bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Special Anniversary Review: Twenty-five years of human immunodeficiency virus research: successes and challenges
Authors: Weiss R A 
Published: July 2010

Summary
During 25 years of research since HIV-1 was first identified in Paris, there have been great advances in our understanding of the virus and of the immune system. Practical advances include the early development of diagnostic tests of infection that made blood donation safe, and since 1996, combination anti-retroviral therapy that has great reduced incidence of AIDS in HIV-infected people who have access to the drugs. HIV prevention through behavioural change has been successful, and we do not yet have any safe and efficacious microbicides or vaccines.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-specific T helper responses fail to predict CD4+ T cell decline following short-course treatment at primary HIV-1 infection
Authors: Fox J , Scriba T J , Robinson N , Weber J N , Phillips R E , Fidler Sarah 
Published: July 2010

Summary
Early anti-retroviral treatment (ART) in primary human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection (PHI) may have unique, restorative immunological and virological benefits which could enhance clinical outcomes. However, the sustainability of these HIV-specific immune responses and their impact on clinical outcome remains unclear. We present a 3-year longitudinal clinical and immunological follow-up of a single-arm, prospective study assessing the long-term impact of a short-course of ART (SCART) during PHI. Twenty-eight subjects with defined PHI received 3 months of SCART at HIV-1 seroconversion. HIV-specific interferon-γ+ CD4+ T cell responses, CD4 cell counts and plasma viral loads were assessed prospectively. Clinical outcome was defined as the time taken from PHI to a fall in CD4 cell counts &lt;350 cells/μl on two or more occasions. Of 28 patients, 25 (89%) had detectable HIV-specific CD4+ helper responses at baseline. Five of 11 (45%) patients had preserved HIV-specific CD4+ responses 3 years after stopping SCART. Neither the presence nor magnitude of HIV-1-specific T helper responses either at baseline or 3 years following SCART cessation predicted clinical outcome. Rebound viraemia associated with stopping SCART did not diminish HIV-1-specific CD4+ responses. Long-term (&gt;3 years) preservation of virus-specific CD4+ cells occurred in 45% of patients receiving SCART in PHI. There was no correlation between either the presence or magnitude of these responses and clinical outcome.
The profile of gene expression and role of nuclear factor kappa B on glomerular injury in rats with Thy-1 nephritis
Authors: Wang H , Jiang X M , Xu J H , Xu J , Tong J X , Wang Y W 
Published: July 2010

SummaryMesangioproliferative glomerulonephritis (MsPGN) is a disease of high incidence in humans. Rats with Thy-1 nephritis (Thy-1 N) are used as an animal model for studying MsPGN. Although several studies have demonstrated that many pathological factors could cause the injury of glomerular mesangial cells (GMCs) in Thy-1 N, changes of profile and the molecular mechanism of the disease (i.e. the role of transcription factors) at intervals remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to identify the changes in gene expression profile and to observe the role of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) on the pathological change of renal tissue in Thy-1 N rats. Our results showed that the pathological changes of GMCs in Thy-1 N included three phases: apoptosis (40 min), necrosis (24 h) and proliferation (7 days). Concomitantly, at 40 min and on day 7, the up-regulation of 341 genes and 250 genes were observed, while 392 genes and 119 genes were down-regulated in Thy-1 N. Expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, α-smooth muscle actin, collagen type IV and excretion of urinary protein was increased in rats with Thy-1 N and decreased in pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate-treated rats with Thy-1 N. These data indicated that the significant changes in the gene profile were coupled with the pathological changes of Thy-1 N, and activation of NF-κB may contribute to the pathogenesis of GMCs apoptosis, proliferation, extracelluar matrix accumulation and proteinuria in Thy-1 N.
99th Dahlem Conference on Infection, Inflammation and Chronic Inflammatory Disorders: Evolution of adaptive immunity in vertebrates
Authors: Cooper M D 
Published: July 2010

