bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reconquista (711–1492)
Authors: Smith Damian J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
“Reconquista” is the term which, from the early nineteenth century, has been used to describe the Christian recovery of the lands conquered by the Muslims during the Arab conquest of the Iberian Peninsula which began in 711. The process lasted until 1492, with the defeat of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada. The territorial recovery was motivated by political and religious ideas of restoration to varying degrees in various places at various times. During long periods many people lived at peace and there were often alliances between Christian and Muslim rulers.
Roman legions
Authors: Gilliver Kate 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The legion, consisting of around five thousand infantry and a small cavalry contingent, was the principal military unit of the Roman army. Traditionally, service in the legions required both Roman citizenship and property ownership, assessed through the five‐yearly census, though the latter qualification was gradually reduced to the point that it had become almost meaningless by the late second century
BCE
, and had been completely abolished before Augustus established the Roman army as a permanent, professional organization a century later. Though citizenship remained a requirement for legionary service throughout the remainder of Rome's history, until the general grant of citizenship to all free adult males under Caracalla in 212
CE
, suitable recruits without the status, such as the illegitimate sons of serving soldiers, would be granted it on enlistment to maintain the ideal that only citizens served in the legions. Legions on campaign were usually accompanied by non‐citizen units drawn from states allied to Rome, which provided heavy and light infantry, cavalry, and missile troops, so that armies were flexible forces containing a variety of different troop types. Legions during the Roman Republic were raised for specific campaigns, often only a few months long, and disbanded at the completion of military operations, but with the establishment of an overseas empire, legions might be retained for longer periods of time, leading to increased periods of continuous service on the part of legionaries; Augustus finally established the individual legions on a permanent basis, so that some legions were in existence for several centuries. While the citizen legionary units are given considerably more emphasis in the surviving literary sources than the non‐citizen units, and a wealth of archaeological evidence illustrates legions of the imperial period, there is still much uncertainty about the organization of the legions.
Roses, Wars of the (1455–1487)
Authors: Hicks Michael 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Wars of the Roses are renowned from the plays of William Shakespeare, who traced them from the deposition of Richard II in 1399 by the Lancastrian Henry IV, to the defeat at Bosworth in 1485 of the last Yorkist king, Richard III, by the first Tudor, Henry VII. Shakespeare portrayed them as dynastic conflicts between the Lancastrian and Yorkist claimants to the crown. It had been a mistake in 1399 to crown Edward III's heir male, the son of his third son John, rather than Edmund Mortimer, great‐grandson through the female line of his second son Lionel and his direct heir. Never, before or since, were English governments so insecure: there were three regional revolts and thirteen fullscale battles, at least tencoups d'étatsand attempted coups, sixteen invasions (including four that succeeded), five usurpations, five kings, seven reigns, and five changes of dynasty. Yet the Wars of the Roses should be viewed as a single phenomenon (Carpenter 1997: i). There were particular circumstances especially conducive to civil war that explain why the wars began, why they twice recurred, and why they ceased.
Russo‐Finnish War (1939–1940)
Authors: Ailes Mary Elizabeth 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Russo‐Finnish War, also known as the Winter War, began on November 30, 1939 when Soviet forces invaded Finland. Beginning in 1938, the Soviet government pressured Finland to allow it to build a military base on the Finnish coast to guard the maritime approaches to Leningrad. The Soviet leadership feared that Germany would invade the Soviet Union through Finland and that the Finnish military could not withstand such an attack. The Finnish government denied this request. It believed that such an action would make it difficult for Finland to resist further Soviet expansion in the future. Throughout 1938 and 1939 the Soviet government continued to make territorial demands of Finland. The signing of the Nazi–Soviet Non‐Aggression Pact in August 1939 led the Soviet government to increase its diplomatic pressure upon Finland as it believed that Germany would not react to a Soviet invasion of its western neighbor.
Russo‐Turkish War (1877–1878)
Authors: Van Der Oye David Schimmelpenninck 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe nineteenth century's last major European war and the fourth clash between Russia and the Ottomans. The campaign focused on Bulgaria, while the Caucasus served as a secondary theater. Russia eventually prevailed on the battlefield, but many of its gains were lost at the bargaining table after the other European powers intervened at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.
