bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Village Markets and Informal Marketing
Authors: Scott Tom 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Both the spread of handicrafts and of salt-chests to the countryside testify to the growing commercialization of the Upper Rhine economy in the later Middle Ages. Nowhere was this transformation more vividly apparent than in the proliferation of village markets which challenged the autonomy of long-established urban central places, particularly when the former encroached upon the town's privileged market area or precinct. Since market franchises appertained to the regalian rights of the emperor, new foundation charters were diplomas of great significance and value to the recipient. By the same token, any infringement of market rights or precincts was a matter of legal as well as economic import, so that conflicts between town and country markets have left a substantial archival deposit. This chapter analyses village markets and informal marketing in the Upper Rhine and the proliferation of central places with overlapping hinterlands as the prime cause of competition faced by established chartered markets.
The Faltering of a Regional Economy
Authors: Scott Tom 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Strasbourg, the regional metropolis of the Upper Rhine, was severely shaken by the collapse in 1559 of the French financial consortium, the Grand Parti, in which its merchants had invested heavily. In its wake many of Strasbourg's merchant families tumbled into bankruptcy in a domino effect over the next two decades, at a time when the city's wine trade was also being exposed to the winds of competition. In the case of Switzerland, the downturn can be measured by the decrease in toll receipts from the 1560s in places such as Schaffhausen, Lucerne, or Olten, with textile manufacturing languishing at the same time in major centres such as Zürich and St. Gallen. To the economic recession of the later sixteenth century were soon to be added the calamities of the Thirty Years War. This chapter investigates whether the decline in the economic vitality of the Upper Rhine during the sixteenth century can be attributed to a waning sense of regional economic solidarity.
‛Vereint sind wir alles’? Socialist Unity in a Divided Germany
Authors: Major Patrick 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands' (KPD) policy of encouraging unity of action with the Social Democrats in Germany. In post-war Germany, the Iron Curtain cut across the politics of the united from. And in light of this event, the relations between Communists and Social Democrats in West Germany reached a new low. To address this problem, other western European Communist parties undertook movements towards what later became known as Eurocommunism, but the KPD remained notoriously loyal to its eastern big brother.
Rolling Back the KPD Communism on Trial in the Federal Republic, 1950–1956
Authors: Major Patrick 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses anti-communism in West Germany during the period from 1950 to 1956. It suggests that anti-communism was being used by some groups to legitimize rearmament and to undermine coexistence with the Eastern Bloc. The West German anti-communism was symptomatic of the general crisis of bourgeois ideology, which represented a last ditch effort to paper over the socio-economic contradictions of capitalism. The virulence of anti-communism was thus taken as an indication of the desperate plight of capitalism.
Comparisons and Contrasts (Ii): Marxism, Modernism, and the Doctrine of ‘Deep Battle’
Authors: Gat Azar 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
While fascism was undecided and ‘Janus-faced’ or two-faced in its stand on modernity, Marxism meanwhile was the excellent modernist ideology directed towards the future and regards itself as the ultimate conclusion of the era of the machine and industrial society. Several of European fascist leaders had arrived at their leftist stand by developing their viewpoint from Marxist assumptions. In fact, several of the leaders hold these two movements at close hand, without seeing the need to choose between the two. This chapter distinguishes the differences and similarities of the two movements, their line of convergence and their line of deviation. This chapter aims to clarify the presumption that if Marxism as an ideology was so thoroughly modernist, then why were the pioneering visionaries of machine warfare before, during, and after the First World War mostly associated with proto-fascism and fascism rather that with Marxism. This chapter focuses on the newly formed radical ideas of mechanized warfare wherein the old concept of war were absorbed into the advanced and innovative conception of ‘deep battle’ ‘deep operations’.
Roman Primacy and the Legal Vindication of Reform
Authors: Cushing Kathleen G. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the idea of primacy and the legal vindication of reform. In Anselm’s vision, the framework for ecclesiastical society took reference directly from Rome. His blueprint involved a narrow chain of obedience that bound various clerical orders in a vertical, hierarchic structure. The idea of primacy, the centralisation under Rome, advocated by Anselm, was not so much the consequence of a particular religious ideal or strategy, but rather, an institutional necessity. Therefore, he evinced a legal and institutional awareness of the need for the Church to be guided by a single authority to do what was needed. This person, the Roman pontiff, would be the unchallengeable figure who would be able to discipline, order, and reform the ranks of the Church from within. In the end, Anselm provided a vindication for Gregory VII’s revolution based on both moral and legal tradition.
