bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Precautionary Principle
Authors: Craig Paul 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
While the precautionary principle is found in some legal systems, such as Germany, it is nonetheless relatively novel as a precept of administrative law. It has however become of increased importance in EU law. This chapter begins by examining the development of the precautionary principle into a general principle of EU law. It then analyses the use of the principle for review of EU and Member State action. It considers the political status of the principle and the way in which it informs decision-making. The chapter concludes by assessing the principle from a more normative dimension. There is considerable controversy over the meaning of the precautionary principle and its application. The political and legal interpretation of the principle is evaluated in the light of this critical literature.
The Ombudsman
Authors: Craig Paul 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
The Treaty of Maastricht introduced the European Ombudsman into the institutional landscape of the Union. The emergence of an extra-judicial mechanism geared towards overseeing the administrative behaviour of the Union bureaucracy served a two-fold objective. In legal terms, it sought to enhance the protection of citizens' rights and interests in the Union space by establishing an alternative route to administrative litigation. In political terms, it was employed as a tool to put a smiling face to a largely distant, impersonal, and incomprehensible Community structure, sooth the growing uneasiness of the Union citizenry, and sugar the pill of further European integration. This chapter is organized as follows. It begins with a brief discussion of the historical emergence of the Ombudsman. It then considers the powers of the European Ombudsman and the restraints placed thereupon. It analyses the way in which the Ombudsman has defined and applied the concept of maladministration. Specific aspects of the institutional relationship between the Ombudsman and the Union judiciary are then addressed. The chapter concludes with some general remarks pertaining to the institutional evolution of the Ombudsman in the Union's political and legal order.
Normal Organizational Wrongdoing
Authors: Palmer Donald 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
Normal Organizational Wrongdoing critically reviews theory and research on wrongdoing in and of organizations, focusing on the individual level of analysis. The book considers a wide variety of organizational misconduct, including corporate crime, white-collar crime, unethical behaviour, and socially irresponsible behaviour. It begins by developing an overarching framework for classifying existing theories of organizational wrongdoing. Then it uses this framework to guide its presentation, evaluation, and extension of theories currently in use in the field. The overarching framework distinguishes between two broad classes of theories of wrongdoing; one, shared by most students of wrongdoing, considers wrongdoing an abnormal phenomenon and the other, championed by the author, considers wrongdoing a normal occurrence. Two existing explanations of wrongdoing, the rational choice and culture accounts, fall into the former category. Four existing theories, the administrative system, situational social influence, power structure, and accidental accounts, fall into the latter category. One current theory, the behavioural decision account, serves as a bridge between the two approaches. The book's overarching framework also suggests the need for an eighth explanation of organizational wrongdoing that has largely been overlooked to this point, the social control account. The theoretical arguments advanced in the book are illustrated by rich case studies of instances of organizational wrongdoing. The book concludes with a discussion of the practical implications that the theory reviewed and developed in the book holds for those seeking to curb wrongdoing in and of organizations.
Introduction
Authors: Palmer Donald 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter very briefly outlines the book's five contributions. First, the book identifies two broad perspectives on organizational wrongdoing and misconduct, conceived broadly as corporate crime, white-collar crime, unethical behavior, and socially irresponsible behavior. One perspective characterizes wrongdoing as an abnormal phenomenon, and the other characterizes it as a normal one. Second, it elaborates two general approaches to analyzing the causes of organizational wrongdoing. One is dominant in the field today, and the other represents an emerging alternative view. Third, it delineates eight specific explanations of organizational wrongdoing. Two explanations are associated with the abnormal perspective and dominant approach, five are associated with the normal perspective and alternative approach, and one occupies a bridging position. Fourth, the book illustrates these perspectives, approaches, and explanations with rich case material. Fifth, it explores the implications of the theoretical ideas presented for those interested in curbing wrongdoing in and of organizations.
Situational Social Influence
Authors: Palmer Donald 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter presents the situational social influence explanation of organizational wrongdoing. This explanation is the second of five alternative accounts of wrongdoing considered in the book. It is rooted in a theoretical perspective that views organizations as systems of localized social interaction, and views organizational participants as by nature or necessity attentive to the attitudes and behaviors of those in their immediate environment. The chapter elaborates three forms of situational social influence that inform explanations of organizational wrongdoing considered in previous chapters: social information processing, groupthink, and definition of the situation. It also elaborates forms of situational influence that charter entirely new territory, including the norm of reciprocity, group dynamics, social comparison and liking-based compliance, and commitment to a failing course of action (which is considered in depth). The chapter concludes with an overall assessment of the situational social influence explanation.
