bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Unequal Attrition under Different Types of Follow-Up
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter provides a framework for the prevention and control of bias due to unequal attrition in cohort studies. Like the effects of third-variable confounding, the effects of unequal attrition can be limited by the design, as well as the analysis, of a cohort study. The most problematic kind of attrition is differential. This kind of attrition causes a bias that may not be remediable. The chapter uses sensitivity analysis to gauge the potential bias.
Differential Misclassification
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses misclassification of the disease that is linked to the exposure, that is, misclassification of disease that is unequal for the exposed and the unexposed groups. This is the type of misclassification most relevant to cohort studies. It begins by describing common scenarios of differential misclassification in psychiatric research. It then considers the resulting bias and how this can be limited. The chapter also discusses two special cases: third-variable effects and dependent nondifferential misclassification.
Logic of the Case-Control Design
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter explains the logic of the case-control strategy. It shows how to conceptualize a case-control study as a condensed version of a cohort study. This relationship between the two designs is well established in epidemiology. It is not familiar, however, to many researchers in other fields.
Applications of the Case-Control Study
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractImplementing a case-control study presents three central challenges. The first is to select cases and controls from the same source population. The investigator attempts to visualize the population that gave rise to the cases, and to select the controls appropriately from this population. The second is to establish the temporal order of exposure and disease. As opposed to the cohort study, in the case-control study the antecedence of the exposure to the disease is not established by design. The third is to obtain an unbiased measure of the exposure with information retrieved retrospectively, after the outcome is already known. The retrospective measurement presents the problem that misclassification of the exposure can be linked to the disease status. This chapter illustrates how case-control studies of psychiatric disorders have attempted to meet these challenges.
Biologic Studies in Psychiatry
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Although epidemiologic and biologic researchers share the common goal of finding causes of psychiatric disorders, they approach the task from different vantage points. As a result, they sometimes advocate conflicting approaches to the design of studies. This chapter first takes the perspective of a biologic researcher. It points out the challenge of measuring the brain and how it sets the stage for research designs. It then takes the perspective of an epidemiologist, suggesting that biologic studies can be directly linked to epidemiology through consideration of the biologic factors being investigated within the same framework as other potential causes or risk factors for disease. The chapter shows how two classic biologic studies can be conceptualized as case-control studies.
Choosing Controls in Biologic Psychiatry
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
One of the most difficult and intellectually intriguing tasks of a biologic case-control study is the selection of the control group. An inappropriate control group can mask the presence of a true association or create the illusion of an association when one does not exist. Choosing a control group depends on thinking through the implications of many other features of the study: the types of cases being selected, the biologic process being examined, and most critically, the specific hypothesis being tested. No criteria can be advanced to define the perfect control group, because there is no control group that is appropriate for all or even most case-control studies. Nonetheless, it is possible to approach the task systematically. The previous chapters derived a practical guideline for making the best choice of a control group in an ordinary case-control study. This chapter demonstrates how it can be applied to biologic studies of causes. It takes up a central question, applies the guideline, and arrives at an answer that has important implications for biologic research.
Assessing Heterogeneity of Effects
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter introduces methods frequently used in epidemiology to assess statistical heterogeneity of effect in the studied sample. As in the case of confounding, the main analytic methods include stratification and statistical modeling. It first defines additive and multiplicative interaction. It then describes methods based on stratification: comparing homogeneity across strata of the effect modifier, comparing the expected and observed joint effect of two factors, or using graphical representation of interaction. It also briefly indicates methods that allow the testing of the statistical significance of apparently heterogeneous effects. Finally, the chapter introduces statistical modeling of interaction by logistic regression.
Integrating Epidemiology with Genetics
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses the integration of research on genetic and environmental causes. It argues that finding genetic causes of mental disorders will also provide a key to finding nongenetic causes. An environmental cause would more likely be detected if researchers studied the individuals whose genetic makeup renders them vulnerable to its effects. The converse is also true. Researchers would more likely find a genetic cause if they could study the individuals who have the environmental exposure required for this genetic vulnerability to lead to a disease.