Cardinal’s Hat or Archbishop’s Gauntlet? The ‘Papal Aggression’: The Ecclesiastical Titles Act and Ireland
Authors: KERR DONAL A. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Before Roman negotiations got under way, and while the paper war on the colleges was still raging, a new development occurred in England that was to have profound repercussions for the situation in Ireland up to the end of Russell’s administration. The year and a half from the calling of the synod of Thurles to the resignation of the government in February 1852 witnessed an unexpected but bitter and prolonged dispute between the Whig government and the Catholic Church. During this period, the Whigs' religious policies appeared to become less liberal, while the Catholic Church in Britain and Ireland moved towards Ultramontanism. The public dispute between the Irish bishops on the colleges, which had continued after the closure of the synod, saw appeals and counter-appeals to Rome. It was suddenly overshadowed by an event that had little to do with Ireland and her affairs: ‘the papal aggression’.
Variations: Carabinieri
Authors: Emsley Clive 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter discusses the transformation of the Piedmontese Carabinieri in Italy into the Italian Carabinieri as the peninsula was transformed into a united nation state. Dealing with bandits was a traditional problem especially when some members of the Carabinieri were infected with the liberal aspirations fostered by the French Revolution and Napoleon.
A Suffering People
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the type of suffering which Friends experienced. The effort is limited to the period between 1655 and 1684, when a series of new laws was used by the State in order to crush dissent. It analyses the pattern of prosecutions of Quakers which suggests that the peaks match the periods of acute national political tension during which the State was most worried about the activities of dissenters.
The Moral Science of John Cassian
Authors: Leyser Conrad 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe Lérinians were not the only face of the Gallic monastic movement. Closely associated with them, and well known to Pope Celestine, was John Cassian, an ascetic teacher who had gone to great lengths to ensure that he could not be accused of traducing the moral authority of his position. In his capacity as mentor to ascetics in southern Gaul, Cassian was as fierce as any critic of the ascetic movement in his determination to curb its tendency towards scandal. His response, however, was not to distrust the ascetic project itself, but to make all the more exacting and precise the means of assessing a person's integrity. Where Augustine of Hippo had come to doubt the possibility or value of achieving such a moral science, Cassian strove to establish secure grounds for the expert use of authority in the Church. His intervention was crucial in restoring public credibility to the ascetic movement. He argued that to speak as a trained ascetic was in itself a means of exerting moral authority.
A Language of Power
Authors: Leyser Conrad 
Published: October 2011

AbstractGregory the Great made his own the insight sketched by Julianus Pomerius in his handbook for bishops and developed by Benedict of Nursia in a monastic context: that the speech of the ruler, when properly applied, can bind up all divisions within the body of the faithful. Gregory pursued a language of authority that would carry all before it with a degree of concentration undreamt of by earlier writers. Augustine of Hippo had denied that the quantification of the ways of power was possible; his subsequent readers had tentatively moved to reverse his verdict, but only with Gregory does one find a writer prepared to stake all on the performance of the moral ruler, and to enumerate in detail how this might be possible. Gregory was prepared to take the risk of claiming to be morally qualified to lead, to shoulder all the burdens of the faithful, to act as the servant of the servants of God.
The Writing of Saints’ Lives in Medieval Ireland
Authors: Sharpe Richard 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Medieval Ireland produced a great quantity of hagiographical documents. Today, more than one hundred Latin Lives of about sixty Irish saints are known. Some of these survive only in Continental manuscripts, but the majority are known from three great compilations of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. This book investigates the sources available to the compilers of the three collections and the use they made of them. The Latin Lives were written in Ireland, as attested in some early manuscripts, mostly Continental, and in these three collections, range in date from the seventh century to the fourteenth. The latest item in any of the three collections is probably a text translated from Irish for the compilers of the Salmanticensis, the Life of St Cuanna. Saints' Lives form a very large part of the Latin literature of Ireland, and a significant part of Irish literature. They are also important as historical evidence. These biographies and other acta of saints make up one of the most extensive classes of material relating, ex prima facie, to the early history of Ireland.
Applying the Paradigm: St Patrick and St Maedóc
Authors: Sharpe Richard 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The table of contents in M shows that D began with a Life of St Patrick, now lost from both M and T. The Life of St Brigit is also lost from both manuscripts, but with the help of Archbishop James Ussher and Recension C of Fr. Henry FitzSimon's Catalogus, it proved possible to recover the text. It may not be a waste of effort to try and identify among the many Lives of St Patrick one which contains those features that we know to be the habits and style of the redactor of D. If the Dublin text survives anywhere, one should find it, eventually. But one can shorten the search by first considering what Lives of St Patrick were known to those who had access to the Dublin collection. A version of St Maedóc's Latin Life was known in Wales and was included in a collection of the Lives chiefly of Welsh saints, assembled around the end of the twelfth or the beginning of the thirteenth century.
