bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Some Social Problems in Modern Navigation Systems
Authors: Hopkin V. David 
Published: November 2009

A navigation system is not normally changed for social reasons. When changes are made, they are intended to meet new or more stringent requirements, to utilize technological advances, to increase efficiency, to improve safety, or to extend the functions which can be fulfilled. Innovations are evaluated according to their technical feasibility and cost. Not only have social factors failed to influence the nature of changes, but the social implications of changes have also been ignored. Yet greater benefit would often accrue from changes if their social effects were predicted and allowed for. Such predictions are usually feasible.Social problems in navigation systems are gradually becoming more severe. In the past, man could often compensate for their effects because his role remained sufficiently dominant for him to be innovative and flexible in resolving difficulties, and he retained a full understanding of the system and control over it. More recent aids tend to curtail human communication, restrict the nature of teamwork, and reduce the social aspects of such functions as consultation, supervision, and verification. Man-machine relationships are emphasized, instead of relationships between people. Each man tends to be more remote from his colleagues, and to know less about what they are doing. These effects are generally incidental rather than the reflection of a deliberate policy.
The Economics of Air Traffic Control
Authors: Hislop Angus 
Published: November 2009

This paper is based mainly on a study carried out in 1976/7 for the UK Department of Industry into the long-term development of air traffic control systems in Europe by a team drawn from the Civil Aviation Authority, the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment and private industry, in which Coopers and Lybrand provided the economic expertise.Until the early 1970s, air traffic control was almost completely neglected by air transport economists. Economists contributed to the planning of airports and airline operations but not to the third facet of the air transport system. However, in 1970–1, in conjunction with a programme of expansion and improvement of the country's airports and airways, the US Department of Transportation launched a major study of the airport and airways system. This was designed to establish an equitable charging policy between the different categories of user but in the event its recommendations in this area have only recently begun to be followed.
The Social Cost of Marine Accidents and Marine Traffic Management Systems
Authors: O'Rathaille M. , Wiedemann P. 
Published: November 2009

The benefits to society that would result from the introduction of a given marine traffic management system depend directly on the scale of the system introduced. Since the cost society would be required to pay for a marine traffic management system would also vary directly with its scale, by focusing on the cost of marine accidents both from cargo pollution as well as from loss of life, a direct cost-benefit comparison can be made, indicating the benefit to society attained through a reduction in cargo pollution and loss of life per thousand pounds expenditure on control systems.Such an analysis implies confidence in the ability to assess in monetary terms the effect of pollution on such non-economic entities as the natural ecosystem as well as the value of such supra-economic items as a human life. In presenting our estimates we not only point out their shortcomings but also admit that past research has been unable to place an economic value on some of the dimensions of the environment, and that therefore any estimates for the social cost of pollution and loss of life should be considered a conservative estimate of the true social cost.It is only when we have reliable estimates of the social cost of marine accidents that we can proceed to assess the net benefit of a given marine traffic management system. But then further research must be undertaken on the question of just what is the nature of the relationship of controls and social costs.
The Social and Economic Impact of the Costs of Carriage of Goods by Sea
Authors: Couper A. D. 
Published: November 2009

The principal aim of this paper is to explore some of the wider social and economic implications of reductions in the real costs of sea transport as a result of the changes in maritime technology since about 1960. In this wider approach we have to consider shipping not as a series of mechanical links meeting with land transport at port interfaces, but as a system which has in recent years undergone processes of transformation, technically and organizationally, which have been of such fundamental significance as to affect several aspects of the spatial organization of society.Major transport advances have had a considerable impact on society at various times in the past – the industrial revolution in Britain has equally well been described as the transport revolution; but it is always difficult at the time to discern the significance of the social and economic impact of such changes – even now there is some controversy as to whether the too early allocation of resources to railroads in America inhibited nineteenth century rates of economic growth in that country. But what have been common to all transport revolutions are the ways in which they have acted to converge time and space through increased speed of transit and reduced costs of overcoming distance. This in turn has affected perceptions of the value of places, the accessibility of resources and markets, and has influenced decisions relating to the location of mining, agricultural, and industrial activities.
The Role of Advanced Navigation in Future Air Traffic Management
Authors: Rawlings R. C. 
Published: November 2009

