bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
RECOGNITION AND RECALL: LATENCY AND RECURRENCE OF IMAGES
Authors: MORRIS P. E. , REID R. L. 
Published: April 2011

Explanations of improvements in memory through the formation of mental images require that the same image recurs when the stimulus is re‐presented on the test trial. The experiment obtained information on the latency and recurrence of images to explain anomalies in recognition memory following imaging.In Part A, words of high or low I were presented one by one and subjects stopped a timer to indicate when they had formed an image to each word. The words were then presented for a second time, together with an equal number of new words. As before, subjects stopped a timer when they had formed an image. They reported whether the word had been presented before, and, if so, whether the image was the same as on the first presentation. No change was found in the latency of image formation to high I words but the latency to low I words decreased on the second presentation and the same image recurred less frequently to low I words. In Part B, pairs of words were presented. Pairs and single words from pairs were presented again, along with equal numbers of new pairs and new single words. On 94 per cent of occasions on which pairs were presented for a second time the recurrence of the same image was reported. When single words were presented the same image recurred on only 22 per cent of occasions.
DISCRIMINATION BY NEWBORNS OF THE INTENSITY, FREQUENCY AND TEMPORAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AUDITORY STIMULI
Authors: STRATTON PETER M. , CONNOLLY KEVIN 
Published: April 2011

The ability of 3‐ to 5‐day‐old neonates to discriminate between auditory stimuli, in terms of each of the dimensions of intensity, pitch and time, was studied using heart‐rate responses in a habituation paradigm. For each of the dimensions a survey of the literature failed to provide results which could be used as the basis for later work involving auditory patterns. Further analysis of an earlier experiment (Stratton, 1970 a) involving stimuli at 80, 85 and 90 db showed that louder stimuli evoked larger initial responses and more rapid habituation. From the same experiment it was found that a change of pitch produced dishabituation as early as the 10th trial. There are reasonable grounds for attributing the increased response to the frequency characteristics rather than a change in the perceived intensity of the stimuli.Previous experiments suggested that fixed inter‐stimulus intervals tended to produce anticipatory heart‐rate changes and modify the magnitude and latency of the response. Two experiments designed specifically to examine temporal phenomena revealed time‐linked behaviour. In both experiments acceleratory responses occurred at the first stimulus omission of a fixed‐interval series. Not all of the subjects showed this effect, and in both experiments, only the subjects who failed to respond to the first stimulus presentation responded to stimulus omission. The findings are discussed in relation to general issues of neonatal psychophysiology, and it is concluded that neonates can discriminate in each of the auditory dimensions, but that preliminary work involving patterns should concentrate on varying pitch and intensity.
PERCEPTION WITHOUT AWARENESS IN A DICHOPTIC VIEWING SITUATION
Authors: SOMEKH D. E. , WILDING J. M. 
Published: April 2011

One way of investigating perception without awareness is to utilize the phenomenon of binocular rivalry. The dichoptic viewing situation can be so arranged that a stimulus may be above identification level (when presented alone) but masked by contiguous stimulation, i.e. a brighter image to the other eye.This experimental situation was used to replicate an experiment of Smith et al. (1959) which claimed to demonstrate that differences in meaning between words registered below recognition threshold could affect associated conscious thoughts. In the two experiments reported here, a neutral face was paired with affect words presented subliminally and subjects were asked to rate its expression using a forced‐choice indicator. Additional controls to those of Smith et al. were used.In Expt. I it was established that words presented outside of awareness had an effect on semantically related judgements, which was at least as great as that with the same words presented supraliminally. In Expt. II this was confirmed and it was found that increasing the similarity of contour between critical and control words of different meaning suggested differences between subliminal and supraliminal sessions. Responses tended to be meaning‐related in the former and structure‐related in the latter. It was suggested that the experiments have relevance to current theories of selective attention.
SYNTACTIC CONSTRUCTIONS AS RETRIEVAL PLANS
Authors: KEMPEN GERARD 
Published: April 2011

Four probe latency experiments show that the ‘constituent boundary effect’ (transitions between constituents are more difficult than within constituents) is a retrieval and not a storage phenomenon. The experimental logic used is called paraphrastic reproduction: after verbatim memorization of some sentences, subjects were instructed to reproduce them both in their original wording and in the form of sentences that, whilst preserving the original meaning, embodied different syntactic constructions.Syntactic constructions are defined as pairs which consist of a pattern of conceptual information and a syntactic scheme, i.e. a sequence of syntactic word categories and function words. For example, the sequence noun + finite intransitive main verb (‘John runs’) expresses a conceptual actor‐action relationship. It is proposed that for each overlearned and simple syntactic construction there exists a retrieval plan which does the following. It searches through the long‐term memory information that has been designated as the conceptual content of the utterance(s) to be produced, looking for a token of its conceptual pattern. The retrieved information is then cast into the format of its syntactic scheme. The organization of such plans is held responsible for the constituent boundary effect.
CONDITIONING AFTERIMAGES: A PROCEDURE MINIMIZING THE EXTINCTION EFFECT OF NORMAL TEST TRIALS
Authors: DAVIES PETER 
Published: April 2011

