bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Role of Petroleum In a Changing Energy Scene
Authors: Stabback J.G. , Vollman K.W. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
Prior to the 1920"s, oil and gas were an insignificant part of the Canadian energy supply. During the last fifty years, their use has increased at dramatic rates and today they make up two-thirds of our annual energy consumption. The convenience, low price and plentiful supply of oil and gas undoubtedly have made them the most essential components of our affluent industrial state.
Recent events in this country and offshore, related to the price and security of future petroleum supplies, have prompted an obvious concern among governments, academic communities and the country at large. There is it clear need for a reassessment of our future petroleum supplies and our dependence on that resource. This paper examines that dependence and the future outlook for petroleum availability. To round out the treatment, alternative energy sources are briefly discussed.

INTRODUCTION
"ON THIS CONTINENT, we have less than 15 years of proven oil production in sight; (and) our known re- serves of natural gas, which have been declining in relation to consumption, now amount to less· than 25 years" supply."
Although the words of that quotation have little contemporary shock value, you may be surprised to learn that they were printed nearly twenty years ago in a Royal Commission study on Canadian Energy Prospects, "How little things have changed". is the conclusion one is tempted to make. However, change cannot be gauged so easily. A variety of historical data have been collected for this paper to show the many aspects of petroleum"s changing role in the energy scene. The statistics are interesting, but; more importantly, they provide an understanding of the past, which is a prerequisite for planning the future.

Historical Use of Energy in Canada
Average annual energy consumption in Canada for the past fifty years is shown in Figure 1. The units are trillions of Btu"s per year. A fifty-year study period has been selected for the following reasons:it encompasses the emergence of" petroleum as a major energy source;it includes periods of varying economic growth and the major upheaval of a world war; andreasonably reliable statistics are available for the entire period.
The data shown have been compiled from several sources and it was not always possible to determine the assumptions used by the original authors. As a result, there may be minor discrepancies in some of the values, but the accuracy is high enough to make the trends meaningful. In order to compare hydro and nuclear power with electricity generated from fossil fuels, primary consumption from hydro and nuclear sources has been consumption on the basis of 1 kilowatt hour = 10,000 Btu's.
In the late twenties, coal was our major energy source, supplying about two-thirds of the total primary energy requirements. Petroleum met only 10 per cent.
Compressibility of Natural Gases
Authors: Mattar L. , Brar G.S. , Aziz K. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
A new correlation for the compressibility of sweet and sour natural gases ispresented. This correlation is derived from an equation of state whichadequately represents the Standing-Katz Z-Factor chart. The algebraicexpression for compressibility presented here is suitable for computercalculations. A FORTRAN subroutine to perform this computation is alsopresented, along with a graphical form of the correlation.

INTRODUCTION
IN THE PRESSURE ANALYSIS of transient or pseudo-steady-state flow Dataacquired during gas well testing, a knowledge of the variation of fluidcompressibility with pressure and temperature is essential. For liquid flow, the compressibility is small and is usually assumed to be constant. For gasflow, the compressibility is neither valid nor necessary of a real gas can becomputed readily.
Trube (1957) has presented graphs from which the compressibility of natural gases may be obtained. This correlation is, however, difficult to usein a computer program. Recent developments have made possible a more consistentand convenient approach.
The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to present An analytical technique forcalculating the compressibility of natural gases. The procedure may be readilycomputerized and was used to generate curves of pseudo-reduced compressibility, which are useful for manual calculations.

Theory
(Equation in full paper)

Graphical Presentation
The computer subroutines mentioned above were used to generate cr as a function of Pr and Tr. Figure 1 is aplot of c r versus pr for various values of Tr. In this figure, the curves are too close together for easy andunambiguous reading. In order to increase the separation of the isotherms, especially for the low-pr range, c r T r wasgenerated and plotted versus Pr for various values of Tr as shown in Figures 2 and 3. The separation between the isothermsin these figures is sufficient to make them easy to read and hence suitable forreasonably accurate manual calculations of compressibility.

Sour Gases
The correlation developed for c r in terms of (aZapr) and the graphical representation of cr Trare applicable to sour as well as sweet natural gases. A simple method has beendeveloped by Wichert and Aziz (1972) to account for the presence of H.S and CO2 in the use of the Standing-Katz Z-Factor chart. Inthis method, the pseudo-critical properties of a sour gas are adjusted togive:
(Equation in full paper)
The calculation procedures are then exactly the same as discussed previously, except that T12 and p1c must beused instead of T2 and po respectively.

