bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
PhilipIIof Spain (1527–1598)
Authors: Turner Blair 
Published: November 2011

AbstractDevout, determined, domineering, and dangerous (to non‐Catholics), Philip was “King of Two Worlds,” as one historian put it, and the single most powerful ruler of his day (Grierson 1974). He was at one time or another King of Naples, Duke and Count Palatine of Burgundy, King of Spain, King of England and Ireland and, with all that, by explicit papal donation, ruler of the New World and the Philippines. His career was marked by continual and costly warfare to maintain his domains. Protestant Europe, especially Elizabethan England, made him the epitome of the backward, cruel, autocrat, thus launching the Black Legend of Spanish wickedness, which still has purchase in some parts of the Americas to this day. However, his defense of Christendom against Islam and his efforts at reform of Catholicism, not to mention Spain's contribution to the culture of the New World, vindicate him in the eyes of others.
Pitt, William, 1st Earl of Chatham (1708–1778)
Authors: Schweizer Karl 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
William Pitt was born on November 15, 1708, the second son of Robert and Harriet Villiers Pitt, daughter of Viscount Grandison. His grandfather was the famous Governor Pitt of Madras—known as “Diamond Pitt,” from whom he likely inherited the masterful and volatile temperament that so impressed and intimidated contemporaries. In 1719 Pitt proceeded to Eton and in 1726 to Trinity College, Oxford. He left after only a year for the University of Utrecht, which he attended briefly studying law, but not seriously preparing for a professional career. By 1730 he was back at the family estate at Boccanoc in Cornwall. In 1731 he secured a coronetcy in the King's Regiment of horse and two years later made an extended trip abroad, including visits to Switzerland and France.
Praetorian Cohorts
Authors: Bingham Sandra J. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe praetorian guard of imperial Rome served primarily as the emperor's bodyguard. Instituted by Augustus in 27BCE, it was modeled after the type of unit associated with generals in the late Republic, and had both military and administrative functions. Prior to the establishment of the principate, troops had not been allowed in the capital; the presence of soldiers in Rome sent a signal to the Senate and to the people that a new regime had begun. The main modification that Augustus put in place was an expansion of the ways in which such a sizable force would be used in the capital, where it could be seen to represent the power of the emperor. To classify the praetorian guard as merely a bodyguard, therefore, only tells part of the story; they did much more.
Psychological Warfare
Authors: Badsey Stephen 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe most straightforward description of psychological warfare is propaganda directed against an enemy in wartime in order to gain a military advantage, particularly when directed at his armed forces. More generally, psychological warfare is the institutionalized, deliberate, and systematic generation and use of ideas, words, and images by one side in a war, aimed at lowering the morale of its enemies, especially enemy armed forces, and their ability to fight. Psychological warfare may function solely on the battlefield, or throughout all aspects of an enemy's war effort.
Queen Anne's War(1702–1713)
Authors: Mclay K.A.J 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Queen Anne's War was the name given to the War of the Spanish Succession within the English, French, and Spanish colonies on the North American continent, ranging from
La France Septentrionale
(New France or French Canada) in the Northwest to Spanish Florida in the Southeast, with the main English colonies within New England and the Province of Carolina lying in between. The war was the second of three colonial conflicts spanning the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (the other two were King William's War, 1688–1697, and the French Indian War, 1754–1763) fought principally between France and Britain alongside their native Indian allies for continental supremacy. The origins and progress of each war are found in a confluence of European events and local circumstance. In the early eighteenth century there was considerable anxiety among the English colonists that under the terms of the deceased (November 1701) and childless Spanish King Carlos II's will, the French Bourbon inheritance through Louis XIV's grandson, Philip, duc d'Anjou, of the Spanish throne and empire threatened a Franco‐Spanish trading bloc which would not only render the settlements vulnerable locally but also tip the continental balance of power in France's favor. Such European events overlay a history of frontier clashes and tension between the various colonists which had continued — albeit mainly through the respective native Indian proxies — since the conclusion of King William's War.
Reprisals
Authors: Neff Stephen C. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The term reprisal has been used in a host of different ways since the Middle Ages, its earliest uses being unconnected to war. At the outset, though, it may be said that one crucial feature has been central to reprisals at all times: their role as a law‐enforcement measure, albeit of a self‐help variety. They are therefore to be contrasted with sanctions inflicted by a sovereign authority. More specifically, a reprisal is an action which is inherently unlawful but which is permitted, exceptionally, as a means of counteracting a prior violation of law.
Roman‐Macedonian Wars (third‐second centuriesBCE)
Authors: Hoyos Dexter 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThese were three conflicts between the Roman republic and the kingdom of Macedon (215–205, 200–196, 172–167BCE): the first was indecisive, but the second ended Macedon's dominance in Greece and the Aegean and the third her existence as a state. The year 167 completed the five decades identified by the contemporary historian Polybius as those in which Rome moved from being one among many powers to be the mistress of the Mediterranean world, “an event not to be found in previous history.”
