bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
5 Elite Networks in Germany and Britain
Authors: WINDOLF PAUL 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Networks may be considered as a configuration of firms which are connected to one another by managers or as a configuration of managers who meet each other on the board of directors of large firms. The first type of network is called the corporate network (interlocks), while the second is known as the network of the economic elite. This chapter explores the elite network and the relationship between ownership and managerial control within this network in Germany and Great Britain, but first a comparison of corporate networks versus elite networks is presented. Managers base their dominance on a number of different resources and on various forms of legitimation, including bureaucratic power, property rights, and social capital. It is the combination of these various resources that enables managers to underpin their position of power. Four hypotheses show more precisely how different resources are combined: executive and controlling functions on the board of directors; managerial and ownership functions within a network of firms which are linked to one another by shareholdings (ownership) and by interlocks; bureaucratic power; social capital within the elite network.
Introduction: Phonetics and Philology
Authors: STUART-SMITH JANE 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins with a brief discussion of the purpose of the book, which is to demonstrate how phonetic theory can be used to evaluate and motivate accounts of reconstructed sound change provided by philology. The book discusses a well-known philological ‘problem’: how the Proto–Indo–European voiced aspirates developed in ancient Italic languages.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: STUART-SMITH JANE 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents some concluding thoughts from the author. It begins with a review of discussions in the preceding chapters. It shows that by comparing systematically obtained phonetic predictions with attested parallel changes, the book offers a reliable and constrained method for evaluating the phonetic plausibility of reconstructed sound changes, which could be applied to other reconstructed sound changes.
London in the Later Middle Ages
Authors: Barron Caroline M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In the three hundred years covered by this study, the city of London, in partnership with its near neighbour the town of Westminster, developed as the economic, social, administrative, and political capital of the expanding English kingdom. This book charts the halting process whereby the Londoners struggled to forge viable systems of self-government under the ever-watchful eyes of the royal officials at Westminster. This book examines the symbiotic relationship between the Crown and the City, and charts the ways in which the Londoners created the wealth that made them so indispensable to the Crown. It was during these years that the Londoners developed the systems of self-government, welfare provision, and control of the urban environment which were to able to withstand the pressures of massive population expansion, endemic plague, and the extremes of poverty and wealth in the Tudor period. The remarkable survival of the city's own records makes it possible to trace, for the first time and in unexpected detail, the inner workings of civic politics and government over three hundred formative years.
The Urban Environment
Authors: Barron Caroline M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the effectiveness of civic attempts to regulate and improve the urban environment against a background of population change and epidemic plague. The maintenance of communal buildings such as the walls, the implementation of building regulations, and the attempts to preserve green spaces and control livestock and industrial activities are all examined. By communal and charitable efforts the citizens were able to ensure a piped supply of fresh water. The chapter demonstrates the Londoners' concern to ensure that their city was clean and healthy.
Welfare Provision
Authors: Barron Caroline M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter explores the ways in which the city corporately, working together with religious houses and city companies, and much assisted by charitable individuals, provided welfare support for the young, the ill, the poor, and the old. Provision was made for orphans, for the destitute poor, for the sick, those who were terminally ill, and for the old. The role played by hospitals and the medical profession in the care of the sick is examined. The gradual invasion of lay professionals into areas previously the exclusive domain of the Church is observed and discussed.
Patrons, Clients, and Empire
Authors: Newbury Colin 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book applies a patron-client model to case studies of imperial over-rule to examine the political relationships between administrative and indigenous hierarchies derived from existing social structures and surviving into the period of decolonization. It goes beyond classification of administration as ‘direct’ or ‘indirect’, and rejects the notion that imperial rule was simply maintained by threat of force. From the range of cases presented it is argued that there was a continuity between pre-colonial regimes and succeeding European hierarchies that incorporated indigenous leaders. There are common themes in the initial dependency of European agencies (evangelical, commercial, official) on the patronage of indigenous rulers in states and reversal of this status at the onset of colonial rule. Remarkably few indigenous governments disappeared; and most subordinated leaders accommodated willingly or unwillingly within a new hierarchy deficient in resources and administrative personnel. In short, Europeans became imperial patrons and brokers between a distant metropolis and local systems of government in ways that were symbiotic, rather than hegemonic, subject to compromise beneath the rhetoric of colonial policies.