Over the last decade there has been considerable development of the applications of modern technology to the avionics of new aircraft. Examples of this have been the provision of area navigation and flight management systems, and now with the advent of cathode ray tube displays there is the opportunity to provide a greater range of information to the pilot in a more readily assimilable form than is at present possible. There have been similar developments in computer assistance to air traffic control (ATC) to aid the ground controller. There has, however, been a tendency for these and other parts of the operational system to be improved without fully evaluating their interaction with each other, especially the interaction between ATC and the flight deck. Unless this aspect is studied it is probable that the full capability of the system with its potential for improving the safety and economy of operation will not be fully realized.The Civil Avionics Section of Operational Systems Division at RAE Bedford, in collaboration with UK avionics manufacturers and funded by the Department of Industry, has been concerned for a number of years with the development and integration of these systems in the flight deck of the future and with the way in which they can be used to develop, in conjunction with ATC, an improved system of air traffic management.
Possible Improvements in Meteorology for Aircraft Navigation
Authors: Bisiaux M. , Cox M. E. , Forrester D. A. , Storey J. T. 
Published: November 2009

Based on a survey of its members in Europe and the Middle East, IATA expects that by 1985 almost half their aircraft will be equipped with Flight Management Systems (FMSs) incorporating 2-D, 3-D or 4-D navigational capabilities. The prime aim of this very significant investment is to increase airline operating efficiency, in particular through fuel saving. Flight Management Systems can perform a wide range of tasks, including flight planning and performance management, for which inputs of meteorological data are required. The more sophisticated systems can accept a number of wind and temperature inputs for the climb and descent profiles plus a wind input at each way-point of the cruise phase. Any estimate of flight progress and fuel requirements based on the use of the most economical aircraft speeds, whether made by the pilot or by an FMS, can only be as good as the knowledge of the wind-vector data pertinent to the flight. Whereas FMS-equipped aircraft in level cruise can often ‘update’ or correct the forecast data relating to the next flight leg, this is not feasible when major changes of altitude are necessary, e.g. during the descent phase. Accurate meteorological data are essential to ensure the optimum results from the FMS.During the early 1970s, before the fuel crisis began, some thought was being given to the problem of handling the rapidly increasing number of aircraft movements in Europe.
Self-adaptive Filters for the Integration of Navigation Data
Authors: Abbott J. P. , Gent C. R. 
Published: November 2009

The traditional non-adaptive Kalman filter includes models of the error characteristics of the navigation aids in use and such filters are very successful, so long as their model assumptions approximate to the true error characteristics sufficiently closely. However, for any filter there will be times when the environment changes and one or several aids will have errors which are not consistent with the assumed error models. It is necessary to consider carefully the sensitivity of the filter to such changes and, where a significant reduction in performance ensues, modifications to the filter are necessary.This paper introduces a Kalman filter which monitors the behaviour of internal variables to detect and characterize any model imperfections. The filter will then adapt its internal model of the environment accordingly. The discussion is restricted to the development of a navigation filter for integrating dead reckoning (EM log and gyrocompass) and Omega data. The principles are the same for any filter and details regarding similar analysis involving the use of other aids, for example Satnav and Decca, have been developed in a similar way.Before implementing any filter it is necessary to understand the behaviour of the measurement errors. For the dead reckoning and Omega aids this behaviour is described in section 2, while section 3 outlines a filter for integrating these aids and introduces the problems of model imperfections.
A New Concept for Vertical Separation
Authors: Blom-Bakke Arne 
Published: November 2009

The ICA system which is now being considered by the Civil Aviation Administrations in the UK and the USA is based on a new height unit, the ‘millica’. Below an arbitrary fixed level (29000 ft) this unit is equal to 0.3 m; above that level it increases gradually, the rate of increase corresponding to the standard deviation of aircraft height from assigned cruising level. At 10 000 m the unit is equal to 0.325 m and 15 000 m to 0.477 m. In this way the ratio between the separation of cruising levels and the standard deviation of the departure from assigned level remains constant; that is to say, the safety margin is constant. At present, cruising levels up to 29 000 ft are separated by 1000 ft and above this level by 2000 ft, so that there are five cruising levels between 29000 and 39000 ft; in the new system there would be nine.If δh is the height difference, δp the barometric pressure difference and p the mean atmospheric density in this interval, it is clear that δp = pδh and δh(1/p)δp. From this it follows that if δh is constant between adjacent flight levels the δp decreases with altitude and the vertical separation safety factor also decreases.If, as has sometimes been suggested, δp remains constant between adjacent flight levels, then δh will increase with altitude and the safety factor will increase also.
Factors Contributing to Marine Casualties
Authors: Fukushima H. 
Published: November 2009

