bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Selection of subjects for study
Authors: Elwood J. Mark 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter deals with how subjects are selected for inclusion in analytical and intervention studies. To interpret a study, one must assess the problems that may have been overcome, or introduced, by the methods used to select subjects for the study. In observational cohort studies, one has to select subjects who are or have been exposed to the putative causal factor and a suitable comparison group who are unexposed or less exposed. In the case-control design, one has to select subjects in whom the outcome has occurred (cases) to compare with subjects in whom the outcome has not occurred (controls). In intervention studies, one selects subjects who are suitable and willing to have either the intervention being assessed or the alternative with which it is compared, which may be no intervention. Part 1 of this chapter covers the general principles, and Part 2 illustrates the application of these principles to each type of study. Self-test questions are provided at the end of the chapter.
Critical appraisal of a matched case–control study
Authors: Elwood J. Mark 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: a small matched case-control study entitled ‘Increased risk of endometrial carcinoma among users of conjugated estrogens’, published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1975. The study is the first publication showing an important relationship between a disease and a widely used drug. It was chosen because it is now of historical importance, and is a good example of an individually matched study with several issues of interpretation. In addition, it shows an interesting way of assessing confounding, which is valid although not usually used in current studies.
Measuring the population impact
Authors: Heller Richard F. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter reports on a number of ways to examine the impact of risk factors and intervention benefits on the population as a whole. It begins with a new set of “population impact measures” which have been specially designed for this purpose, and reflects on other measures which have been in use for longer. These new measures should be of value to the policy maker in determining the impact of a particular policy on a whole population.
Public health informatics: the role of e-science in building the evidence base
Authors: Heller Richard F. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter identifies the importance of the revolution in information technology, which is transforming our ability to collect data of importance in building an evidence base for population health. The complexity of collecting and analyzing public health exposures and outcomes in a timely fashion to feed into policy will only be realized by the use of electronic information processing systems.
Individual or population priorities for population health: involving the public
Authors: Heller Richard F. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses the differences between individual and population health priorities. It describes the Population Health Evidence Cycle (Ask the question, Collect the evidence, and Understand and use the evidence) as an organizing structure for how to involve the public in priority setting. A new definition of public health is advocated: “Use of theory, experience, and evidence derived through the population sciences to improve the health of the population in a way that best meets the implicit and explicit needs of the community (the public)”.
Evidence into action: population impact assessment and population health decision support
Authors: Heller Richard F. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter introduces practical tools to provide support for population health decision-making, bringing together a number of themes from throughout the book. Population impact assessment, using the Population Health Evidence Cycle, can help calculate and present the benefits of alternative uses of resources on the health of the population. Local data are essential for this, and key to being able to create and utilize the population health decision support systems described. Examples are given in an appendix.
Protecting human subjects in brain research: a pragmatic perspective
Authors: Miller Franklin G. , Fins Joseph J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter elucidates ethical considerations in designing and carrying out clinical research on people with brain disorders based on an approach to research ethics derived from American philosophical pragmatism. Focusing on placebo-controlled trials of pharmacological treatments and deep-brain stimulation for psychiatric and neurological disorders, the chapter reflects how moral principles and standards can conflict when applied to contextually complex situations. To guide ethical judgment, it calls for a careful balancing of morally relevant considerations and an understanding of moral norms rather than categorical or absolute rules.
When genes and brains unite: ethical implications of genomic neuroimaging
Authors: Canli Turhan 
Published: September 2009

AbstractGeneticists, neuroscientists, and personality psychologists are now on a quest to understand the biological basis of personality and individual differences. This chapter highlights recent advances in this field of research. It illustrates how data obtained from neuroimaging scans can predict narrowly defined forms of behavior better than self-report and other behavioral measures, and argues that future integration of genetic and life experience data with neuroimaging data will further enhance this capability. It identifies likely applications of this technology and concludes that a statistically informed cost-benefit analysis may be the most practical approach towards the ethical use of this technology across a diverse set of real-life applications.
Functional neurosurgical intervention: neuroethics in the operating room
Authors: Ford Paul J. , Henderson Jaimie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter covers ethical challenges faced by surgeons practicing functional neurosurgery. The exploration of issues surrounding this set of surgeries presents especially interesting problems given the effects, potential or actual, on patient's quality of life in the attempt to restore or normalize a function. The chapter sets the context by briefly discussing the special challenges of surgical ethics in general, defines ‘functional neurosurgery’, and reviews the past, present, and expected future of functional neurosurgery. After setting this context, it addresses a variety of prominent ethical issues. It pays special attention to the context in which issues arise and reflect on ethical challenges to functional neurosurgery as a discipline.
