bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Veterinary Toxicology
Authors: Oehme Frederick W. , Rumbeiha Wilson K. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractThe toxicology of domestic and wild animals is complicated by its excitement and diversity. The numerous species represented in their unique environments present anatomical, physiological, dietary and husbandry differences that allow the same toxins to exert unique and unusual effects on the varying animal species exposed to similar compounds, while at the same time effects may vary from none to acute lethality depending upon exposure scenarios. All the common synthetic and naturally occurring toxins are potentially lethal to all animal species. It is the circumstances of exposure that differentiates the dog or the cow becoming ill from the waters that contain the xenobiotic. Differences in response also emphasis the common variations in toxic effect observed in humans and the array of domestic animals and wildlife. Although humans and animal life have the potential to be exposed to insecticides, hazardous plants, drug overdoses, household and commercial chemicals, feed contaminants, pest‐control agents, spoiled feeds/diets/garbage, metallic substances, fungi, naturally produced toxins, gases and mixtures of chemical agents offered to animals in their confined man‐made environments, the range of such exposures are challenges to the diagnostic and management skills of veterinarians. The excitement of clinical and public‐health veterinary toxicology is embodied in the topics of this tome.
Aviation Toxicology
Authors: Kupiec Thomas C. , Raj Vishnu 
Published: December 2009

AbstractThere has been an increasing interest and awareness of the effects of prescription and illicit drugs on pilot performance with the concomitant rise in the use of prescription medications and the frequency of air travel. Aviation toxicology addresses the effects of prescription and illicit drugs on pilot performance as well as the contribution of these agents to the cause or manner of death in aviation fatalities. Specimen collection, specimen suitability and analytical techniques for the investigation of the role of carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, ethanol, drugs of abuse and so on in aviation accidents are discussed. The prevalence of use and impairing effects of commonly encountered drugs such as ethanol, antihistamines, antidepressants, cannabinoids and opiates are outlined. Issues in toxicological interpretation, including the delineation of post‐mortem from ante‐mortem ethanol, the analysis of glucose and post‐mortem drug redistribution, are presented. Some unique challenges in aviation toxicology, such as the identification of admixed specimens and the genetic variability in the degree of drug‐induced impairment, as well as future opportunities for research, are discussed in the concluding portion of the chapter.
Regulatory Toxicology
Authors: Illing H. Paul A. , Marrs Timothy C. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractRegulatory toxicology is the process whereby information relevant to the evaluation of the toxicity of agents is obtained by organizations and evaluated by or on behalf of governmental or international organizations. The aim is to protect workers, consumers, the public generally and the environment. The requirements of many regulatory systems are closely defined in terms of both the studies required and the interpretations to be placed upon the results obtained. There are various models for the regulation of chemicals, which may be based upon equity, utility or technical feasibility criteria, or a combination of these. Some chemicals are subject to premarketing authorization systems, so that the organization which wishes to market the substance needs permission before doing so. In most countries, the marketing of human and veterinary pharmaceuticals follows this pattern. Other systems have lists of allowed or proscribed substances or are simply notification schemes. With the latter, the individual substance does not need to be authorized but its use/sale/manufacture has to notified, together with the basic properties of the compound. There has been a recent trend to harmonize regulatory systems within trading blocks such as the European Union (EU) and North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA) and also between these blocks.
Toxicological Considerations for Pharmaceutical Products
Authors: Reid Lynnda 
Published: December 2009

AbstractThis chapter is designed to highlight some of the general toxicologic concepts, for example species selection, duration and dosing, which should be taken into consideration when designing a nonclinical investigatory programme intended to support development of pharmaceutical agents. The extent and types of studies needed as well as their timing relevant to the stage of clinical development are discussed. For questions regarding nonclinical development programmes for specific products, regional regulatory agencies should be consulted.
Combustion Toxicology and Implications for Adverse Human Health Effects
Authors: Ballantyne Bryan 
Published: December 2009