Roman warfare
Authors: Jonathan Mark Eaton 
Published: November 2011

AbstractAccording to the poet Vergil, the gods granted Rome power “without limit in time or space” (Aeneid1.279). From a small city‐state, Rome grew to control an empire covering most of western Europe. This phenomenal growth was achieved by Roman martial prowess. The Roman army developed from a small militia to a highly professional force which dominated the western world for centuries. This development was a gradual process, with major reforms instituted periodically as a response to political or strategic crises. As the army won new territories for Rome, it also came to play a fundamental role in the shaping of Roman society.
Roosevelt, Theodore (1858–1919)
Authors: Eden Douglas 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Theodore Roosevelt was the twenty‐sixth president of the United States, serving from September 1901 to March 1909. He was elected vice president in 1900, succeeded William McKinley as president following McKinley's assassination in September 1901, and was elected president in his own right in 1904. He saw active service in the Spanish–American War of 1898, but was otherwise involved more in preventing than prosecuting war.
R
oot,
E
lihu (1845–1937)
Authors: Allsep, L. Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Elihu Root served as US secretary of war from 1899 to 1904, secretary of state from 1905 to 1909, and senator from 1909 to 1915. He won the Nobel Prize for Peace for 1912. During his years in public life he was not only a capable administrator, but also created institutions and a tradition of disinterested public service that profoundly influenced American defense and foreign policy during the twentieth century.
Rossbach‐Leuthen, Battle of (1757)
Authors: Bonura Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The battles of Rossbach and Leuthen in 1757 demonstrated all of the components of Frederick the Great's system of warfare. He perfected a system of discipline and drill that maximized the potential of eighteenthcentury linear warfare. These twin victories established his reputation across Europe, and prevented an early end to the Seven Years' War.
Russo‐Japanese War (1904–1905)
Authors: Van Der Oye David Schimmelpenninck 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThis was a major war in Manchuria and the surrounding waters fought for dominance in northeast Asia. Although Japan was unable decisively to defeat Russia on land, its naval victories together with revolutionary unrest in Russia enabled the island empire to prevail. Japan's victory marked the first significant defeat of a leading European power by a non‐European in the modern age.
Schutzstaffel (SS)
Authors: Estes Kenneth W. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The elite security arm of the German Nazi Party grew to supersede the party as one of the most important organizations of the wartime Third Reich. The Security Squadron (SS) formed in 1925 from a combination of the guards of the party Stabswache with the Hitler Stosstruppe bodyguard in order to extend protection to the leadership and guard against internal and external threats to their rule. In 1929 this small battalion of 280 men began to take on the character of a Praetorian Guard under its new leader Heinrich Himmler (1900–1945), who began to use the title of “Reich Leader of the SS” personally and later raised it to a senior military rank. Raised to a 52,000‐man corps by 1933 and wearing a distinctive black uniform, the SS served Hitler well in the suppression of the larger and more radical party militia, the SA (Sturmabteilung) Stormtroopers, which threatened his hegemony.
Seven Years' War (1756–1763)
Authors: Schumann Matt 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Seven Years' War was an amalgam of connected regional conflicts — in North America from 1754 to 1760, and Europe from 1756 to 1763 — whose geographical reach may qualify it as the first global war. In many respects an outgrowth of the War of the Austrian Succession, it involved broadly similar issues and rivalries, though in a different international configuration. Financial and military commitments were far greater than in the preceding conflict, however, with investments and deployments from Canada to the Indian Ocean and from West Africa to the Baltic Sea. Its legacies include recognition of Prussia and Russia as leading European powers, the rise of the British Empire in India, Pontiac's Rebellion. and the American War of Independence.
Sicilian Vespers, War of the (1282–1302)
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In a masterpiece of Byzantine diplomacy, a Byzantine‐organized rebellion on Sicily (spring 1282) overthrew the rule of Charles I of Anjou (r. 1266–1282), both shattering his plans for a Crusade against Byzantium and provoking western powers into a protracted conflict over Sicily. The newly restored Byzantine Empire was saved from an imminent, and likely fatal, danger.
Sino‐Japanese War (1894–1895)
Authors: Mackenzie S. P. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
A war fought between Meiji Japan and Manchu China over influence in Korea. Often better armed and always better organized and led than their opponents, Japanese forces on land and sea were almost always victorious. The results highlighted to the world the extent to which the two Asian states involved had either succeeded, in the case of Japan, or failed, in the case of China, to transform themselves along western lines sufficiently to fight and win an industrialera war. The outcome reversed the traditional balance of power between the two for many decades, and started Japan down a path of territorial aggrandizement that would only be reversed after World War II.
