bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Montecùccoli, General Raimondo (1609–1680)
Authors: Parrott David 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Raimondo Montecùccoli, Imperial field commander and one of the most influential military theorists of the seventeenth century, was born in 1609, third son of an old‐established Modenese noble family. Raimondo was attracted to the prospects of military service in the armies of the Habsburg emperor, whose court was strongly influenced by transalpine culture and Italian patronage networks. The 16‐year‐old was taken under the wing of his older cousin, Ernesto, cavalry colonel in the newly created Imperial army of Albrecht Wallenstein. Beginning as a volunteer ranker, in 1630 he gained his own company and took part in the attempts to repulse the Swedish army following Gustavus Adolphus’ landing in Germany. Campaigning against the Swedes throughout 1631, he fought at Breitenfeld on September 17, and in the wake of the Imperial defeat was badly wounded and fell into the hands of the Swedish victors. Released six months later after paying a ransom, Montecùccoli was engaged in extensive military operations in 1632–1633, and in 1634 took part in the campaign in southern Germany that culminated in the Imperial victory over the Swedes at Nödlingen. The battle and its aftermath assisted his reputation for reliability and competence, and led to his being granted the colonelcy of his late cousin's cavalry regiment in 1635. At the Imperial defeat of Wittstock in October 1636, it was Montecùccoli's initiative, resolution, and the sacrifice of his regiment that prevented the defeat turning into a rout. Court intrigue surrounding allegations of theft kept Montecùccoli out of military service during the campaigns of 1637 and 1638 when the Imperialists appeared to be turning the tide against the Swedes, and by the time he returned to service in 1639, he found himself on the defensive against increasingly confident and wide‐ranging Swedish operations. Attempting to block the Swedish invasion of Bohemia, he was captured for a second time, though on this occasion his captivity was to last for four years, a period in which he was granted access to the ducal library at Stettin and began his own literary career. Though the last few years of the war in Germany were mostly a rearguard action for the Habsburgs and their allies, the period definitively established Montecuùccoli's reputation and career.
Montgomery, Field Marshal Bernard Law (1887–1976)
Authors: Baxter Colin F. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery commanded British and Allied armies in two of the turning‐point battles of World War II: El Alamein (October 23–November 4, 1942) and Normandy (June 6–August 25, 1944). The figure of Montgomery standing in the open turret of his Grant tank, wearing a black beret with two badges (the badge of the Royal Armoured Corps as well as a general's insignia), became recognized worldwide during World War II. “Monty” was second only to Prime Minister Winston Churchill as a British national icon.
Nanbokuchō Wars (1331–1392)
Authors: Conlan Thomas D. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The wars of the Southern and Northern Courts (
Nanbokuchō
lasted from 1331 until 1392, and resulted in profound changes in Japan. Although these wars did not witness any significant innovations in tactics, as mounted archers continued to dominate the battlefield, their indeterminacy allowed for logistical improvements, as regional magnates appointed to the office of
shugo
gained the ability to use half of a province's taxes for military supplies, starting in 1351. This ability to half‐tax, or
hanzei
, set the stage for the rise of regional military power for the next two and a half centuries, as these regional magnates, known increasingly as
daimyō
, managed to sustain regional armies indefinitely.
Neutrality
Authors: Van Tuyll Hubert P. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractNeutrality is a legally defined status under which a country seeks to avoid war through adherence to guidelines prohibiting it from benefitting any belligerent. The concept has evolved over a period of some six hundred years. Maintenance of neutrality is largely a function of the belligerents' willingness to accept it, and the neutrals' power to defend it. Neutrality is more than war avoidance, which alone does not place any legal limitations on a country. Neutrality does. Failure to adhere to these legal limitations provides the belligerents with justification to withdraw recognition of neutral status and to treat the former neutral as hostile. The most significant legal requirements involve trade, and the use of the neutrals' soil by a belligerent for any war‐related purpose.
