bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
C
halcedon, Council of (451)
Authors: Nixon John Ashley 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Council of Chalcedon was the fourth and largest ecumenical council of the ancient church. Approximately 450 bishops attended and, while the majority of these bishops came from the East, the influence of the West through Leo's
Tome
cannot be overstated. This council, like Constantinople (381) and Ephesus (431) before it, did not seek to add to the church's faith, but rather met to clarify the church's faith as it had been described at Nicaea (325) in order to make clear how the church speaks and thinks about Christ in accordance with Scripture.
Trent, Council of (1545–1563)
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Council of Trent (LatinTridentum) (1545–1563) was a three‐phase council spanning the pontificates of three popes convened in response to the Protestant Reformation. It is regarded as the beginning of the so‐called Counter‐Reformation, both in its anti‐Protestant effect and in the renewal it initiated in the Catholic world. It fixed many Catholic teachings and rules contrary to those of the Protestants and put an end to any effort toward a reconciliation of the confessions. For centuries it remained the only council until the First Vatican Council (1869–1870) and its effects endured until the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965). Hence Catholicism prior to 1962 is referred to as Tridentine Catholicism.
C
yril (827–869) and
M
ethodius (826–885)
Authors: Higgins Paul 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Byzantine Greek saints Cyril and Methodius, “the apostles to the Slavs,” were brothers born in Thessalonica to a family of
droungarios
. In their youth, Cyril and Methodius learned the dialect of the Slavs around Thessalonica, and could speak the language fluently. Their father, a military officer, died when Cyril was 14 and they were thereafter raised by their uncle, a Byzantine official named Theoktistos. Both brothers entered the priesthood at a relatively young age. Cyril studied in Constantinople and read widely; he was especially proficient in linguistics, and studied under Photius, who would later be named patriarch of Constantinople.
L
eonardo
D
a
V
inci (1452–1519)
Authors: Thomas David Andrew 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci, the latter appellations indicating paternity and place of birth rather than surname, was born on April 15, 1452 near Vinci in the Florentine region of Tuscany, the illegitimate son of Messer Piero, a notary, and a peasant girl named Caterina. One of history's greatest geniuses, he was a master painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, inventor, mathematician, scientist, and musician. Leonardo probably more than any other is the archetypal “Renaissance man.”
D
e
F
oucauld,
C
harles
E
ugene (1858–1916)
Authors: Gallagher Robert L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

A French explorer, hermit, and missionary, Charles Eugene de Foucauld was born in Strasbourg. Although coming from a devout Catholic family, he lived a depraved life as an aristocrat and a cavalry lieutenant in Algeria and Morocco. In 1883–1884 de Foucauld secretly explored Morocco, and four years later published
Reconnaissance au Maroc
. For his scientific observations during this expedition he was honored by the Paris Geographical Society.
M
orales,
L
uis
D
e (1509/19–1585/86)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Spanish painter nicknamed El Divino. He worked from 1539 to the end of his life in Badajoz on the border with Portugal. He was one of the first wave of Counter‐Reformation painters who were influenced by the
Spiritual Exercises
of Ignatius of Loyola. He worked for the Cathedral of Badajoz and the Dominican Priory at Evora in Portugal. Many of his paintings have a Flemish appearance and an enamel‐like finish achieved by several layers of glaze. He is most famous for small devotional paintings such as
Pieta
(1560),
Holy Family
(1562),
Mater Dolorosa
, and various Madonna and the Child portraits.
Dead Sea Scrolls
Authors: Finlay Timothy D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Between 1947 and 1956, numerous scrolls were found in 11 caves near the site of Qumran by the Dead Sea. Together with some scrolls found at other sites near the Dead Sea, such as Massada, Nahal Hever, and Murabba'at, these scrolls are known as the “Dead Sea Scrolls.” Most were written in Hebrew or Aramaic on animal hide or papyrus. The scrolls fall into three main categories: the Hebrew scriptures (especially Deuteronomy, Isaiah and the Psalms, with the only book not represented being Esther); “deuterocanonical” works known previously only in translations preserved by different Christian churches; and documents pertaining to the Qumran community itself.