Accidental Wrongdoing
Authors: Palmer Donald 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter presents the accident explanation of organizational wrongdoing. This explanation is the fourth of five alternative accounts of wrongdoing considered in the book. It is rooted in the assumptions that organizational environments are complex and organizational participants are boundedly rational, assumptions that underpin several of the alternative explanations of wrongdoing considered to this point. This chapter argues that complexity and bounded rationality sometimes cause people to make mistakes and that sometimes mistakes constitute wrongdoing. It examines the factors that can give rise to accidents that constitute wrongdoing, analyzing them as the product of system failures at four levels of social organization: the individual, the small group, the formal organization, and the organizational field. Further, it distinguishes between two types of causal factors: faulty system design or operation and unavoidable system complexity and tight coupling (i.e. normal accidents). The chapter concludes with an overall assessment of the accident explanation.
Conclusion
Authors: Palmer Donald 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter briefly addresses an anticipated misinterpretation of the book's fundamental message, the construal that the book is an apology for wrongdoers. It then considers at length the implications that the dominant and alternative accounts of organizational wrongdoing hold for those interested in curbing wrongdoing in and of organizations. The chapter considers the policy prescriptions associated with the rational choice and culture explanations of wrongdoing (governance reform and ethics training). It then explores the implications of the ethical decision, administrative systems, situational social influence, and power perspectives. Finally, it notes the implications of the social control account. The chapter concludes that while the eight explanations of organizational wrongdoing examined in the book provide a sound foundation for interventions that can reduce wrongdoing in and of organizations, the alternative accounts imply that wrongdoing is endemic to organizational behavior, and ultimately will prove intransigent in the face of attempts to eradicate it.
Identities and Social Change in Britain since 1940
Authors: Savage Mike 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This book examines how, between 1940 and 1970, British society was marked by the imprint of the academic social sciences in profound ways that have an enduring legacy on how we see ourselves, focusing on how interview methods and sample surveys eclipsed literature and the community study as a means of understanding ordinary life. It draws extensively on archived qualitative social science data from the 1930s to the 1960s, which it uses to offer an account of post-war social change in Britain. The book also uses this data to conduct a new kind of historical sociology of the social sciences, one that emphasises the discontinuities in knowledge forms, and which stresses how disciplines and institutions competed with each other for reputation. Its emphasis on how social scientific forms of knowing eclipsed those from the arts and humanities during this period offers a re-thinking of the role of expertise today that will provoke social scientists, scholars in the humanities, and the general reader alike.
2005 to 1938: Lifting Social Groups Out of the Landscape
Authors: Savage Mike 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter traces the relations between technology, change, and identity in Great Britain from 1938 to 2005, through a focus on the role of the social sciences in eliciting and shaping cultural idioms of change and attachment in the post-war period. It discusses the ‘quiet revolution’ in which early social scientists helped generate a new relationship to the enchanted landscape that broke from literary, Wordsworthian motifs of rural romanticism. The chapter contrasts the contemporary capacity of significant numbers of people to electively belong, to evoke an enchanted landscape, saturated with personal aesthetic and moral markers, with the more functional and pragmatic accounts articulated by respondents in earlier periods.
1948 to 1962: The Remaking of Social Class Identities
Authors: Savage Mike 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter examines how the social science infrastructure explored the changing character of popular identities in Great Britain during the post-war period. It argues against epochalist accounts that see any simple changes in popular identities and shows the persistence of enduring themes in working-class value which include emphasis on practical skill. The chapter also describes how the middle classes avoided overt forms of cultural elitism and became more confident in their assertion of meritocratic and technocratic values.