Discussion
Figure 4 compares some of the isotherms for reduced compressibilitydeveloped by Trube (1957) with corresponding isotherms from Figure 1 Thedifference between the two methods is no doubt due to the different techniquesutilized to obtain Z and (aZ/a2r)Tr.
Trube used the Standing-Katz Z-Factor chart re- produced by Brown et al.(1948, p.38) to obtain values of Z and (aZ/apr)substituted thesevalues into Equation (4), and calculated c, as a function of pr and Tr.
An Update On Pumping Unit Sizing As Recommended By API-RP-11L
Authors: Griffin F.D. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
With well over 250 case histories in the form of dynamometer cards taken all over the world in the last decade, it now seems appropriate to review the API recommended method of sizing a pumping unit and compare it with older methods used in the past. The dynamometer cards taken covered a wide range of well conditions and included numerous combinations of gear box sizes and polished rod strokes.
The API recommended practice, API-RP-11L, was first published in March of 1967 and in the more than eight years since its inception has come to be the accepted method of sizing pumping units throughout the industry. However, just how close do the calculations for sizing agreeith measured results?
The gear box torque analysis and the peak and mini-mum polished rod loads taken from each dynamometer card are compared with these same values as computed by the API method as well as the old conventional (Mills) method. Calculations are made for the identical well conditions as shown on each dynamometer card, and deviations between measured and calculated results are plotted and analyzed.

Introduction
The energy crisis now confronting the free world has made the selection and operation of all oilfield production equipment very critical. This is certainly true of oilfield pumping units. Thus, it is imperative that we size a pumping unit to well conditions just as accurately as we know how. It is equally important that we operate the unit within its rating if we are to avoid costly downtime due to breakdowns, This means checking the loading on the equipment periodically and making corrections (if indicated) in counterbalance, polished rod stroke or pumping speed.
It has been more than eight year (March, 1967, to be exact) since the API published its first recommende4 practice for sizing oilfield pumping units. It was designated as API-RP-11L and, in the eight years following its publication, it has come to be an acceptedractice by the industry as a basis for sizing pumping units.
Just how good is the API method of sizing units? What percentage error can we expect? How does it compare with the older conventional (Mills) method f sizing units ?
In an attempt to answer these and other questions concerning sucker rod pumping, 250 dynamometer cards accumulated by Lufkin over the last thirteen years were examined. Dynamometer cards are, of course, nothing more than a continuous plot of polished rod versus polished rod displacement for one stroke of the pumping cycle. The 250 dynamometer cards were taken on wells covering a wide range of conditions and in locations all over the world. Dynamometer cards which revealed obvious well abnormalities were thrown out, All others were included, Of the 250 wells examined, 124 were equipped with conventional crank-balanced nits, 109 were equipped with Mark II units and 17 were equipped with air balanced units. (A tabulation of the measured conditions and calculated predictions for each of these 250 cases is included at the end of this paper.)
Behaviour of Crude Oil Under Fresh-Water Ice
Authors: Chen E.C. , Keevil B.E. , Ramseier R.O. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
Experiments were carried out in a cold room at −15 °C to investigate the behaviour of Norman Wells crude oil under fresh water ice. The crude, when injected in water under the ice, separates into droplets and rises to the ice-water interface, where the oil droplets coalesce to form a slick. The spreading of oil under ice is complicated by the coalescence of oil drops at the ice-water interface, and the spreading process is found to be different from that of oil on water or on ice. If sufficient turbulence exists in the water, both oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsions are formed. An oil lens sandwiched between the ice acts as an insulating layer and thus increases the temperatures drop cross the ice.

