bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Philosophy of Language in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Baldwin Thomas 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
During the first half of the twentieth century philosophy took a ‘linguistic turn’. (The phrase, which comes from Gustav Bergmann, was made famous by Richard Rorty as the title of an anthology of papers in which this development is set out and assessed.) The first clear signal of this development was Ludwig Wittgenstein's remark in his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921) that ‘All philosophy is “Critique of Language”‘ and this work by Wittgenstein (which is discussed in this article) remains a classic presentation of the thesis that philosophy can only be undertaken through the critical study of language. Thus during the twentieth century philosophical approaches to language, the kinds of theorizing now known as ‘philosophy of language’, have been developed in a context in which language has been taken to be a primary resource for philosophy, and as a result there has been a two-way relationship in which conceptions of language and of philosophy have been developed together.
Languages and Idiolects: Their Language and Ours
Authors: Higginbotham James 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
An idiolectal conception of language is compatible with a substantive role for external things — objects, including other people — in the characterization of idiolects. Illustrations of this role are not hard to come by. The point of looking outward from the individual is pretty evident for the case of reference to perceptually encountered objects: had the world been significantly different, a person with the same molecular history would have acquired, and called by the same familiar names, different physical and other concepts. An idiolectal conception of language is by no means committed, and has some reason to be opposed, to internalism, and to individualism in Burge's sense; that is, to the view that the organization of the body, abstracting from external things, is constitutive of any linguistically significant aspect of language.
Semantic Internalism and Externalism
Authors: Farkas Katalin 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe function of certain expressions in the language is to refer to things, and expressions refer to things in virtue of their meaning. This is so obvious that it almost defies explanation or supporting argument. What we learn when we learn the meaning of the expression is precisely that it is used to talk about a certain thing. And if two expressions like the ‘Morning Star’ and the ‘Mont Blanc’ refer to different things, this must be in virtue of the difference in their meanings. Of course, there are names like ‘Pegasus’ which do not refer to anything, but this is also a consequence of their meaning; compare ‘Pegasus’ and ‘Bucephalus’.
What Does it Take to Refer?
Authors: Bach Kent 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article makes a number of points about reference, both speaker reference and linguistic (or semantic) reference. The bottom line is simple: reference ain't easy — at least not nearly as easy as commonly supposed. Much of what speakers do that passes for reference is really something else, and much of what passes for linguistic reference is really nothing more than speaker reference. Referring is one of the basic things we do with words, and it would be a good idea to understand what that involves and requires before worrying about the linguistic means by which this is done.
Formal Semantics
Authors: King Jeffrey C. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractSemantics is the discipline that studies linguistic meaning generally, and the qualification ‘formal’ indicates something about the sorts of techniques used in investigating linguistic meaning. More specifically, formal semantics is the discipline that employs techniques from symbolic logic, mathematics, and mathematical logic to produce precisely characterized theories of meaning for natural languages (i.e. naturally occurring languages such as English, Urdu, etc.) or artificial languages (i.e. first-order predicate logic, computer programming languages etc.). Formal semantics as we know it first arose in the twentieth century. It was made possible by certain developments in logic during that period. This article chronicles those developments and how they led to the development of formal semantics.
Two‐Dimensional Semantics
Authors: Chalmers David J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Two-dimensional approaches to semantics, broadly understood, recognize two ‘dimensions’ of the meaning or content of linguistic items. On these approaches, expressions and their utterances are associated with two different sorts of semantic values, which play different explanatory roles. Typically, one semantic value is associated with reference and ordinary truth-conditions, while the other is associated with the way that reference and truth-conditions depend on the external world. The second sort of semantic value is often held to play a distinctive role in analyzing matters of cognitive significance and/or context-dependence. In this broad sense, even Frege's theory of sense and reference might qualify as a sort of two-dimensional approach.
Compositionality
Authors: Dever Josh 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe question of whether natural languages have compositional semantics continues to attract considerable interest, as do questions about the reasons for wanting compositionality, the consequences of compositionality, and the very formulation of the principle of compositionality. This article begins by developing a precise definition of compositionality. In this article some technical consequences of that definition are explored. The article then examines two compositionally problematic semantic phenomena, and proposes compositional treatments thereof. The last section closes by asking why one might want a compositional meaning theory, and attempting to explain the philosophical significance of compositionality.