Luminescence Spectroscopy of Semiconductors
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
Luminescence of semiconductors is nowadays based on very firm background of solid state physics. The purpose of this book is to introduce the reader to the study of the physical principles underlying inorganic semiconductor luminescence phenomena. It guides the reader starting from the very introductory definitions over luminescence of bulk semiconductors and finishing at the up-to-date luminescence spectroscopy of individual nanocrystals. The book thus set the aim of filling the gap between general textbooks on semiconductors and dedicated advanced monographs. At the beginning, important knowledge of the solid state like lattice vibrations, exciton–phonon interaction and the concept of configurational coordinate are reviewed. Self-contained chapters are then devoted to exciton luminescence processes, effects of high optical excitation, and to an overview of the essentials of electroluminescence. Apart from spontaneous luminescence, special attention is paid to stimulated emission and investigation of optical gain. Considerable space is given also to optical processes in low-dimensional semiconductor structures. The book has been written by experimentalists and is destined primarily for experimentalists, too. Visual approach using schemes and graphs is used frequently instead of rigorous mathematical derivation. The chapter devoted to experimental techniques of luminescence spectroscopy is rich in content. Whenever it makes sense, the accent is put on how to extract from the appearance of luminescence emission spectrum (shapes of emission lines, their behaviour with varying experimental parameters) as much information on microscopic origin of luminescence as possible. The book cannot be regarded as a comprehensive monograph on semiconductor luminescence; selected examples from extremely rich literature only have been chosen to illustrate the text.
Introduction
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
Introduction is of quite general nature. It contains basic terminological definitions used throughout the book. The term secondary radiation is introduced. The difference between ‘luminescence’ (cold light) and ‘incandescence’ is explained. Specific kinds of luminescence are defined (photoluminescence, electroluminescence, chemiluminescence, bioluminescence, cathodoluminescence, thermoluminescence etc.). Distinctions between fluorescence and phosphorescence, between mechanisms of luminescence in organic and inorganic materials and between intrinsic and extrinsic origins of luminescence are stressed. The terms phosphor, Stokes’ law, thermal quenching and edge emission are explained. The basic terms and definitions are elucidated via using representative examples of luminescence emission spectra taken in various semiconductors.
Channels of radiative recombination in semiconductors
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

AbstractChannels of radiative recombination in bulk crystalline semiconductors: a short overview is at first given, then the following processes and their microscopic origin are analyzed: recombination of free electron–hole pairs (both in direct and in indirect bandgap); recombination free electron(hole)–neutral acceptor(donor); recombination of donor–acceptor pairs; two‐photon excited luminescence; luminescence from semiconductors doped with transition metal and rare earth ions. The accent is put on typical lineshape (e.g. Maxwell–Boltzmann) and intensity dependence of each particular process. The role of the density of states, the transition matrix element and suitable occupancy in bands is addressed. Selected examples of experimental emission spectra illustrate the exposition. Discussion of various types of excitons and their radiative recombination is postponed to Chapter 7.
Non-radiative recombination
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
Nonradiative recombination involves various kinds of transformation of the electronic excitation energy into other types of energy than light. Instead of being emitted as luminescence, there are three basic ways how the excitation energy can be nonradiatively dissipated: (i) transformation into heat, which comprises multiphonon nonradiative recombination, surface recombination and Auger recombination, (ii) creation of lattice defects and (iii) photochemical changes of the electronically excited material. Relevant kinetic equations are outlined. Criteria conditioning the occurrence of particular processes are discussed. A noteworthy case of the competition between photochemical sensitivity and photoluminescence efficiency in silver halides as a function of temperature is addressed.
Luminescence of disordered semiconductors
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
Luminescence of disordered (amorphous) semiconductors is due to a different microscopic mechanism compared to those being active in the luminescence of crystalline counterparts with long-range order. Electron and hole tail states, originating from dangling bonds, play the decisive role. Features typical for the amorphous semiconductor luminescence are discussed, namely: peculiar temperature dependence driven by the demarcation energy and distribution of luminescence decay times. Two theoretical models describing spectral shape of the emission band are examined: the phonon broadening model and the disorder broadening model. Theoretical band shapes are compared with experimental spectra found in amorphous elemental semiconductors. The concept of geminate and non-geminate electron–hole pairs is briefly debated. Multiple nonradiative recombination paths are mentioned as well as luminescence of impurities and defects.
Silicon nanophotonics
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

AbstractSilicon nanophotonics deals with unique luminescence properties of silicon nanocrystals sized approximately from one to several nanometers. These nanocrystals have the potential to become active medium in future light-emitting devices or even in a silicon laser. First, spontaneous photoluminescence in porous silicon and silicon nanocrystals is described and some preparative methods of these nanostructures are briefly mentioned. Then recent experimental data about search for optical gain in Si nanocrystals are critically considered. Peculiar luminescence behaviour of active planar waveguides made of Si nanocrystals is demonstrated. Selected ways of how to achieve electroluminescence in Si nanocrystals embedded in an insulating matrix are shown. Attractive combination of Si nanocrystals with Er3+ ions for lasing in the near infrared region is pointed out. Finally, possible biological applications of luminescent Si nanocrystals are briefly outlined.
