bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Existentialism, Christian
Authors: Rodkey Christopher D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
To speak of Christian existentialism implies that there is a non‐Christian existentialism; and while existentialism as a philosophical movement has often been criticized as too religious or theological for a philosophical enterprise, many existentialists would likely dismiss the very notion of a Christian existentialism. That said, existentialists — as one of the defining characteristics of the movement — also typically deny the label or classification of “existentialism.” To this end, existentialism (Christian or otherwise) can be difficult to define.
Fasting
Authors: Spiegel James S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Fasting is the practice of voluntary abstinence from food, drink, or both for some determinate period of time. While sometimes used for medical reasons, such as for weight loss, detoxification, and even the treatment of disease, fasting is most commonly practiced as a spiritual discipline. Fasts can be continuous or intermittent, total or partial, proactive or responsive.
Feminist Theology
Authors: Köstenberger Margaret E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The underlying controlling premise of all feminist theology, whether radical, reformist/liberationist, or evangelical/biblical, is the full equality of women to men. Anything in Christianity and Scripture that stands in conflict with this central premise is critiqued by feminism in its quest for women's liberation from all forms of male oppression. Feminist theology, in developing its view on the various facets traditionally included in theology (God, Man, Christ, salvation, the church, etc.), draws on a variety of sources including, but not limited to, the Bible. As such, it is not a mere description of Scripture's teaching on these topics. Key to an understanding of feminist theology is an understanding of the foundational premises of feminist biblical interpretation.
Fénelon, François (1651–1715)
Authors: Smith Steven 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
François de Salignac de La Mothe‐Fénelon was born the fourteenth child in his family in Périgord, France, on August 6, 1651. He died in Cambrai on January 7, 1715. At the age of 12, he enrolled in the college of Cahors, and three years later at the college of Du Plessis in Paris under the tutelage of his bishop and uncle, Marquis Antoine de Fénelon. Marquis Fénelon provoked him to enter Saint‐Sulpice seminary, and after graduation he continued in the parish at Saint‐Sulpice. He had ambitions for the mission field, but his work was primarily among the poor of his native France.
Filioque
Authors: Wilkins Jeremy D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Filioque
(Latin, “and [from] the Son”) is a controversial western addition to the Nicene‐Constantinopolitan creed. It asserts that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father
and the Son
, which is a typically western doctrine; the East generally holds that the Spirit proceeds from the Father alone,
through
the Son. The East resented the unilateral addition to the creed, and came to challenge the orthodoxy of the doctrine itself.
F
innish
C
hristianity
Authors: Paavola Daniel E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Christianity in Finland has a long history and remains a unique part of the Finnish culture today. Christianity's approach to Finland can be first traced to around
ad
1000. The gospel arrived from three directions at roughly the same time. Traders and other travelers from Sweden, Germany, and Russia (Novgorod) likely introduced the Christian message to the native Finnish people over the first centuries of the 2nd millennium. A relatively definitive date and event in the Christianizing of Finland came with the crusade of King Eric of Sweden between 1154 and 1157. He entered southwestern Finland with a comparatively small army, overcame Finnish resistance, and formally introduced Christianity to the Finns. When King Eric left, an Englishman, Bishop Henry, remained to administrate the newly established church. Bishop Henry was noted for his administrative leadership and for his violent end. A Finnish legend tells of Henry taking food from a farmer named Lalli. When Lalli returned, he was enraged even though the bishop had left money for the food. Lalli pursued Henry, overtook him on frozen Lake Köyliö, and killed him. Henry's death elevated him to the status of a martyr for Finnish Christians for whom he became St. Henry.