Opacity
Authors: Richard Mark 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThere seems to be a lot of opacity in our language. Quotation is opaque. The modal idioms are apparently opaque. Propositional attitude ascriptions seem opaque, as do the environments created by verbs such as ‘seeks’ and ‘fears’. Opacity raises a number of issues — first and foremost, whether there is such a thing. This article concentrates on the question of whether there is any opacity to be found in natural language, examining various reasons one might have for denying that apparent opacity is genuine.
Metaphor
Authors: Reimer Marga , Camp Elisabeth 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Metaphor has traditionally been construed as a linguistic phenomenon: as something produced and understood by speakers of natural language. So understood, metaphors are naturally viewed as linguistic expressions of a particular type, or as linguistic expressions used in a particular type of way. This linguistic conception of metaphor is adopted in this article. In doing so, the article does not intend to rule out the possibility of non-linguistic forms of metaphor. Many theorists think that non-linguistic objects (such as paintings or dance performances) or conceptual structures (like love as a journey or argument as war) should also be treated as metaphors. Indeed, the idea that metaphors are in the first instance conceptual phenomena, and linguistic devices only derivatively, is the dominant view in what is now the dominant area of metaphor research: cognitive science. In construing metaphor as linguistic, the article merely intends to impose appropriate constraints on a discussion whose focus is the understanding and analysis of metaphor within contemporary philosophy of language.
Semantics for Nondeclaratives
Authors: Boisvert Daniel , Ludwig Kirk 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article begins by distinguishing force and mood. Then it lays out desiderata on a successful account. It sketches as background the program of truth-theoretic semantics. Next, it surveys assimilation approaches and argues that they are inadequate. Then it shows how the fulfillment-conditional approach can be applied to imperatives, interrogatives, molecular sentences containing them, and quantification into mood markers. Next, it considers briefly the recent set of propositions approach to the semantics of interrogatives and exclamatives. Finally, it shows how to integrate exclamatives and optatives into a framework similar to the fulfillment approach.
Meaning and Reference: Some Chomskian Themes
Authors: Stainton Robert J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article introduces three arguments that share a single conclusion: that a comprehensive science of language cannot (and should not try to) describe relations of semantic reference, i.e. word–world relations. Spelling this out, if there is to be a genuine science of linguistic meaning (yielding theoretical insight into underlying realities, aiming for integration with other natural sciences), then a theory of meaning cannot involve assigning external, real-world, objects to names, nor sets of external objects to predicates, nor truth values (or world-bound thoughts) to sentences. Most of the article tries to explain and defend this broad conclusion. The article also presents, in a very limited way, a positive alternative to external-referent semantics for expressions. This alternative has two parts: first, that the meanings of words and sentences are mental instructions, not external things; second, that it is people who refer (and who express thoughts) by using words and sentences, and word/sentence meanings play but a partial role in allowing speakers to talk about the world.
Triangulation
Authors: Glüer Kathrin 
Published: September 2009

AbstractAs an analogy, triangulation was introduced into the philosophy of mind and language in Donald Davidson's 1982 paper ‘Rational animals’. The analogy is used to support the claim that linguistic communication not only suffices to show that a creature is a rational animal in the sense of having propositional thoughts, but that it is necessary as well: ‘rationality is a social trait. Only communicators have it’. The triangulation argument employs the premise that in order to have any propositional thought whatsoever, a creature needs to have the concept of objective truth. To have this concept, however, it must stand in certain relations of interaction not only with objects or events in the world but also with other creatures sufficiently like itself. The most simple such situation involves a ‘triangle’ of two creatures interacting with each other and an object or event in the world.
Shared Content
Authors: Cappelen Herman , Lepore Ernie 
Published: September 2009

AbstractA general and fundamental tension surrounds our concept of what is said. On the one hand, what is said (asserted, claimed, stated, etc.) by utterances of a significant range of sentences is highly context sensitive. More specifically, (Observation 1), what these sentences can be used to say depends on their contexts of utterance. On the other hand, speakers face no difficulty whatsoever in using many of these sentences to say (or make) the exact same claim, assertion, etc., across a wide array of contexts. More specifically, (Observation 2), many of the sentences in support of (Observation 1) can be used to express the same thought, the same proposition, across a wide range of different contexts.