Six subjects were trained on a conditioning schedule of ten trials a day for 25 days: a further 18 CS‐US pairings were presented on 4 subsequent days. The tone employed as the CS was put on 30 sec before the presentation of a briefly illuminated visual target (the US) and maintained until terminated by the subject when his afterimages disappeared. This procedure allowed continuous monitoring of the evolution of the conditioned response (conditioned afterimages): directly for CRs with a latency of less than 30 sec which could occur on every training trial before the US was presented; indirectly from the changes in the duration of afterimagery following the presentation of the US. As every trial yielded some evidence about the evolution of the CR, unreinforced test trials were not necessary after every block of training trials so minimizing the extinction effect attributable to the presentation of an unreinforced CS.In the course of the experiment the mean duration of afterimagery increased almost fivefold with one subject showing a tenfold increase. Five of the subjects experienced visual images in response to the tone alone and were judged to be conditioned. The data are discussed in relation to the evolving levels of conditioning identified by Bzhalava (1958, 1965).
A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EYSENCK'S P SCALE AND CHANGE IN MUSCLE ACTION POTENTIALS WITH ATTENTION TO PERCEPTUAL TASKS
Authors: HINTON JOHN , CRASKE BRIAN 
Published: April 2011

An experiment is described in which an index of change in muscle tension produced by perceptual discrimination tasks, and scores on Eysenck's PEN scales, were measured on 39 university students. It was hypothesized that if P is an index of psychoticism, as has been claimed (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1968) then an index of one central feature of so called ‘psychotics’, namely attention difficulty while decision making, should correlate positively with P.P was found to correlate significantly with a measure of increase of EMG on the perceptual discrimination tasks (r = 0.54, P < 0.001). Correlations of this index with N and E were zero. The results are considered to be particularly significant, since scores on P, E and N gave almost zero intercorrelations in the sample tested, and L scores were exceedingly low. Further evidence is provided which suggests that both P and muscle tension increase are directly related to the degree of endorsement of paranoid ideas.
Memory performance after arousal from different sleep stages
Authors: STONES M. J. 
Published: April 2011

Learning material was presented to independent groups of subjects either after arousal from non‐Rapid Eye Movement (non‐REM) sleep, after arousal from REM sleep, or under conditions of no prior sleep. Measures of immediate and subsequent free recall were taken.Memory performance was found to be impaired where learning took place after non‐REM arousal. This was manifest in the number of categories recalled, over both immediate and subsequent recall, and in the number of items recalled per category over subsequent recall. It was suggested that the memory performance decrement after non‐REM arousal may be understood in terms of a retrieval deficit as well as a coding deficit. It is possible that the former is consequent upon a lower general level of arousal, whereas the latter is specific to memory.
Tactual and name matching by blind children
Authors: Millar Susanna 
Published: April 2011

The hypothesis that letters can be matched on the basis of tactual physical features was tested in three experiments with blind Braille‐reading children.Experiment I compared simultaneous matching of pairs of normal (S) and enlarged (E) format Braille letters. Under physical match instructions latencies for SS pairs were significantly faster than for other pairs, but matching EE pairs which compared two difficult letters under physical match instructions was no slower than matching SE or ES letters which compared one easy and one difficult letter under name match instructions.Experiment II showed that successive physical matching of SS and EE letters was significantly faster than name matching of ES and SE letters respectively.Experiment III tested successive matching with two types of altered format (X and Y) under instructions to judge whether pairs were the same letter. Latencies did not differ between XX and YY pairs, but each was significantly faster than either XY or YX pairs. The results were deemed to support the hypothesis.
Absolute pitch: A case study
Authors: Vernon Philip E. 
Published: April 2011

