bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Resistance of Certain Metals and Metallic Alloys to Corrosion and Solution by Sea‐Water
Authors: Stowell Flaxney Percival 
Published: August 2010

Summary.

A brief account is given of various tests relating to the corrosive and solvent action of sea‐water on metals and metallic alloys.
Natural films of oxide or chemically‐induced protective coatings have been found in two cases to withstand fairly successfully the attack of sea‐water.
The weakness of paints and varnishes as protective coatings lies in the formation of minute cracks and pinholes, which cause pitting when brought into contact with sea‐water.
Semi‐immersion was found to be a more rigorous and exacting test than total immersion, and test samples should be submitted to both treatments before an opinion is expressed as to their corrosion‐resisting properties.
The Mallophaga of Sand‐Grouse.
Authors: Waterston James 
Published: August 2010

Summary.1. Skins of the 16 known species of Pteroclidæ have been examined in the British Museum, and 14 species of Mallophaga referable to two genera, both peculiar to Sand‐Grouse, have been collected from 14 host species.2. The methods of collecting and preparation are described.3. A list of hosts and parasites is given.4. Judged by their prasites, Sand‐Grouse are related to the grouse and pheasants.5. Descriptions of a new genus and twelve new species are given, and a key appended.
2. The Osmotic Concentration of the Blood of Callorhynchus millii and Epicercctodus (Neoceratodus) forsteri, and the Significance of the Physico‐chemical Condition of the Blood in regard to the Systematic Position of the Holocephali and the Dipnoi.
Authors: Dakin William J. 
Published: August 2010

Summary.The osmotic pressure and the salinity of the blood of Callorhynchus antarcticus and of Epiceratodus forsteri have been investigated with a view to determining the relations between internal fluids and the aquatic environment in the Holocephali, and the Dipnoi.Live fish were examined, and the specimens were quite normal (the Callorhynchus were examined at Hobart, Tasmania, and the Neoceratodus at Brisbane, Queensland).The blood of the Callorhynchus had a freezing‐point almost the same as the sea water in which the specimens were living. The blood contained over 2·6 per cent. urea and chlorine representing 1·33 per cent. NaCl.These figures indicate that Callorhynchus presents the extraordinary conditions found in only one group of the animal kingdom—the Elasmobranchii.The blood of Epiceratodus has a relatively high freezing‐point, —0·42°C., compared with —0·5 to 0·6 for freshwater Teleostei, and —·56 to —0·6 for mammalia. There is no resemblance whatever to Elasmobranch conditions. The Dipnoi fall into the same category as the higher vertebrates. The freezing‐point of the blood is curiously like that of the amphibia.
The Breeding Behaviour of the Common Frog, Rana temporaria temporaria Linn., and of the Common Toad, Bufo bufo bufo Linn.
Authors: Savage R. Maxwell 
Published: August 2010

Summary.
By tagging individual frogs in a pond it was found that the males, after mating once, remained behind in the pond with the other males, and often mated several times in one season. Other males did not secure mates at all. Pairs remained in amplexus under natural conditions less than twenty‐four hours.
The recognition of the female by the male depends primarily on the rough granules of her skin, which are developed during the breeding season, a different method of sex recognition from any hitherto described. She is retained after seizure because she remains silent and has a stout figure. When she lays her eggs she is released by the automatic cessation of the impulse to grip, resulting from her diminished size, aided by the use of her voice.
The female assists the expulsion of her eggs by pressing her hands on her abdomen and forcing them out.
The sperm‐emission stimulus is merely the contact of the eggs with the symphysis pubis region of the male.
The males struggle for the possession of the females by using their feet to push away or force off their opponents, especially by hooking their toes under the encircling arms of the other frog. This appears to be the only point at which the nuptial pads perform a useful function.
2. The Sperms of Freshwater Ostracods
Authors: Lowndes A. G. 
Published: August 2010

Summary.
With the proper technique it can be shown that the sperms of the freshwater Ostracods are highly motile.
The discovery of this motility has necessitated a re‐orientation of the sperms. The sperms consist of a thin anterior part and a thicker posterior part, which is the flagellum.
The nature of the movement is described.
Apparently the sperms are now functionless.
3. The Influence of External Factors on the Spawning Date and Migration of the Common Frog, Rana temporaria temporaria Linn.
Authors: Savage R. Maxwell 
Published: August 2010

