bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The variations of the solar constant and their relation to weather
Authors: Paranjpe M. M. , Brunt D. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractThe determinations of the solar constant obtained by the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institute during the last thirty years are discussed below, with results which point to the conclusion that the observed variations are mainly due to the defects in the methods of determining the solar constant. If this conclusion is accepted the subsequent work based on the supposed variability of the solar constant is not valid.
The amount of water vapour in the stratosphere and upper troposphere
Authors: Brunt D. , Kapur A. K. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractIt is shown that within the stratosphere the humidity mixing ratio should remain constant with height, and a simple formula is derived, by means of which the total water vapour content of the stratosphere can be derived. This formula indicates that the total is 0·62 times the amount which would be derived on the basis of Dalton's law. The actual amount in the stratosphere above the tropics is found to be very small, equivalent to about OOI mm. of precipitable water.The results of computations of the level above which there will be 0·3 mm. of precipitable water (a) assuming saturation everywhere in the upper troposphere, and (b) assuming relative humidity 50 per cent, indicate that in the first case the level of the base of the layer coincides approximately with the isothermal surface of 232° abs. and in the second case with the isothermal surface of 245° abs. Similar computations are made for 1·2 mm. of precipitable water, assuming 50 per cent relative humidity in the upper troposphere, and again yield the result that the base of the layer so computed coincides with an isothermal surface.A brief reference is made to the effect of the considerations discussed relative to the humidity mixing ratio being constant everywhere above the tropopause upon the evaluation of the equilibrium conditions in the ozone layer.
The wind structure beneath warm fronts
Authors: Durst C. S. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractFourteen cases of warm fronts passing over the British Isles were selected and the winds observed by means of pilot balloons were compared with the geostrophic winds at various heights up to 10,000 ft. and at distances ranging up to 500 miles. The results were combined in order to get an average value of the departure from the geostrophic wind at certain points. An evaluation is made of the second order terms in the equations at these points, and it is concluded that in this region of a depression the departures from the geostrophic wind are primarily dependent on (a) the isallobaric term and (b) a term involving the velocity of the cold air away from the incoming warm air and the variation in that direction of the velocity of the air at right angles to that direction.
The diurnal variation of wind over tropical Africa
Authors: Farquharson J. S. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractIn the Central Sudan wind speed decreases from morning to midday. Upper wind observations made twice daily at Khartoum during 1935 and 1936 provided data for the investigation of this unusual type of variation. It appears from mean monthly vector winds for morning and midday that the relationship of surface winds to geostrophic winds at a height above the surface layer of turbulence is similar to that in other latitudes and that a decrease in geostrophic wind occurs at midday. A corresponding decrease in pressure gradient can be shown only on the synoptic charts based on mean monthly sea level pressures for March, gradients for other months being indefinite and data scanty. Horizontal temperature gradients are worked out from the observed upper wind distribution, which agree with the temperature gradients obtained from surface temperatures and assumed lapse rates. These indicate a decrease from morning to midday, confirming a similar variation in pressure gradient. It is shown that this diurnal variation is typical of a wide belt of tropical Africa and, based on upper air temperature observations at Khartoum, the suggestion is made that it is due to the midday rise in temperature within the region of the thermal equator being less than that in regions north and south of it, at the height of the geostrophic wind level.
The influence of the dead sea on the climate of its neighbourhood
Authors: Ashbel D. , Brooks C. E. P. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractThe topography of the Dead Sea is described and it is shown how the difference in depth and area between the northern and southern basins is reflected in the thermal relations with the surrounding land and in variations of the sea breeze, resulting in a morning maximum and midday minimum temperature. An account is given of the effect of the sea breeze from the Mediterranean, which reaches the Jordan valley in the afternoon as a hot, dry wind, and produces a second maximum temperature. Examples are quoted of the extent in different directions of the influence of the sea breeze from the Dead Sea; and its effect on Khamseen days, when the afternoon temperature maximum disappears, is discussed. Data are given in tables of wind direction and velocity, with autographic records of temperature and humidity, and brief particulars of the amount of precipitation are included.
Local climate and the growth of trees with special reference to frost
Authors: Day W. R. , Walker Gilbert T. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractThe type of forest is largely determined by the general climate, but local climatic conditions exercise considerable influence.The natural forest in this country is composed of species, some of which are relatively hardy to frost, whereas others are, in comparison, easily injured by it. The latter species usually form the final woodland, and their successful growth is made possible by the development of favourable conditions of climate and soil within woodland formed first of all by hardy species.Examples are given to illustrate the effect of overhead and side shelter on the temperature of the air over the ground. The influence of topography on frost is also illustrated and discussed.The effect of accessory factors, such as soil fertility, local warm or cold situations, and the general suitability of the exotic species to the climate to which they are introduced are also shortly discussed in relation to the occurrence of frost injury.