The auditory skill known as ‘absolute pitch’ is discussed, and it is shown that this differs greatly in accuracy of identification or reproduction of musical tones from ordinary discrimination of ‘tonal height’, which is to some extent trainable. The present writer possessed absolute pitch for almost any tone or chord over the normal musical range, from about the age of 17 to 52. He then started to hear all music one semitone too high, and now at the age of 71 it is heard a full tone above the true pitch. Tests were carried out under controlled conditions, in which 68 to 95 per cent of notes were identified as one semitone or one tone higher than they should be.Changes with ageing seem more likely to occur in the elasticity of the basilar membrane mechanisms than in the long‐term memory which is used for aural analysis of complex sounds. Thus this experience supports the view that some resolution of complex sounds takes place at the peripheral sense organ, and this provides information which can be incorrect, for interpretation by the cortical centres.
Chlorpromazine and serial reaction performance
Authors: Hartley L. , Henry T. , Couper‐Smartt J. 
Published: April 2011

The effect of 25 mg or 75 mg of chlorpromazine on the serial reaction performance of 12 male human subjects was studied.Speed or number of correct responses was reduced by the high dose of chlorpromazine and errors of commission and omission were increased. The adverse effect of the drug upon speed appeared only at the end of the half‐hour test. By contrast the adverse effect upon gaps and errors was apparent throughout the test and there was no interaction with test duration.
Noise and attentional selectivity: A reproducible phenomenon?
Authors: Forster Peter M. , Grierson Arthur T. 
Published: April 2011

It has been suggested that loud noise increases attentional selectivity. Hockey (1970b) found that noise improved performance on the high priority aspects of a complex task and found a corresponding impairment on the low priority aspects of the task. An alternative explanation was offered by Poulton (1976) who suggested that noise impairs performance by masking auditory feedback from subjects' responses. Four experiments were carried out in order to investigate the phenomenon. No evidence of impaired performance was found in any of the four experiments, with or without auditory feedback. Thus, neither attentional selectivity nor masking of auditory feedback was found to be a significant factor in these experiments.It was concluded that this task is not suitable for investigating the effects of noise on attentional selectivity.
A bilingual word‐length effect: Implications for intelligence testing and the relative ease of mental calculation in Welsh and English
Authors: Ellis N. C. , Hennelly R. A. 
Published: April 2011

Five experiments are reported. These demonstrate that, in bilingual subjects, Welsh digits take longer to articulate than their English equivalents, and this difference is paralleled by the finding that digit span in Welsh is significantly smaller than that in English. These differences are attributable to bilingual word‐length differences, and it is this, rather than intellectual differences, which explains why the norms for Welsh children on the digit span test of the Welsh Children's Intelligence Scale are reliably less than those for the same age American children tested on the similar digit span procedure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. These findings lead to the prediction that mental calculation in the Welsh language will be more difficult than that in English.An interaction between translation and storage in working memory is demonstrated. This finding accords with the working memory formalization of Baddeley & Hitch (1974). It is shown that translation towards the language of preference is faster than that in the reverse direction.
The contextual disambiguation of a polysemous word in an unattended message
Authors: Govier Ernest , Pitts Marian 
Published: April 2011

Multimode theories of attention state that an unattended message is analysed at a semantic level, although less efficiently than an attended message. This experiment was designed to test this. A stimulus (the polysemous word ‘bank’) was presented to subjects in the attended and unattended messages of a dichotic task. One meaning of the word ‘bank’ had previously been associated with electric shock in a context which indicated that the appropriate meaning was a clearing bank (money bank).Specifically, a less efficient analysis of the unattended message would predict that the level of GSR activity would be greatest after the presentation of ‘money bank’ in the attended message, less after presentation of ‘money bank’ in the unattended message, even less after presentation of ‘river bank’ in the unattended message and the lowest level of GSR activity should follow the presentation of ‘river bank’ in the attended message. This prediction was confirmed.
Phonemic segmentation and spelling
Authors: Perin Dolores 
Published: April 2011

Consciousness of the phoneme has often been studied in relation to reading skill. However, it is possible that reported differences in segmentation performance between good and poor readers are due to subjects' differences in spelling skill. Using two novel tasks which required the production of spoonerisms and the judgement of phoneme length respectively, segmentation in a group of subjects who read well while spelling poorly was compared with that of good readers/spellers and poor readers/spellers. Irrespective of reading skill, the poor spellers showed difficulty in phonemic segmentation. Spelling error patterns of the two groups of poor spellers were similar and this was linked to their segmentation performance. Examination of spelling errors in two tasks suggested that error pattern can be manipulated by word characteristics and testing situations.Certain errors in Expt 1 indicated that the relationship between spelling and segmentation performance was due to the use of an orthographic code in segmenting phonemes. Expt 2 varied orthography in order to investigate this possibility. A clear effect of word type was found in all groups indicating that, although poor spellers have problems in phonemic segmentation, they employ strategies similar to those of good spellers, using spelling knowledge as a guide in their attempts to segment phonemically. Since reading level alone does not ensure phonemic awareness and since orthography affects segmentation performance, further studies of phonemic segmentation should take spelling ability into account.
Phonological processes in reading: New evidence from acquired dyslexia
Authors: Funnell Elaine 
Published: April 2011