Nogi Maresuke, General (1849–1912)
Authors: Boyd James 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Nogi Maresuke, one of the heroes of the Russo‐Japanese War of 1904–1905, is remembered largely for his ritualistic suicide following the death of the Emperor Meiji in 1912. Born into a samurai family, Nogi entered the new Japanese Army one year after the imperial restoration that ended the Tokugawa shogunate. In 1877, during the Satsuma Rebellion, an uprising by disgruntled samurai opposed to the new government's modernization policies, an event occurred that shaped Nogi's career. In the fighting between the rebels and government forces, Nogi and the small force under his command, acting against orders, became separated from the main government force. After much heavy fighting, Nogi was forced to retreat, losing the regimental standard in the process. The loss was deemed dishonorable, and Nogi was sentenced to death, only escaping execution after fellow officers pleaded for him to be spared and his confession of guilt sent to the emperor. The emperor refused to allow Nogi to die, instead ordering him to return to the army. Nogi subsequently “carried the dishonor, and an intense death wish, with him always” (Warner 1975 : 50).
Pacification
Authors: Pizzo David 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Pacification refers to military policies intended to bring about the submission of a subject population to a conquering or governing authority. Since the early history of kingdoms and empires, organized militaries have attempted to “pacify” new or rebellious territories. The Roman Empire engaged in frequent pacification operations in newly conquered regions such as Britain or Gaul, as well as during and after revolts by populations already subjected to Roman authority, such as the First Jewish War (66–73). Much of the Romans' experience with pacification had been gained during their conquest of Spain, which involved a protracted series of pacification campaigns from 218
BCE
until 19
CE
. Pacification operations are most closely associated with the campaigns of the European empires during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. They have also been associated with major counterinsurgency operations during wars of national liberation. Pacification operations were particularly violent when launched against enemies resorting to guerilla warfare, which occurred frequently in both the colonial and postcolonial context as indigenous armies sought to minimize European armies' superior logistics and firepower. In some cases, as discussed below, the violence of pacification could result in genocidal outcomes.
Pitt, William (“the Younger”) (1759–1806)
Authors: Green Dominic 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The youngest prime minister in British history, William Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham, led Britain's House of Commons through the aftermath of the American War of Independence (1775–1783), the illness of George III, the French Revolution, the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), and the Napoleonic Wars (1802–1815). In two terms of office totaling nineteen years, Pitt stabilized the British economy, modernized the prime ministership, and laid the foundations for the defeat of Napoleon. The youngest of a group of remarkable parliamentary orators that included Edmund Burke, Charles James Fox, and Richard Sheridan, he is known as Pitt the Younger to avoid confusion with his father William Pitt the Elder, 1st Earl of Chatham (1708–1778), architect of British victory in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763).
Pontiac (Obwandiyag) (1720–1769)
Authors: Vandervort Bruce 
Published: November 2011

AbstractBorn in obscurity and destined to lie in an unmarked grave, Pontiac nonetheless became one of the most famous Indians in the history of North America, though much of his fame was owed to white men writing about him long after his death. A war chief of the Ottawa tribe who inhabited the eastern half of Michigan and parts of Ohio and Ontario, Pontiac fought alongside the French in their wars with Britain between 1744 and 1763. The Ottawa, like most of the Great Lakes Indian tribes, had close relations with the French through the fur trade. David Dixon, author of a study of Pontiac's uprising, believes that it is “entirely possible” that Pontiac led Ottawa warriors in the French and Indian ambush of Braddock's column on the Monongahela in 1755 (Dixon 2006: 62). He was one of the many Western Indian leaders who believed that the war was not over in 1763 but that the French would return to battle on to victory.
Post‐Traumatic Stress Disorder
Authors: Reid Fiona 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a relatively new diagnosis. PTSD first appeared in the American Psychiatric Association's (APA)
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
in 1980 (
DSM‐III
). Commonly regarded as the bible of the APA,
DSM‐III
is an inventory of about two hundred named mental disorders. The initial diagnostic criteria stated that PTSD was promoted by “a recognizable stressor that would evoke significant symptoms of distress in almost anyone”; the 1987 revision (
DSM‐III‐R
) insisted that such an event should be “outside the range of usual human experience” and would “be markedly distressing to almost anyone.”
