bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Information, Physics, and Computation
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis book presents a unified approach to a rich and rapidly evolving research domain at the interface between statistical physics, theoretical computer science/discrete mathematics, and coding/information theory. The topics which have been selected, including spin glasses, error correcting codes, satisfiability, are central to each field. The approach focuses on the limit of large random instances, adopting a common formulation in terms of graphical models. It presents message passing algorithms like belief propagation and survey propagation, and their use in decoding and constraint satisfaction solving. It also explains analysis techniques like density evolution and the cavity method, and uses them to derive phase diagrams and study phase transitions.
Introduction to combinatorial optimization
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter provides an elementary introduction to some basic concepts in theoretical computer science. It includes basic notions of graph theory and an informal introduction to computational complexity, presenting the basic classes P, NP, and NP-complete. These notions are illustrated by discussions of the minimal spanning tree and satisfiability problems, and by applications from statistical physics (spin glasses and maximum cuts), and from coding theory (decoding complexity).
The random code ensemble
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter studies the simplest error correcting code ensemble, introduced by Shannon, in which codewords are independent random points on the hypercube. This code achieves optimal error correcting performances, and offers a constructive proof of the ‘direct’ part of the channel coding theorem: it is possible to communicate with vanishing error probability as long as the communication rate is smaller than the channel capacity. It is also very closely related to the Random Energy Model.
Introduction to replica theory
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn the past twenty-five years, the replica method has evolved into a rather sophisticated tool for attacking theoretical problems as diverse as spin glasses, protein folding, vortices in superconductors, combinatorial optimization, etc. Although it is not be the main tool of this book, it is nevertheless instructive to have some knowledge of replicas: the replica method is a non-trivial construction which is surprisingly powerful. Several of its most important predictions have been confirmed rigorously through alternative approaches. This chapter gives a compact account of the replica method. It describes the close connection between replica symmetry breaking and the Poisson–Dirichlet process, and it emphasizes the role played by ‘overlaps’ between replicas.
Spin glasses
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes random magnetic systems, ‘spin glasses’, by special random ensembles of factor graphs. It also studies the glass phase, characterized by a freezing of the spins, in the framework of equilibrium statistical physics. It describes the two types of spin glass phase transitions that have been encountered in mean field models, and introduces the relevant order parameters to describe them based on the notion of overlap. Special attention is given to the concept of frustration — a basic ingredient of spin glasses — which is discussed in conjunction with gauge transformations.
Decoding with belief propagation
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter revisits the problem of decoding low density parity check (LDPC) codes. The maximum a posteriori probability (MAP) decoding of a bit is described as a statistical inference problem, and belief propagation is applied to its solution. The corresponding message passing procedure is analyzed in details, and the threshold noise level below which this ‘iterative decoding’ achieves perfect decoding is derived. The chapter ends with a general discussion of the relation between message passing and optimal (exact symbol MAP) decoding.
Ising models on random graph
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter studies two problems of statistical physics: the ferromagnet and the spin glass, on large random graphs with fixed degree profile. It describes the use of the replica symmetric cavity method in this context, and studies its stability. The analysis relies on physicists methods, without any attempt at being rigorous. It provides a complete solution of the ferromagnetic problem at all temperatures. In the spin glass case, the replica symmetric solution is asymptotically correct in the high temperature ‘paramagnetic’ phase, but it turns out to be wrong in the spin glass phase. The phase transition temperature can be computed exactly.
Random K-satisfiability
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter studies an ensemble of random satisfiability problems, ‘random K-satisfiability’ (K-SAT). Applying the 1RSB cavity method, it first derives the phase diagram in the limit of large N, in particular the location of the SAT-UNSAT threshold. Within the SAT phase, the chapter focuses on the intermediate clustered phase close, and computes the number of clusters to leading exponential order in N. The application of survey propagation to this problem is then described. Combined with a simple decimation procedure, the chapter provides an efficient method for finding satisfiable assignments in the clustered phase. The whole chapter is based on heuristic arguments. There is not yet any rigorous proof of the results presented, neither concerning the phase diagram, nor the convergence properties of message passing algorithms and their use in decimation procedures.