Spectroscopy of single semiconductor nanocrystals
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
Spectroscopy of single semiconductor nanocrystals deals in detail how to remove the inevitable inhomogeneous spectral broadening when, as it is common, an ensemble of nano-object is investigated. At first, dedicated experimental set-ups applied to acquire luminescence spectra from individual nanocrystals like wide-field micro-spectroscopy and scanning techniques (laser confocal microscope, scanning near-field optical microscope, scanning tunnelling optical microscope) are discussed. Then suitable sample preparation methods are outlined. Next, a number of representative examples of exceptional phenomena observed in individual luminescence spectra are analyzed: hidden fine structure, spectral diffusion, Stark effect, and luminescence polarization from nanocrystals and nanowires. Luminescence intermittency–blinking is discussed at length including statistical processing of the data. Finally, methods to measure photon statistics from individual nanocrystals are explained and nanocrystals are seen as sources of non-classical photon flux.
8 Aemilius Paullus Sees Greece: Travel, Vision, and Power in Polybius
Authors: Russell Amy 
Published: May 2012

AbstractThis chapter analyses Polybius' fragmentary account of Aemilius Paullus' trip around Greece in 168 bce. The episode, located at the join between the two halves of Polybius' work, provides a rare early insight into the relationship between Roman power and Greek culture from the Greek perspective. Polybius emphasises Paullus' desire to see the Greek world, and vision is consistently emphasised. Two models of vision in the context of travel can be discerned in the text, one in which vision is an imperialist, possessive act and a second in which it is a reverent learning process reminiscent of the Greek theoria. The tension between the two models allows for the mutual construction of Greek and Roman identity, and positions Paullus the traveller as the historian's alter ego.
15 From Polybius to the Parthenon: Religion, Art, and Plunder
Authors: Williams Jonathan 
Published: May 2012

AbstractOne particular passage of Polybius (9.10) has come to play a recurring role in contemporary legal literature and public debate on the law and practice of cultural property protection in time of war. This chapter asks whether Polybius has been appropriately cited as an early voice arguing for the protection of ‘art’ and ‘cultural property’ in time of war. More broadly, it looks at some of the similarities and divergences between analogous debates on the issues of spoliation and repatriation in antiquity and the present and, in common with other recent commentators, concludes that religion, not culture, was the dominant theme in antiquity.
Institutional Processes: What Impact on Developing Members?
Authors: Rolland Sonia E. 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
The much-touted transition from the power-based system of the GATT to the law-based framework of the WTO has largely focused on dispute settlement; yet there are a number of other critical processes in play at the WTO that both foster and impede regulatory outcomes for developing countries. This chapter asks how the organizational and decision-making processes at the WTO affect developing countries' representation and participation. The premise for this enquiry is that effective participation is sine qua non to members' ability to influence outcomes. Indirectly, the way in which an organization affords its members the opportunity to influence outcomes is also a test of the organization's legitimacy. This chapter analyzes the impact of decision-making procedures on the representation of developing members, the ability of the negotiation process to foster developing countries' substantive trade interests, and the impact of emerging quasi-administrative bodies at the WTO on developing members' participation.
The other side of European identity: elite perceptions of threats to a cohesive Europe
Authors: Matonytė Irmina , Morkevičius Vaidas 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter investigates elites’ perceptions of potential external and internal threats to a cohesive Europe (enlargement of the EU to include Turkey, close relationships between some EU countries and the United States, interference of Russia in European affairs, increase in nationalism, immigration from non-EU states, negative effects of globalization on welfare, and economic and social differences among the EU member states). Results show nationalism and socio-economic differences to be perceived as the highest threats. Significant differences are found between perceptions of elites from EU founding member states and the new post-socialist EU member states; the perception of threats is not systematically stronger among political elites than among economic elites, although elites’ left–right political identification is a powerful predictor. Threat perception is also related to elites’ visions of Europe and articulated along three lines: cultural heritage, socio-economic order, and governance. Elites’ trust in the EU institutions decreases their perception of threats.