San Martín, José Francisco de (1778–1850)
Authors: Racine Karen 
Published: November 2011

AbstractJosé de San Martín was born in 1778 into a well‐connected military family. His father Juan de San Martín was a Spanish soldier posted to the Río de la Plata region as a lieutenant governor; his mother Gregoria Matorras was the niece of Gerónimo Matorras, a famous general in the Gran Chaco campaign of 1774. At the age of 7, San Martín journeyed to Spain with his family and enrolled at the Real Seminario de Nobles in Madrid while his father took up a new government post at Málaga. Even as a young boy, San Martín was impatient to begin his career as a soldier; in 1789, when he was only 11 years old, he successfully petitioned to be released from school in order to join the Murcian infantry as a cadet.Young José de San Martín entered the Spanish military service just as Europe descended into decades of turbulence. In 1793 he participated in the battle against French forces at Roussillon in northern Catalonia, and eventually went on to serve with an important regiment attached to the frigateDoroteawhich patrolled the Mediterranean in 1797–1798. Three years later, in 1804, San Martín participated in the so‐called War of the Oranges, in which Manuel Godoy's Spanish forces supported Napoleon's demand that the Portuguese abandon their centuries‐old alliance with Great Britain and cede their territory to France. Later that year, while he was posted as an infantry captain at Cádiz, the port city most closely associated with the Americas, he exploited its well‐stocked libraries to read new Enlightenment histories, geographies, political philosophy, and especially treatises on military science. Not surprisingly, San Martín began to consider questions of liberty, sovereignty, nationality, and empire while gaining practical experience in modern warfare by serving throughout the Iberian Peninsula.
Sandino, Augusto C. (1895–1934)
Authors: England Shawn 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Born May 18, 1895, in Niquinohomo, Nicaragua, Augusto Nicolás Calderón Sandino was the illegitimate son of a wealthy landowning merchant and an impoverished household servant. He later dropped his mother's name and shortened his own to Augusto C. Sandino. Raised in grinding poverty by his mother until the age of 9, Sandino was subsequently taken into his paternal household and treated well, although never as favorably as his legitimate siblings. He enjoyed a limited formal education, training as a mechanic, and apprenticing for a time in his father's business enterprises. After a violent altercation in June of 1921 (the actual cause of which remains unclear), Sandino fled the country to avoid prosecution for shooting his adversary. He arrived first in Honduras, working under hard conditions at a sugar cane plantation before moving on to Guatemala, where he worked for the United Fruit Company. In 1923 he moved to Mexico and found employment in the foreign‐owned oil fields near Tampico.
Santa Cruz de Marcenado (1684–1732)
Authors: Heuser Beatrice 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Don Alvaro Navia‐Oroso y Vigil, third Marquis Santa Cruz de Marcenado y Vizconde de Puerto, was a Spanish aristocrat who followed both a military and diplomatic career. He received an education in rhetoric, philosophy, and grammar at a monastery and later the University of Oviedo. At the same time, he was put in charge of the local militia in Santa María de Vega in Asturia in Spain. In his twenties, he saw military action on the side of the Bourbons in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), especially at the sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo (1706) and Tortosa (1709), and in Sicily. In 1715 he was sent to Ceuta, a Spanish‐occupied territory, as inspector of the Spanish forces. Three years later he was assigned the command over the Spanish forces in Sardinia. By the time he was 34, he had succeeded to the title of marquess, and in 1718 became inspector of the Spanish forces both in Sardinia and Sicily, and governor of Cagliari, where he stayed until 1722. From 1722 to 1727 he was sent to Turin as Spanish ambassador, to the court of Victor Amadeus, where his own house became a cultural center. Here he had leisure to study, accumulated a remarkable library, and began to write his 11‐volume work on war, but also a work on economics.
Septimius Severus (145–211)
Authors: Meckler Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Roman emperor Lucius Septimius Severus, who came to power in a period of civil war, strengthened the Roman army and expanded the empire's boundaries. His policies brought rising financial and military burdens to Rome's government. While his ruthless but prudent administration allowed these burdens to be fulfilled during his eighteen years on the throne, the policies created increasing problems for future emperors.
Shamyl, Imam (1797–1871)
Authors: Vandervort Bruce 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Imam Shamyl was the leader of a generation‐long campaign of Islamic resistance to Russian conquest of Daghestan, in the eastern Caucasus between Chechnya and Azerbaijan, in the mid‐nineteenth century. Though unsuccessful in the long term, the struggle he and his Avar people waged would inspire romantic stories by Mikhail Lermontov and Alexei Tolstoy, who had fought in the conflict as young Russian soldiers, and continues to inspire Muslim separatist movements in the Caucasus today. In its heyday, Shamyl and the resistance of his people to Russian conquest also attracted a following in government circles and even among the public in western Europe, particularly in Britain, where it was believed that the Imam's warriors served as a vital bulwark against Russian progress toward India.