Genetic Association Studies
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on genetic association studies. The goal of genetic association studies is to investigate the effects of genotypic variation on disease risk. These designs are built on a concept of a genetic cause that closely resembles the concept of a risk factor in epidemiology. Moreover, they correspond well to designs previously articulated by risk factor epidemiologists. Thus, the concepts and methods of risk factor epidemiology are particularly useful in this context.
Twin Studies of Heritability
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the methodological issues arising from the discrepancy between the results of heritability studies and epidemiologic designs. It focuses on the basic principles of the heritability design. The discussion is limited to heritability studies of twins, which is used as a prototype. The discussion is also limited to a categorical disease outcome. The chapter begins by describing the twin study, a type of natural experiment, and explains how it can estimate the contributions of genetic and environmental causes of a disorder. It then compares the twin studies to risk factor designs. It proposes a reason that these approaches can yield different results for the effect of shared family environment.
Designs for the Genomic Era
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractGenomics offers to genetics and to epidemiology powerful analytic tools and information unprecedented in medical research. Searches for genetic causes now exploit this richness. Traditional designs are modified to achieve their goals more directly, and new designs are possible. Because the designs are still evolving, often by trial and error, any description of the present state may soon be outdated. This chapter focuses on a limited number of themes that should have enduring import. It describes some of the key challenges presented by the use of genomic information and then suggests a strategy to help address these challenges.
Chapter Two Rebellion and Reaction
Authors: Ford, Jr. Lacy K. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter explores the impact of Gabriel's insurrection plot on the upper South's consideration of slavery's future. White authorities in Virginia brutally suppressed the rumored rebellion in peremptory fashion and enacted strong measures to protect white safety. But the longer-term impact of the Gabriel insurrection scare intensified discussion of ways to facilitate colonization, encourage gradual emancipation (through the presumed success of colonization), and, most of all, stimulate the diffusion of slaves to the new cotton lands of the Southwest through the domestic slave trade.
Chapter Five Paternalism Emerges
Authors: Ford, Jr. Lacy K. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The emergence of the paternalist movement from its humble late-18th-century origins became a potent insurgency in the lower South. Paternalism's advocates faced twin challenges: they had to both persuade slaves to accept Christianity and convince whites that paternalism was an effective method of slave control. This chapter charts paternalism's rise during the Second Great Awakening and its emergence initially in areas such as the Carolina and Georgia Lowcountry, which had a network of well-established churches.
Chapter Six Paternalism Contested
Authors: Ford, Jr. Lacy K. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter examines the actions of those lower South whites who countered that paternalism was not an effective means of slave control. The massive migration of whites and the concomitant forced migration of slaves to the fresh cotton lands of western Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana generated a need for strict slave discipline in rapidly developing areas that played against the paternalist message of familial treatment of slaves. The constant tension punctuated by open conflict between the whites who settled the lower South and the Native American population that had long called the region home also encouraged whites to see military and paramilitary force as essential to their survival. Open warfare with Great Britain and the increased fear of slave insurrection that accompanied it also worked against the thrust of paternalist ideology by generating a popular taste for force and coercion.
Chapter Eleven Rumors and Insurrection
Authors: Ford, Jr. Lacy K. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter examines the immediate reaction of upper South whites to the publication of David Walker's Appeal and Nat Turner's slave revolt in Virginia. The deep fear and persistent anxiety that the Turner insurrection aroused among upper South whites, and white Virginians especially, is discussed as background to a growing popular interest in accelerating the demographic reconfiguration of slavery in the region.
Chapter Thirteen Tennessee Debates Slavery
Authors: Ford, Jr. Lacy K. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter examines Tennessee's debates on slavery. In the middle South, the Turner crisis raised questions about the future of slavery and the position of free blacks in a slaveholding society. These issues were debated not in the aftermath of a divisive state constitutional convention, as was the case in Virginia, but as Tennessee and North Carolina moved haltingly but inexorably toward state constitutional conventions of their own. These constitutional reform movements were driven by the pressure from white egalitarians eager to democratize state politics as thoroughly as possible despite entrenched conservative opposition. Thus, in the middle South, the debates over slavery and free blacks occurred within the cauldron of a white egalitarian crusade for constitutional revision.