Glassy states in coding theory
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn the limit of large block-length, iteratively decoded low density parity check (LDPC) codes exhibit two phase transitions. At low noise, the bit error rate under belief propagation decoding vanishes. In a second regime belief propagation decoding fails but maximum a posteriori probability (MAP) decoding succeeds. Finally above a second noise threshold decoding is impossible even with unbounded computational power. This chapter develops a common approach to these two transitions, through the study of ‘metastable’ configurations of the bits that are not codewords. It identifies the belief propagation phase transition with the onset of a dynamical glass phase, detected through the one step replica symmetry breaking approach. This is a structural phenomenon that spoils the performance of a large variety of decoders, from general iterative message passing schemes to simulated annealing.
Life course approaches to socioeconomic differentials in health
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter considers how influences acting at different stages of life course contribute to the social distribution of risk factors that help determine socioeconomic differences in health. Evidence suggests a strong case for the contribution of socioeconomic conditions at different stages of the life course to health differentials in adulthood. However, the specific weights of the contribution of early and later life socioeconomic conditions differ according to the outcome, time period, and population being studied. For cardiovascular diseases, poor socioeconomic conditions in early life appear to make a significant contribution to disease risk in adult life independent of, and through influences on, adult risk factors. There is also growing evidence that the effect of early life socioeconomic conditions may depend on interactions with other risk factors in later life.
Ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease mortality trends with special reference to England and Wales; are there cohort effects?
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
It is widely believed that trends in ischemic heart disease (IHD) death rates in many countries have risen to a synchronized peak at every age and then declined. This has been taken as evidence that the factors responsible for the rise and fall in rates have acted in adult life. It has also been taken as evidence against the important influence of early life factors on the incidence of disease. The argument is that early life factors would produce cohort effects, that is, changes in the rates that were synchronized according to year of birth rather than year of death. This chapter examines trends in IHD rates in England and Wales to assess whether this popular belief is true. It also analyzes cerebrovascular disease rates in England and Wales.
A life course approach to respiratory and allergic diseases
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter examines the independent and combined effects of perinatal or childhood exposures and adult lifestyle on the development of both allergic and non-allergic lung disease. Topics discussed include the development of ventilary function, effects of childhood chest illness on lung function and respiratory disease, allergic sensitization, and later influences on adult respiratory disease. It also reviews trends in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, and allergy.
Should we intervene to improve fetal and infant growth?
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter examines the potential impact that interventions in pregnancy and early childhood may have on diseases in adult life. It begins by reviewing current literature with regard to the efficacy of interventions for improving fetal growth. It describes the possible unintended effects that such may have on the mother and infant. Findings from the Hertfordshire (UK) studies and more recent studies from Finland are then used to estimate the magnitude of coronary heart disease that could be prevented by improving fetal growth.
A world ravaged by a disease without HAART
Authors: Zuniga José M. , Ghaziani Amin 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter begins with a recollection of the early days of HIV and AIDS, prior to the advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). It chronicles the so-called ‘dark ages’ of HIV/AIDS treatment, which focused on the treatment of patients with chemical agents already in use. It describes the advent and evolution of HAART and its extension of and enhancement of life with HIV.
Turning the world on its ear: defining milestones on the road to HAART
Authors: Kazatchkine Michel D. , Fransen Lieve 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter looks back at some of the milestones on the road to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in the developed and developing world, recognizing the remarkable progress that has been achieved. It also acknowledges that the accumulated short-term experience may be neither sufficient nor appropriate when facing the long-term challenges raised by the epidemic, and the need for effective large-scale access to prevention, treatment, and care for all those in need worldwide.
Country review: United States of America
Authors: Sherer Renslow 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter considers selected aspects of the first decade of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in the United States. It begins with a review of the epidemiology and the scientific understanding of the pathogenesis of HIV disease in 1994. It then considers the societal impact of AIDS and the role of community activists, and turns to the state of treatment in 1994 and the early HAART era that followed, with emphasis on rapid access to treatment and early lessons with treatment adherence and toxicity. To better describe the impact of HAART at the local level, the chapter considers this era in Chicago with an emphasis on the public sector. It examines the issues that emerged in the early HAART era — particularly adherence, treatment toxicity, and drug resistance — that have greatly influenced trends in treatment outcomes. The chapter concludes with some observations for the coming decade of HIV/AIDS in the United States.
