bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Asylum‐Seekers
Authors: Schuster Liza 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
An asylum‐seeker is a person who has made a claim for recognition as a refugee, and who is waiting for that claim to be decided. Many states recognize an obligation to offer protection (often no more than the right not to be deported) to individuals who are refugees from persecution, and have in place a legal or administrative system for examining claims to such protection. From the time a person makes an application for asylum until the time they are recognized or rejected by the state in which they have made the claim, they are an asylum‐seeker. An individual is a refugee from the moment s/he fulfills the criteria, but it may take some time before their status as a refugee is confirmed by the state in which they request recognition. This period may vary from a few days to many years, depending on the complexity and comprehensiveness of the system, the number of appeals available, the (un)willingness of the state to process claims, and the level of proof required by the state and available to the applicant. Asylum‐seekers enjoy very different levels of support in different countries, from temporary admission and nothing else, to accommodation in enclosed camps, to accommodation, healthcare, and education provided either separately or through the mainstream welfare system.
Asymmetric Warfare
Authors: Simon Tormey  
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The term “asymmetric warfare” relates to an armed conflict in which there is a significant gap or incompatibility in terms of power between two fighting parties. The weak side believes, thinks, operates, is equipped and is organized in a different manner than the strong side, in order to maximize its relative advantages and to offset the strong side's advantages. The term can either relate to a conflict between armies, or to a conflict between an army and an organization or movement.
Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas
Authors: Kellogg Paul 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA – from the Spanish name, Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América) “is an alternative approach to economic, social, cultural and political integration that aims to foster trade, development and unity among the nations of Latin America and the Caribbean on the basis of a set of principles distinct from those underlying conventional integration efforts” (Backer & Molina 2009: 109–110). The idea first emerged in discussions between Cuba's Fidel Castro and Venezuela's Hugo Chávez in 1994 (Cole 2008: 6), and it began to take formal shape with the Cuba–Venezuela Integral Cooperation Agreement in 2000. The acronym “ALBA” was used publicly for the first time (by Chávez) at the December 2001 Association of Caribbean States Summit (Muhr forthcoming: 6 and 3; Blake 2009: 98). The alliance finally took institutional shape on December 14, 2004, with a formal agreement between the governments of Cuba and Venezuela (Backer & Molina 2009: 119). It was joined in 2006 by Bolivia, in 2007 by Nicaragua, in 2008 by Dominica, and in 2009 by Ecuador, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Antigua and Barbuda. Honduras joined in 2008, but a coup the next year resulted in a change of government and a decision to withdraw from the alliance in early 2010 (Hart‐Landsberg 2010: 17).
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
Authors: MacLachlan Ian 
Published: March 2012

AbstractBovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is an incurable degenerative neurological disorder of cattle that is invariably fatal. It was first identified in 1986 in the United Kingdom and by 1996 it had been associated with a form of the Creutzfeldt‐Jakob disease in humans. Though largely concentrated in the United Kingdom, BSE has infected cattle in most of Europe, North America, and Japan, disrupting the international trade of live cattle, beef for human consumption, and beef by‐products. BSE has attained global significance by revealing the potential for the intercontinental spread of an infectious animal disease and its implications for risk management, animal health, and human health.
Bretton Woods
Authors: Ritzer George 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
In the midst of World War II the Western world, especially the United States and Great Britain, began planning for a more open international economy. A great fear was the recurrence of the Depression after the end of World War II, especially because of the difficulties those societies would have in absorbing the massive manpower created by the demobilization of the military when the war ended. There was also fear of a resurrection of barriers to trade and to the free flow of money that had become commonplace prior to World War II. The focus of the planners was on reducing trade barriers and on creating conditions necessary for the free flow of money and investment. Another concern was the creation of conditions needed for financial stability around the globe. This was the background for a three‐week meeting in July 1944 at the Mount Washington Hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, which led to the beginning of the “Bretton Woods system” (Bordo & Eichengreen 1993).