DSM‐IV
(1994) states that “By definition, PTSD always follows a traumatic event which causes intense fear and/or helplessness in an individual.” The symptoms of PTSD include sleeping disorders, concentration difficulties, obsessive thoughts, and flashbacks. Sufferers are often extremely anxious, highly irritable, and easily startled; they tend to re‐experience or re‐live the original trauma and so have to avoid situations which might provoke traumatic memories. These may all seem like very general descriptors, but the diagnosis of PTSD was the direct result of research into the particular mental health problems of Vietnam War veterans in the United States, and of much political pressure by those veterans and their advocates.
Preemptive War
Authors: Shue Henry 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
“All successful wars of mankind, gentlemen, have been preventive wars.” Adolf Hitler, December 12, 1944 (Vagts 1956: 267) Preemptive war and preventive war have long been considered two completely separate phenomena, but the US Administration of George W. Bush and Richard B. Cheney (2001–2008) chose to call preventive war “preemption” (United States, White House 2002). Consequently, what is frequently referred to today by both supporters and opponents as “preemptive war” is actually preventive war. In 2002 “preemptive attack” was officially defined by the US military as “an attack initiated on the basis of incontrovertible evidence that an enemy attack is imminent” (United States, Department of Defense 2002: 33). “Preventive war” was defined as “a war initiated in the belief that military conflict, while not imminent, is inevitable, and that to delay would involve greater risk” (United States, Department of Defense 2002: 336). Thus, according to the US military, preemption responds to a threat that is imminent, and preventive war responds to a threat that is not imminent. The distinction is clear and is generally accepted outside recent US political circles. Since the purpose of the strategic doctrine announced by the Bush/ Cheney Administration was to eliminate threats from weapons of mass destruction (WMD) before they become imminent on the ground that the risk of waiting is too great (United States, White House 2002: 23), it is more accurately characterized as a mislabeled doctrine of preventive war proposed as restricted to threats with WMD (Shue and Rodin 2007: 1–12).
Prisoners of War, Treatment of
Authors: Doyle Robert C. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractFor the most part, captives, hostages, and prisoners provide footnotes to warfare rather than a central focus. Wars over religion, territory, mercantile interests, colonies, or even ideologies, were too serious to devote much time to worrying about prisoners of war (POWs). Captured soldiers were public enemies, burdens to their respective captors and living symbols of lost battles at home. After capture in ancient times, eras without much compassion, POWs, if they were permitted to live, were immediately stripped of their respective citizenship, killed, or made slaves with no rights.
Raids and raiders
Authors: Lamphear John 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In western warfare, raids were usually surprise attacks into enemy territory without the intention of holding ground. In most cases raids were ancillary to the main goal of destroying enemy armies in pitched battle. Broadly there were two main categories of raiders. First, there were conventional troops employed unconventionally to ambush and infiltrate. They appeared in many manifestations: light cavalry, rangers, special forces; and were often regarded as elite troops. Second, there were irregular fighters, frequently civilians without formal training, operating outside conventional military structure, who might be known as guerillas, insurgents, or terrorists. As they often contravened normal practices and military codes, raiders could be seen as morally ambiguous. Lines of demarcation between various appellations were vague and subjective: one man's “patriot” was another's “brigand.” In many non‐western cultures raiding was regarded differently, however. In parts of Africa, Asia, and the Americas warfare consisted of small‐scale clandestine attacks rather than set‐piece battles. Such activity was generally misunderstood by westerners as relatively harmless and ritualistic. However, such reciprocal raiding actually was deadly conflict that assailed an enemy's very survival, erased distinctions between soldiers and civilians, and could last for generations. Practitioners of this “Raiding War” (Lamphear 2003 : 171) were expert at hit‐and‐run tactics and ambushes that terrorized their victims.