The Collection in the Codex Salmanticensis
Authors: Sharpe Richard 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The Codex Salmanticensis was presumably sent to Fr. Heribert Rosweyde between 1607 and his death in 1629. The Bollandists published a number of texts from this volume, and continued to use it into the eighteenth century. The habit of removing leaves for the benefit of the Irish Fathers at Louvain was fortunately given up. Although as late as October 1634, Fr. Hugh Ward seems not to have been apprised of the full contents of this volume, John Colgan must have had a copy of the manuscript as a whole, or at least as much of it as still exists. From it, he published several Lives, most of them unique to this collection, and he refers to it repeatedly in other contexts, though not as often as one might have expected. A number of colophons indicate that texts had been borrowed by the compilers of the Codex Salmanticensis.
The Value of the Textual Evidence
Authors: Sharpe Richard 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The body of texts under examination is so large that it is not possible to attempt an item-by-item analysis of the textual evidence for the whole of the three collections. As each Life is studied, new points will perhaps emerge about the textual relationships between the different recensions for particular texts. Although Revd Charles Plummer discussed his comparisons of the several versions, Life by Life, it is not possible to learn from that discussion to what extent the different compilers copied their sources verbatim. For a large number of Lives, a comparison of the various versions shows only how a source text was manipulated in the hands of the redactors of D and O. While each individual vita has still to be fitted into its place in the history of hagiography in Ireland, the study of the compilers will allow us to improve on the previous very sketchy outline of Latin hagiography in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
Introduction
Authors: Christian David 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Since the 16th century, vodka has not merely been a source of pleasure and even of spiritual and religious experience, but has also circulated vast quantities of wealth through the long-suffering body of Russian society. But vodka was never just a drink: like all alcoholic drinks, it was also a social, economic, and political 'institution', in the sociologist's sense of the word. Viewed like this, alcohol appears as one of many different means of redistributing wealth, as one more expression of class conflict — that constant petty skirmishing by which the power and privilege of ruling elites are sustained. This book surveys the early history of vodka in Russia, its role in the distribution of wealth, and the overthrow of tax farming in Russia, including the emergence of upper-class opposition to the system, the popular protests of 1859, and the bureaucratic politics that led to the reform of 1863. The book argues that the abolition of tax farming should be treated as one of the more important of Russia's ‘Great Reforms’ of the l860s.
Traditional and Modern Drinking Cultures
Authors: Christian David 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the uses of vodka in Russian society during the 19th century — the needs it satisfied in working class life, and the ways in which these shaped the level of demand. These questions are of interest, first, for what they reveal of working class life in Russia during this period. But they were also important to the government, for if Russians had not drunk vodka in reasonably predictable ways, the government could not have got into the bad habit of relying on their thirst to satisfy its own thirst for revenues. Further, the government itself influenced the pattern of demand in significant ways through the methods it used to tax the trade. Clearly, vodka's role as an object of utility was in fact inseparable from its role as bearer of wealth. This chapter looks at consumption statistics, the impact of the tax farm on vodka trade, vodka consumption and popular drinking cultures, the economic impact of the drinking of vodka in ceremonies, and drinking cultures and the economics of monopoly.
Selling Vodka: The Tax Farmers
Authors: Christian David 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
What was the nature and influence of the tax farm ‘interest’ in Russia during the 19th century? This chapter looks at the tax farmers themselves as a group of entrepreneurs and explores the extent and limitations of their influence. Altogether, in 1859 there were 216 tax farmers throughout the Empire, owing the government a total sum of 127,769,488 rubles a year, or more than 590,000 rubles each. However, as some individuals owned several tax farms, the actual number of tax farmers was less than the number of distinct tax farms. As a group, the tax farmers were ultimately responsible for mobilizing the huge concentrations of wealth funnelled through the liquor trade. The first step in entering the business was to mobilize the capital necessary to bid at the tax farm auctions. In order to understand the attitudes, milieu, and political influence of the Russian tax farmers more fully, it would be valuable to look at the career of Vasilii Aleksandrovich Kokorev (1817–1889) in tax farming.
Judicial Separation
Authors: Stone Lawrence 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses judicial separation. Suits for judicial separation in the ecclesiastical courts had three purposes. Most suits launched by a wife were blackmail devices in order to improve the financial terms of a separation, where the main issue was the alimony to be paid by the husband. Most suits brought by the husband were in order to obtain a separation from an adulterous wife without having to pay her alimony. Uncontested suits brought by a husband were usually part of a collusive arrangement by which both parties conspire together to prepare for parliamentary divorce. The second section examines the different types of suits such as nullity, jactication, separation form bed and board, and restitution of conjugal rights. The third section considers the procedure for launching a suit. The last two sections explore the relationship between servants and masters, and servants in court.