F
lorovsky,
G
eorges (1893–1979)
Authors: Gkortsilas Paschalis 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Georges Vasilievich Florovsky was a Russian Orthodox priest, theologian, and historian of Russian thought, born in Elizavetgrad in 1893 and raised in Odessa, Russia. He began his academic career at Odessa University (1919–1920), where he taught philosophy until he left Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution, in 1920. His first official academic appointment was in Paris, at St. Sergius Academy, where he taught Patristics, until the outbreak of World War II. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1932 and subsequently hired as dean and professor at St. Vladimir's Orthodox Seminary in New York (1948–1955). During his career at St. Vladimir's he established the theological journal
St. Vladimir's Seminary Quarterly
. His later academic appointments were at Harvard University (1956–1964), where he held the chair of Eastern Church History at the Divinity School, and at Princeton University (1964–1972), where he was a visiting professor of Slavic Literature and Religion, and also taught courses in Patristics. He concluded his academic career at Princeton Theological Seminary as visiting lecturer in Church History, until his death in 1979.
F
olk
C
hristianity
Authors: Shaw R. Daniel 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Folk religion is the religion of the “folk” — real people struggling with the realities of life. Folk Christianity emphasizes the experiences of Christian folk as they seek to connect their religious experience, as expressed in the Bible and the church, to the reality of their lives. In the process, people tend to rely on their understanding of who God is and what God can do for them. This produces an appreciation of the practical effects of what Christianity claims to be on the one hand (formal/institutional religion), and personal experience on the other (informal/personalized religion). There are so many human questions to be answered. Here the parameters of this topic are explored from a Christian position that accounts for an awareness of God's desire to be in relationship with his creation, and the desire of people, created in God's image, to connect to their creator. Folk Christianity should reflect beliefs and values expressed in actual behavior.
Forgiveness of Sins
Authors: Fatokun Samson Adetunji 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Forgiveness, as a concept in Christian theology, has its origin in the Old Testament Scripture. In the English Bible, three Hebrew words are translated “pardon” and “forgiveness,” and are used metaphorically for the removal of sin. These words are
kipper
(rendered “cover” once, “pardon and forgiveness” thrice),
nasa
(“lift up,” “carry away”, used 4 and 13 times respectively), and
salach
(possibly “let go,” used 13 and 35 times). And as pointed out by Snaith (1969: 85), sin is covered so that it no longer obtrude itself between man and God; it is carried away so that it ceases to form a barrier; it is forgiven so that there is no resentment or anger in the mind of the injured party. In other words, forgiveness, from its Old Testament background, connotes the cleansing away of dirt, the elimination of the barrier that stands between God and man.
F
osdick,
H
arry
E
merson (1878–1969)
Authors: Pratt J. Kristian 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The American pastor Harry Emerson Fosdick was a leader of the Modernist movement, professor of Practical Theology, and renowned preacher and author. Born in Buffalo, New York, Fosdick converted to Christianity at the age of 7 and dedicated himself to a life of Christian service. During his undergraduate studies at Colgate University, the teaching of theology professor William Newton Clarke greatly influenced his acceptance of modern methods of biblical criticism. Following his graduation in 1900, Fosdick enrolled at Union Theological Seminary. During a bout of depression, he attempted suicide and entered a sanitarium, briefly interrupting his studies.
F
oster,
R
ichard
J
. (
b
. 1942)
Authors: Dashnau Laurie A. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A leading contemporary writer and speaker on spiritual development, Richard J. Foster grew up among and the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) and has served as a Friends pastor and taught at Friends University. In 1986, he founded the Milton Center, an organization dedicated to building community and promoting excellence and integrity among creative writing by Christians. Two years later, he founded Renovaré, an international, ecumenical parachurch organization whose members covenant to work for church renewal.