Spanish Foreign Legion
Authors: Alvarez José E. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
An elite unit of the Spanish army. The Spanish Foreign Legion was created by Lieutenant Colonel José Millán Astray, a professional soldier and africanista (Spaniards in favor of Moroccan colonialism). Another name for the Legion is el Tercio, a term chosen as an homage to the “invincible” Spanish infantry Tercios of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Its formation was authorized by King Alfonso XIII in January 1920, and the unit accepted its first recruits on September 20, its subsequent anniversary day. The Spanish presidio of Ceuta in Morocco became its first recruitment center as well as its principal headquarters and training base at Dar Riffien, located four miles outside the city of Ceuta. Although modeled on the more famous French Foreign Legion, which recruited foreigners exclusively, the Spanish version would be staffed mostly by Spanish volunteers.
Spartacus (d. 71 BCE)
Authors: Bradley Keith 
Published: November 2011

AbstractSpartacus is the most famous slave from classical antiquity. He came from Thrace (modern Bulgaria) and is said to have once fought as a Roman allied soldier. Later, however, he was enslaved and sent to the wealthy Italian city of Capua, 200 km south of Rome, where he became a gladiator. In 73 BCE he led a revolt of fellow gladiators that developed into a major uprising involving tens of thousands of slaves and affecting much of Roman Italy. He has remained ever since an inspirational symbol of revolutionary resistance, rivaled only by “the black Spartacus,” Toussaint L'Ouverture, whose slave insurrection in Saint Domingue led to the creation in 1804 of the modern state of Haiti. Spartacus, however, was not a revolutionary. His ambitions as a rebel are scarcely recoverable from the meager evidence that has survived about him; but slavery was such an incontestable element of Roman social organization that to attribute to him any intention of creating social change, especially of overthrowing slavery, is unrealistic. As far as is known, his purpose was to free himself and his followers from the cruelties and indignities of slavery for as long as possible, which in the event was for two years. Ultimately his uprising had little effect on the Roman slavery system, despite the threats to Roman security it posed in the short term.
Spies and spying
Authors: Neff Stephen C. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Spying in the generic sense, as a political activity, refers to the unauthorized gathering of sensitive information in (and usually about) a foreign country, with the information‐gathering generally undertaken by a person who is skilled in the art and who is operating on behalf of his or her government. Sometimes, non‐professionals are employed for this purpose, such as (allegedly) the alluring Mata Hari, who was executed by the French government in 1917, during World War I. James Bond is the best‐known (albeit fictional) figure. From the more humdrum world of fact, the most familiar examples include the operatives of the American CIA, the Soviet KGB, and the British Secret Intelligence Service (better known as MI6). Spies in the sense of the laws of war are, however, very different from these spine‐tingling examples.
Strategy
Authors: Wawro Geoffrey 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The ancient Greek term for a general exercising broad military and civil authority was
strategos
, a designation that neatly captures the essence of strategy, which is the search for relative advantage in war and peace. The term is now common and widely used to describe a nation's blend of policy, economics, persuasion, and military deterrence (“hard” and “soft” power) to seat itself more safely and reliably in the world. “Grand strategy” is often broken out to differentiate the grand, farreaching political and economic objectives that are secured in part by generalship, but the term “strategy” is just as often assumed to contain both the grand and the military elements.
Tokyo War Crimes Trial
Authors: Totani Yuma 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The eastern counterpart of the Nuremberg Trials, the Tokyo War Crimes Trial (1946–1948) was a watershed moment in the history of modern Japan. It presented the Japanese people with a unique opportunity to examine voluminous oral and documentary evidence of the war of aggression and atrocities that were committed by the Japanese armed forces during the Asia‐Pacific War (1931–1945). This trial, in this respect, marked a crucial starting point of the Japanese confrontation with war guilt, a process that continues to this day. The Tokyo Trial carries special significance also in the field of international law. The Tribunal delivered a landmark judgment that determined individual criminal responsibility not only of military commanders but also of state leaders for war crimes. Confirming the Nuremberg precedents, the Tokyo Tribunal thus put an end to the immunity that high‐ranking government officials had historically enjoyed and contributed to building the foundation of international humanitarian law.
US
Civil War (1861–1865)
Authors: Reid Brian Holden 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

This enormous fratricidal conflict—the largest war fought in the nineteenth century between Waterloo in 1815 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914—is the greatest single event in American history and the most momentous conflict ever waged in the western hemisphere. It erupted in the spring of 1861, though the tensions leading up to it had been present for three decades, and the 1850s had been marked by an inflammable atmosphere of domestic crisis. The root cause of the conflict lay in the cleavage between two sections, North and South, over the place of chattel slavery in the Union. By 1861 slavery survived elsewhere only in Brazil, Puerto Rico, and Cuba. Without the slavery issue there would have been no war—or, at any rate, a war fought of this kind at that very particular date. The war threw into relief the very meaning of American freedom. Despite earlier doubts in the Upper South about the efficiency and morality of slavery, by the 1840s a pro‐slavery ideology had gained sway throughout the slave states which contended that American slavery was a positive good and a more humane system of labor than that found in
laissez‐faire
industrial states such as Great Britain. Unlike in parts of Latin America, after the suspension of the transatlantic slave trade in 1808, the domestic population of American slaves grew to over one‐third of the total southern population. Slavery thus became an instrument of social control which kept the black population in a state of perpetual subordination.