Sikhs
Authors: Peers Douglas M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Sikhs are followers of the Sikh religion, which began as a reform movement in the volatile region of India known as the Punjab. This fertile region, straddling a number of the tributaries of the Indus and Ganges rivers, and lying between Delhi on the east and the mountainous region separating present‐day Pakistan from Afghanistan on the west, lay astride several of the key invasion routes through which waves of invaders had passed into India from central Asia. Consequently, the region has historically experienced considerable social, economic, and political tumult. The religion's founder, Guru Nanak (1469–1539), challenged many of the practices associated with Hinduism while simultaneously rejecting many of those which had been introduced through Islam. Initially pacific in orientation, it eschewed otherworldliness in favor of forging strong community links. As more converts were drawn to it, successive gurus found themselves caught up in the turbulence of Mughal politics and a number of its key leaders, including several gurus, came under attack. While this persecution was largely political in nature, resistance came to be articulated through a much more militant form of socio‐religious organization, namely the
khalsa
, or army of the pure, which was instigated by the tenth and final guru, Gobind Singh (1666–1708). Membership in the
khalsa
is by baptism and is symbolized by the five K's: unshorn hair (
kes
), a comb (
khanga
), a dagger (
kirpan
), a steel bracelet (
kara
), and a pair of breeches (
kachh
). The increasingly militarized nature of Sikh society was often directed toward Islam on account of its association with the Mughal ruling classes as well as it being the religion of their Afghan neighbors with whom there was a long history of border conflict. And as a proselytizing religion, Islam was often viewed as a threat to the social and political fabric of the Punjab.
Sioux Wars (1854–1891)
Authors: Lookingbill Brad D. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Between 1854 and 1890 the US Army conducted a series of military operations against the Lakota Sioux and their Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho allies. Also known as the Teton or the Western Sioux, the Lakota were a coalition of seven bands or councils: the Oglala, the Brulé, the Minneconjou, Sans‘ Arcs, Two Kettles, Blackfeet, and the Hunkpapa. The Sioux Wars began with small raids near the North Platte River and ended with a tragic massacre at Wounded Knee.
Spanish–American War (1898)
Authors: Watson Samuel 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Spanish–American War was rooted in the growth of American power and the proximity of Spanish colonial possessions to the United States. Historians have assigned a variety of reasons for the US declaration of war against Spain, from humanitarian altruism to popular jingoism, a flight from the domestic divisions of the 1890s, or the influence of sugar planters, to a vision of national power that demanded stable pro‐American regimes in nearby nations and along major trade routes. The answer is a mix of all these factors, but the decision to go to war, the United States' first international war in more than half a century, certainly signaled a new national assertiveness.
Stalingrad, Battle of (1942–1943)
Authors: Glantz David M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Battle of Stalingrad, fought from August 21, 1942, to February 2, 1943, on Germany's Eastern Front during World War II, proved to be the climactic struggle determining the fate of German Operation Blau (Blue), the strategic offensive Adolf Hitler's Third Reich conducted against Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union (USSR) in the summer and fall of 1942. Operation Blau, the second strategic offensive Germany conducted in the war, began on June 28, 1942, when the German Wehrmacht's (Armed Forces) Army Group South, soon split into Army Groups A and B, supported by forces from Germany's Axis allies, Italy and Romania, launched an offensive eastward across the southern Soviet Union to reach and conquer the oil‐rich Caucasus region and create favorable conditions for winning the war. After Axis forces successfully defeated the Red Army's forces in the Donbas region and captured the city of Rostov in late July, Hitler expanded Operation Blau's objectives to include the seizure of Stalin's namesake city, Stalingrad, on the Volga River. The Führer assigned Army Group A the task of securing the Caucasus region and Army Group B the mission to seize Stalingrad.
Strategic bombing
Authors: Perry May Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Strategic bombing—often defined as the direct aerial attack on moral and material means of resistance—has changed warfare. Strategic bombing fundamentally shifted modern combat from the fields, where armies collided, to the cities, where civilians resided. In doing so, it clouded traditional moral lines between combatants and non‐combatants, which held that civilian non‐combatants were illegitimate targets in war. It extended
de facto
legitimacy to targets such as factories, rail yards, and important buildings that housed civilian professionals and skilled laborers, which had previously been out of the reach of an enemy's military power. These once non‐combatants, civilian targets became essential military targets as they increased both the moral and material means of resistance against an enemy and converted regular domestic functions into “war‐making potential.” Therefore, the real attraction to strategic bombing was the ability to project power and influence across both battlefields and borders by targeting, or demonstrating an ability to target, precious areas once out of the range to most fielded armies that were vital to a nation's political, military, social, and economic well‐being. The final essential element to the ability to project power was payload. Payload was how much ordnance—whether it was high explosives, chemical agents, or nuclear kilotons—an aircraft could carry over a particular distance to target an enemy city or to compel that government to change behavior through demonstrating the ability to target an enemy city. In this way, the ability to bomb strategically significantly increased a nation's military power, thereby furthering the ends of their national policies.