Fourth Century
C
hristianity
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Soon after Christ's ascension, the early Christians encountered persecutions, for them fulfilling one of Christ's predictions. “They will put you out of the synagogues; yes, the time is coming that whoever kills you will think that he offers God service” (John 16:2). History shows that early Christians endured ten major persecutions during the first three centuries. Many were empire‐wide. One of these took place under Emperor Diocletian (284–305), whose reign began in
ad
284. Together with Maximian (co‐emperor), Diocletian launched a reign of terror against all Christians. In 303, he issued an edict to destroy all Christian churches and New Testament books (the Scriptures). That same year he also cancelled the right of citizenship for all Christians. The next year, another edict ordered all Christian clergy and laity to sacrifice to pagan gods or suffer death. Persecutions continued even after Diocletian retired in 305, although they were less intense under his successor Emperor Galerius, who six years later issued an edict favorable to the Christians, the Edict of Toleration, in 311 on his deathbed. Two years later, in 313, when Constantine and Licinius were co‐emperors, they signed the Edict of Milan. The edict recognized Christianity as a legal religion, giving it essentially the same rights that the pagans had. But persecutions were still occurring in the eastern empire where Licinius was emperor. Although Licinius had cosigned the Edict of Milan in 313 with Constantine (emperor in the West), in about 320 he resumed persecuting Christians in the East where he was in control. His persecutions did not end until 324 and then only because Constantine in the Battle of Chrysopolis defeated Licinius and soon had him executed.
Damien, Father (1840–1889)
Authors: Mills D. E. “Gene” 
Published: January 2012

AbstractFather Damien was born Joseph De Veuster in Tremeloo, Belgium on January 3, 1840. He died on the island of Molokai in the kingdom of Hawai'i of Hansen's disease, a victim of his own passionate service, on April 15, 1889. Damien was a missionary priest of the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary and of Perpetual Adoration of the Most Blessed Sacrament of the Altar. Ending his training early, he replaced his ill older brother, also a Sacred Hearts priest, who had been assigned to the mission to the Hawaiian islands. After 148 days aboard ship, Father Damien arrived in Hawai'i on March 19, 1864 to begin his ministry as a parish priest that would last until his death.
F
reeman,
T
homas
B
irch (1809–1890)
Authors: Olabimtan Kehinde 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Thomas Birch Freeman, British Methodist missionary to West Africa, was born in 1809 in Hampshire, England, to an English woman and an African father. Not much is known about his early life, except that he served as a gardener in Suffolk. Subsequently, he enlisted to serve as a missionary of the Wesleyan Missionary Society. Until his arrival in the Gold Coast, the work of the mission had suffered from the untimely deaths of earlier European missionaries whose constitutions could not endure the climate. His recruitment was, therefore, in the spirit of the contemporary thinking in western missions that African converts to Christianity from Europe and America might salvage the fledgling mission efforts going on West Africa. Freeman arrived in 1838 and immediately set to work, building a church at Cape Coast and extending the mission through preaching and schools that he established among the coastal people. He identified a young Fanti preacher, William de Graft, as a suitable assistant and stationed him at the coast, while he made extended visits into the interior as far as the Ashanti court at Kumasi. At Kumasi he established friendly ties with the king and his chiefs.
F
rei,
H
ans (1922–1988)
Authors: Ashford Bruce Riley 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
German‐born American theologian and professor of religious studies at Yale, Hans Frei was associated with narrative and postliberal theology. Early in his career, Frei delivered a lecture at Harvard Divinity School entitled “Remarks in connection with a theological proposal,” in which he set forth the agenda that he would extend and develop for the rest of his career. The thesis of his lecture was that theologians should seek to understand the Christian faith before seeking to defend it; they should put the hermeneutical and doctrinal task before the apologetic task.
F
rench Christianity
Authors: Watkins Daniel 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The first Christian communities in Roman Gaul appeared around the city of Lyons by the middle of the 2nd century. After an uprising in 177, there was intense persecution of Christians in the area. Martyrdom accounts from the period mention that of Ponthinus, the first Bishop of Lyons. After his death, the famous early church writer and theologian Irenaeus assumed the bishopric and inspired the spread of Christianity throughout Gaul. By 250, there were 30 episcopal sees including churches in Lyons, Arles, Paris, and Marseilles. By the 4th century and the reign of Constantine, the church in Gaul had expanded to 36 sees with 16 being represented at the Council of Arles in 314.