Deism
Authors: Gomes Alan W. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Deism is a rationalistic, critical approach to theism with an emphasis on natural theology. The Deists attempted to reduce religion to what they regarded as its most foundational, rationally justifiable elements. Deism is not, strictly speaking, the teaching that God wound up the world like a watch and let it run on its own, though that teaching was embraced by some within the movement.
Descartes, René (1596–1650)
Authors: Ganssle Gregory E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
René Descartes was an influential French thinker who made contributions in mathematics, optics, physics, and especially, philosophy. He was educated in mathematics and physics at the Jesuit college of La Flèche. He left La Flèche in 1614 and in 1618 he met Isaac Beeckman, who kindled Descartes' interest in the sciences. He began to see mathematics as the key to unifying all knowledge. In 1633 he completed a work called The World but withdrew it from publication after hearing about Galileo's troubles with the church. In 1637 he published Discourse on Method. It was not until 1641 that his first wholly philosophical piece was published, Meditations on First Philosophy. He published this book with six sets of objections from various intellectual leaders and his replies. The objections and replies are five times the length of the original work. The Principles of Philosophy followed in 1644. Descartes accepted a job tutoring Queen Christina of Sweden. For this he had to get up at five in the morning. Soon he caught pneumonia and died in 1650.
Devotionalism and Devotional Literature
Authors: Pasquier Michael 
Published: January 2012

AbstractDevotionalism refers to formal and informal relationships between human beings and sacred figures, involving an assortment of prayers, rituals, and worship practices. Devotional literature is a common feature of devotionalism inasmuch as devotees imagine and describe their contact with gods, ancestors, spirits, saints, and other holy persons in written form. Such religious activities have proven essential to the development of religions throughout human history. World religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, and Islam direct their adherents to devote themselves to a variety of sacred entities, places, causes, and ideas. In all of these traditions, devotees seek to apply their knowledge of the sacred to their daily lives.
Dialectical or Crisis Theology
Authors: Hector Kevin W. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Dialectical theology arose early in the 20th century, in response to the liberalism then dominant in German theology. The so‐called theology of Krisis was ignited by an actual crisis, namely, the outbreak of World War I. Many young theologians and church leaders were appalled when Germany's leading theologians signed an open letter endorsing German war aims, and concluded that there was something fundamentally wrong with a theology that was incapable of standing against the popular cultural tide. Dialectical theologians traced the fundamental problem back to liberal theology's (alleged) anthropocentric starting point: as Karl Barth, one of the leading dialectical theologians, put it, liberals thought they could talk about God by talking about human beings in a loud voice, which meant that they were ultimately left empty‐handed when the time came to say “No” to a culture's self‐perception.
D
odd,
C
harles
H
arold (
C
.
H
.
D
odd) (1884–1973)
Authors: Smith Jay E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Charles Harold Dodd, a renowned British New Testament scholar of the 20th century, was born on April 7, 1884 at Wrexham, North Wales. He was ordained into the Congregational Church and held academic posts at Mansfield College, Oxford (1915–1930), University of Manchester (1930–1935), and Cambridge University (1935–1949). After his retirement in 1949, Dodd remained active as a lecturer, author, and as the General Director of the New Translation of the Bible — making him the driving force behind the New English Bible (NEB). He died on September 22, 1973.