Summary
Adaptive immunity has been defined, principally through studies of avian and mammalian species, as the ability to mount specific immune responses to a virtually unlimited variety of antigens. A key feature of an adaptive immune system is the ability to remember previous encounters with antigens and to achieve a more rapid, heightened response on secondary encounter. Adaptive immune systems featuring an enormous anticipatory receptor diversity and specific memory have been defined only in vertebrates. Surprisingly, the adaptive immune systems in jawless and jawed vertebrates employ very different types of antigen receptors. This evolutionary inventiveness suggests that adaptive immunity provided additional fitness value over the previously existing innate immune mechanisms.
99th Dahlem Conference on Infection, Inflammation and Chronic Inflammatory Disorders: Symbionts and immunopathology in chronic diseases: insights from evolution
Authors: Ewald P W 
Published: July 2010

Summary
Immunological aetiologies of disease are not generally well understood, but have been attributed to intrinsic immunological imbalances, infectious triggers or persistent infections. Evolutionary considerations lead to the formulation of three feasible categories of immunopathology for common diseases. One category of hypotheses presumes that the immune system is exposed to environmental conditions to which the individual is not well adapted. One hypothesis within this category, often referred to as the hygiene hypothesis, proposes that new more hygienic environmental conditions have generated compositions of symbionts that differ from those to which humans have been adapted. A second category of hypotheses proposes that infectious agents act as triggers of immunopathology by shifting the immune system into a self-destructive state. A third category proposes that infectious agents keep the immune in a self-destructive state by causing persistent infections. To evaluate disease causation rigorously and to determine the appropriate interventions, these three categories of causation need to considered for every disease that involves immunopathology. Assessment of the progress in understanding oncogenesis and other chronic diseases emphasizes the value of such integrated assessments.
99th Dahlem Conference on Infection, Inflammation and Chronic Inflammatory Disorders: Triggering of autoimmune diseases by infections
Authors: Getts M T , Miller S D 
Published: July 2010

SummaryHuman autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), are linked genetically to distinct major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules and other immune modulators. However, genetic predisposition is only one risk factor for the development of these diseases, and low concordance rates in monozygotic twins as well as geographical distribution of disease risk suggest a critical role for environmental factors in the triggering of these autoimmune diseases. Among potential environmental factors, infections have been implicated in the onset and/or promotion of autoimmunity. This review will discuss human autoimmune diseases with a potential viral cause, and outline potential mechanisms by which pathogens can trigger autoimmune disease as discerned from various animal models of infection-induced autoimmune disease.
Invasive pattern grading score designed as an independent prognostic indicator in oral squamous cell carcinoma
Authors: Chang Yun‐Ching , Nieh Shin , Chen Su‐Feng , Jao Shu‐Wen , Lin Yu‐Lu , Fu Earl 
Published: July 2010