Egypt and Sudan
Authors: NEWBURY COLIN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Britain intervened in 1881 to make Egypt into an informal protectorate under a consul-general. Within the client state the joint hierarchy of British and Egyptian officials improved finances and infrastructure; the Egyptian army came under British command. An intricate political game between Lord Cromer and the Khedivate aimed at securing ministerial clients and power over public offices and preserving strategic, commercial and dynastic interests in a colonial protectorate from 1914. In 1936 Britain ended this balancing act, retaining responsibility for the defence of the Canal, until the abolition of the monarchy by a military coup in 1952. After reconquest, the Sudan was run by British officers, using Egyptian auxiliaries and Sudanese clients recruited from sedentary and nomadic tribes to administer tax collection and courts. A parallel hierarchy of leaders from religious and urban elites competed for power and excluded the segmentary societies of the Southern Sudan after 1956.
Western Africa
Authors: NEWBURY COLIN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In Western Africa, practices of clientage were applied to incorporate merchants for as long as they accepted the terms of trade and residence. The establishment of imperial enclaves modified this dependency. Governors and consuls worked for a wider sphere of influence through African allies, treaty states, and stipending chiefs. Reversal of status from the 1870s followed from greater reliance on treaty jurisdiction and use of force against the Asante, some Yoruba states and the Hausa–Fulani emirates. But officials had to come to terms with the chiefdoms and hierarchies they found to meet the obligations of protectorate administration. Chiefs were utilized for judicial and financial purposes as official clients. In each of the colonial states the pattern of over-rule was conditioned by local political structures. Administrative histories provide contrasting examples of the decline of chieftaincy or its empowerment, in the face of elite competition in local government and in state politics during decolonization.
Hawai‘i
Authors: NEWBURY COLIN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Hawaiian Kingdom was ruled by a paramount lineage through appointment of Hawaiians and Europeans to offices of state. Acceptance of laws, literacy and religion, on Hawaiian terms, maintained the primacy of the royal executive over its nobles, its ministers, and its system of island government. Foreign settlers were integrated within a Polynesian hierarchy as ‘service gentry’. Recognition by foreign powers allowed the ruling lineage to manage a Pacific state by securing a loyal civil service and control of political representation and the judiciary until the 1880s. Thereafter, royal patronage was challenged through the Legislature by a minority of lawyers, businessmen and republicans. By 1891, royal prerogatives were under threat and foreign relations depended on American good will. A militant faction overturned the monarchy in 1893, preparing the way for Congressional approval of an illegal settler government, annexation and Territorial status. But patronage politics continued into the 1930s under the influence of business corporations and Republican Executives.
Fiji
Authors: NEWBURY COLIN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In the Fiji archipelago no chief established paramount authority. From 1871, a constitutional government based on the person and influence of Seru Ebenezer Cakobau, Vunivalu of Bau, began a process of centralization under stipended provincial chiefs and settler officials, until the ‘kingdom’ was annexed by Britain with the agreement of Fijian chiefs. The first governors incorporated the chiefly hierarchy into a structure of provinces and districts, with taxes and laws under Crown Colony government. The early practice of consulting provincial chiefs was institutionalized within ‘Fijian Administration’ and the internal colonization of Viti Levu was completed with Fijian levies. Fijian leaders did not become civil servants and retained considerable initiative in accessing rents from lands and securing posts for subordinates. The whole structure of local government was called into question from the 1960s by advances in elected representation for Fijians and a large Indian population. Ethnic loyalty and deference to chiefs became an important factor in party politics, as Fiji moved towards independence in 1970 and continued to polarize politics up to the military coups of the 1980s.
Tonga
Authors: NEWBURY COLIN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
A centralized state was constructed in Tonga by a warrior chief of a maximal lineage. From 1845, through war, title succession, and adroit patronage of Wesleyan missionary converts, Taufa'ahau emerged in the manner of Kamehameha in Hawai'i as a territorial paramount by descent and achievement as King George Tupou I. New and old institutions were combined in the Tongan Constitution of 1875; and for the first time secular and religious titles were held by one high chief. His successors warded off a series of interventions by Fiji's governors, but the Colonial Office acknowledged Tonga's autonomy as a sovereign state from 1911. Since then, foreign settlement and foreign over-rule have been kept at bay by a patrimonial state that has managed to satisfy its nobility and office-holders and retain the loyalty of most Tongans.
The Discourses of Legal Regulation
Authors: Collins Hugh 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter describes the characteristics of traditional private law and how this form of legal discourse has been subject to productive disintegration. It begins by examining the competing normative considerations that shape legal doctrine. It then considers how a distinctive branch of legal doctrine known as the law of contract has emerged and sustains itself. The chapter concludes by examining the forces that appear to be leading to a collapse of the distinctive properties of the private law of contract as a regulatory system governing social conduct. The pattern of closure and self-reference exhibited by private law has been subjected to a series of subversive attacks. As a consequence, the integrity of the doctrinal system has eroded. But at the same time it is argued that the productive potential of private law as a regulatory instrument has been enhanced.