Wind and sea disturbance in the Hebrides
Authors: Champion Donald L. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractIn this note an attempt is made to ascertain the effect of exposure on the disturbance of Hebridean Seas, as produced by winds from different directions and of various forces on the Beaufort Scale.The term “sea disturbance” is taken in its broadest sense, being the actual state of the surface of the sea as experienced by the observing ships at the time of observation, whether the roughness be due to wind‐waves or swell or a combination of both these elements.The height of waves is the apparent distance in feet from trough to crest, as estimated by eye observation by the Masters of the observing ships.A comparison is made between the relative roughness of the Minch and the Sea of the Hebrides; and the apparent effect of the width of the channel, at right angles to the wind, on the height of waves up channel from seaward is shown from data obtained in the Sound of Sleat.
A note on the constancy of horizontal turbulent shearing stress in the lower layers of the atmosphere
Authors: Calder K. L. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractIt may readily be shown, from elementary arguments, that for steady fluid flow in circular tubes or between parallel plates, the shear stress in the direction of the mean motion varies linearly with the distance from the wall. This result is quite independent of the nature and origin of the fluid resistance and in particular is valid if the flow be turbulent. However, it has been proved by Ertel (1933) that in the lower layers of the atmosphere (1 ⩽ z ⩽ 30 m) the horizontal turbulent shearing stress defined by τ = η (z)∂v/∂z where η(z) is the vertical austausch coefficient and ∂v/∂z the vertical gradient of mean velocity, is to a high degree of approximation independent of the height. In view of the importance of this conclusion in atmospheric turbulence theory, and its obvious difference from the first, it has been thought worth while to examine Ertel's treatment in detail. The latter is based on the assumption of the isotropy of the coefficient of vertical turbulent momentum interchange and the final result depends on the relative smallness of the variation of wind direction with height in the surface layers. Complete neglect of this variation, however, requires a wind velocity constant with height, in which case Ertel's result would become trivial. The object of the present note is to show that the assumption of very small but plausible values for the wind direction change with height in the surface layers (of order 10‐6 radians/cm.) suffices to account for the observed wind velocity increase in the lower layers.It may be concluded that Ertel's analysis is sound. Furthermore it appears on the basis of the theory that the mean wind direction change with height in the lower layers is too small to be observed practically.
On the conservatism of the equivalent potential and the wet‐bulb potential temperatures
Authors: Bleeker W. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractIt is possible to define two “equivalent” temperatures; one by consideration of an isobaric process, called isobaric equivalent temperature (Ti″), and one by consideration of dry and saturated adiabatic processes, called adiabatic equivalent temperature (Ti″). The difference (Ta″‐Ti″) equals the caloric value of an area in a thermodynamic diagram (ABCDin Fig. I).In the same manner one can define two “wet‐bulb” temperatures; one by consideration of an isobaric process, called isobaric wet‐bulb temperature (Ti′), and one by consideration of dry and saturated adiabatic processes, called adiabatic wet‐bulb temperature (Ta′).The conservatism of the different equivalent and wet‐bulb temperatures and their potential values is discussed and it is shown that there exists no single equivalent and wet‐bulb temperature which is conservative for all three processes: (1) dry‐adiabatic changes, (2) saturated‐adiabatic changes, and (3) evaporation of rain falling through the air. (See table page 548.)This leads to the conclusion that the so called wet‐bulb potential temperature should be carefully handled for identification of moving air masses (Hewson 1936). The use of the wet‐bulb potential temperature may give a wrong impression of the gain of water by evaporation, and may lead to erroneous results in estimations of vertical displacements in cases where evaporation occurs.