Rif Wars (1893, 1909, 1920)
Authors: Alvarez José E. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThere were three significant colonial wars fought between the Spanish army and Moroccan tribesmen starting in the late nineteenth century and continuing into the early twentieth century. Spain's modern military and diplomatic involvement with Morocco began in 1859 when troops sent by General Leopoldo O'Donnell to crush a localized action by Moroccan tribesmen against Ceuta, a Spanish presidio (garrison) since 1578, turned into a full‐blown conflict. Following this brief six‐month war which resulted in a series of Moroccan defeats, Spain was forced by Great Britain and its own tenuous international position to accept a series of treaties which, while extracting concessions from the Moroccan sultan, limited its territorial ambitions and restored to some degree antebellum stability. This stability remained intact until the early 1890s.
Roberts, Field Marshal Frederick, 1st Earl Roberts of Kandahar (1832–1914)
Authors: Barua Pradeep P. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Frederick Sleigh Roberts was born in Cawnpore (Kanpur) in India. In 1832 he was sent to England to follow a quintessential path to becoming a “sepoy” general. He was educated at Eton and then graduated from the East India Company's military academy at Addiscombe. He returned to India in 1852 as a second lieutenant in the Bengal Artillery.
Rodney, Admiral George Brydges (1719–1792)
Authors: Schweizer Karl 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

George Brydges Rodney, British admiral and statesman, was born in 1719 at Walton‐onThames, son of Henry Rodney, an ex‐captain who had served under the earl of Peterborough during the War of the Spanish Succession. Briefly attending Harrow, Rodney volunteered for naval service (1732) on board HMS
Sunderland
, stationed in the Mediterranean. He rose rapidly, with promotions to lieutenant (1739) and postcaptain of the sixty gun frigate HMS
Plymouth
in 1742. After serving in home waters, he obtained command of the battleship HMS
Eagle
(1744). He distinguished himself during the Austrian Succession War, taking part in Admiral Edward Hawke's successful operation against the French fleet off Ushant (1747) as a result of which he was cited for exceptional bravery.
Roman‐Persian Wars (92
BCE
–627
CE
)
Authors: Okamura Lawrence 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

For over 700 years the two major empires of western Eurasia engaged each other variously as respectful neighbors, as potential threats, and as resolute enemies. Rome's
Imperium
, successively under republican magistrates and emperors, and Iran's Empire, ruled by the Arsacid (or Parthian) and the Sassanian (or Persian) dynasties, tried to handle each other while simultaneously controlling internal affairs and warding off external barbarians. By the early seventh century, their resources exhausted, they offered little resistance to Muslim Arabic armies that attacked from the south.
Russian conquests in central Asia (nineteenth century)
Authors: Siegel Jennifer 
Published: November 2011

AbstractWhile Russian expansion before 1850 concentrated on the Caucasus and Near East, the later nineteenth century witnessed a clear shift toward central Asia as a focus for Russian imperial efforts. This strategic shift was, in part, unavoidable, as the 1856 Treaty of Paris, ending the Crimean War, denied Russia access to the Bosporus and Dardanelles Straits; Russia thereinafter appreciated central Asia's potential as a region in which expansion was not yet thwarted by the other Great Powers and an area in which it might gain bargaining chips for future diplomacy by potentially threatening British India. But there were numerous other Russian motivations for concentrating on central Asia. They were committed to their self‐perceived role as a civilizing force, required to subdue their unstable, predatory neighbors. Similarly, late tsarist Russia considered its imperial destiny coexistent with Russia's Asian heritage. Historically, Russia had been frequently overrun by the peoples of the eastern steppes, and Russian Asian expansion was seen as an opportunity to reunite the peoples once ruled by the Mongol horde, albeit with the Russians now dominant. Russian propaganda emphasized Russia's ability to incorporate its neighbors within the empire for the collective benefit of all. Furthermore, Turkestan's prospects for trade and agriculture — particularly vis‐à‐vis the cotton industry — showed great promise.