Chang Y‐C, Nieh S, Chen S‐F, Jao S‐W, Lin Y‐L & Fu E (2010) Histopathology 57, 295–303 Invasive pattern grading score designed as an independent prognostic indicator in oral squamous cell carcinomaAims:  To test the validity of an invasive pattern grading score (IPGS) developed for oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) as a prognostic indicator and to elucidate the relationship between the IPGS and clinical parameters.Methods and results:  The IPGS was applied to a total of 153 cases of OSCC. There were significant correlations between IPGS and distant metastasis (P = 0.01) or recurrence (P = 0.001). However, there were no significant correlations between IPGS and gender, age, size or extent, location, status of lymph node metastasis, clinical staging, or histological grading. Cases of OSCC with higher IPGS were associated with poor patient survival (P < 0.001) and higher probability of tumour recurrence (P = 0.001). Intraobserver (κ = 0.74) and interobserver agreement (κ = 0.67) were very satisfactory.Conclusions:  Our study confirms the validity of the IPGS, an indicator that is simple and easy to use. IPGS not only provides histological assessment of biological behaviour, but also offers an independent prognostic factor that may influence the treatment of OSCC.
Nature and orientation of ice in frozen fish
Authors: AITKEN A. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryThe ice component of frozen fish muscle has been examined by X‐ray diffraction. Only the common hexagonal form was observed, but line intensities indicated strong orientation of the crystallites. The c‐axis is shown to be perpendicular to the direction of freezing; the muscle fibre direction does not appear to affect the direction of orientation to a noticeable extent.
An equation for the activity coefficients and equilibrium relative humidities of water in confectionery syrups
Authors: NORRISH R. S. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryAn apparatus is described for determining the equilibrium relative humidity (e.r.h.) of confectionery syrups and the results obtained are compared with those of other workers. The identity of e.r.h. with the thermodynamic activity is pointed out and an equation for the activity coefficient as a function of concentration is derived. The agreement between e.r.h. values calculated by means of this equation and experimental results is demonstrated and some of the advantages of the use of equations of this type are discussed, including the ability to draw significant conclusions about the nature of the solvent‐solute interaction.
Sequential procedures for triangular and paired comparison tasting tests
Authors: STEINER E. H. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryThe necessary number of tasting tests which must be carried out in the comparison of two samples by triangular tests or paired comparisons is considered in relation to: (1) the risk of stating that the samples are different when they are in fact not distinguishable, (2) the risk of stating the samples are identical when a distinguishable difference really exists, and (3) the degree of ‘difference’ it is desired to distinguish.Sequential procedures are put forward which enable a decision to be reached relatively quickly, with 1 in 20 risks of error, when the two samples either are identical or differ by a defined amount. Separate tables are given for difference testing and quality testing. In cases where the sequential test would be lengthy the procedures terminate the tests after an amount of tasting which only slightly increases the risk of error.
The glassy state in certain sugar‐containing food products *
Authors: WHITE G. W. , CAKEBREAD S. H. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryA review is given of the literature on organic glasses with special reference to sugar glasses. The amorphous sugar glasses in boiled sweets, milk powder, ice cream and certain freeze‐dried products are then discussed. Breakdown of these sugar glasses can lead to defects in all four cases.
A new method for counting bold and blind seeds in raspberry jam and for computing blindness rate constants
Authors: DAKIN J. C. , TAMPION J. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryA new technique and cell for counting bold and blind seeds in raspberry jam is described. Using this method it was found that the rate at which seeds become blind in a jam follows a logarithmic course. This is analogous to the thermal death rate for bacteria and consequently the standard mathematical concepts for dealing with this phenomenon may equally be applied to blindness development. An expression Ds, equivalent to the decimal reduction time for bacteria, is used to compare the rates of blindness development in experimental jams. This represents the time in weeks for 90% of the seeds to become blind. The new methods are illustrated by results obtained from experimental jams.
Bending, shrinkage and texture of cod frozen at sea
Authors: LOVE R. M. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryNewly‐caught cod were fixed in bent positions with various degrees of curvature during the onset and resolution of rigor mortis. It was found that even in those bent in a complete circle, head and tail touching, there was no significant denaturation of the proteins, neither was the texture found to be tough on tasting. The importance of the results in relation to freezing fish at sea is discussed.
The use of tasters for investigating cold storage deterioration in frozen fish
Authors: LOVE R. M. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryFrozen cod cold‐stored at −14°C were tasted for texture changes by an untrained panel, using a simple comparison technique that did not require the use of memory. It was found that the fish had to be kept for about 3 1/2 weeks at −14°C before the tasters could clearly detect toughening, and a nomogram, constructed from objective data, is given to show the equivalent times at other temperatures.
The effect of sodium chloride, potassium nitrate and sodium nitrite on the recovery of heated bacterial spores *
Authors: ROBERTS T. A. , INGRAM M. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryThe ability of aerobic and anaerobic spores, after various degrees of heating, to produce macrocolonies in media containing different concentrations of sodium chloride, potassium nitrate and sodium nitrite has been examined. The effect of different heat treatments, roughly from F0= 0.0015 to F0= 1.5, on the inhibitory levels of these curing ingredients, showed that the more severe treatments were capable of rendering surviving spores considerably more sensitive to subsequent inhibition by concentrations of the order found in cured meats. To produce this effect, less heating was needed with two Bacillus strains than with three of Clostridium. Sodium chloride and potassium nitrate had quantitatively similar effects. The inhibitory effect of sodium nitrite increased roughly ten‐fold from pH 7 to pH 6.
The relationship between the toughness of cod stored at ‐29°C and its muscle protein solubility and pH
Authors: Cowie W. P. , Little W. T. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryProtein solubility, muscle pH and organoleptic toughness have been measured in cod fillets stored for up to 82 months at ‐29°C. During this time protein solubility dropped steadily from 72% to 45% indicating that protein denaturation had taken place.The organoleptic toughness of the fillets showed no correlation with this decrease in protein solubility; indeed, some of the control fillets with maximum protein solubility were tougher than others with the lowest protein solubilities after 82 months storage. Good correlation was found between organoleptic toughness and the pH of the raw muscle.Protein solubility by itself is therefore not a meaningful test for the eating toughness of frozen cod stored at ‐29°C. In cod stored at higher temperatures than ‐29°C there will be a greater rate and degree of protein denaturation, which may then become more important than muscle pH in determining the toughness of cooked cod.
Cannery retort operation and procedure to cope with modern can‐handling methods*
Authors: Felmingham J. D. , Leigh R. J. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryIt is well known that the heat transfer properties of air or air‐steam mixtures are much inferior to those of steam and that, because of this, entrapped pockets of air in a cannery retort may lead to under‐processing and spoilage. Consequently there is a need for adequate purging or venting of air from any retort during the processing ‘come‐up’period.Following the introduction to a U.K. cannery of a high‐speed can handling system, necessitating the use of can divider plates (or layer pads) in the retort crates, this cannery experienced an outbreak of spoilage that was shown, by microbiological and can examination, to be due to under‐processing. This led to an investigation of heat distribution in the cannery retorts and of the effect on this of divider plates with varying percentages of void area. This work was extended to other canneries and various types of batch retorts.Results showed that some venting procedures in long‐standing use were not entirely satisfactory and that certain modifications were necessary, even to normally adequate procedures, when certain high‐speed can handling techniques were introduced.Graphs are presented to show quite dramatic differences in heat distribution throughout retorts when venting is inadequate.Recommendations are made for correct venting procedure and the modification necessary when divider plates are used in conjunction with high‐speed can handling systems; also regarding the area that should be left void in these divider plates. Attention is drawn to correct maintenance of retorts and retort instruments, recording equipment, etc.The effect of entrapped air during retorting on external can rusting is also discussed.
The baking properties of pasteurized whole egg
Authors: KNIGHT R. A. , MEARS K. , PARKINSON T. L. , ROBB J. 
Published: July 2010