Planning and Co-operation
Authors: Collins Hugh 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Contract lawyers perform two principal tasks: first, to help plan a transaction, and second, to participate in dispute settlement. The planning role forms the larger part of their work. This chapter begins by considering the significance of this planning role to the practice of creating and performing contracts. It then examines the difficulties encountered by lawyers in devising appropriate plans for business relations. The major difficulty concerns the inevitable incompleteness of contractual planning.
Quality
Authors: Collins Hugh 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers the problem of disappointments arising from poor quality in goods and services. Although no one doubts that poor quality sometimes occurs, the question of whether any type of regulation can prevent disappointments is more contested. In particular, private law is often regarded as ineffective in imposing reasonable standards of quality. The chapter closely examines how private law can achieve the capacity to achieve efficacious and efficient styles of regulation of quality.
Megara’s Mafiosi: Timocracy and Violence in Theognis
Authors: WEES HANS VAN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter draws comparisons between the worlds of Theognis and the Mafia to highlight the culture of violent competition which they have in common. If Mafiosi, all engaged in fierce struggles for power and wealth can see themselves as paragons of virtue while accusing their rivals of unprincipled greed and violence. We need to look beyond Theognis' black-and-white imagery, and give full weight to the evidence which suggests that in his community violence and greed were structural phenomena rather than aberrations which could be blamed on ‘the bad men’. This conclusion should in turn alert us to the significance of other archaic evidence which attests to the prevalence of violent competition for power. It is in the nature of the surviving evidence that we hear most about the coups d' é tat and violent reigns of tyrants, but we should not assume that such men were exceptional in resorting to force. Poetry — notably the remainder of the Theognid corpus and the work of Alcaeus — and oral tradition both suggest that violent struggles among the élite were common and invariably involved groups of people going into exile or fighting their way back. In many parts of Greece, as in Megara, therefore, power and property must have changed hands constantly as it was abandoned, seized, and recovered.
Friends and Foes: Monarchs and Monarchy in Fifth-century Athenian Democracy
Authors: BRAUND DAVID 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter first explores the Athenian democracy's ambivalence towards the institution of monarchy. It shows that while monarchy was widely regarded as at odds with democracy, the existence of good kings could also be accepted and such kings could even be accommodated within the Athenian democracy's past. The second section elucidates the 5th-century democracy's concern (1) with the notion of the establishment of one-man rule at Athens; (2) with the personal power of its individual politicians; and (3) with its own imperial rule as a monarch or tyrant. The third section explores the actual relationships which Athenian democracy formed and maintained with a range of monarchs, largely through the agency of individuals. Such foreign connections might bring benefits to individual Athenians (including a possible place of refuge in times of trouble), but they also made them vulnerable to attack at Athens. Wise individuals stressed that their personal links were deployed entirely for the communal advantage of the democracy. Meanwhile, the collective mythology of the Athenian democracy facilitated its relationships with at least some monarchs. However, the issue of monarchy remained a conundrum for 5th century Athenian democracy on all fronts, while monarchy became still more pressing as an issue in the aftermath of the Peloponnesian War.
The Polis in Italy: Ethnicity, Colonization, and Citizenship in the Western Mediterranean
Authors: LOMAS KATHRYN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The concept of the democratic polis is one which is very much based on studies of the way the polis developed in mainland Greece, and in particular on examination of Athens — not surprisingly, given that there is far more detailed evidence available for the constitutional development and political life of Athens than there is for other cities in the Greek world. However, there are significant differences in the way in which the polis developed in the western Mediterranean. One of the most noticeable is the relative weakness of democratic government in the western colonies. There is no doubt that the main form of statehood in the colonial world was the polis but in most cases it was considerably less democratic in nature. The political history of the archaic and classical periods is dominated to a much greater extent by tyrannies, and by the interplay of oligarchic factions. On a more fundamental level, there are divergences in the ways in which the basic forms of definition and identity within the state were constructed. This chapter explores these differences in the Greek colonies of southern Italy and examines the implications for the ways in which these states developed.