Photo‐electric measurements of daylight under alpine conditions
Authors: Atkins W. R. G. , Rothschild Miriam 
Published: July 2010

AbstractObservations have been made with vacuum sodium and with rectifier selenium photo‐electric cells, under opal flashed glass diffusing plates. The former may remain constant save when exposed to intense tropical desert heat and full sunshine for a long period. The latter are far less constant, and in time the curvature of the light‐current relation may increase; this is accompanied by a decrease in blue and green sensitivity so that the response at the long wave end of the spectrum becomes relatively greater. No serious temperature error is introduced when the current from a Ixeston selenium cell is measured with a 10 ohm galvanometer amid snowy surroundings.Sodium cell measurements at about 0.41 μ give the reflection from the snow as being from 0.74 to 1.19 times the vertical component of mixed daylight. With a selenium cell, sensitive throughout the spectrum, observations ranged from 0.68–0.88. Calculated on the maximum values for mixed daylight the snow reflections were from 0.38–0.74 and from 0.28–0.38 respectively for the sodium and selenium cells.Under Alpine conditions there is relatively less scattered light from the sky, consequently the sun/sky ratio is greater, in the violet, than in England or Ceylon for the same solar altitude; with the selenium cell the sun/sky ratio is even greater, with a maximum of 9.70, as against 3.55 for the violet, both determinations being made at Scheidegg (2,064 m.) with an absolutely cloudless very dark blue sky, solar altitude 48.1°.The vertical component of daylight is higher in the violet, under Alpine conditions, than in Ceylon, for low or moderate solar altitudes, but the difference is less at higher solar altitudes. For measurements covering the whole spectrum the Alpine values are also noticeably higher. The physiological effects of Alpine sunlight are due partly to the intensity of the reflected light.
Convergence and divergence in the atmosphere
Authors: Durst C. S. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractThe departure of the actual wind from the geostrophic wind is defined as the agcostrophic wind. The magnitudes of the ageostrophic winds as measured from pilot ballon ascents are examined and found to be in many cases greater than can be explained by the probable errors of measurement. A method is developed of calculating the ageostrophic winds from the measurements of the geostrophic winds and of obtaining the convergence due to these ageostrophic winds.A case is examined in detail and the convergence is calculated. It is shown that in a region where pressure was falling there was strong convergence near the surface and strong divergence at a level of 5 km.
The formation of depressions of the khamsin type
Authors: Elfandy M. G. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractA further study has been made of the conditions in spring which produce khamsin conditions in Egypt. Depressions are then formed which travel from west to east to the south of, and roughly parallel to, the north African coast; and, as a rule, while the more vigorous depressions usually originate far to the west of Egypt, shallow depressions form in Egypt or slightly to the west of it. Such depressions are regarded as produced in the manner suggested by Margules—unstable conditions prevailing between intensely heated air to the south and cool air to the north, the moisture of the air playing a non‐essential part. The cold air is due to an anticyclonic distribution in the Mediterranean, while the hot air is drawn northward from the Sudanese low when it suffers large oscillations towards the north. These oscillations are in the main brought about by the travelling depressions, the current bringing the hot air being specially strong when the depressions reach the Red Sea.
Windermere basin: Rainfall, run‐off and storage
Authors: McClean W. N. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractI. Characteristics of the Area and Scheme of Hydrological Stations.1. Characteristics of the area; 2. Scheme of hydrological stations; Hydrographical Map and Diagram No. 1 showing correlation of water levels.II. Rainfall at the Gauges and Methods of Assessing General Rainfall on the Area. 1. Method of the British Rainfall Organisation; 2. Method of “River Flow Records” Organisation; Rainfall Map and Rainfall Tables Nos. 1 and 2.III. The Run‐off and Storage of Windermere Basin. 1. Run‐off; Table No. 3, Stage‐discharge; 2. The storages of Windermere and of the tributary areas; Table No. 4, Residual storage and lake storage.IV. Three Examples of Analyses of the Records. 1. The seasonal relationship of Rainfall and Loss derived from the “Vickers” records of 1921, 1922 and 1925; Table No. 5, Monthly rainfall and loss; 2. Rainfall, run‐off and loss during five short periods from May 11 to August 30, 1938, each period ending with dry days; Table No. 6, Comparison of losses and an estimate of average run‐off; 3. A detailed graphical analysis of the flood period July 20 to August 13, 1938, showing the inter‐relationship of rainfall, inflow, outflow and storages throughout the period; Fig. 4, Hydrograph of inflow and outflow; Fig. 5, Running aggregates of rainfall and run‐off.Comments.—1, Summer Losses; 2, Outflow; 3, General Rainfall; and 4, Records.
On cycles of pressure especially in the neighbourhood of symmetry points
Authors: Pollak L. W. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractSchuster's criterion and the theory of probabilities have established extraordinarily few meteorological periods. The reason for the failure of periodogram analysis is that it is not applicable to damped oscillations. On the other hand, symmetry points in pressure variations appear to indicate cycles of some persistency and some short series have been analysed by Fuhrich's self‐correlating method, of which a short summary is given. The importance of Brunt's criterion for utility has been shown by applying it to the periods of the motion of the earth's pole.Fuhrich's criterion for reality is then treated and several features are discussed—independence of the analysis interval, the representation of artificial functions and the case of equal amplitudes. Sixteen analyses of the pressure variations near symmetry points have been summarised, and it is found that a duration including two or three cycles when analysed by Fuhrich's method yields a good representation of the variations with a correlation coefficient exceeding o.8 between the observed and calculated data. The method appears capable of giving at times a forecast of the pressure for 10 to 14 days in winter in central Europe.