Marine casualties usually arise through a combination of complex conditions. To trace any one of the conditions involved, and its reaction on others, not only helps to reveal the cause of an accident but is also important in understanding the nature of such casualties.Like accidents on land, marine casualties do not arise spontaneously but have ascertainable causes, rarely a single cause but rather a combination of causes. Thus in a collision in fog in a narrow channel we must consider not only faults in carrying out a manœuvre but also the natural phenomena of fog and the narrowness of the channel.
Inuit Navigation, Empirical Reasoning and Survival
Authors: Irwin Colin 
Published: November 2009

In order to navigate and thereby survive in a hostile environment the Inuit have developed a sophisticated body of knowledge that makes travel possible even during a blizzard or white-out. This unique skill was developed from a thorough understanding of the properties of snow and local meteorology. Problems of space, time and distance are also taken into account by Inuit navigators but this is done with minimal use of quantification and abstraction. However this highly practical form of navigation in which the Inuit deal directly with their environment is none the less scientific and empirical.In 1971 the author attempted a single-handed sailing of the North West Passage and in 1973 completed a crossing of Arctic North America by dog team.
Navigation Equipment Standards for Merchant Ships
Authors: Beattie J. H. 
Published: November 2009

This paper, which was presented at the Institute Conference on navigation equipment and training standards held in Cardiff on 2–3 April, reviews the recent creation of international safety standards for shipborne electronic navigational aids and the new institutional framework in which these are being generated at IMO, IEC and ISO. It suggests that these safety standards, where they exist, are very similar to those needed by shipowners for efficiency of shipoperation.The paper which follows, by Moore and Page, was also presented at the Conference, an account of which appears in the Record.
Testing the Sperry Collision Avoidance System
Authors: Fedorowski J. , Galor W. , Hajduk J. 
Published: November 2009

Automatic collision avoidance systems are being installed on board more and more ships and this necessitates verifying their characteristics, as compared with postulated requirements. The requirement for such anti-collision systems may be specified as follows:(i) Radar echoes should be tracked automatically, regardless of weather conditions, the number of echoes, or the relative distance between tracked targets.(ii) The system should be operable by a single observer, assuming that the information given is used efficiently.(iii) The information should be displayed in the clearest and the most comprehensible form.(iv) The system should facilitate alterations of course and speed.(v) Information relating to collision risk should be provided in ample time if the system is to operate in dense traffic.(vi) The system should include alarm devices which operate in pre-determined circumstances.
The Recent Casualty Record in the Dover Strait
Authors: Dare S. C. , Lewison G. R. G. 
Published: November 2009

In the first six months of 1979 there were six collisions in the area of the Dover Strait (extending from the Greenwich meridian to 2° 30′ E and from 50° 30′ N to 51° 30′ N) that involved at least one vessel of 500 grt or more. (Two further collisions took place during the next four months.) Collisions have not occurred in these waters at a rate of one a month since 1969. Yet since then there have been several notable changes that should have led to greater safety. The IMCO traffic separation scheme has been made compulsory for ships of all nations through the coming into force of the new Collision Regulations on 15 July 1977. Secondly, the Channel Navigation Information Service was established in England in 1972, and it and its counterpart in France have been monitoring the traffic by radar and making regular broadcasts for more than five years. Finally, traffic discipline has steadily improved, as measured by the number of ‘rogue’ vessels that are held to contravene the routing scheme (Fig. 1).To decide whether this spate of collisions represents a marked deterioration in navigational standards it is necessary to do rather more than merely count occurrences (Fig. 2). In the first place, any evaluation must take account of the amount of damage to the ships involved and to the environment, and of deaths and injuries to personnel.
The Application of Civil Aviation Operational Techniques to Merchant Ship Operations
Authors: Brace J. 
Published: November 2009

The aerospace industry has demonstrated very effectively the accuracy and reliability of both manned and unmanned vehicles on extensive and sophisticated missions. There is little doubt that the next two or three decades will see the rapid introduction of further automated and computerized techniques into ship operations and there is a great deal that the shipping industry can learn from civil aviation – in particular, traffic regulation, automated navigation, accident investigation, and training techniques. Three accidents which illustrate some of the problems associated with the operation of merchant ships are cited, and comparisons made with the operational procedures used in aviation.The motor vessel Blythe Star of 321 grt sailed at 1830 on 12 October 1973 from Hobart, Tasmania, bound for King Island with a cargo of bagged superphosphate. At 0800 on 13 October she heeled over to starboard and sank. The weather was fine, with light winds, slight seas, and very low swell. All of the ten persons aboard abandoned ship in an inflatable life-raft. One died at sea and two others died after reaching shore in southern Tasmania. The remainder, after landing on 21 October, made their way to a logging contractor and safety on October 24. The accident resulted in the biggest search and rescue operation ever conducted in Australia.
The Influence of Underwater Sound on Marine Organisms
Authors: Suzuki H. , Hamada E. , Saito K. , Maniwa Y. , Shirai Y. 
Published: November 2009