Capitalism
Authors: Antonio Robert J. , Bonanno Alessandro 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The capitalist system is characterized by mainly private ownership and management of the means of production, distribution, and exchange and by prices and profits that depend largely on market competition. Yet historically, capitalist regimes have varied in the scope of state ownership, regulation, and redistribution and in levels of private collusion and concentration that impact prices. Adam Smith (1776) held that a single pin‐maker would be hard pressed to make one pin a day, but that 10 specialized producers could make 48 000 daily. Employing examples of masons and cavalry, Karl Marx (1867) stressed the same point: that capitalism's specialized system of complex social cooperation exponentially increases productive powers. In 1848, when mechanized industry was in its infancy (in England only), Marx held that capitalists had already spurred creation of a more powerful array of productive forces than all previous generations everywhere, they would continuously revolutionize production and all culture, and capitalism's growth imperative would soon extend the regime worldwide, knocking down “Chinese walls” and creating global “interdependence.” Dramatic evidence of the
sui generis
social powers of which Smith and Marx spoke, the late nineteenth and early twentieth century technological revolution gave us the distinctly modern world. Earlier epochal productive transformations, which changed collective life from top to bottom, took many millennia to develop and spread (e.g., the rise of agriculture and ancient cities). By contrast, capitalism transformed global productive practices and cultures much more sweepingly and radically in a few generations. Capitalism's expansionary logic pushed its borders and impacts ever outward. Its revolutionary changes continue today in nearly every corner of the globe. However, capitalism's growth imperative and unparalleled productive powers, which have created great wealth and enriched culture, have also generated great costs, contradictions, and risks, which have been mounting with globalization.
Childhood and Migration
Authors: Knörr Jacqueline 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
To consider the impact of migration on childhood and of children on migration processes, one has to deal with childhood as a social category first. The emergence of childhood studies has been compared with the emergence of women's studies, which in the 1970s gave rise to a shift in paradigms in gender studies and theories – the big difference being, that, unlike women, children cannot pursue research on themselves. It is up to adults to discover how children see the world, their social lives, and their childhood. They can do so by letting children speak for themselves but despite the shift towards the social world of children in more recent approaches in the study of childhood, scientific knowledge about childhood still largely ignores what children themselves have to say about their lives and their own place in the social world. Children's explicit ways of criticizing the latter could be one of the reasons why adults are reluctant to consider their views, observations, and assumptions relevant (Butler & Shaw 1996).
Christianity
Authors: Thomas George M. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractIt commonly is said that globalization should be viewed from a long historical perspective. The recent era marked by massive increases in global interactions, myriad global problems demanding global governance, and a sense of the world as one place, must be understood in a long‐term, historical context. This principle is especially true for globalization and Christianity. Christianity was global before it was European; it subsequently was involved in Western expansion and colonialism, the precursors of what we now call globalization. It thus is important to consider the relationship between Christianity and these earlier globalizations, focusing on those aspects and episodes that are particularly relevant to globalization at the turn of the twenty‐first century.
Civil Society
Authors: Kellogg Paul 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The word “globalization” almost automatically evokes the idea of economic globalization. However, globalization clearly has other dimensions, among them the political – and conceptualizing political globalization poses some immediate difficulties. Pre‐globalization politics was defined through a geographically specific nation‐state, and “it is hardly possible to argue that there exists a global state” (Thörn 2006a: 204). Theorists like Richard Falk have grappled with this at the governance level, deploying the term “geogovernance” to identify the ad hoc emergence, in the context of economic globalization, of “a more integrated economic, cultural, and political reality” (1995: 1). However, this geogovernance in the first instance, emerges as corporate or “capital‐driven geogovernance” (p. 135) and has little clear relation to political democracy. Many theorists have suggested that the democratic content to globalization will have to come “from below” (p. 87; Thörn 2006a; 204). Increasingly the term “global civil society” (GCS) has been deployed as an attempt to conceptualize the space where this democratic globalization from below can be articulated.
Climate Change
Authors: Clark Brett , Jorgenson Andrew K. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007a, 2007b) indicates that human activities – such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation – are unequivocally responsible for the observed warming of the atmosphere. Global average temperatures have increased faster than anticipated – rising by 0.74°C (1.3°F) since 1906. A further increase of 1.8–4.0°C (3.3–7.1°F) is expected during the twenty‐first century if current trends continue. Carbon dioxide is one of the most important greenhouse gases contributing to global climate change. Approximately half of every ton of carbon dioxide generated remains in the atmosphere for hundreds of years. The average annual increase in carbon dioxide emissions during the first seven years of the twenty‐first century was at least 3.5 percent, surpassing the worst case scenarios (Canadell et al. 2007; IPCC 2007a, 2007b; Kintisch 2009). The economic downturn that started in 2008 temporarily interrupted this trend, as global emissions decreased in 2009 by 1.3 percent – less than half of what was predicted (Le Quéré et al. 2009, Friedlingstein et al. 2010). The growth in carbon dioxide emissions resumed in 2010, with a 3 percent increase, which is expected to be the yearly standard over the next two decades (Garnaut et al. 2008).