Models for Disease
Authors: Holford Theodore R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses the concept of a model for the disease process, emphasizing simple and very general models that can be used to study a variety of diseases. Quantities that are used to describe this fundamental model are the hazard function, the survival function, and the failure time density function. Each of these quantities can be derived from one of the others, so that they are really different expressions of the same underlying concept. Two forms are often used for the hazard: a constant hazard and a Weibull hazard. In many applications, however, it is not feasible to describe adequately the hazard by a simple mathematical function, which is one reason for the availability of non-parametric or semiparametric methods.
Analysis of Time to Failure
Authors: Holford Theodore R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter considers nonparametric methods for summarizing the occurrence of failures over time. The survival curve is the most commonly used summary, and actuarial, piecewise constant, and product limit estimators are discussed. Another use for estimates of survival curves is to validate assumptions about the distribution of times to failure that may underlie a parametric analysis. For this type of analysis plots of the log and the log-log of the survival curve are considered, which provide a diagnostic tool for evaluating the validity of assumed exponential, or Weibull, distributions. Finally, tests for comparing two survival curves are considered, which are best used when the proportional hazards assumption applies. Exercises are provided at the end of the chapter.
Parametric Models for Hazard Functions
Authors: Holford Theodore R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter considers several approaches to using regression models when a mathematical expression that describes the way in which the hazard varies with time is known. The simplest of these is the constant hazard model, which does not vary with time. Applications of the Poisson regression model are described. The Weibull distribution is also considered, which provides very useful generalizations to the constant hazard assumption. Exercises are provided at the end of the chapter.
Analysis of Matched Studies
Authors: Holford Theodore R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses methods of analysis for studies that employed matching in order to adjust for potential confounding of the disease exposure association of interest. It distinguishes between a general strategy of stratification to achieve balance for an important covariate, which can subsequently be included in the analysis; and rigorous matching in which one or two unique controls are identified for a study subject. The first methods considered made use of score statistics. These methods were then extended to model fitting, which can be accomplished using either logistic regression or proportional hazards software. Exercises are provided at the end of the chapter.
The multidisciplinary nature of public health genetics in research and education
Authors: Austin Melisa A. , Peyser Patricia A. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter presents an overview of areas of research that provide information important to genetics in public health. It discusses education in public health genetics. It also presents in-depth descriptions of two emerging graduate programs at the universities of Michigan and Washington and describes other educational opportunities. The chapter concludes with a summary of future needs for research and education in public health genetics.
Surveillance for birth defects and genetic diseases
Authors: Botto Lorenzo D. , Mastroiacovo Pierpaolo 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes some surveillance issues that will likely be increasingly relevant as birth-defects surveillance moves into the future, and that provide instructive similarities and contrast with the emerging field of genetic disease surveillance. In the discussion of genetic-disease surveillance, emphasis is placed on high-penetrance, single-gene conditions that usually manifest in the pediatric age group.
Surveillance for hemophilia and inherited hematologic disorders
Authors: Soucie J. Michael , Rickles Frederick R. , Evatt Bruce L. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses public health surveillance of hemophilia and inherited hematologic disorders. Topics covered include the importance of data in establishing and maintaining good health care delivery systems, considerations for data collection in the hemophilia population, selection of data collection system and content, and surveillance programs for hemophilia in the United States.
Public health assessment of genetic susceptibility to infectious diseases: malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV
Authors: McNicholl Janet M , Downer Marie V. , Aidoo Michael , Hodge Thomas , Udhayakumar Venkatachalam 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The understanding of the host genetic factors that influence susceptibility to and the course of infectious diseases is growing rapidly. Even for the most common pathogens, however, there is an incomplete understanding of all the important genes. As sequencing of the more than 100,000 human genes continues and as technologies advance, new discoveries about host genes and their role in infectious diseases are made almost daily. Translating this knowledge into public health actions, particularly those aimed at combating and controlling infectious diseases, is a major challenge. This chapter focuses on this downstream phase of genetics, particularly on how new knowledge can be integrated into existing public health programs and strategies.