Neuroethics in education
Authors: Sheridan Kimberly , Zinchenko Elena , Gardner Howard 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter argues that, in the coming years, educators and the general public will look increasingly to discoveries from the neurosciences for insights into how best to educate young people. It considers how educators can navigate change and opportunities of scientific discovery. The chapter proposes a new cluster of professionals: neuro-educators. The mission of neuro-educators will be to guide the introduction of neurocognitive advances into education in an ethical manner that pays careful attention to and constructively capitalizes on individual differences. The uniquely honed skills of these neuro-educators will enable them to identify neurocognitive advances that are most promising for specific educational goals and then, even more broadly, to translate basic scientific findings into usable knowledge that can empower new educational policy for a new neurosociety.
Religious responses to neuroscientific questions
Authors: Wolpe Paul Root 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter explores the three areas where neuroscience challenges religion. First, in religion's ethical response to neuroscientific findings; secondly, how religion responds to the claims of some neuroscientists that current research refutes ideas such as ensoulment; and finally, through the field that has come to be known as neurotheology, the neuroscientific study of the religious impulse itself.
A Role For Stage 2 Sleep in Memory Processing
Authors: Nader Rebecca , Smith Carlyle 
Published: September 2009

AbstractStage 2 sleep is the classification given to approximately 50 percent of the night of sleep in humans. It is recognized as having very salient features that distinguish it from other sleep stages. This chapter provides a brief history of the research examining stage 2 sleep, with an emphasis on cognitive studies. This is followed by a number of recent findings that implicate the importance of stage 2 for memory of certain kinds of tasks, focusing on the stage 2 spindle. The spindle, a basic component of mammalian sleep, may indeed be a perfect time for synaptic plasticity to take place.
Activation of Phasic Pontine Wave (P-Wave): a Mechanism of Learning and Memory Processing
Authors: Datta Subimal , Patterson Elissa H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Combined animal and human studies support the concept that rapid eye movement (REM) sleep contributes importantly to the process of memory consolidation, especially of a procedural learning task. This chapter presents arguments and supporting data for the hypothesis that the activation of phasic pontine-wave (P-wave) generating cells in the brainstem is critical for sleep-dependent learning and memory processing. Since the focus of this chapter is on the P-wave, and it is most frequent during REM sleep, the brainstem structures that are critical for REM sleep are briefly described.
The Role of Sleep in Memory Processing: the Sequential Hypothesis
Authors: Giuditta Antonio , Mandile Paola , Montagnese Paola , Piscopo Stefania , Vescia Stefania 
Published: September 2009

AbstractSlow wave sleep (SWS) was the first type of sleep to be described in human subjects by its high-amplitude, low-frequency electroencephalographic (EEG) waves, that sharply contrasted with the low-amplitude, high-frequency waves of active waking or wakefulness (W). Conversely, the later discovery of REM sleep was based on the occurrence of periodic episodes of rapid eye movements (REM) associated with a desynchronized EEG pattern resembling W. As this similarity envisaged an obvious paradox, REM sleep came to be also known as paradoxical sleep (PS). It is perhaps less well known that the discovery of PS elicited a remarkable wave of interest in its features that greatly contributed to highlight their relevance but, by contrast, outshadowed the role of SWS. This chapter discusses the evidence supporting the participation of SWS in memory processing, and the hypotheses concerning the roles of SWS and PS.
The Role of Sleep in the Development of Central Visual Pathways
Authors: Frank Marcos G. , Stryker Michael P. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter reviews evidence in support of the hypothesis that sleep may play an important role in brain maturation. It begins by reviewing the role of endogenous neural activity and experience in the development of central visual pathways. It then discusses current findings that support a role for sleep in visual system development. The chapter concludes with a discussion of several theories regarding the functions of sleep in developing animals; specifically, it reviews the ‘Ontogenetic Hypothesis’ that posits REM sleep as an important source of endogenous activity in the developing brain, and a second view which states that NREM sleep promotes the consolidation of waking experience; a process which begins at certain stages of development, but is retained throughout the lifespan.