Colonialism
Authors: Ashcroft Bill 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The term colonialism describes a dominant form of cultural exploitation that developed with the expansion of Europe over the last 400 years. The term “colony” stems from the Latin word
colonus
meaning “a small farm” and thus originates in the practice of occupying and cultivating land. Although many earlier civilizations had colonies and although they perceived their relations with them to be one of a central imperium in relation to a periphery of provincial, marginal, and barbarian cultures, a number of crucial factors entered into the construction of the post‐Renaissance practices of imperialism. Edward Said offers the following distinction: “ ‘imperialism’ means the practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan centre ruling a distant territory; ‘colonialism’, which is almost always a consequence of imperialism, is the implanting of settlements on distant territory” (Said 1993: 8). What distinguishes the modern European empires from the Roman or the Spanish or the Arab, according to Said, is that they are systematic enterprises, constantly reinvested. They do not move into a country, loot it and leave. What keeps them there is not simple greed, but massively reinforced notions of the civilizing mission.
Colonialism, Neo‐
Authors: Ashcroft Bill 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

This term was coined by Kwame Nkrumah, the first President of Ghana, and a leading exponent of pan‐Africanism, in his
Neo‐Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism
(1965). This title, which echoed Lenin's definition of imperialism as the last stage of capitalism, suggested that, although countries like Ghana had achieved political independence, the ex‐colonial powers and the newly emerging superpowers such as the United States continued to play a decisive role in their cultures and economies through new instruments of indirect control such as international monetary bodies, particularly the IMF and World Bank, through the power of multinational corporations and cartels which artificially fixed prices in world markets, and through a variety of other educational and cultural nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). In fact, Nkrumah argued that neo‐colonialism was more insidious and more difficult to detect and resist than the direct control exercised by classic colonialism.
Commercialization
Authors: Kukreja Sunil 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The process of commercialization is integral to capitalism. Experts regard economic exchange, in all its manifestations, as a key and enduring engine of capitalism and the process of globalization. The phenomenal expansion in the volume and intensity of economic exchange in the capitalist world economy has arguably been closely linked to and depended on a critical process of the commercialization of social relations.
Corruption
Authors: Warner Carolyn M. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Corruption is typically defined as “behavior by a public servant, whether elected or appointed, which involves a deviation from his or her formal duties because of reasons of personal gain” (LaPalombara 1994: 328, italics in the original; see also Klitgaard 1988: 20–24). Definitions assume that the context involves public office or government bureaucracy, rather than limited malfeasance within a corporation.
Creative destruction
Authors: Dahms Harry F. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractIn the context of globalization, creative destructive is a concept uniquely well‐suited to capture one of the defining features of the present age: the lack of clarity regarding the likely impact the simultaneous processes of integrating global markets and accelerating global trade, communication, and space—time compression will have on the politics, culture and society of the future. As the constellation between the latter dimensions of human civilization is continuing to undergo changes in relation to economic conditions and forms of organization, it is impossible to make predictions about likely trends into the future. Indeed, in the early twenty‐first century, expectations of and concerns about the future are characterized by a high degree of uncertainty. Creative destruction is an apt tool to confront related challenges. Even when the utility of the concept of creative destruction is being questioned (for instance, whether and in what sense particular kinds of destruction that have accompanied globalization can be thought of as “creative”— and whether “destructive creation,” or even “destructive destruction,” might be more suitable terms), it provides ample occasions and incentives to address present dilemmas, contradictions, and complexities.
Credit cards
Authors: Manning Robert D. , Butera Anita C. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Consumer credit cards provide electronic payments for goods and services based on an unsecured loan or line of credit provided to the account holder. A financial institution — the issuer/lender — extends an unsecured or secured line of credit to the cardholder/borrower. The card issuing bank may require the cardholder to pay an annual fee. The account holder must repay the purchases/charges within the specified billing period (at least 20 days) to avoid incurring finance charges and/or penalty fees. Cardholders receive a line of credit based on the banks' risk assessment of their debt capacity and expected ability to remit at least a minimum payment of between 1.0 and 2.0 percent of the outstanding monthly account balance.