This paper investigates the reading performance of two patients with acquired dyslexia. The first patient read aloud all classes of word (85–95 per cent correct), including affixed words, but failed to read aloud non‐words. In addition, semantic judgements about written words were shown to be significantly impaired, relative to the ability to read the words aloud. These dissociations support the view that two independent lexical routes are available for reading aloud familiar words, a semantic route and a lexical phonological route. While unable to read aloud non‐words, this patient retained the ability to segment orthographic and phonological stimuli. The reading of non‐lexical material, therefore, does not appear to be mediated by lexical analogy procedures. Instead, it is suggested that a non‐lexical phonological route exists that is clearly independent of lexical phonological procedures. This patient could process isolated written suffixes orthographically, but could only access complete phonological word forms. Suffixed words (but not isolated suffixes) appear to be represented in the phonological word store.The second patient read aloud non‐words, but could not give phonetic sounds appropriate to single letters. This dissociation suggests that the reading aloud of non‐words is not reliant upon grapheme‐phoneme rules.
Right‐ and left‐hand skill I: Effects of age, sex and hand preference showing superior skill in left‐handers
Authors: Kilshaw Diana , Annett Marian 
Published: April 2011

Hand preference and hand skill were examined in relation to sex and age from 3 1/2 to 50+ years. The data were drawn from several samples which avoided volunteer bias, either by selecting children according to birth‐date or by taking complete class groups. The distribution of hand preference and of asymmetry of skill gave no evidence of systematic changes with age. Younger children were more variable and showed larger absolute differences in favour of the right hand than older children but L‐R times were similar over most of the age range.Time for peg moving decreased with increasing age to a minimum in the late teens, remained stable for the next three decades and increased slightly in the 50+ age group. Males were faster than females with the left hand in almost all age groups. Females tended to be faster than males with the right hand up to 10 years of age but males then equalled and surpassed females, to be faster in most older groups. Correlations between hands did not vary systematically with age or sex.Left‐handers were faster than right‐handers and right mixed‐handers were intermediate for peg‐moving time by the non‐preferred hand, in both sexes and both sets of samples. Differences for the preferred hand were less clear but still favoured left‐handers in several comparisons. The findings raise the possibility that left hemisphere specialization for language is achieved through a right hemisphere handicap and that left‐handers escape this risk to cerebral efficiency.
Right‐ and left‐hand skill II: Estimating the parameters of the distribution of L‐R differences in males and females
Authors: Annett Marian , Kilshaw Diana 
Published: April 2011

The distribution of differences between the hands (L‐R) in skill, as measured by a peg‐moving task, was examined for several samples in which volunteer bias was absent or minimal. After comparing the main samples for hand preference and L‐R times, they were combined to give 617 males and 863 females, aged 12–63 years. There was also a smaller sample of 122 males and 156 females, aged 6–15 years.The L‐R distributions were negatively skewed and leptokurtotic. They were not compatible with the sum of two normal distributions, one of right‐handers and one of left‐handers. They were compatible with the sum of two or three normal distributions when one was unbiased to either side and the others were shifted to the right, as expected for the dominant or additive versions of the single gene interpretation of the right shift theory of handedness (Annett, 1978 b, 1979). Sex differences in L‐R scores confirmed that females tend to be more dextral than males. This was true of right‐handers but not of left‐handers, as expected if the sex difference is due to stronger expression of the rs+ gene in females than males and if this gene is absent in the majority of left‐handers. There were trends suggesting that L‐R asymmetry differs with educational status, undergraduates being less shifted toward dextrality than the general population.
Heuristic and analytic processes in reasoning*
Authors: Evans Jonathan St B. T. 
Published: April 2011

A general two‐stage theory of human inference is proposed. A distinction is drawn between heuristic processes which select items of task information as ‘relevant’, and analytic processes which operate on the selected items to generate inferences or judgements.These two stages are illustrated in a selective review of work on both deductive and statistical reasoning. Factors identified as contributing to heuristic selection include perceptual salience, linguistic suppositions and semantic associations. Analytic processes are considered to be context dependent: people reason from experience, not from inference rules. The paper includes discussion of the theory in comparison with other contemporary theories of human inference, and in relation to the current debate about human rationality.