Russo‐Turkish Wars (pre‐1878)
Authors: Aksan Virginia H. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Russians and Ottomans fought seven major wars after 1700 before the climactic confrontation in the Balkans in 1877–1878: 1710–1711, 1736–1739, 1768–1774, 1787–1792, 1806–1812, 1828–1829, and the Crimean War (1853–1856). First under Peter the Great, then under Catherine and her successors, the aim of the “southern project” of Russian ambitions was the acquisition of a Black Sea port, an outlet to the Mediterranean and the expansion of Russian influence into Poland and Ukraine, Georgia in the Caucasus, then Serbia, Moldavia, and Romania north of the Danube River. Ideological justifications for such expansion included the protection of the Orthodox brothers of the tsar in Muslim lands and the recapturing of Constantinople. This slowly evolved into Panslavism, which became central to the Eastern Question crises of the later nineteenth century.
Rwandan Genocide
Authors: Infranco Michael P. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In spring 1994 in the central African country of Rwanda, the Hutu‐led government planned and executed the murder of an estimated 800,000 Rwandans in what became the most rapid genocide in human history. The extermination of ethnic Tutsi and moderate Hutu occurred within the span of one hundred days, and was carried out in disparate locations from communes to roadblocks, and even inside churches. The roots of the conflict reached back to the colonial period, in which the two major ethnic groups within Rwanda, the Hutu and Tutsi, competed for dominance over the country. When independence came to Rwanda in the early 1960s, the majority Hutu seized power and purged the government of Tutsi. Thereafter, the Tutsi were persecuted sporadically and denied positions in government. The Hutus perceived the Tutsis in a negative, hostile image, in which the latter were depicted as former oppressors with bellicose intentions. The Hutu political elite consciously propagated these negative images of the Tutsi in the media and later directed their extermination. Yet, the genocide must also be viewed within the context of the 1990 war that pitted the Tutsi‐based Rwandan Patriotic Front against the Hutu‐led government forces. In sum, the history of this human catastrophe was founded in decades of interethnic antagonism and intermittent violence.
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)
Authors: Baumgartner Frederic J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre occurred on August 24, 1572, during the French Wars of Religion (1562–1598). The civil wars began in 1562 because of the religious divisions, economic difficulties, and political rivalries that fissured France and the weakness of the French monarchy, with young kings occupying the throne after Henry II's death in July 1559. As of 1562 the Huguenots, as French Protestants were called, constituted about 10 percent of the French population, some 1.6 million persons. Protestantism's appeal was strongest among the bourgeoisie, but crucial for the civil wars were the French nobles who became Protestant, including several highranking men such as Antoine de Bourbon and Louis de Condé, who were princes of blood, and Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. When Henry II died, his heir, Francis II, was only 15 years old. Married to Mary Stuart, Francis gave power to her devoutly Catholic uncles, the Guises. Their power rankled their rivals, but they could not dislodge them until Francis died in December 1560. His brother Charles IX, now king at age 10, needed a regent — queen‐mother Catherine de’ Medici, whose goal was maintaining the authority of the French monarch for her son. Thus, there were three powerful factions in France: royalist, ardent Catholic, and Huguenot.
Saturation (carpet) bombing
Authors: Bonura Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Saturation or carpet bombing began as an idea at the very birth of aviation. The idea maintained that concentrating one's air forces and dropping massive amounts of bombs on an enemy's industrial and population centers would overwhelm their ability to resist, break their morale, and force them to surrender. This idea predated the technology required to implement it, and yet grew to dominate warfare from the 1930s through the 1970s. Ironically, the reality of saturation bombing failed to bring this idea to fruition, despite the best efforts of pilots and generals, and politicians. During the warfare of the twentieth century, saturation bombing failed to independently destroy an enemy's will or means to resist, and in fact played a supporting role in achieving victory.