Summary. A comparison was made of raw and pasteurized egg from twenty‐eight processing plants. The average composition of the raw egg agreed closely with published data on commercial shell egg but the pasteurized samples contained slightly less fat and total solids.Pasteurization resulted in a small, but statistically significant, loss of baking quality in ‘sponge batter’ sponges but in ‘all‐in’ sponges the mean difference in performance of raw and pasteurized egg was not significant. The mean performance of pasteurized egg in baked custards was slightly inferior to that of raw egg, and a small proportion of the samples examined performed rather poorly in this respect. No significant differences were observed between the baking characteristics of pasteurized first and second quality egg.When raw and pasteurized egg were stored for about 2 years at a temperature of 12–16°F, the raw egg maintained its quality but the pasteurized egg deteriorated after about 30 weeks storage when used to make products sensitive to egg quality.However, even after 2 years storage the pasteurized samples gave satisfactory results in other baked products.No significant changes in performance were observed over a period of 4 days when pasteurized egg was held at 38–40°F without continuous agitation.Separation of fat occurred when liquid pasteurized egg was kept or transported without agitation and this led to a small loss of baking quality.Raising the pasteurization temperature above 148°F resulted in a further small loss of baking quality. The additional loss resulting from raising the temperature to 152°F was comparable in extent to that caused by normal pasteurization.The homogenization of thawed pasteurized egg of poor baking quality improved its performance in sponges and baked custards.
The influence of lipids on fish quality
Authors: ACKMAN R. G. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryThe lipids in fish muscle can influence product quality through interaction with other components. In frozen storage of lean fish such as cod and haddock it is established that hydrolysis of phospholipids gives free fatty acids capable of interacting with protein to produce texture deterioration, although the mechanism of this interaction is not yet clarified. Rancidity is more commonly associated with lipids in fatty fish. Some seasonal aspects of the rancidity problem for lean fish are discussed and it is suggested that some fish may be highly susceptible on a seasonal basis not through variations in the lipid or in the natural anti‐oxidant tocopherol, but through the presence of other materials or biological processes predisposing tocopherol to rapid destruction, with consequent abnormal development of rancidity.
A critical look at two objective tests for cold storage deterioration
Authors: OLLEY J. , STEPHEN E. , FARMER J. , ROBERTSON I. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryProtein solubility in salt solutions and cell fragility are two possible measures of textural changes in cold stored fish. These measurements are discussed for a wide range of species. The discrepancies between the methods, the artefacts in measurement caused by proteolysis at higher temperatures and possibly by free fatty acid are considered. The effect of pH, horizontal and vertical strength of the myofibrils, and initial protein solubility on taste panel assessment are discussed.
The determination of the nitrogen contents of various edible hydrogenated fats
Authors: ROBERTS A. C. , McWEENY D. J. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryConditions are set out for the satisfactory measurement of nitrogen contents of edible, refined, hydrogenated fats at levels of 100 μg N/g fat, by the wet oxidation of the fat with acid‐hydrogen peroxide and subsequent Kjeldahl micro‐distillation.The Nessler method has been evaluated and found to be unsatisfactory when used in conjunction with acid‐hydrogen peroxide digestion. Examples indicatting the range of nitrogen contents, ca. 100–200 μg N/g fat, which can be expected in edible, refined, hydrogenated fats, from different sources are reported.
A study of the histological changes in the growing muscles of beef animals
Authors: BENDALL J. R. , VOYLE C. A. 
Published: July 2010