Politics without the Polis: Cities and the Achaean Ethnos, c.800–500 BC
Authors: MORGAN CATHERINE 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Cities have long been perceived as ideal contexts for the development and conduct of complex political relations. Perhaps inevitably, therefore, the study of early Greek urban development has become closely entwined with the origins of the polis. The basic notion of community of place underlies much of our understanding of the relationship between residence and the political needs and solutions of emerging poleis. This is indeed an important area of study, but it should not be confined to the polis as traditionally understood. The issues are equally relevant to the study of ethnē. That archaeological discoveries over the last decade or so preclude simple distinctions between big sites in poleis and ethnē during the Early Iron Age and archaic period (from the 11th to the 6th century bc) should surprise only those rooted in a classical historical perspective. The existence of prehistoric sites which fit abstract models of urbanism has long been noted, along with the need to assess the Greek evidence within the broadest comparative perspective. A rounded understanding of any region must balance comparative and particularist observations. With this in mind, this chapter considers the implications of big site development in ethnē from both a local (specifically Achaean) and a broader Greek standpoint.
Argead and Aetolian Relations with the Delphic Polis in the Late Fourth Century BC
Authors: ARNUSH MICHAEL 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter addresses the position of the Delphic polis in Greek affairs of the 4th century bc, specifically in the years of Alexander of Macedon's sovereignty over the Greeks and during the uncertainty that arose just after his death. It shows a pattern of Delphi extending diplomatic gestures to a seemingly disparate amalgamation of poleis and ethnē during the age of Alexander, all of which were linked to opposition to Macedonian control, to the nearly united front against Antipater fashioned by Athens and Aetolia in the wake of Alexander's death, or to the future of the Hellenic cause after the end of the Lamian War. Further, Delphi's growing relationship with Aetolia, first articulated in 335, may have led to Aetolian efforts to nudge, prod, and support Delphic foreign policy through the granting of proxenic status to further the anti-Macedonian cause. The corpus of Delphic proxeny decrees from the 330s and 320s supports the notion that the polis took a rebellious political stance and scholars should continue the debate on the relative importance of these seemingly banal documents.
Problems of Democracy in the Arcadian Confederacy 370–362 BC
Authors: ROY JAMES 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines a case study of a democratic regime operating not in a single polis but in a confederacy, that formed by the several communities which shared a common Arcadian identity but were themselves independent states. The main evidence for democratic tendencies in confederate Arcadia in the 360s is in three elements: the situation in Mantinea and Tegea in 370, when the movement to confederation was launched; the use of the eparitoi to secure democracy; and foreign policy. Not enough is known about the confederate constitution to draw conclusions from it alone; but, if the Myrioi are accepted as a primary assembly, the form of the confederate constitution suits democracy well enough.
Introduction
Authors: ASHWORTH WILLIAM J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This introductory chapter begins with a historical background of taxation in Britain starting from the late 1600s. It then discusses the purpose of the book, which is to reveal the ingenious ways in which common folks, manufacturers, and traders successfully defied the ever-encroaching hands of state inference and policing. One of the conclusions of the book is that the state, through customs and excise, tried to shape and regulate the production of taxed goods by increasingly standardizing and policing the qualities that defined them. An overview of the six parts of the book is presented.
Free Trade, Transport, and Concealment
Authors: ASHWORTH WILLIAM J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter shows that the evolving English state was ill equipped to combat the dramatic rise in illicit trade that erupted onto the scene in the early 18th century. Seamen with customs commissions were encouraged to tackle smugglers by being offered one-half of the produce of the seizure at the subsequent customs sale. In 1821, a battle with the waterguard involving 250 smugglers took place. Although the combined force of the waterguard, riding officers, cruisers, and coastal blockade took its toll on smugglers, it was also costing too much money and blood. A committee set up to investigate the prevailing system concluded that it suffered from a lack of central control. The result was the assimilation of the waterguard back into customs. The term ‘Coast Guard’ was coined to describe the new amalgamation of representative forces.
The Incarceration, Adulteration, and Policing of Taxed Goods
Authors: ASHWORTH WILLIAM J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the incarceration of goods. It shows that incarcerating goods through the new tight Warehousing Act meant excarcerating people: protecting trade from the various hoards that roved along the quays and those employed along the waterfront. The chapter then discusses the adulteration and policing of commodities.
‘The Calico Millennium’
Authors: ASHWORTH WILLIAM J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter argues that throughout the book, the issues of fiscal policy, employment, and political power have been deeply immersed in the preservation of social authority. Eventually, the fiscal-military state could no longer continue in its current form with the accompanying distribution of power. Throughout the Great Reform Act of 1832, a significant proportion of the middling ranks were assimilated. This was crucial in providing the base for future income tax: no taxation without representation was a critical factor.