Introduction
The discovery of oil in commercial quantities in Northern Canada could lead to the construction of oil pipelines to the southern markets. Such pipelines would cross many rivers and streams that are subjected to ice conditions of varying seasonal length. It is conceivable that oil spills under ice-covered rivers may result from such pipeline crossings, The spills can be large, such as those caused by a major pipeline fracture, or they can be small, such as those developing through holes of a few centimeters diameter in the pipe. In addition, accidents involving oil tankers, storage tanks and tank trucks may also result in oil spills in ice-covered rivers.
Although results on oil pollution research are published in an increasing number, available information on the behaviour of oil spilled under ice is limited. The only systematic study reported in the literature is by Wolf and Hoult(1). They investigated the effects of crude and diesel oils on the porous substructure of Arctic sea ice and found that the oil, when injected under the ice, was pocketed below the ice surface. They also reported that as freezing continued, more ice formed beneath the oil and that the oil acted as an insulating layer impeding the flow of heat- However, in order to assess the effect of an oil spill under ice-covered rivers and to help in developing clean-up techniques for such an oil spill, more must be understood about the behaviour of oil under ice, The present work investigates the behaviour of crude oil under fresh-water ice, Parts of the work were presented at the 1975 Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Pollution(2).

Experimental
A circular aluminum basin, 150 cm in diameter and 70 cm deep was installed in a cold room where the temperature was maintained at −15 ±2 °C. Heating tapes were glued to the outside of the tank and covered with 10 cm of polystyrene insulation. The heating tapes were connected to variacs set at very low power to cancel out the bottom and side heat losses. This arrangement resulted in one-dimensional freezing in the basin, A stirrer was mounted on the side of the basin and a circular boom installed to prevent the oil from rising up the tank walls.
A Provincial Resource Development Research Policy
Authors: Flock Donald L. 
Published: March 2010

Introduction
On december 6, 1973, the Prime Minister of Canada, during a debate on the energy crisis, said: "We must consider the national action and the national commitment that will be required in achieving the capacity for (energy) self sufficiency which is our objective." Whatever self sufficiency the Prime Minister is referring to, it can be attained only at high cost, high risk and with a concerted effort on the part of all the people of Canada. What is the provincial commitment to assist in reaching this goal? In order to develop self sufficiency in energy we must first have the natural resources. Secondly, we must have the technological capability and the knowledge to manage and develop these resources.Thirdly, we must have the physical ability, manpower and time to install such production facilities as may be necessary to make self sufficiency in energy a fact of life. Finally, it must be clearly recognized that there is an adequate monetary incentive and suitable availability of the capital required to accomplish this major task. Although there are many sources of nergy in Canada(1), from a provincial point of view those with which we are most concerned are oil natural gas and coal. In Alberta, we are blessed with an abundance of these three resources, however, only a very small portion of the Alberta oil sands and coal resources are commercially accessible to surface mining techniques. It is quite apparent that some in-situ technological breakthrough will be required, which will mean a concerted research effort at the provincial level. It is the purpose of this paper to present certain concepts and recommendations for a coordinated provincial resource development research policy for the Province of Alberta. It should be mentioned that "research", as utilized in thispaper, covers basic and applied research and development.

Petroleum
In an address to the 10th Commonwealth Mining and Metallurgical Congress in Ottawa on September 3. 1974, dealing with the "Energy for Tomorrow and Beyond", A. E. Pallister(2) relates the potential domestic demand for future oil to the domestic supply. Sources of supply are from (1) present reserves, including- enhanced recovery, (2) new discoveries in the Western Provinces, (3) oil sands (by mining), (4) oil ands (in situ), (5) Atlantic and Eastern off-shore, and(6) The Western Arctic and the Eastern Arctic. It may be noted that his estimate assumes that by the year 1985, part of this domestic demand will be met by an approximate 350,000 barrels per day of production from mining operations in oil sands and roughly150,000 barrels per day of production by in-situ recovery operations. To obtain 350,000 barrels per day by mining requires the equivalent of almost two Syncrudes and the existing Great Canadian Oil Sands operation. e have yet to have a full-scale project which would even beginto meet a part of the 150,000 barrels per day ascribed to in-situ techniques. One must question whether or not such quantities of oil from the tar sands of Alberta can be obtained by 1985.
Predicting the Price of Oil In Canada
Authors: Godsoe Gerald 
Published: March 2010

Introduction
When our recent economic history has been definitively written, the price of oil may well prove to havebeen the dominant factor not only in energy developments, but in world economics as a whole. The price of oil has been a major determinant of the rate of growth of industrial and lion-industrial nations, the timing of our recessions and their depth, and the distribution of economic power between nations, and therefore it has directly affected the exercise of political power.
The future price of oil will be a pertinent factor in every sector of our industrial economy. The tremendous success of industrialization has largely depended on cheap energy. As our food becomes more and more processed and the agricultural industry more efficient, a higher and higher energy content is represented by what we put on our tables.
Because it is such a basic factor, this article proposes to comment on the future price of oil.