Newborn screening quality assurance
Authors: Hannon W. Harry , Henderson L. Omar , Bell Carol J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses quality assurance (QA) for newborn screening programs. It describes the Newborn Screening Quality Assurance Program (NSQAP) at the CDC in Atlanta, Georgia, which provides services for laboratories that use specimens of dried-blood spots (DBSs) to perform newborn screening tests. The mission of this program is to improve interlaboratory comparability and to work toward interlaboratory standardization.
Community genetics in the Netherlands
Authors: Ten Kate Leo P. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter reviews the current situation in the Netherlands, starting with some background information on health insurance schemes, followed by a description of clinical genetics services, and a survey of community genetics services. It then considers the prevailing climate of fear and uneasiness regarding genetics in Dutch society at large and among politicians in particular. Finally, the chapter describes the activities of a small band of people who are trying to get community genetics “on the agenda”.
Lessons learned from newborn screening for phenylketonuria
Authors: Pass Kenneth A. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses the lessons learned from newborn screening for phenylketonuria (PKU) in the U.S. Newborn screening is, conceptually, a simple public health program with well-defined goals. The implementation of a successful program requires many components outside the testing laboratory, extensive expertise in areas ranging from phlebotomy to genetic counseling, attention to innumerable details, and, above all, dedication by all staff involved. In terms of public health impact, newborn screening touches more lives daily than perhaps any other public health program, and its influence now extends far beyond the perinatal period.
Applying genetic strategies to prevent atherosclerosis
Authors: Williams Roger R. , Hopkins Paul N. , Wu Lily L. , Hunt Steven C. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Atherosclerotic disease of coronary and cerebral arteries accounts for almost half of all deaths in the United States each year. Heart attacks and strokes are often attributable to inherited predisposition, especially when they occur at a relatively early age. Researchers are accumulating information regarding the role of genetics in influencing the risk factors for atherosclerosis in several major categories, including lipids and lipoproteins (LDL HDL and VLDL cholesterol; Lp(a); triglycerides; apo ALAII, and B; apo E genotypes); glucose and insulin metabolism (diabetes, glucose intolerance, and insulin resistance); prothrombotic factors (fibrinogen, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, factor VII coagulant activity, homocysteine); and hypertension. This chapter discusses the basic approaches for evaluating and addressing heritable factors for atherosclerosis.
Genetics and public health: informed consent beyond the clinical encounter
Authors: Press Nancy , Clayton Ellen Wright 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the barriers to adequate informed consent. It then presents examples that show how public health and genetics might come together, either in research or in clinical programs. The examples cover prenatal genetic screening, newborn screening programs, and the ways in which all genetics research inevitably involves families. It is argued that in designing modes of obtaining informed consent, explicit consideration must be given to the structural forces that may make truly informed consent difficult in each particular situation. Moreover, it must be realized that these structural forces have the potential to increase in importance and impact when coupled with any program that purports to have the public's health at stake.
Public health surveillance of genetic information: Ethical and legal responses to social risk
Authors: Burris Scott , Gostin Lawrence O. , Tress Deborah 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The practice of public health begins with effective surveillance of physical characteristics, diseases, behavior, and environmental conditions that significantly influence a population's well-being. Although surveillance of genetic information will significantly advance the public's health, it also entails some real and perceived risks. The social objective is to achieve the public good that comes from genetic information without unreasonable or unethical interference with the civil liberties of individuals. But even when individual interests are well protected by law, perceptions of risk to social status, employment, or other relationships can persist and confound useful public health data collection. This chapter explores the problem that such “social risk” poses to public health collection of genetic data. It discusses the capacities and limitations of law as an antidote to social risk, and presents ethical principles for understanding and assessing the benefits and risks of population-based genetics. It concludes with recommendations for surveillance policy and research.