Off-Line Reprocessing of Recent Memory and its Role in Memory Consolidation: A Progress Report
Authors: McNaughton B. L. , Barnes C. A. , Battaglia F. P. , Bower M. R. , Cowen S. L. , Ekstrom A. D. , Gerrard J. L. , Hoffman K. L. , Houston F. P. , Karten Y. , Lipa P. , Pennartz C. M. A. , Sutherland G. R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter reviews the theoretical considerations for why the brain might require an active reprocessing of memories during periods when it is relatively ‘disconnected’ from external input. It summarizes the current understanding of the phenomenon based on neurophysiological investigations in animals.
Theoretical underpinning for the use of intergenerational studies in life course epidemiology
Authors: Lawlor Debbie A , Leary Sam , Smith George Davey 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIntergenerational studies have been widely used in life course epidemiology both to examine primary research hypotheses and to explore underlying mechanisms for established associations. This chapter describes the theoretical underpinning for using different types of intergenerational studies in life course epidemiology and discusses how results from such studies should be interpreted. Specifically, it considers the use and interpretation of cousin, sibling, and twin intergenerational studies; egg donation/surrogate mother intergenerational studies; maternal-paternal comparisons; and intergenerational migrant studies and Mendelian randomization in intergenerational studies in life course epidemiology.
Theoretical underpinning for the use of twin studies in life course epidemiology
Authors: Loos Ruth J F , Ridgway Charlotte L , Ong Ken K 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe classical twin design is used in genetic epidemiology to estimate the heritability of a trait or disease. Despite potential biases for certain traits at specific stages during the life course, the classical twin method remains a robust and useful tool in human genetics when interpreted with care. Twins have also been applied to study the fetal origins of adult disease hypothesis. Twins have unique genetic and prenatal characteristics, which can be modelled to disentangle the complex mechanisms that underlie the ‘fetal origins’ of later disease risks. However, these models have important caveats. This chapter explores how twin-specific characteristics allow a unique insight into the balance of genetic and environmental influences that underlie early-life associations with later disease risks. It also describes how the unique determinants of birth weight in twins necessitate caveats in the interpretation of twin studies in life course epidemiology.
Discussant chapter—summary of the theoretical approaches to family-based studies in life course epidemiology
Authors: Inskip Hazel M 
Published: September 2009

AbstractChapters 2 to 4 describe three specific approaches to family studies, namely, intergenerational, sibling, and twin studies. All can be used to assist in distinguishing between genetic and environmental influences mainly within the classical nature-nurture paradigm. This chapter summarizes the three approaches, describes links across the methods, and draws on other examples to highlight some of the areas discussed and to explore other issues, such as birth order effects. All three chapters use the example of influences on birth weight to exemplify the use of their specific study types, intergenerational, sibling or twin, but they also consider outcomes occurring later in the life course. As in all branches of epidemiology a variety of methods in different contexts is required for us to see consistent patterns emerge. Conflicting evidence points to our lack of understanding and for alternative hypotheses to be explored.
Birth cohorts: a resource for life course studies
Authors: Andersen Anne-Marie Nybo , Madsen Mia , Lawlor Debbie A 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses issues concerned with the design and practicalities of setting up birth cohorts for life course epidemiology. The demand for a blueprint of the ideal birth cohort study is perhaps intuitive, but the chapter questions the extent to which standardization of data collection and study protocols across contemporary and planned birth cohorts is desirable or feasible. The chapter discusses different approaches, difficulties and strengths of these different approaches, the determination of scientific priorities, definition of the birth cohort (including which family members are key participants), data collection and samples size, as well as the ethical considerations specific to the establishment of a birth cohort. The advantages of a scientific focus on specific exposures in each birth cohort study, of documentation of birth cohort data, and of collaborative studies using data from several birth cohorts are emphasized.
Family-based life course studies in low- and middle-income countries
Authors: Batty G David , Victora Cesar G , Lawlor Debbie A 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter briefly describes the growing impact of non-communicable disease in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) which, together with existing infectious illnesses and a rising incidence of violence, represents a triple health burden. Birth cohort studies, and in particular those with family-based elements, clearly have a role in identifying risk factors for chronic disease. Existing studies from LMIC are described. The chapter advances a number of reasons for adding to the very sparse research base outside of industrialized nations, and attempts to provide solutions for some of the methodological complications that might accompany such endeavours.
