviet Union labeled a comparable collaboration the “metal eaters,” an alliance of industrial bureaucrats and military leaders in the USSR (Barash & Webel, 2008). But the concept is typically considered American.
Militaristic Attitude
Authors: Cohrs J. Christopher , Nelson Linden L. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Current figures for military expenditure documented by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute show that across the planet in 2008, states spent US$1,464 billion towards military expenses (with the United States, China, France, the United Kingdom, and Russia being the “top five”). The Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research reports 39 high‐intensity violent conflicts worldwide in 2008, plus 95 crises with sporadic violence. The militaries of many Western democracies are deployed in many different places in the world, and there have been several aggressive military interventions in recent years. While, against this background, there is a lot of public criticism of militarization and the use of military force to pursue political goals, many people believe in the necessity of a strong military and in the usefulness and legitimacy of the use of military force.
Minimal Group Paradigm
Authors: Otten Sabine 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
“Can discrimination be traced to such origin as social conflict or a history of hostility? Not necessarily. Apparently the mere fact of division into groups is enough to trigger discriminatory behavior.” These sentences, with which Tajfel (1970) opened his first report on what is now known as the minimal group experiments, provide in a nutshell both the main research question that led to the development of the Minimal Group Paradigm (MGP), and the main conclusion from its results. When this publication — and later the better‐known piece by Tajfel, Billig, Bundy, and Flament (1971) — came out, the authors probably weren't expecting how much impact their research on the minimum conditions for eliciting ingroup favoritism and relative outgroup derogation would have on both theory and research in the field. In fact, MGP as designed by Tajfel and his co‐workers quickly became, and still is, a widely used and extremely useful approach, allowing researchers to investigate basic processes in people's behavior as group members in a highly controlled setting. Moreover, the findings on so‐called minimal groups inspired the development of one of the most relevant theories on intergroup behavior: social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).
Mortality Salience in Peace and Conflict
Authors: Fritsche Immo , Jonas Eva 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Intergroup conflicts which involve severe violent measures such as warfare or terrorist threat might increase people's awareness of the fragility of their life and may cause a state of existential threat. Tragically, appraisals of existential threat might significantly contribute to both conservation and escalation of such conflicts. Since the late 1980s, social psychologists have been systematically investigating the effects of the awareness of one's own mortality on social thinking and behavior, revealing a broad range of subtle processes. In this article we will first describe the basic phenomenon of mortality salience effects and then illustrate how these effects may contribute to processes of peace and conflict.
Multidimensional Scaling Methods in Peace Psychology
Authors: Pinkley Robin L. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is a data‐reduction technique that explores
how
and
why
variables are related and, thus, the spatial representation or “hidden structure” that underlies and defines behavioral data (Kruskal & Wish, 1978). As sense‐makers, people compare the objects around them to determine the extent to which they are similar or different. The objective of MDS is to create a geometric map of similarity–dissimilarity judgments to illustrate the underlying structure of complex psychological phenomena, such that the smaller the distance between stimuli, the greater the similarity. In doing this, MDS illuminates the “hidden structure” or underling dimensions that distinguish one category of stimuli from another. For example, Chinese citizens are certain to have beliefs about how their country and others are related to one another, although they may not fully recognize the criteria they are using to make such judgments. MDS techniques provide a mechanism for uncovering and labeling the perceived attributes or “dimensions” that account for correlations between these judgments.
National Political Cultures
Authors: Liu James H. , Paez Dario 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The global system of sovereign states solidified in the nineteenth century as European peoples engaged in political projects that solidified the boundaries between them and regularized warfare and governance, not as the hereditary prerogative of princes, but the lawful activity of peoples forming “nationalities.” European experiences were both emulated voluntarily and exported violently through a process of aggressively military colonization, resulting in the global system of states that govern the political boundaries of the world today. These states may or may not be nationalities (that is, where a majority of the people share common ethnic and linguistic origins), but they are frequently imagined as such (Smith, 1995). States claim the sole prerogative to exercise the legitimate use of violence within their boundaries, and are often the only recognized political entities that other states recognize as having the power to govern. Hence, the multilingual and multicultural empires that governed large parts of the world until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (e.g., the Spanish Empire, the Austro‐Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Turkish Empire) have disappeared, creating many new states but leaving other peoples who aspire to sovereignty but do not have that status.
Negotiation, Principled
Authors: Shapiro Daniel L. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Principled negotiation, also known as interest‐based negotiation, is a non‐adversarial method of dealing with differences between individuals or groups (“parties”). The aim of this method is to reach an agreement that serves each party's interests. The core ideas were developed at the Harvard Negotiation Project and introduced in the classic book
Getting to YES
(1991), coauthored by Roger Fisher, William Ury, and Bruce Patton. Principled negotiation has proven useful in innumerable large‐scale conflicts and negotiations, including the original Camp David negotiations between Egypt and Israel, the South Africa constitutional negotiations, and the 1998 Peru–Ecuador boundary dispute.