F
uller,
A
ndrew (1754–1815)
Authors: Anderson Jeffrey 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A Baptist theologian who resisted Hyper‐Calvinism in favor of an evangelical position, Fuller was born in Wicken, Cambridgeshire, England on February 6, 1754. His parents were farmers by trade and raised their gifted son in the Soham Particular Baptist Church. The Soham Particular Baptist Church was known for its “hyper” or “high” Calvinism. That is, the church was opposed to evangelism in an open and indiscriminate manner, as it was believed to undermine the sovereignty of God. This variety of Hyper‐Calvinism so stressed the sovereignty of God that it was believed that non‐Christians would be saved apart from any means and without the involvement of any mortal. Hence, any attempt to carry the gospel to other lands was deemed to undermine God's salvific purpose in the world.
G
aelic Hymnody
Authors: Whytock Jack C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Comprising Christian hymns which arose first in Gaelic‐speaking Scotland in the 18th and 19th centuries, Gaelic hymnody borrowed much from the style and forms of Gaelic secular poetry, wherein the bard composed praise poems for the clan chief, laments and elegies, and descriptions of battles fought or incitements to battle. However, after 1745, with changes in the Highlands, Gaelic poetry became more religious for reasons both political and spiritual. The tunes and forms remained the same, but the content of the Gaelic songs moved toward evangelical piety.
G
eorge of Cappadocia (
d
. 361)
Authors: Gray Patrick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
George of Cappadocia was an Arian prelate of humble origins who served as bishop of Alexandria (357–361) during the third exile of Athanasius. He was for a time a pork supplier to the Roman army but later became tutor of the future emperor Julian the Apostate. George's dealings with the supporters of Athanasius and his other opponents — who included both pagans and Christians — were by all reports tyrannical and corrupt. He was killed by a mob on Christmas Eve 361 following news of the death of his patron Constantius. His body was burned and his ashes cast into the ocean to prevent any followers from venerating his remains as those of a martyr. The newly enthroned Julian seized George's excellent library upon hearing news of his death. None of George's writings have survived. The primary sources for his life and views are writers such as Gregory Nazianzus, Epiphanius, and Sozomen, who sided with Athanasius in the trinitarian controversies of the 4th century. Some sources mistakenly identify George with his contemporary George of Laodicea, a Semiarian from Alexandria. Edward Gibbon popularized the now discredited theory that George was the basis for legends about St. George, the patron saint of England who shared his name and also hailed from Cappadocia.
Georgian Orthodox Church
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Georgian Orthodox Apostolic Church dates back to the 4th century although there is evidence that the gospel was preached in the nation as early as the second century. Evidence relating to the spread of Christianity is found in a number of hagiographic works such as the
Passion of Eustathius of Mtskheta
and the
Passion of Abo of Tbilisi
.
German Christianity
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas 
Published: January 2012

AbstractIn the 3rd centuryad, German tribes within the Roman Empire or along its borders came into contact with Christianity, mainly in its Arian form. The Roman army, especially, brought Christian soldiers and officers to the borders. The veneration of the martyrs among them is often the first signs of Christian life. Thus the first wave of Christianization of the various Celtic and Germanic people occurred only in the western part of Germany. There is evidence for bishops in Cologne, Trèves (Trier), Strasbourg, Speyer, Worms, Mainz, Augst, Augsburg and Lorch, but rarely is there evidence that the small organized church outlived the fall of the Roman Empire. The small remaining Christian population was powerless to protect its faith against the new ruling Merovingian and Franconian lords.
G
hiberti,
L
orenzo (1378–1455)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Florentine sculptor who made the second and third pairs of bronze doors for the Baptistery at Florence. His fame also rests on the statues of Sts. John the Baptist and Matthew at Orsanmichele, Florence, and the baptismal font panels in the Siena baptistery. In addition Ghiberti is believed to have written a treatise on architecture.