Trusteeship Council
Authors: Wilde Ralph 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines the Trusteeship Council, a principal organ whose work was essential to the settlement arising from World War II. It involved establishing procedures for the independence of the defeated powers' colonies. This article details the pioneering efforts of the UN at facilitating the decolonization of trust territories. This is part of the world organization's contribution to the processes of self-determination for peoples in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Middle East. It also reveals that the work of the Trusteeship Council was linked to what may have been the most important political change of the twentieth century.
Secretariat
Authors: Jonah James O. C. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The author uses his experience as a senior international civil servant to conduct an analysis of staff members who are recruited to constitute what is referred to as the ‘second UN’. This article discusses the critical importance of independent and competent staff, as well as the efforts that were championed by Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld. It points out that politicians often blame government bureaucracies for failures and inadequacies. Diplomats are shown to have a convenient scapegoat and can point a finger at the UN bureaucracy instead of a lack of political will. This article also presents the author's view of the restoration and reinvigoration of the international civil service as the sine qua non of a strengthened United Nations in the new millennium.
Civil Society
Authors: Wapner Paul 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article shows how the approaches of the UN to non-government organizations (NGOs) and civil society have evolved. It points out there have always been tensions between the world organization's state-centered character and its aspiration to represent all the citizens of the world. The main concern of this article is the enhanced legitimacy and accountability that come from involving civil society in intergovernmental deliberations and programs.
Disarmament
Authors: Krause Keith 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article evaluates the achievements and limitations of the world organization in the field of disarmament. It stresses the role of the UN as part of the efforts to control arms as a way to achieve international peace and security. It also notes specific cases where progress was achieved or not, as well as the more recent efforts to handle the problems of anti-personnel land mines and small arms and light weapons. The article also tries to draw out some of the broader implications for international relations of the UN experience with formal multilateral arms control, among others.
Peacekeeping Operations
Authors: Doyle Michael W. , Sambanis Nicholas 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article attempts to analyze the effectiveness of contemporary UN peacekeeping as part of a comprehensive strategy to achieve sustainable peace. It shows that ‘success’ and ‘failure’ are from a subjective judgment from the evaluator. It examines peacekeeping and its interactions with peacemaking, peace enforcement, and post-conflict reconstruction. Furthermore, participation is viewed as the key variable in success, rather than a mere cessation of violence.
Sanctions
Authors: Cortright David , Lopez George A. , Gerber‐Stellingwerf Linda 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article looks at sanctions and the UN sanctions policy, the latter having matured significantly since 1990. The article provides an overview of all UN sanctions and discusses the UN sanctions against Iraq. The humanitarian impact of sanctions and the controversies surrounding it are discussed. The article also discusses sanctions assistance missions and the additional mechanisms for making sanctions more effective against law-violating regimes.
International Criminal Court and Ad Hoc Tribunals
Authors: Goldstone Richard 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses contemporary international efforts to consolidate and codify significant portions of existing customary international law. It studies the ad hoc tribunals of the UN and pinpoints the successes and failures of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. The ‘completion strategy’ of both international criminal tribunals is discussed. The article also covers the creation of ‘mixed’ courts and a single model for international criminal justice, namely the International Criminal Court.
Natural Resource Management and Sustainable Development
Authors: Schrijver Nico 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses the effective management of the world's natural resources. It reveals that throughout its existence, the UN has had a huge impact on natural resource management, both operationally and conceptually. The article also shows that the initial clash between development and conservation has been reframed as ‘sustainable development’, which is a useful analytical framework to bridge the North-South divide.
Organized Crime
Authors: Madsen Frank G. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses a virtually unknown but growing role of the UN, which is its contribution to combating transnational organized crime. This includes illicit drug and human trafficking. UN efforts in this area are based on the Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The article stresses that reinterpretations of older conventions are important in modern times, where national authorities may be at a disadvantage in fighting illicit activity. The article determines that destroying terrorism and money laundering is similar to stopping the trafficking of illicit drugs and humans, since these should be intrinsic and not additional UN activities.
Principal Organs
Authors: Luck Edward C. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses the proposals on the negotiating tables at the World Summit that deals with four of the principal organs: the General Assembly, ECOSOC, the Security Council, and the suspended Trusteeship Council. These proposals are situated in a proper historical context. It is also stressed that reform is a process and not an event, and that the United Nations adapts to changing circumstances faster than it adopts structural reform.