Negotiations and Trust
Authors: Olekalns Mara , Smith Philip L. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Trust is commonly defined as a confident, positive expectation about the actions of another person. When we trust someone, we assume that she will meet those expectations by considering our welfare and honoring her obligations towards us. This assumption enables us to coordinate activities in interdependent relationships, that is, relationships in which an individual's outcomes are influenced by another party's actions. However, while trusting others is essential for maintaining our relationships, trusting also increases our vulnerability. While we assume that others will meet our positive expectations and behave in a trustworthy way, there is no guarantee that this will be so (Lewicki, Tomlinson, & Gillespie, 2006).
Nonviolence, Psychology of
Authors: Mayton Daniel M. , Burrows Crystal A. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

While examples of nonviolent action can be traced back at least to the ancient Greeks (Sharp, 1973), much of our current understanding of the psychology of nonviolence begins with the life and writings of Mohandas K. Gandhi. Gandhi's view on nonviolence had three major facets:
ahimsa
,
satyagraha
, and
tapasya
.
Ahimsa
is an ancient Hindu word literally meaning the absence of injury and generally translated to mean nonviolence. In practice
ahimsa
is more than noninjury, as it encompasses a loving relationship of doing good to an evildoer (Bondurant, 1965).
Satyagraha
is a concept developed by Gandhi to reflect the process of pursuing truth within any situation. Seeking wisdom and understanding of all sides of a conflict situation is an important and continuous process for a nonviolent person from Gandhi's perspective.
Tapasya
, Gandhi's third component of nonviolence, prescribes the use of self‐suffering as needed to break the cycle of violence. When a self‐suffering response is chosen over a violent one, the nonviolent person will penetrate the heart of the perpetrator, thereby encouraging empathy and ameliorating any urge for retaliation or revenge by the perpetrator.
Nonviolent Dispositions
Authors: Mayton Daniel M. , Browne Christina N. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Nonviolence seems like a very simple construct but it is actually fairly nuanced and quite complex (Mayton, 2009). At its most basic level, nonviolence may be construed as refraining from a violent or aggressive act. From a peace psychologist's point of view, however, this definition is far from complete, as this definition claims that an individual's failure to act in a certain situation is enough to qualify him/her as nonviolent, even if that failure to act is a result of that individual's apathy or cowardice. However, there is no consensus among peace psychologists on what the exact definition of nonviolence should be. Sharp (1979) defined nonviolence as “non‐injury in thought, word, and deed to all forms of life” (p. 134). Bondurant (1965) believes it to be “the exercise of power or influence to reflect change without injury to the opponent” (cited in Mayton, 2009, p. 7). Mayton provides an integrated definition of nonviolence as “an action that uses power and influence to reach one's goal without direct injury or violence to the person or persons working to thwart one's goal achievement” (p. 8). One element that these three definitions have in common is that they conceptualize nonviolence as a behavior or action rather than a state of being. One individual who firmly believed in and practiced nonviolent action was Mohandas Gandhi, whose writings and views of nonviolence focused on the underlying philosophy possessed by nonviolent activists.
Obedience
Authors: Woolf Linda M. , Hulsizer Michael R. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Following the Holocaust, scholars from a range of disciplines began to question how one of the most civilized countries in the Western world, noted for exemplary educational, scientific, and cultural pursuits, could have carried out the systematic mass murder of millions. One of the answers provided at Nuremberg and later by Eichmann during his trial in Israel was that those responsible were just following orders. Similar justifications have been provided in response to the My Lai massacre in Vietnam, crimes committed at Abu Ghraib, and other destructive actions that have occurred during wartime. However, destructive obedience extends beyond the military to other contexts such as terrorist organizations (e.g., international terrorist organizations and domestic hate groups), corporations, and cults. The litany of “I was just doing what I was told” spans across cultural contexts with the ramifications ranging from the benign to the horrific.
Obedience to Authority
Authors: Burger Jerry M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Between August 1961 and May 1962, Yale psychologist Stanley Milgram (1963, 1965, 1974) conducted a series of investigations on the psychology of obedience. Under the guise of a learning experiment, participants were placed in a situation in which they were instructed to deliver what they thought were increasingly painful and dangerous electric shocks to another individual. The point of the studies was to see how long participants would follow the experimenter's instructions before they refused to administer any more shocks. Milgram found that the average person continued to shock the innocent victim far longer than anyone had anticipated. The findings have implications for the worst of human behavior, including massacres, atrocities, and genocide.
Pacifism, Psychology of
Authors: Mayton Daniel M. , McCoy Jonelle C. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The term pacifism is relatively new. It was not in the 1904 edition of
The Complete Oxford Dictionary
. The word popped into common usage not long after, though, to connote antiwar‐ism and is attributed to the French, who originated the terms
pacifisme
and
pacifiste
from the French
pacifique
, which generally means to “make peace” or “calm.” The 2005
Merriam‐Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
defines pacifism as “opposition to war or violence as a means of settling disputes;
specifically
: refusal to bear arms on moral or religious grounds.” This simplistic definition belies the very complex and nuanced incarnations of pacifism.