Crimes Against Humanity
Authors: Vergès Françoise 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

To judges in charge of clarifying the laws and procedures by which Nazi leaders would be judged and the post‐World War II Nuremberg trials would be conducted, a new notion was necessary because “war crimes” and “crimes against peace” did not cover the scope, extent and characteristics of Nazi crimes. “The wrongs which we seek to condemn and punish have been so calculated, so malignant, and so devastating, that civilization cannot tolerate their being ignored, because it cannot survive their being repeated,” argued US Justice Jackson. Nazism had attacked the very fiber of civilization, but how could justice define what a crime against “civilization” meant? The notion of “crimes against humanity” which judges and jurists from France, the Soviet Union, United Kingdom and United States discussed raised many questions: what defines “humanity,” what kind of crimes can be judged under that name, in the name of which community the tribunal is legitimated? In its final agreement, on August 8, 1945, the
London Charter of the International Military Tribunal
defined “crimes against humanity” as:
Deindustrialization
Authors: Steven P. Dandaneau  
Published: March 2012

AbstractDeindustrialization refers to the political‐economic process in which industry and its manufacturing jobs are significantly reduced in a region or country. Resulting “rust belts,” whether in Germany's Ruhr Valley, Michigan's Motown, or dispersed throughout Russia as hundreds of dilapidated “monotowns,” become the source of social dislocation and distress and, more often than not, environmental degradation and hazard.
Digital Divide
Authors: Drori Gili S. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The phenomenal global diffusion of digital technology, whose rate surpassed the spread of any other technology in human history, has resulted in staggering global gaps in access to, and use of, this newest of social resources. These gaps, which mark the uneven distribution of information and communication technology (ICT) both internationally and intranationally worldwide, came to be known as the “global digital divide.” Internationally, digital divides differentiated between developed and developing nations, setting them on diverging trajectories of social development and global integration. In addition, digital divides differentiated among groups within countries, setting further apart rich from poor, educated from illiterate, and residents of urban areas from rural residents. The confluence of such international and intranational digital divides exacerbates social inequalities and thus has done little to offset the great advances in economic prosperity and integration and the great spread of information that ICT enable. With that, the global digital divide is widening over time, dampening hopes that ICT will serve as a liberation technology to advance democracy and as a leapfrogging technology to advance social development.
Drug Trafficking
Authors: Pasko Lisa 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Drug trafficking is another term for the illegal drug trade and refers to the unlawful process by which narcotic drugs (cocaine, cannabis, opium, hallucinogens, barbiturates, amphetamines, and tranquilizers) are produced, distributed, and possessed outside strictly controlled medical and scientific channels. At the turn of the twenty‐first century, the global trade in illegal drugs remained a vast enterprise, estimated at more than $300 billion a year, with the United States as the largest single retail market. Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia remain the world's main exporters of cocaine, with the Golden Triangle and the Golden Crescent countries (Burma, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Laos, and Thailand) as the world's chief suppliers of opium. Currently, Morocco is the world's biggest distributor of cannabis, with Mexico a close second.
Ethics, Global
Authors: St. Clair Asuncion Lera 
Published: March 2012

AbstractGlobal ethics can be defined as the moral reflection on the many public issues arising from an increasing connected world and the ethical dilemmas posed by the negative effects of many aspects of globalization on people and the planet. Questions related to global development, consequences of economic globalization, global finance and transnational businesses, large inequalities in income, services, or power across countries and groups, migration and displacement,citizenship, disparities in access to health or education, multiculturalism, beliefs, values, and religious faiths, as well as the role of multilateral and non‐governmental organizations (NGOs) have all been the subject of literature on global ethics. Reflection on ethics and globalization often also refers to an increasing sense of connectedness, consciousness, or citizenship at the global scale, a revival and reframing ofcosmopolitanism, and a strengthened role of global normative frameworks such ashuman rights. This leads to further development and reflection on the scope of ethical obligations and responsibilities beyond the boundaries of nation‐states and new ways of understanding the role of being human and civil in a global world. Global ethics overlaps with other fields such as global justice, international ethics, development ethics, and a large set of applied ethics fields (such as business or medical ethics).
European Region Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students
Authors: Smith Margaret Austin 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The Erasmus Programme was launched in 1987 to promote exchange and openness among institutions of higher education in the European Community by facilitating the mobility of university students and teaching staff. Named to honor the humanist scholar and theologian Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, who worked and studied broadly throughout Europe, the acronym ERASMUS stands for European Region Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students.
European Society
Authors: Krossa Sophie 
Published: March 2012

AbstractSpeaking about European society implies a rejection of the idea that it is only possible to speak about European societies– for example, France, Italy – in the plural because, it is claimed, “a society” can only be founded on “a nation (‐state).” The conventional understanding of both these categories has been that they are constituted by a people that is distinguished by certain cultural criteria – prime among them the principle of homogeneity.