Gill,JohnC. (1697–1771)
Authors: Mickle Allen R. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractJohn Gill was born in Kettering, Northamptonshire on November 23, 1697 to Edward and Elizabeth Gill. His parents were God‐fearing individuals of the Calvinistic Baptist tradition. His father served as a Baptist deacon in Kettering. Gill grew up in a good Christian home. His early years were spent studying in the local grammar school where he excelled in languages. However, at the age of 11 he had to leave school when it was required of students to attend morning prayer at the parish church, which his parents, being Dissenters, would not allow. It was the end of Gill's formal education but he spent his time teaching himself so that he not only excelled in Greek and Latin but was quite adept at Hebrew by the age of 19.
G
ilson, Étienne (1884–1978)
Authors: Murphy Francesca Aran 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Étienne Gilson was the greatest Thomist philosopher of the 20th century. The Frenchman's thought falls into three parts. Having been trained at the Sorbonne by Lucien Lévy‐Bruhl, Gilson was first a historian of medieval Christian thought. Gilson showed the diversity of ideas as between, for instance, Augustine, Bonaventure, Albert the Great, Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. His classic historical studies include
Bonaventure
(1924),
The Spirit of Mediaeval Philosophy
(1932), and
Jean Duns Scot
(1952). The immediate result of Leo XIII's promotion of Thomas Aquinas in
Aeterni Patris
(1879), reinforced by the “modernist crisis” in Catholic theology (1903–1915), was the use of “Thomism” in seminary education as a timeless source of philosophical truths. The “medievals” were viewed as a single block, opposed to the “moderns.” Gilson, however, taught his contemporaries to see the medievals as individuals. He established the
Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du moyen age
and the Institute of Medieval Studies, in Toronto, to further the text‐based study of medieval philosophies and theology.
G
ordon,
G
eorge
A
ngier (1853–1929)
Authors: Kemeny P. C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
George Angier Gordon, Congregationalist minister and liberal Protestant theologian, was born to George and Catherine Gordon on the estate of Pitodrie, in Oyne parish, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, where his father worked as an overseer. At the age of 18, Gordon emigrated to Boston, Massachusetts.
G
ospels
Authors: Bruce James E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The canonical gospels — Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John — narrate the birth, life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Matthew, Mark, and Luke are collectively referred to as the synoptic gospels because of their striking similarities, while the Gospel of John presents a unique, and complementary, picture of Jesus. K. Lachman, writing in 1835, believed that Mark was written first, in part because whenever Matthew and Luke present the same material, Mark does also. Later in the 19th century, Heinrich Holtzmann and Bernhard Weiss developed a two‐source hypothesis: Matthew and Mark used Mark and an unnamed source, called Q, for the German word for
source
(
Quelle
). B. H. Streeter, in 1925, developed a four‐source hypothesis, adding M (for Matthew) and L (for Luke) to Mark and Q, to explain the specific material particular to each. Current scholarly consensus believes that the Gospel of Mark, the shortest gospel, was written first, followed by Matthew, Luke, and, finally, John. This order is by no means settled, however, with arguments made for the priority of Matthew or even John.
Gothic Church Architecture
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractFrom the time Christianity became a legal religion inAD313, with the Edict of Milan, to the end of the 1st millennium, churches were mostly built in the style of the Roman basilica. These churches to a degree still retained some of the pagan architectural style, such as Greek pillars supporting the flat‐roofed ceilings and round Roman arches over the doorways. It was not a style that lifted the human spirit. It was, as one scholar has observed, “a time in which the Christian spirit was still acquiring an individuality of its own, which in due course would express itself in an art of its own.”
Great Awakening
Authors: Pratt J. Kristian 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Great Awakening is the name given to widespread revival in the American colonies in the 1740s. Prior to the Great Awakening, revivals, while commonplace in the colonies, were localized events. The Great Awakening, which reached its peak between 1740 and 1742, had great influence on religion in the Middle Colonies and New England, and served as a missionary enterprise in the Southern Colonies.