Widening Participation
Authors: Alger Chadwick F. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses the changing face of multilateralism. It emphasizes the need for pluralizing the voices heard in UN deliberations and taking the Charter Preamble's call more seriously. It shows that multilateralism has gone through a process of continual change throughout the history of the United Nations, and stresses the possibility that this dynamic process will continue well into the future. The article also reiterates the importance of getting involved in civil society organizations, local groups, and business groups, which would help change unconscious participants to conscious participants in international society.
Multicausality, Context‐Conditionality, and Endogeneity
Authors: Franzese Robert J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article talks about multicausality, context-conditionality, and endogeneity. It studies the problem of having too few observations or information before discussing in detail these three fundamental challenges for empirical analysis. This article stresses that context matters, which helps clarify the logical requirements of empirical evaluation from comparative history and some of the specific approaches to fulfilling those requirements used by quantitative methods.
Compliance, Consent, and Legitimacy
Authors: Hardin Russell 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses compliance, consent, and legitimacy, which can all be used as strictly descriptive and positive terms. The last two, however, tend to be given a normative slant. Most of the discussion is on legitimacy. The first section provides the conceptual background of these three terms, particularly legitimacy. The next three sections discuss in detail consequentialist legitimacy, contractarian legitimacy, and theocratic legitimacy. Max Weber's definition of authority is studied in the last section.
Dictatorship: Analytical Approaches
Authors: Wintrobe Ronald 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article provides a survey of the work on authoritarianism, which takes an ‘economic’ or rational choice approach. The survey focuses mainly on two issues: the behaviour of dictators and the comparison of their economic performance and redistributive tendencies with democracies. It outlines the author's model about the behaviour of dictators, and then moves on to more recent contributions, such as the important developments within the North framework. The article also examines the Olson model and then studies recent work on economic performance and on redistribution. Theory and evidence are the main focus of the discussion.
Rethinking Revolutions: a Neo‐Tocquevillian Perspective
Authors: Pincus Steven 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article presents a neo-Tocquevillian perspective of revolutions. It begins by defining revolution and views modernization as a characteristic of revolution. Demography and state modernization are discussed in the following two sections. It then determines when state modernization gives rise to revolution and some of its open and closed outcomes. This article shows that revolutions occur only when the old regime commits itself to state modernization.
Party Systems
Authors: Kitschelt Herbert 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article conceptualizes party systems as being separate from parties. It identifies the systemic properties of party systems for the comparative-static analysis of competition. It also investigates the historical-evolutionary competitive dynamic of party systems, where a historical-comparative analysis comes into its own beyond the study of formal properties of party systems and competition. This article avoids discussing party systems as independent variables that may account for outputs and outcomes of democratic politics.
Political Clientelism
Authors: Stokes Susan C. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article studies political clientelism. In the first section, the term clientelism can be defined as giving material goods in return for electoral support, where the criterion of distribution that the patron uses is simply: did you/will you support me? This section includes definitions of vote buying and patronage. The two waves of studies of clientelism and the link between clientelism and commitment are discussed in the subsequent sections. In the latter half of the article, the discussion tries to determine if clients are swing voters or core supporters, and looks at the causes and consequences of clientelism.
Context‐Conditional Political Budget Cycles
Authors: Alt James E. , Rose Shanna S. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article studies the contextual determinants of incumbents' ability and incentives to engineer political business cycles in American states. It presents a short review of related literature to clarify how and why the theory of political budget cycles evolved. It describes the data and methodology — single estimation method of dynamic panel analysis — used in the study. The results of the study are discussed in the latter part of the article.
Economic Transformation and Comparative Politics
Authors: Frye Timothy 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article discusses how research on the transformation of command economies has contributed to the broader literature in comparative politics. It depicts the great variation in economic reform across countries over the last fifteen years, and examines how the European Union (EU), quality of governance, regime type, and interest groups influenced economic reform. The article attempts to identify ways in which stronger causal links between middle-range factors and economic reform can be linked. Arguments criticizing middle-range theories due to lack of causal depth are reviewed as well. The article ends by presenting an attempt to combine temporally proximate and distant factors into an explanation for reform outcomes in the region. The argument is focused on the impact of executive partisanship, democratic institutions, and the relation of the Communist Party to national sovereignty before 1989.