AbstractCombustion toxicology is basically concerned with a study of the nature of and potential for adverse health effects with products resulting from the heating and burning of materials. Combustion products are multiple, of a wide range of chemical structures, and are variable in absolute and relative amounts from fire to fire and at different phases in the same fire situation. Depending on the nature of the materials involved in a conflagration, the composition of the smoke produced may result in various acute, short‐term repeated and long‐term adverse consequences. Effects produced include local irritation and tissue injury, incapacitation and systemic toxicity, including lethality. This chapter reviews the incidence and causation of fires, the nature and toxicity of fire atmospheres, factors influencing the generation and effects of combustion products, incapacitating effects, investigation of the toxicological aspects of fires and hazard evaluations. A separate section is devoted to the potential for adverse health effects to fire‐fighters from acute and repeated exposures to fire atmospheres; notably respiratory, cardiovascular, reproductive and carcinogenic hazards.
Radiation Toxicology
Authors: Harley Naomi H. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractThe risk from ionizing radiation is that it damages DNA in specific genes. The radiation can be from internally deposited alpha or beta ray radionuclides or external X‐ray or gamma ray radiation. To date the health effects or risk from exposure is the risk of cancer in a particular organ or tissue. There are four epidemiologic studies to evaluate actual human health effects from ionizing radiation exposure. These are the studies of the radium dial painters, the underground uranium miners exposed to radon and its decay products, the A bomb survivors and the X‐ray exposures that were given at one time as a cure for ringworm of the scalp (tinea capitis).These studies provide quantitative risk estimates for internal and external exposure. A few radionuclides are also described although no health effects have been documented because they are abundant in crustal earth.
Risk Assessment of Chemicals
Authors: Stuchal Leah D. , Roberts Stephen M. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractRisk assessment of chemicals is a process that results in a quantitative and/or qualitative estimate of risk posed by chemical exposure. It includes identification of the hazard, a dose‐response assessment, exposure assessment and risk characterization. The process of risk assessment continually evolves as science refines estimates of exposure and toxicity. There are two main types of risk assessment, human health and ecological, which have evolved separately to a large extent. Human health risk assessment is concerned with the protection of individuals. It considers hazard and risk to sensitive subpopulations, such as children and the elderly. Ecological risk assessment is concerned with protecting the environment and considers multiple species. Because the entity of concern is the ecosystem, the focus is on protection of populations rather than individuals. Both types of risk assessments typically utilize models to estimate the dose of chemical received and the likelihood that toxicity will occur in a particular exposure scenario. These models incorporate assumptions about exposure and toxicity, and must address both variability and uncertainty associated with risk estimates. Risk assessment is an important tool in managing potential public health and environmental impacts resulting from the use of chemicals.
Dose–Response Analysis in Experimental Toxicology and Risk Assessment
Authors: Sussman Robert G. , Sargent Edward V. , Davidson Todd L. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractDose–Response, one of the primary underlying principles of toxicology, also provides us with the basis for risk assessment. It is the process of determining the point at which the response changes from an acceptable endpoint to an unacceptable one. This chapter describes the terminology used to describe some of the parameters used in risk assessment, including the concept of a threshold. Additionally, we discuss the validity of specific studies, the relevance of their endpoints to humans and the applicability of different routes of exposure to risk assessment. The process of assembling available data for review and evaluation is also discussed, as are sources of uncertainty and the different methods used in deriving risk values. Finally, the acceptability of risk is discussed as one of the critical variables in the risk‐assessment process.
Hormesis and Risk Assessment
Authors: Calabrese Edward J. , Ricci Paolo F. 
Published: December 2009

Abstract
The hormetic dose‐response model has experienced a strong resurgence of interest in toxicology, risk assessment and pharmacology. This is based on its capacity for validation, reproducibility, generalizability, and its demonstrated ability to predict low‐dose responses far more accurately than threshold and linear‐at‐low‐dose models. This paper assesses capacity of hormesis models to impact the current risk assessment process, as well as the implications for risk assessment if regulatory agencies were to accept the hormetic dose‐response as the default model.
Chemical Incidents—Emergency Planning, Preparedness, Response and Recovery. Community Considerations
Authors: Russell David , Simpson John 
Published: December 2009