Summary. 1. Histological studies have been made of the growth of the longissimus dorsi (LD) and semitendinosus (ST) muscles of eight Hereford and eight Friesian steers between the ages of 11 days and 24 months.2. It was found that the average sarcomere lengths of the muscle fibres varied considerably from animal to animal and muscle to muscle, due to postural shortening during rigor. The lengths of the constituent filaments of actin and myosin were, however, constant within a narrow range (1.30 and 1.50 μ, respectively). Hence it is possible to define a standard sarcomere length for reference, as the length when the actin filaments from each half of the sarcomere just touch in the middle. This length is 2.60 μ, after correction for fixation. Cross‐sectional areas and diameters of fibres were then corrected accordingly.3. After correction in this way, it was found that the internal diameters of the muscle fibres increased from about 15 μ at 1 month to about 45 μ at 24 months. For the first 12 months of growth the cross‐sectional areas of the fibres kept in step with the cross‐sectional area of the muscle, but after that time the former parameter increased more rapidly than the latter, so that fibres appeared to be lost from the muscle as it aged further. In the ST muscles, this loss amounted to about 40% at 24 months.4. The collagen content of the muscles was higher at the calf stage than later. From 6 months onwards however this content remained nearly constant (0.43 and 0.77% of the wet weight, for LD and ST muscles, respectively). These changes were easily observable in the histological sections.5. The elastin content, both by semiquantitative histological estimation and by an exact chemical method, was found to be very low in the LD muscles (about 3% of the total connective tissue content), but much higher in the ST muscles (about 37%). In other muscles of prime cuts, such as biceps femoris, the elastin content is, however, of the same order as in the LD, so that its contribution to the toughness of most cuts of meat is probably insignificant.6. More detailed conclusions of the results are given at the end of the paper.