Doukhobors
Authors: Parsons William H. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
This religious group originated in the 18th century in Russia as a protest against the Russian Orthodox Church and the Tsarist government. The name Doukhobors means “spirit wrestlers” in Russian and was used as a derogatory term by the Orthodox Church. They preached a “simple” Christianity, rejecting the authority of the priesthood and the government. They believed in communal values, advocated the equality of all men, and practiced non‐violence. They faced persecution in Russia, and later in Canada, the country to which many emigrated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
D
uccio di
B
uoninsegna (1255/60–1318)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Sienese painter. He is infused with the spirit and intensity of the Franciscan and Dominican revival. His first work was the Rucellai Madonna (Uffizi), the 14 foot high altarpiece commissioned by the Florentine church of Sta Maria Novella. But his masterpiece was the even larger Maesta painted between 1308 and 1311. It presented two faces: The front of the Panel represents the Madonna and the Child enthroned in majesty surrounded by the saints, while the back of the panel, 12 feet by 14 feet, has a number of smaller panels from the Passion. Originally there were saints and apostles in the small pinnacles but they have either disappeared or been dismembered. In the front panel four angels stand behind the throne tenderly gazing at the Madonna and the Child. Saints stand in a row with four kneeling at the front and there are more angels in rows behind them. The back of the altarpiece was clearly visible to the congregation. Its 14 panels tell the entire story of the Gospel of which 12 panels are divided into two, making 26 narratives in all. The story begins with Christ's triumphal entry into Jerusalem and successive panels show his arrest and trial, the Resurrection, and the Risen Christ appearing to Mary Magdalene. In the last panel the risen Christ appears incandescent with gold in the folds of his garment. The crowning panels in the front of the Maesta illustrate the life of the Virgin from the Annunciation to the Dormition and the predella tells the story of Christ's Nativity and his journey to the Temple. John White describes it as the “most important panel ever painted in Italy and certainly the most beautiful.” Other works attributed to him include the exquisite gemlike panel entitled Madonna of the Franciscans.
D
udley‐
S
mith,
T
imothy (b. 1926)
Authors: McElwain Randall D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
English hymnwriter, born in Manchester, England on December 26, 1926, Timothy Dudley‐Smith served as Archdeacon of Norwich and Bishop of Thetford in the Church of England until his retirement in 1991. He lives in Salisbury, England. Dudley‐Smith wrote more than 300 hymn texts between 1961 and 2001 and was awarded an Order of the British Empire for “services to hymnody” in 2003. In addition, he received widespread recognition for his two volume biography of John Stott, a leader in the 20th century evangelical Anglican movement.
D
ufay,
G
uillaume (1400–1474)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Franco‐Flemish composer, the most acclaimed musician of the 15th century. More than 200 of his works survive, including 84 songs, 90 motets and hymn settings, eight complete Masses, 13 isorhythmic motets, single Mass movements, and works in honor of the Virgin Mary. He is best known for his development of the cyclic Mass as a musical genre. His liturgical music helped to create the lyrical melodies of the Burgundian chanson. He is believed to have been a priest. Between 1428 and 1433 he sang at the papal court and had two patrons: Eugenius IV and Duke Amadeus VIII of Savoy.
D
urufle,
M
aurice (1902–1986)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
French organist and composer. After serving as an organist at Ste Clotilde and Notre Dame he was appointed organist at St. Etienne‐du‐Mont in 1930. His output was relatively small, and most of his works were for the church. In these he used chant and chant‐like melodies in harmonic and contrapuntal settings. His first major work for organ was Prelude, Adagio, and Chorale variations on the chant, Veni, Creator (1930). A second composition in three movements entitled Suite followed in 1934. Among his vocal works is the composition Requiem for Soloists, Choruses. Orchestra and Organ in 1948 which contains “Domine Jesu.” There are also four Latin motets for Gregorian melodies and a Mass entitled Messe “Cum Jubilo” which was designed for liturgical use.
Early Christian Beliefs and Traditions
Authors: Heintz Michael 
Published: January 2012

AbstractAn account of early Christian beliefs and traditions might usefully be arranged in terms of three interrelated aspects of Christian life in the first several centuries of the Common Era:kerygma(preaching and teaching),latreia(worship), andmartyria(martyrdom).Kerygmaexpresses conceptually the mystery experienced and made present inlatreiaand which is enacted most fully inmartyria.