Further cartographic studies of drought
Authors: Baldwin‐Wiseman W. R. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractAfter stating the need for precise drought data as the basis for the formulation of sound economic schemes of insurance of stock and crops against losses arising from drought, the author outlines methods by which all the requisite essential data can be derived from lengthy meteorological records :‐(I) In precise month‐to‐month detail, with regard to all the major droughts of a review period, by means of isodef charts showing equal percentage deficiency, and (2) in general detail for the whole review period, which is limited only by the availability of an adequate supply of reliable continuous meteorological records, by means of isnagdef charts (showing equal aggregate deficiency); these, being few in number, do not involve so much labour as the production and investigation of isodef charts for each month of the period of review.Three typical isoagdef charts for S.E. Queensland, covering the pyear period 1886‐1935, together with sample data used in their preparation, are given in illustration of the method.It is also pointed out that the statistical data and charts are of material value in selecting reserve agistment areas, or in deciding as to the leasehold or freehold values of pastoral and farming properties in recurrent drought areas.
Infra‐red absorption by carbon dioxide, with special reference to atmospheric radiation
Authors: Callendar G. S. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractRecent additions to our knowledge of the structure of the water vapour spectrum (Elsasser 1940), and the atmospheric transmission of infra‐red radiation (Adel 1939), have tended to emphasise the importance of atmospheric radiation as a fundamental factor in meteorological processes.Normally the greater part of this radiation comes from the large quantities of water vapour present in the air, but there are certain important regions of the atmosphere where the amount of water vapour is extremely small and where a large part of the radiation comes from the carbon dioxide always present.It is probable that measurements of carbon dioxide absorption and radiation have been more numerous and extensive than for most other gases, but these observational data are scattered through the scientific literature of many decades and in several languages; also they are usually presented in a form which cannot be applied to atmospheric conditions and which requires much coordination and simplification before it can be used for the calculation of energy exchanges. In the following pages these measurements are reviewed and the different sets of observations are compared with the aid of a simple function which will give the absorption by any quantity of CO2 in the different wave bands.
A combined laboratory and numerical study of fully developed steady baroclinic waves in a cylindrical annulus
Authors: James I. N. , Jonas P. R. , Farnell L. 
Published: July 2010

AbstractA description is given of a numerical model which has been used to simulate the steady baroclinic waves which may be observed in a fluid rotating about a vertical axis and subjected to a radial temperature gradient. the model is designed to provide accurate simulations of the observed flow without recourse to parametrization of small eddies. the model is verified by comparing the results of integrations with observed flows; many of the differences between the simulated and observed flows may be ascribed to the limited resolution of the model. the numerical model is used to provide data on the non‐linear interactions between different scales of motion present in the steady flows. It is demonstrated that the predominant non‐linear interaction, in the numerical model, involving the sidebands of the dominant wave is an interaction with the first harmonic of the dominant wave; this contrasts with an interaction with the long wave which was suggested by earlier workers. Experimental evidence is advanced to show that the sidebands may be enhanced by weak asymmetrical forcing and this sensitivity has been verified through the results the further numerical integrations.
The climate at maximum entropy production by Meridional atmospheric and oceanic heat fluxes
Authors: Grassl Hartmut 
Published: July 2010

AbstractIn a zonally‐average energy balance climate model (principal features as with Paltridge 1975) with the four unknowns ‐ surface temperature T, cloud amount N, total meridional heat fluxes within the ocean and the atmosphere Om+Am, and total vertical heat flux LE+CH, the maximum entropy production by meridional heat fluxes is used as a constraint to solve the system for the four unknowns in all 10 boxes of the model. Since the solution at maximum entropy production by meridional heat fluxes agrees quite well with present mean conditions, this maximum principle is used as a working hypothesis for climate sensitivity studies avoiding the use of fixed cloud amount and meridional heat fluxes. the resulting sensitivities partly agree and disagree with those of similar energy balance climate models. Disagreement is particularly high if an ice‐albedo feed‐back is included. the feed‐back is strongly reduced because of opposing effects of cloud amount in high latitudes.