As sea traffic grows, so too does the problem of the acoustic pollution of fishing grounds. This paper describes the measurement and analysis of ship-produced underwater sounds and their effect on the behaviour of certain fishes. It would seem that their influence on marine organisms is a growing problem and should not be ignored by navigators, for the sounds produced by large or high-speed vessels, or even fishing boats, can frighten fish shoals or cause them to change their migration routes.After a series of tests to measure and analyse the underwater sound, the output of submerged loud-speakers, either at sea or in an aquarium, was adjusted to ensure that the sound intensity near the fish was at the required level and the fish behaviour was carefully observed. For these experiments a hydrophone was connected to a pre-amplifier. A signal amplified by the pre-amplifier is attenuated before being sent to the main amplifier, the sound level being read directly on an indicator using the sound analysing character ‘C’. A tape recorder registers the sound signal in a flat response from 20 to 50 Hz to within 3 dB. A tracing recorder was also sometimes used and the two methods gave almost the same results.
P. V. H. Weems: A Personal Tribute
Authors: Sadler D. H. 
Published: November 2009

The recent death of Philip Van Horn Weems, at the advanced age of 90, has removed from the field of navigation one of its most outstanding and colourful personalities. His contributions, made over a period of more than half a century, have ranged over almost every aspect of navigation: practising navigator, instrument inventor, pioneer of the GHA form of Nautical Almanac and of the first Air Almanac, introducer of the Star Altitude Curves, brilliant expositor (as his books so clearly demonstrate), successful business man who trained many thousand navigators through his training schools and correspondence courses – he devoted his whole life to navigation with boundless energy and contagious enthusiasm.This is not the place to give the factual details of his life, or to put on record his many achievements, both inside and outside his professional career. Many of his most lasting and significant contributions to the practice of navigation, although so familiar to myself, can only be appreciated by a detailed study relative to the contemporary ‘state of the art’; Weems was, above all else, an innovator of ideas many of which were developed by others and which deserve a fuller and more technical treatment.A brief summary of his career follows. Weems, left an orphan at an early age, had a hard life on the family farm in Tennessee, with little formal education.
The Velocity Field: A New Concept in Navigation
Authors: Wright T. M. B. 
Published: November 2009

The practical navigator relies on his ability to perform two fundamentally distinct operations: fixing his position and determining the course to steer. Guidance, in the sense that he receives (or generates within his craft) signals which continually define a vector coincident with his desired track, is not normally available to him.Certain radio aids, notably the hyperbolic navigation systems, have however, frequently been used in the guidance role where the direction in which the signals can be particularly easily interpreted happens to coincide with the course to be steered. Thus, flying down a Decca lane is an acceptable operational technique which corresponds to making the aircraft follow the locus of constant range-difference to two points at known locations. It is not in principle necessary for the craft to perform the conversion from hyperbolic to Earth coordinates in order to do this.
Fuel Economies Effected by the use of FMS in an Advanced TMA
Authors: Attwooll Victor , Benoît André 
Published: November 2009

The title of this paper could possibly be misleading in that it suggests that we already have a solution for a problem which is still open or at least a conclusion from an investigation which is still under way.Accordingly, we should define straight away, subject to subsequent elaboration, (a) what we mean by an ‘advanced terminal area’, (b) what in such a context could be envisaged in terms of advantages for the aviation community, namely both the airspace users and the air traffic authorities, and finally (c) what new tools, both in the air and on the ground, would be desirable or essential in order to achieve a given degree of progress.
Integration of Advanced Displays, FMS, Speech Recognition and Data Link
Authors: Newbery R. R. 
Published: November 2009

This paper outlines some of the results being achieved by the UK research programme on civil avionics which is based at RAE Bedford. Acknowledgments are therefore due to members of the civil avionics team and UK industry from whose work these examples are drawn, and not least to the Department of Trade and Industry who fund the programme.No attempt is made to define ‘flight management systems’. The concept, originating in the complex outer loops of autopilots, has now come to include all the detail involved in managing the flight deck systems as well as planning and controlling the aircraft's progress from ramp to ramp. As this paper will hope to demonstrate, the concept is still growing.