The Pricing of Oil
To assess where the price of oil will go in the next few years, you must know how it is determined. In Canada our price is set by the Federal Government once or twice a year and this has been the case since January, 1974. The world increase in oil price was from $3 to $10 over a four-month period at the end of 1973. For Canadian consumers, a cross subsidy has kept the increase much more gradual.
There is no doubt that eventually we too will be paying the international price of oil This is part of the current Canadian oil policy and a quick look at our decreasing exports of oil and increasing imports will show that the Federal Government cannot finance the oil subsidy for more than the next few years.
Not only will we have to pay each future increase in international oil price as it comes along, but the gap between international price and our own price in Canada will close at a fairly rapid rate.
For example, the Canadian price was frozen at a new level in July, 1975 for twelve months. During that period, in October, 1975, OPEC increased the international price by $1.05. The Canadian price was then increased by $1.05 in July, 1976 to incorporate the OPEC increase. Finally, the Canadian price will increase again by $0.70 in January, 1977. The Canadian subsidy, the gap between our cost and the international price, is thereby reduced by about 40%, from $4.60 to $2,65 (see Fig. 1).
The first factor to evaluate is the international price of oil and how that is set by OPEC.
The price of oil has long been of strategic concern to governments. Ever since oil substantially supplanted coal as a prime energy source, governments have shown a proclivity to interfere with its price.
Importance of Reservoir Description In Evaluating In-Situ Recovery Methods For Cold Lake Heavy Oil
Authors: Kendall G.H. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
The huge reserves of heavy oil in Alberta are found in a Variety of complex reservoir. Recovery, excluding mining, will require application of some form of in-situ method, primarily in the better reservoir. The proper selection of an in-situ method, applicable to the various reservoir type, requires a basic understanding of reservoir description, and the engineering aspect of the reservoirs. In Part 1 of this paper, reservoir description in the Cold Lake heavy oil deposits is discussed under three headings:rock properties;fluid saturation; andreservoir geometry.
Based on these parameters, five selected reservoir types are discussed and compared.
Part 2 considers the application of the reservoir description in evaluating in-situ methods. The significance of the reservoir parameters is discussed in general terms and related to the four most important in-situ recovery mechanism: steam stimulation, steam drive, combustion and solvent. The reservoir description is then used as the basis of comparison of the recovery mechanisms for each of the five Cold Lake reservoir types described in Part 1.

Introduction
OVER 900 BILLION BARRELS (143 × 109 m3) of heavy oil, known as the Alberta oil sands deposits, are found in a variety of complex reservoirs in sands of Lower Cretaceous age. Knowledge of the presence of these resources may be very comforting in these times of concern over Canada's future energy supplies. However, this oil is only of value if, and when, it can be recovered from the reservoirs.
Recovery has started in the Athabasca area where oil is being extracted from the reservoir by 'surface mining methods. Great Canadian Oil Sands Ltd. has a mine and an upgrading plant in operation and Syncrude Canada Ltd. has the second extraction facility under construction. Mining methods, however, are applicable to but a small portion of the Athabasca areas and these methods may yield, as currently estimated, 38 billion barrels (6 × 109 m3) or 4% of the total oil in place in the deposits*. The remainder of the oil in place outside of the mineable area of Athabasca, the heavy oil deposits in the Cold Lake area and the other oil sands deposits will have to be extracted by in-situ recovery techniques.
In-situ recovery processes basically consist of increasing the mobility of the oil and then driving the fluids to a production well. The successful application of any of these techniques depends on a profound knowledge of the characteristics of the reservoir. Part 1 of this paper discusses the nature of the oil sands in terms of rock properties, fluid saturations and reservoir geometry. Based on these parameters, five selected reservoir types in the Cold Lake area are identified and compared. In Part 2, those parameters are related to a number of in-situ recovery methods for heavy oil, with specific reference to application in the Cold Lake deposit.
In the papers, no distinction is made among the terms "heavy-oil sands", "oil sands" or "tar sands".