Suchet, Marshal Louis Gabriel, Duke of Albufera (1770–1826)
Authors: Gallaher John G. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Born into a bourgeois industrial family, young Suchet was educated at the College of the Île‐Barba near Lyons, France. As the Revolution engulfed the nation, he enlisted in the Lyons National Guard (1791). When France went to war in 1792, he enlisted in a volunteer company that became a part of the 4th Battalion of Ardèche and was quickly given the rank of second lieutenant. Promoted to lieutenant colonel (September 20, 1793), Suchet joined the Army of Italy and took part in the siege of Toulon, commanded by the young Napoleon Bonaparte. As a committed republican he believed in the revolutionary cause and took pride in helping to defeat men he saw as traitors and rebels.
Taira Tadatsune insurrection (1028–1031)
Authors: Karl Friday 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Like Taira Masakado's (?–940) insurrection during the previous century, Taira Tadatsune's (?–1031) uprising illustrates the ties that bound center and periphery in the mid‐Heian (794–1185) period, even in the case of ostensibly revolutionary upheavals. The key players—Taira Naokata (dates unknown), Minamoto Yorinobu (968–1048), and Tadatsune himself—were all bridging figures between the court and the countryside, not incipient provincial warlords chafing under courtier domination. Even Masakado and Tadatsune, whose insurrections are marked among the most momentous events of the period, were not willfully in defiance of central government authority—at least not initially. Their quarrels were local, not national; their insurgencies aimed at specific provincial officials and their subordinates and policies, not the national polity. And even then, their first—and most enduring—instincts were to seek reconciliation with the state, through the offices of their patrons at court. In this respect, they were more like unruly adolescents testing the limits of court patience than revolutionaries seeking a new order.
Thermopylae, Battle of (480
BCE
)
Authors: Potts Samuel 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Battle of Thermopylae took place during the Greco‐Persian Wars (498–448), and specifically during the invasion of the Greek mainland by the Persian Great King, Xerxes I (519–465). The battle was fought between a small army of Greek soldiers, led by King Leonidas of Sparta, who failed to hold the Pass of Thermopylae against the far larger Persian army. This defeat allowed the Persian army to march on into the heart of Greece and burn Athens to the ground, though the Greeks were eventually able to repel the Persian invasion following victories in the naval battle of Salamis (480) and the land battle of Plataea (479). It is one of the most famous encounters in all of history, achieving a reputation and renown far out of proportion to its tactical or strategic significance. The three hundred Spartans who fought to the death against the oncoming Persian army became legendary figures almost at once. The heroism of their last stand, and perhaps as importantly the anecdotes associated with their somewhat futile self‐sacrifice, made a significant contribution to the enduring image of the Spartans as red‐cloaked super‐soldiers. It was an image that was consciously perpetuated almost immediately after Thermopylae, not least by the Spartans themselves.
Tirailleurs Sénégalais
Authors: Lunn Joe 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Tirailleurs Sénégalais (Senegalese Rifles) were West African infantry serving the French colonial state between 1857 and 1960. Created by the governor of Senegal, Colonel Louis Faidherbe, to spearhead French expansion into the West African interior, they remained the primary instrument for maintaining French authority in their sub‐Saharan colonies until they were disbanded on the eve of independence. Beyond their primary task of maintaining civic order, they also projected French military power, serving in three distinct historic roles—in leading the French conquest of West Africa from 1854 to 1914, in defending France from German invasion during two world wars, and in combating liberation movements against French colonial rule during the interwar period and especially after 1945.
Tito, Josip Broz (1892–1980)
Authors: Ashbrook John E. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Josip Broz, later to adopt the name Tito after his release from prison in 1933, was the leader of the Yugoslav Partisans during World War II and of communist Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) from 1945 to his death in 1980. Tito's success in leading a resistance movement against Axis and collaborationist (quisling) forces in Yugoslavia earned him a loyal following and a reputation as one of the most successful guerilla‐turned‐conventional commanders of the twentieth century. In the 1960s he became a founding member and leader of the non‐aligned movement. He died as president of Yugoslavia in 1980.
Tojo Hideki, General (1884–1948)
Authors: Farrell Brian P. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Tojo Hideki served as prime minister of Japan from October 1941 to July 1944 and in that capacity led Japan into the Pacific War. Tojo was born into an army family in Tokyo in 1884 and groomed for a military career from childhood. Graduating from the Military Academy in 1905, Tojo embarked on a career dominated by staff positions, passing out with high honors from the Staff College in 1915. Another characteristic that marked Tojo's career was enthusiastic involvement in service and national politics. In 1929 Tojo helped found the One Evening Society, one of many pressure groups formed by younger officers in the army determined to push Japan along a more imperial path. Tojo was an ultra‐nationalist who believed Japan must rely on its own power to establish itself as the dominant force in Asia. He was also a strong social and political conservative who believed Japan should purge itself of liberal democracy and establish authoritarian government. Rounding off Tojo's personality was sincere devotion to the emperor and his authority.