AbstractChemicals are an integral part of modern society with large volumes transported and stored to support requirements for a myriad of processes. Chemical incidents are surprisingly common and occasionally large enough to result in large numbers of casualties, such as Bhopal (1984). Other disasters reflect widespread global transportation of chemicals. In addition, in the present climate, deliberate release of chemicals is a concern, with the release of chemicals now used industrially (chlorine and phosgene) resulting in widespread casualties during the First World War. More recently, the nerve agent sarin was released on the Tokyo underground (1995). Therefore emergency planning for chemical incidents must take account of a large number of potential scenarios, deliberate and accidental alike. Planning should be undertaken following a risk assessment process and should focus on residual risk. Planning should be multidisciplinary and produce dovetailed national, regional and local plans, and be sufficiently flexible to cover major and minor incident alike, whilst recognizing the role of the community. Preparedness is closely related and reflects readiness. It has several components including training, detecting and alerting, surveillance, communication, provision of advice and medical/nonmedical equipment as well as pharmaceutical interventions. The response to an incident needs to be rapid, coordinated and efficient, with a rapid risk assessment and the establishment of command and control structures; risk communication is an essential component. Decontamination, first aid and medical treatment of casualties may be necessary, together with evacuation and/or sheltering. Exposure and risk assessment may be further facilitated by environmental and biological sampling; in the longer term, clinical and epidemiological follow up may be needed. Recovery encompasses the economy, the environment and health and may require remediation and rehabilitation.
Biomonitoring of the Workplace and Environment
Authors: Boogaard Peter J. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractBiomonitoring is a powerful tool to assess exposure to a wide variety of substances. It is superior to many other exposure assessment methodologies since it allows assessment of the actual exposure on the individual level. For decades, biomonitoring has been applied in occupational settings to assess exposure, with the main goal of checking for compliance with occupational exposure limits and the effectiveness of hygienic measures. Increasing analytical capabilities have led to continuously decreasing limits of detection, and have hence opened up biomonitoring for environmental exposure assessment. When biomonitoring is not simply used as exposure monitoring in occupational settings, but rather to assess human health risks either in the workplace or for the general public, specific criteria must be met. These criteria cover (pre‐) analytical methodology, specificity of the biomarker, dose–response relationships, toxicokinetics (e.g. biological half‐life) and reference values or control groups. If any of these criteria cannot be met, more research is needed before a valid health risk assessment can be made. Risk assessment is a function of hazard and exposure over time. A major problem in health risk assessment is the general lack of knowledge about low‐dose‐effect relationships, which prevents a reliable health risk assessment at the low exposure levels commonly found. Toxicogenomics may provide useful data to fill these voids. In addition to scientific criteria, a number of nonscientific and ethical criteria for biomonitoring studies should be addressed, such as the feasibility, the cost/benefit balance, support by the people involved, and the possibility of intervention (e.g. individual treatment, environmental measures, behavioural changes).
The Role ofPoisonCentres in Basic and Clinical Toxicology
Authors: Hall Alan H. , Bismuth Chantal 
Published: December 2009

AbstractPoison Centres have a variety of roles in both basic and clinical toxicology, regardless of the general model followed—telephone consultation either with healthcare professionals only, or with both healthcare professionals and the general public. First and foremost, Poison Centres provide telephone consultations on acute poisoning exposures to include product and/or ingredient identification and information, expected clinical signs and symptoms, probability of developing toxicity and potential severity, recommendations for decontamination when appropriate, and treatment recommendations. Telephone follow‐up of cases is an important activity. In addition, many Poison Centres are involved in a variety of other activities, such as education of healthcare professionals and the public, poison prevention and Poison Centre awareness activities, basic and clinical toxicology research, systematic poison exposure/poisoning data collection, and dealing with chronic toxicity, exotoxicity and animal poison exposures/poisonings.
Ethical, Legal, Social and Professional Issues in Toxicology
Authors: Gilbert Steven G. , Eaton David L. 
Published: December 2009

Abstract
Toxicologists gather and assess data on the effects of chemicals on human health and the environment. Toxicological data can have significant finical implications as well individual and societal implications. It is thus important for a toxicologist to give careful consideration to values and ethics that underlie scientific research and decision making. The fundamental principles that an ethical toxicologist should consider can be summarized as: (i) dignity, which includes respect for the autonym of human and animal subjects; (ii) veracity, an adherence to transparency and presentation of all the facts so all parties can discover the truth; (iii) justice, which includes an equitable distributions of the costs, hazards, and gains; (iv) integrity, an honest and forthright approach; (v) responsibility, an acknowledgement of responsibility and accountability to all parties involved; and (vi) sustainability, consideration that actions are sustainable over a long period of time. The ethical toxicologist must move beyond adherence to the legal regulatory requirements or best practices and develop a deeper ethical foundation grounded in a consistent philosophy of basic values and principles. This chapter explores various historical and current ethical aspects of issues that professional toxicologists must address.
Ethical Issues Related to Animal Welfare Considerations in the Toxicology Laboratory
Authors: Phalen Robert F. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractToxicologists are required to maintain high ethical standards in their studies in order to comply with regulations and to meet the expectations of colleagues and the public. Ethical standards are continually evolving, due to regulatory actions, recommendations of professional organizations and public perceptions. Toxicologists, as do the large majority of all adults, subscribe to the principles of ‘animal welfare’ as opposed to the principles of ‘animal rights’ which opposes all human use of animals. Animal welfare in the toxicology laboratory is based on veterinary standards, accreditation standards, professional society standards, and on principles, such as the ‘3 Rs’: ‘Reduction’ (minimizing the number of animals used); ‘Refinement’ of procedures in order to minimize pain and distress; and ‘Replacement’ of animals by nonsentient models. Toxicologists strive to eliminate animal pain and distress, to use humane end points, to use humane methods for euthanasia and to provide for the health and safety of animal subjects. Toxicologists should also consider their responsibility to educate the public about what they do and why.It is clear that the Animal Rights Movement, with the help of new and expanding, federal, state, and local laws, is rapidly making much animal research cost ineffective as well as extremely wasteful of the research scientist's time(Guyton, 1988)
Chemical Terrorism
Authors: Ballantyne Bryan 
Published: December 2009