EuroSIDA: a prospective observational study of chronic HIV infection across the European continent
Authors: Lundgren Jens D. , Kirk Ole , Mocroft Amanda 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter reviews the EurSIDA. The EuroSIDA study was initiated in 1994 to study the clinical implications of the HIV epidemic in Europe and provide a continued surveillance mechanism for detection of emerging problems at a European level. The study's primary objective remains to prospectively study demographic, clinical, therapeutic, virologic, and laboratory data from those infected with HIV across Europe in order to determine the long-term virologic, immunologic, and clinical outcomes.
The Swiss HIV Cohort Study (SHCS)
Authors: Günthard Huldrych F. , Hirschel Bernard 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter reviews the Swiss HIV Cohort Study (SHCS). The SHCS is an ongoing multi-centre research project dealing with HIV-infected adults aged sixteen years or older. Established in 1988, the SHCS adopted its present structure and mode of operation in 1995: separation between infrastructure and research budgets; performance-based remuneration towards infrastructure allocated to each centre; implementation of a quality control programme; and research targeting specific focus areas.
The HIV Netherlands-Australia-Thailand research collaboration (HIV-NAT)
Authors: Ruxrungtham Kiat 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter reviews the HIV Netherlands-Australia-Thailand Research Collaboration (HIV-NAT). HIV-NAT is an HIV-related clinical trials research centre under the aegis of the Thai Red Cross AIDS Research Centre (TRC-ARC). It was established in 1996 by collaboration between three organizations: the Thai Red Cross AIDS Research Centre in Bangkok; the National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research (NCHECR) in Sydney; and the International Antiviral Therapy Evaluation Centre (IATEC) in Amsterdam. The main missions of HIV-NAT are to conduct clinical trials of antiretroviral drugs according to the International Conference on Harmonisation/WHO Good Clinical Practice (ICH GCP) standards and to address research questions that are relevant and have a high impact on developing countries.
Country review: Malawi
Authors: Schouten Erik J. , Makombe Simon D. , Harries Anthony D. , Kamoto Kelita 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter describes the epidemiological characteristics of HIV infection in Malawi. It then presents the antiretroviral therapy (ART) scale-up programme and analyses the reasons why the country was able to achieve a good degree of success and to discuss challenges of the programme.
Closing the gap in the next decade of HAART: one world, one standard
Authors: Piot Peter , Fleet Julian , Dube Siddharth 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter presents a vision of the outcomes that must be achieved in the next decade of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). It argues that the massive efforts and investments needed to achieve these outcomes are justified by the present and future threat posed by AIDS, and that these outcomes are feasible, as demonstrated by the equally unprecedented advances made in the first decade of HAART. It recommends strategies to help ensure that these vital outcomes are realized in the decade ahead.
Simple Models of the Casimir Effect
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses several basic ideas and methods related to the calculation of the Casimir energies and forces using some simple models. The simplicity of these models means that cumbersome mathematical calculations can be avoided and they demonstrate the basic problems that will be repeatedly considered in the following chapters in a more sophisticated context. Important procedures such as regularization and renormalization of infinite quantities are illustrated, both physically and mathematically. Despite the elementary character of the chapter, the main physical situations where the Casimir effect arises (i.e., in regions with boundaries and in spaces with nontrivial topology) are discussed. Local and global approaches to the Casimir effect, and well-known formulas for the electromagnetic Casimir pressure and energy per unit area between two parallel ideal-metal planes are derived.
Field Quantization and Vacuum Energy in the Presence of Boundaries
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractFrom the standpoint of quantum field theory, the Casimir effect is related to the vacuum polarization that arises in quantization volumes restricted by boundaries or in spaces with nontrivial topology. Both boundaries and the nontrivial topology of space-time can be considered as classical external conditions, on which background the field quantization should be performed. This chapter presents the basic facts related to the quantization procedure for fields of various spins obeying boundary (or identification) conditions. It starts with the classical wave equations and then considers various boundary conditions. The rest of the chapter is devoted to both the canonical and path-integral field quantization procedures in the presence of boundaries and to different representations for the vacuum energy. Propagators with boundary conditions are also introduced. Although fields of different spin are touched upon, the presentation is primarily devoted to the case of the electromagnetic field in the presence of material boundaries.