Early Church Art and Architecture
Authors: Tucker J. Brian 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Until the 2nd century early church art and architecture were indistinguishable from the art and architecture of the broader Greco‐Roman culture. Thus, there was no discernible material identity for the Christ‐movement before this time. Artistic representations that may be classified as early church art and architecture began to appear around 180 and the first archaeologically identifiable church was in Dura‐Europos in Syria around 241–256. The earliest textual reference concerning early church art was by Clement of Alexandria (
Paed.
, 3.11). He employed symbols current in Greco‐Roman culture and redeployed their artistic resources for pedagogical purposes within the church (e.g. dove, anchor, boat, fish, fisherman, and lyre). Clement also indicated there were discussions concerning the usefulness of certain images and their impact on the Christian community (
Paed.
, 3.57–60).
Economics and Christianity
Authors: Cowan David 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe world today is dominated by a single economic system, namely the global market economy or capitalism. Contemporary civilization is at an economic stage where, as Michael Novak points out, “We are all capitalists now, even the pope. Both traditionalist and socialist methods have failed; for the whole world there is now only one form of economics” (1993: 101). In response, many theologians and ethicists argue that economic decisions cannot be taken strictly according to rationalist economic principles. A tension exists between an economic argument that the economy is value neutral and a moral argument that seeks economic justice. This is not new, since Christian reflection on economic matters is primarily a history of suspicion. Apart from the Bible, Christian economic thinking draws deep from the well of the earliest moral theorist Aristotle, though his economic reflections cover a scant few pages, and the economy he analyzed was of a quite different order.
EgyptianChristianity
Authors: Farag Lois 
Published: January 2012

AbstractEgyptian Christianity is also known as Alexandrian Christianity and Coptic Christianity: Alexandrian, because the city of Alexandria is the official seat of the Patriarchal See of the Egyptian Church; Coptic, because Egyptian Christians came to be called Copts after the Arab conquest of Egypt. Some scholars use these names interchangeably, while others assign Alexandrian Christianity to the Roman era (till 641) and Coptic Christianity to the post‐Roman era. Some use Egyptian Christianity to refer to the modern era, while others use any of the titles to include all eras. Here Egyptian Christianity is used to cover the whole history of Christianity in Egypt.
E
lizondo,
V
irgilio (
b
. 1935)
Authors: García Alberto L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born on August 28, 1935 in San Antonio, Texas to Mexican immigrant parents. Elizondo has distinguished himself as a priest, educator, and theologian. He is regarded as the father of US Hispanic theology. He has been recognized by Time Magazine as one of the spiritual innovators of the 21st century.
Ephesus, Council of (431)
Authors: Nixon John Ashley 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In the early part of the 5th century Nestorius of Constantinople questioned the church's traditional use of the title “Bearer of God” (Theotokos) for Mary, the mother of Jesus. He may have also described the incarnation as the joining together of God the Word and a human person so that two separate persons resided in Christ. The Bishop of Alexandria, Cyril, rebuked and sought to correct Nestorius' way of speaking and thinking about the incarnation. Cyril spoke of the Word of God, who prior to the incarnation possessed only a divine nature, but who by means of the incarnation took to himself possession of his own human nature. Whereas this description distinguished the two natures, it emphasized their true union. A bitter political and theological controversy ensued in which Nestorius accused Cyril of teaching Apollinarianism and Cyril charged Nestorius with teaching an extreme form of Antiochene theology.
E
phrem the
S
yrian,
S
aint (
c
.306–c.373)
Authors: Amar Joseph P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Ephrem is the most celebrated writer in all of the Syriac‐speaking Christian tradition and the most eloquent representative of Christianity expressed in its native Semitic milieu. Until around 363, he was active in Nisibis, on the eastern border of the Roman Empire; thereafter he worked in Edessa, also in Mesopotamia. He wrote in Syriac, the local Aramaic dialect, which at an early date had been adopted as the main literary language of Aramaic‐speaking Christianity throughout the region.