Parliamentary Divorce
Authors: Stone Lawrence 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
By the late sixteenth century, England stood out as the only Protestant country without some form of legalised divorce. The reasons lay partly in the torturous path by which it moved from the Catholic into the Protestant camp, in disputes among the English Protestants about which new divorce code to adopt, and in the sensitivities towards marriage of Queen Elizabeth. Parliamentary divorces started in the 1690s as a series of individual exceptions to the principle of the indissolubility of marriage. The divorce became a convenient collusive agreement between a rich husband and his wife in order to remarry, the objective being the pursuit of happiness and the replacement of lost marital comfort.
Divorce Reform Proposals, 1604–1850
Authors: Stone Lawrence 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Between the Reformation in the 1530s and the Divorce Act of 1857, the laws governing separation and divorce were those which came unaltered from the Middle Ages. After 1604, it was similar to the Catholic position, tempered by some ambiguities in the wording of canons and acts of Parliament. It was the secularisation of control over matrimonial affairs, starting with Parliamentary control over the law of marriage in 1753, which opened the way to a liberalisation of English laws of divorce. After 1832, the principle of extending political privilege further down the social system to the ranks of the middling sort had been accepted. By the 1840s, sexual privilege was extended, including the power to divorce an adulterous wife. By the 1850, reform of the divorce law became part of the official agenda.
The Passage of the Divorce Reform Act, 1850–1857
Authors: Stone Lawrence 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The first step forward towards reform was the setting up of the Royal Commission on Divorce in 1850, chaired by Lord Campbell. When Lord Chancellor Cranworth introduced the divorce bill into the House of Lords in 1854, he specifically rejected the idea of changing the law to allow the wife to be able to sue for divorce on the grounds of her husband's adultery. The government had four objectives. The first was purely administrative, to concentrate all matrimonial litigation in a new secular High Court in London. The other three were to make full divorce more accessible to the upper middle class; to make judicial separation more expensive; and to make judicial separation and divorce inaccessible to the lower middle class and the poor. This hypocrisy about talk of equality of access for all was exposed by many critics during the course of the debates.
The Scene is Set
Authors: Edwards Jill 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
On February 15, 1954 the US Northwestern Victory sailed into the ancient Spanish port of Cartegena. It carried the first consignment of United States aid to the Spain of General Francisco Franco, a man widely regarded in the Western democracies as the pariah of Europe for his leadership of the fascist-style government dominated by the Falange party, and for overt support of the Axis powers in World War II. The occasion demonstrated the depth of division between the United States and Britain, as well as the ultimate independence of United States foreign policy from that of its closest ally. Spain offers a unique area for examination of Anglo-United States relations, and of the domestic and external contexts which helped form them within a new world order increasingly divided between the internationalism embodied in the embryonic United Nations, and the unilateralism demonstrated by the emergent bipolarity of the United States and the Soviet Union.
Shades of the Gestapo
Authors: Edwards Jill 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Francisco Franco's new programme of ‘evolution’ announced in the summer of 1945 had been developed through the previous months and covered constitutional, socio-economic, and external affairs. Opposition forces in Madrid who complained of Franco's cruelty rejected any notion of direct intervention other than restoration of the monarchy which was not considered viable by either Britain or the United States. Throughout 1945, domestic and international opinion was at the crest of its influence, playing a significant part in the United States' support for the United Nations, and in the place of Spain on the United Nations agenda. Over the next five years, the turnabout in American public opinion as a result of growing Cold War tensions contributed substantially to President Harry S. Truman's own near capitulation on Spanish policy in 1951. It was the evident contradictions in United States foreign policy as a whole, but exemplified by Truman's policy towards Spain, that would play a particularly important part in the sea change in Franco's favour.
The Cotton Lobby and the Spanish Loan
Authors: Edwards Jill 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
A key domestic issue in the United States in 1949 was the continuing post-war overproduction of commodities in a world of increased competition, especially American cotton. This problem focused Senate grievances on Spain as a potential market. In the months leading up to the United Nations vote in May 1949, Francisco Franco had had good reason to suppose that the vote would go his way. He had ample evidence from visiting Americans that big business in the States was more than ready to welcome Spain back into international trade and commerce. Unless Spain could earn dollars or be given a dollar loan, it would not be considered a viable trading partner as a result of its exclusion from the Marshall Plan. The cotton issue in its wider, symbolic sense therefore became a power struggle between president and Congress. This chapter also looks at the United States cotton industry and the Spanish textile industry, along with the appointment of Stanton Griffis as U.S. ambassador to Spain.