Using available family members as proxies to provide information on other family members who are difficult to reach
Authors: Tomkins Susannah 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn life course epidemiology studies, the use of proxy (secondary) respondents may be an integral part of the study design or a consequence of not being able to reach or obtain information from the index subject. Based on the available evidence, the main factors that increase validity and reliability of proxy responses are broad categorization of, and focus on, directly observable characteristics and behaviours; questions requiring a binary response; recent characteristics and behaviours; face to face interviews; spouse/partner selected as proxy. Certain issues remain unaddressed by the available literature, including subject areas such as diet, the choice of proxy beyond spouse/partner, validation of responses when the index is unavailable and the effect of index characteristics on proxy responses. Finally, practical tips are presented in this chapter from a case study that successfully employed proxy respondents.
Discussant chapter—the practicalities of undertaking family-based studies
Authors: Hardy Rebecca , Kuh Diana 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter summarizes the origins of some of the existing life course studies and the current potential for using these studies to address family-based life course questions. It also highlights important methodological and practical issues for the future conduct of such studies. It has to be considered carefully whether it is worth collecting more prior generation and/or offspring generation data in these established cohorts given the practical difficulties and costs associated with such an undertaking as detailed Chapters 6, 7, and 8. The chapter concludes that there is a growing need to build infrastructure across cohort studies to encourage and support collaborative research. It is also clear that there is a great need to value and support the lifelong volunteers and the researchers who initiate and run longitudinal studies in order to realise the full scientific potential of life course research.
How family-based studies have added to the understanding of life course epidemiology of mental health
Authors: Hatch Stephani L , Mishra Gita D 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter reviews some of the key family-based studies that have identified links between various illnesses and behaviours in parents and siblings with psychiatric disorders in study members. It also describes how sibling and twin studies are beginning to produce results that quantify the relative contribution of genetic and environmental effects. The chapter concludes with recommendations from the perspective of life course epidemiology to move beyond the established associations and to increase our understanding of the underlying mechanisms involved in psychiatric disorders. Specifically, it describes the range of characteristics in terms of study design, and type and scope of data that should be incorporated in future large population based studies.
How family-based studies have added to understanding the life course epidemiology of reproductive health
Authors: Morton Susan MB , Edwards Janet Rich 
Published: September 2009

AbstractReproductive events throughout a woman's life course tend to be both a product of the cumulative exposures a woman has been subject to before that event, as well as a marker for her likely future health. While genetic contributions influence the fertility, development, growth, and reproduction of the next generation, all of these critical events in life are subject to external, environmental influences. This is true for individual women and within families of individuals. Perhaps given the shared genes and environments within and across generations in a family it is therefore not surprising that family studies consistently demonstrate a higher degree of consistency in reproductive outcomes at all points in the life course for those who share a family connection, than for individuals who do not, and that the closer that connection (e.g., monozygotic twins) in general the greater the similarities.
Reliabilism and the Value of Knowledge
Authors: Goldman Alvin I. , Olsson Erik J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIt is widely agreed that knowledge has greater value than mere true belief. This chapter begins by identifying a weak sense of ‘know’ (in which it means ‘believe truly’) under which knowledge cannot have greater value. There is a stronger sense of ‘know’ for which the value superiority thesis is plausible. The chapter offers two solutions to the swamping problem. The conditional probability solution states that reliabilist knowledge is more valuable than true belief because the former is a better indicator than the latter of future true belief. The second solution explains how a reliable process token can bring independent value into the picture. This can happen either because the value of a token process derives from the type it instantiates (type-instrumentalism) or because the value associated with a reliable process acquires independent, not merely derivative, value (value autonomization). The chapter's final section contrasts our approaches with those of virtue epistemology.
Testimony and the Value of Knowledge
Authors: Kusch Martin 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter gives substance to the idea of a ‘communitarian value-driven epistemology’ by developing and combining ideas from Edward Craig's and Bernard Williams' ‘epistemic genealogy’ and Barry Barnes' and Steven Shapin's ‘sociology of knowledge’. In order to make transparent how this project might slot into more familiar, or more mainstream, projects, the paper maintains throughout a critical dialogue with Jon Kvanvig's position. The chapter is structured around an attempt to defend Craig's position against Kvanvig's criticisms: by treating the institution of testimony as a collective good underwritten by the intrinsic and interrelated values of accuracy and sincerity; by rendering protoknowledge attributions as ascriptions of honour; and by allowing attributions of protoknowledge to be intertwined with attributions of freedom. The view that emerges is that the core of our knowledge practices comprises institutions of testimony, and that these practices are a collective good.