AbstractTerrorism has a very long history. Terrorism has been defined terrorism as deliberately and violently targeting civilians for political purposes. One of the objectives of terrorism may be to generate a disproportionate response and thereby alienate the population against the state. The range of weaponry potentially available to terrorists is wide and variable: weapons used may include guns or explosive devices, radioactive/nuclear sources, biological organisms and toxins (bioterrorism) or xenobiotic chemicals (chemical terrorism). Chemicals that might be used include irritant and/or disorienting materials, nauseating materials, psychogenic materials and severely toxic and lethal agents. The only major chemical terrorist action to date was the two instances of use in Japan of sarin, an organophosphorus ester G‐agents, where there was large‐scale mass casualties. While many other compounds could be used in chemical terrorism (eg cyanide, arsine), the only other mass casualty situation to date involving terrorism was the death of many innocent citizens in an anti‐hostage situation in Moscow; this appears to have caused by the authorities' response, rather than the action of the terrorists.
Evaluating the Long‐term Health Consequences ofUnitedStates Combat Deployments: Toxicology and the Law
Authors: Brown Mark , Hyams Kenneth 
Published: December 2009

AbstractWith each war, the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) has been called on by veterans and their families, the US public, government leaders and the media to quickly provide information on the health consequences of combat deployment. VA must rapidly address difficult‐to‐answer health questions each time troops are deployed. Are veterans experiencing more health problems than expected? Have deployment‐related environmental hazards led to health problems among returning veterans? Are troops experiencing greater rates of cancers or mortality? How has deployment affected the veteran's family and reproductive health? Long‐term epidemiological studies provide the most accurate information about morbidity and mortality, but since they take years to complete, VA has had to resort to faster approaches to address veterans' health needs, including: voluntary clinical examination registries, specialized combat‐related clinical care programmes, and most recently, electronic ‘combat veteran rosters’ based on VA's comprehensive computerized health records. Another limitation of long‐term studies is that they generally fail to link specific deployment‐related environmental hazards to unique health outcomes because of the lack of useful environmental exposure data and troop location information during chaotic wartime deployments. Developing equitable healthcare and assistance policies for combat veterans related to environmental hazards therefore cannot be totally reliant on good science, and frequently cannot be based on research studies of the exposed veterans themselves. Consequently, VA has often developed governmental healthcare and disability‐assistance policies based on thorough reviews of all relevant scientific literature related to groups with well‐characterized exposures, whether military or civilian, by an independent scientific group such as the US National Academies of Sciences Institute of Medicine (IOM).
Biological Toxins in Warfare and Terrorism
Authors: Evans R. Gregory 
Published: December 2009

AbstractToxins are harmful biological agents produced by bacteria, plants and animals. They differ from chemical agents in that they are naturally occurring, are nonvolatile and, except for mycotoxins, are not dermally active. Toxins can be much more toxic than chemical agents. They are also not persistent in the environment and are not transmittable from person to person. Toxins that are stable in the environment, highly toxic and easy to produce are candidates for use as biological weapons. Some toxins, such as mycotoxins andricin, require much larger quantities than toxins such asbotulinumto be effective in an open‐air aerosol exposure; however, they can be effectively used in an indoor release. In this chapter, we will discuss the four toxins that are considered most likely to be used as biological weapons either by state entities or terrorist organizations. The list includes one highly lethal toxin, botulinum, two fairly lethal toxins, ricin and mycotoxins, and one that is considered primarily an incapacitating agent, staphylococcal enterotoxin B. Botulinum is a Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Category A agent, while the other toxins are CDC Category B agents.
Toxicology and Disasters
Authors: Illing H. Paul A. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractAlthough disasters may take many forms, they include the toxic consequences of large‐scale exposure to chemicals due to nature, major accident or deliberate terrorism. This chapter first examines some of the definitions associated with major accident hazards. It then classifies and examines major incidents involving toxic chemicals, including those resulting from nature, those resulting from human activity and those resulting from the interaction between nature and human activity. Included under human activity are disasters arising from escapes from industrial plant, from fire, from food and drink and from environmental pollution. Finally disaster prevention and mitigation is examined, with particular reference to the toxicological inputs into land use and emergency planning.