The Casimir Effect at Nonzero Temperature
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter considers Casimir energy not in the vacuum state of a quantum field in the presence of boundaries but in a state containing real particles in thermal equilibrium. In fact, an ensemble of states characterized by a temperature T and a probability distribution is considered. In quantum field theory there exist several methods to treat a system at nonzero temperature. The easiest and most frequently used method is the imaginary-time Matsubara formalism. It is applied to find a general finite expression for Casimir free energy. Asymptotic expressions for the Casimir free energy are obtained in the cases of low and high temperature. The coefficients of the high-temperature expansion are expressed in terms of the heat kernel coefficients.
The Casimir Effect in Rectangular Boxes
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter demonstrates that the Casimir force inside a rectangular box can be both attractive and repulsive. A detailed investigation of the Casimir energy and force for fields of various spins, when it may be positive or negative, as a function of the box dimensions and the type of boundary conditions is performed. In particular, the analytical results for two- and three-dimensional boxes are obtained by repeated application of the Abel–Plana formula and using the Epstein zeta function. The problem of isolation of the divergent terms in the vacuum energy and their interpretation is discussed in connection with the problem of a rectangular box divided into two sections by a movable partition (piston). Both the old classical results and recent results related to boxes with a piston at zero and nonzero temperatures are presented. As shown in the chapter, the two sets of results are in mutual agreement.
Spaces With Non-Euclidean Topology
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents a brief review of the Casimir effect in spaces with nontrivial topology (both flat and curved). As an important application of the numerous results obtained in this field, the vacuum energy-momentum tensor due to the Casimir effect in the closed Friedmann model is considered. A related subject is the role of the Casimir effect in multidimensional Kaluza–Klein theories, where it provides one of the mechanisms for compactification of extra spatial dimensions. This is also reflected in the chapter, which is concluded with a brief discussion of the Casimir effect for topological defects, such as cosmic strings and domain walls. This problem is of interest for cosmology because some grand unification theories predict the formation of such defects in the early Universe.
The Casimir Force Between Rough Surfaces and Corrugated Surfaces
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter considers the Casimir force, including the effect of surface roughness, emphasizing those approaches that can be used for comparison between experiment and theory. Thus, the method of pairwise summation allows for the calculation of roughness corrections for large scale roughness. The method of geometrical averaging, based on the proximity force approximation, is discussed in connection with the limits of its validity. The relationship between these phenomenological methods is investigated with the example of two nonparallel plates. The more fundamental approaches suggested in the literature, which are needed for the description of short-scale roughness, are presented. At the end of the chapter various approaches to the theoretical description of both the normal and the lateral Casimir force between sinusoidally corrugated surfaces are examined. The influence of sinusoidal corrugations on atom-wall interactions is also considered.
General Requirements for Casimir Force Measurements
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractGiven that the Casimir force is very small and has a strong dependence on the separation distance and on the geometrical and material properties of the boundary surfaces, the measurement of this force is a challenging task. This chapter briefly considers older measurements of the Casimir force and formulates the general experimental requirements and best practices which follow from these measurements. Next, rigorous procedures for comparison of experiment with theory in relation to the force-distance measurements are discussed. Specifically, the presentation of the experimental errors and precision and the theoretical uncertainties for real materials are elaborated on. The statistical framework for the comparison between experiment and theory is also discussed. The concepts introduced in the chapter are used in Chapters 19–25, where the main experiments on the measurement of the Casimir force are considered.
Measurements of the Casimir Force in Configurations with Corrugated Boundaries
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractConfigurations with corrugated boundaries present opportunities for the observation of a new phenomenon, the lateral Casimir force. This chapter considers the results of three experiments performed to date, where the Casimir force due to corrugated boundaries has been measured. In the first experiment, the normal Casimir force between a sinusoidally corrugated plate and a smooth sphere was measured. The second experiment demonstrated for the first time the phenomenon of the lateral Casimir force in the sphere-plate configuration, where both bodies were covered with uniaxial sinusoidal corrugations. In the third experiment, the normal Casimir force between a plate with rectangular corrugations and a smooth sphere was measured. The corresponding theoretical approaches are also considered, and the possibility to control the lateral Casimir force by use of uniaxial corrugations of arbitrary shape is discussed.