Episcopacy
Authors: Fatokun Samson Adetunji 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The word episcopacy has its root in the Greek word
episkopos
(variously translated bishop, overseer, and superintendent). It refers to a system of church government by bishops, commonly believed to be the continuation of the institution of the Apostolate by Christ. The office of bishop is the highest of the “threefold order of ministry” (namely orders of deacon, priest, and bishop) in the Christian church. There was at first no clear difference between the office of elder and that of bishop. In the apostolic age, the term was used interchangeably with elder (Greek
presbuteros
). While in the Jerusalem church the office of elder ranked highest after that of apostle, in Gentile Christian communities the word bishop was substituted for elder. The elders of Ephesus were equally referred to as bishops (Acts 20: 17–28). In later times, the term
episkopos
(bishop) was restricted to the presiding elder of a church and was considered to denote a separate order higher than that of elder. The office of bishop became restrictedly used of the overall administrative head or a presiding elder of a group of local churches in a particular geographical locality. The first indication of this administrative office as a distinct order of clergy was found in the Epistles of St. Ignatius, bishop of the church of Syrian Antioch, in about
ad
115, on his way to martyrdom in Rome, through which he solicited for the obedience and loyalty of the churches of Magnesia, Tralles, Philadelphia, Smyrna, and so on, to their different bishops — who were known as monarchical bishops. This system of government (that is, ruling of the church by one bishop) is called “monarchical episcopacy.” The duties of monarchical bishops included exposition and protection of church beliefs against heresy, feeding of the flock with undiluted word, discipline of erring clergy and laity under his jurisdiction, protecting and counseling the church in times of persecution, promoting good relations among churches, overseeing the general welfare of the members, administration of sacraments, commissioning and ordination of church officers, and so on.
Eusebius Pamphili (c.265–c.339)
Authors: Thompson Glen L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Eusebius studied at, and later became bishop of, Caesarea Maritima (Palestine) a half‐century after the famous bible scholar Origen had worked there. Eusebius took the additional name Pamphili (“son of Pamphilus”) in honor of his teacher, with whom he co‐authored a
Defense of Origen.
Making use of the outstanding library of Pamphilus, Eusebius committed himself to elucidating the historical context of Scripture.
Euthanasia
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Christian church in all its branches has been opposed to suicide and assisted suicide. Every instance of suicide in Holy Scripture is related to spiritual collapse, from Saul to Judas (1 Sam. 31:4; 2 Sam. 17:23; 1 Kings 16:18–20; Matt. 27:5; Acts 1:18).
Evil
Authors: Jones Clay Butler 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Just as dark is defined in regard to the absence of light, so in Christian thought evil has often been defined as the absence of good, or, to use Augustine's (354–430) words, as the privation of good (
privatio boni
). Evil is what ought not to be, for evil is, at best, unpleasant, and at its worst, harmful or deadly (as in cancer or murder). Historically, in Christian thought evil has been referred to in two ways, as moral evil (for example, lust, lying, rape, and murder), and as natural evil (for example, tsunamis, earthquakes, measles, and cancer). Further, many Christians consider that all natural evil results from moral evil — primarily the moral evils committed by Satan's rebellion and those committed by earth's first inhabitants, Adam and Eve. When Adam and Eve rebelled and ate from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, they plunged their descendants into a lifelong education of good and evil. God punished their disobedience by cursing the ground, increasing the pain of childbirth, and removing them from the Garden of Eden, which also removed them from the rejuvenating power of the Tree of Life (Gen. 3). Natural evil thus followed moral evil.
Exclusivism
Authors: Wilson William Renay 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Strictly defined, exclusivism is the insistence that one perspective is uniquely true while conflicting perspectives are necessarily false. In Christian theological discourse, exclusivism asserts the unique truthfulness of Christianity and the categorical falsity of dissenting religious viewpoints. More specifically, such exclusivism contends that individual salvation is only obtained through a conscious personal faith in Jesus Christ.