Venezuela Blockade (1902–1903)
Authors: Mitchell Nancy 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Battered by years of revolution and saddled with a fiery dictator, Venezuela at the beginning of the twentieth century was not paying its bills. Numerous countries were aggrieved — about debt default, unsettled claims, and the blustering of the Venezuelan president, Cipriano Castro. “You owe money,” the US minister to Caracas told Castro bluntly, “and sooner or later you will have to pay” (Bowen to Hay 1902). In December 1902, Germany, Britain, and Italy imposed a naval blockade on Venezuela to force Castro to address their grievances. It was classic gunboat diplomacy, a little arm‐twisting that led to arbitration and the settlement of the claims.
The Venezuela blockade clarified the balance of power in the Caribbean basin: British retreat, US ascent, and German irrelevance. It also showed the power of the press—in the United States as well as in Britain—to shape the perception of an aggressive Germany. Finally, it provided fodder to historians who seek to mythologize Teddy Roosevelt's claim to “speak softly and carry a big stick.”
In 1901, both Berlin and London were under fire for failing to protect their business interests—and honor — in Venezuela. Both began contemplating action against Caracas. German Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow urged Kaiser Wilhelm II to impose a blockade, but the oft reckless Wilhelm demurred, because he did not think collecting a few debts was worth the risk of riling Washington in its backyard. It was the possibility of joining with the British that made him change his mind. Joint action had great appeal to both capitals: not only would it reduce costs, it also would unite the two fractious powers in a common cause. The deal was sealed in November 1902 when the Kaiser visited his uncle, King Edward VII.
War Correspondents
Authors: Taylor Philip M. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe profession of the war correspondent has never had a fixed job description. Every individual reporter brings something different to the task. Nonetheless, from the chroniclers of war in the ancient world to the soldier‐bloggers of today, human beings who describe what they have witnessed when armies collide for the benefit of noncombatants have always been mediators who can never deliver accounts of the actual realities of war to a reading, watching, or listening audience. The gap between real war and mediated war is therefore very wide. That said, without these accounts, people with no direct experience of combat would have no insight into the experience of those who do. Therein lies the real function of war correspondents—and whether they do this well or badly is the source of fierce debate.
War of 1812
Authors: Watson Samuel 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe War of 1812 was rooted in Britain's wars with revolutionary and Napoleonic France. Unable to strike at one another directly, the British and French engaged in economic warfare via blockades and the interception of merchant vessels, including neutrals. Faced with British seizures of American shipping, the United States prepared for war by recreating its navy and beginning coastal fortifications in 1794, but John Jay's Treaty with Britain, ratified in 1796, resolved the commercial crisis, to the economic profit of both nations. Meanwhile, the rejuvenated US Army, under Anthony Wayne, defeated Indians supplied by the British at Fallen Timbers in northwest Ohio, leading Britain to withdraw its troops from US soil at Detroit, Oswego, and Niagara.
W
ashington Naval Conference (1921–1922)
Authors: Kuehn John T. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The genesis of the Washington Naval Conference lay in unresolved issues from the Treaty of Versailles and a heightened state of tension between the remaining major naval powers after World War I, especially Japan and the United States. These led, ironically, to an expensive naval arms race after the war. The administration of Warren G. Harding was eager to establish a name for itself by promoting peace and security. Accordingly, the action for the conference fell into the very capable hands of one of the era's great statesmen—former cabinet officer (under Roosevelt) and Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes. Hughes's department sent out invitations to the conference shortly after Harding took office in the summer of 1921. Germany and the Soviet Union, considered pariah states, were not invited. The agenda was fairly broad and ended up encompassing a wide range of disarmament, arms limitation, and political agreements.
Weapons of mass destruction
Authors: Estes Kenneth W. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
This term groups several types of weapons able to cause damage of catastrophic size, out of proportion to their limited size and cost. The delivery systems to place them on or near targets usually do not form part of the term or its discussion. Despite significant success in the use of international accords to reduce the danger of the employment or export of these weapons types and their component materials and technologies, the increased attention to terrorism has caused growing apprehension and debate over the threats, real and perceived. The current importance of the term, apart from its highly generalized descriptive value, lies mostly in its charged rhetorical applications of the past decade.