Summary.
By statistical methods it is found that frogs are little affected by the weather which obtains at the time of spawning. There is a tendency for spawning to take place more in wet weather than at other times, and, on general grounds, severe frost would prevent activity, but weather in which night frosts occur is not avoided. Humidity is without action.
The mean spawn date is influenced by the weather of a long period preceding it. The date on which frog‐spawn is laid in March is much affected by the weather of February. Bain is most important, but temperature plays a part. The effect is quantitative—it is the total amount of rain which acts. An equation is developed showing the relation between the factors.
The order in which spawn is deposited in different ponds in the same district is determined by features which are constant from one year to another, but is affected also by random fluctuations.
Up to moderate altitudes, especially in districts subject to orographical rainfall, spawning is earlier the higher the pond above sea‐level.
Frogs spawn in a great variety of ponds, but those which have a stream flowing in or out are especially favoured.
The migration of frogs is carried out independently of hydrotaxis, geotaxis, or voice. There is evidence that the smell of the pond is the directing factor.
Frogs exercise a great deal of selection in their choice of a breeding pond. Ponds suitable for hibernation are left and journeys undertaken to other ponds in which they breed.
The spot at which the eggs are laid is the same year after year. It is the scene of a silent gathering of frogs for some weeks prior to spawning, at least in some years. None of the obvious factors, such as shallowness or exposure to the sun, explains the selection of the site.
The period in which this gathering is proceeding is distinguished by the term “pre‐spawn season.” This is defined.
A theory is put forward to explain the facts of observation, in which it is suggested that the determining factor in deciding the spawn date and the selection of site is a change in the algal flora at the site.
Some confirmation of this view is obtained by analyses of the water of ponds for phosphate. Frogs appear to spawn at corresponding phases of phosphate changes in different ponds.
By theoretical deduction it is shown that the date at which the largest number of ponds in a district have the significant change is indeterminate from the spawn observations. The development of spawning with time deduced from this theory bears a resemblance to the actual results of observation.
It is suggested that some cases of discontinuous distribution in a small area may be the result of corresponding differences in the distribution of the algæ to which the amphibian is attached.
Breeding Seasons of Birds in East African Evergreen Forest
Authors: Moreau R. E. 
Published: August 2010

Summary.It has been stated that no general breeding season can be discerned in the birds of evergreen forest in West Africa. No previous study in East African forest is available, but my information, derived from gonad state, moult, and song volume, as well as the number of occupied nests found, gives a different impression at Amani. With a few specific exceptions the forest birds there nest between the beginning of October and the end of February and then moult. Simultaneous wing‐moult and considerable gonad enlargement are rare in forest birds, and actually rarer than in birds from less equable environments also in Northern Tanganyika.My data indicate that at Amani on the average (all forest species) the gonads of the individual male remain much enlarged for about four months in the year, of the female for less than two. It also appears that the individual bird of both sexes takes at least two months to get through wing‐moult.Data from occasional collections in other forests in Northern Tanganyika make it probable that with local modifications a periodicity similar to that at Amani exists there also. Information, both published and unpublished, for other forests, from Chirinda (S. Rhodesia) to Mt. Elgon, suggests that a single well‐marked breeding season is the rule throughout the East African mountain forests.These results are discussed in relation to Beebe's at Kartabo and to the variables in the environment. I do not find any acceptable single‐factor hypothesis.
The Morphology of the Bufonid Head.
Authors: Ramaswami L. S. 
Published: August 2010

Summary.A study of the cranial anatomy of the entire head of Bufo melanostictus, Bufo parietalis, and Nectophryne misera, and the anterior region of the head of Bufo hololius and Bufo beddomii, reveals the following interesting facts:—
The anterior extension of the gl. nasalis medialis through the fenestra nasobasalis into the anterior region of the cranium, to occupy a position in between the gl. intermaxillaris, is noticed in B. melanostictus. The gl. nasalis medians do not penetrate through the fenestra naso‐basalis in B. parietalis, B. hólólius, B. beddomii, and N. misera.
The septomaxillary sends a limb into the plica in the region of the anterior nares in the Bufonid examples studied; the limb of the bone appears in the plica posterior to the anterior narial opening in N. misera.
The eminentia olfactoria is elevated in all the species of Bufo studied; the eminentia is not elevated in N. misera.
The sphenethmoid is bony in B. melanostictus, B. beddomii, and N. misera; in B. hololius it is cartilaginous, and in B. parietalis the bony sphenethmoid possesses cartilaginous areas.
The palatine is present in all the species of Bufo examined, while in N. misera it is absent.
The processus basalis is small in all the forms examined. It is merely a lateral extension of the oticus cartilage, and posterior to the oticus connection of the crista; the basal process also unites with the otic capsule to form a “pseudobasal” connection.
The frontoparietals have united mesially in N. misera; in the examined species of Bufo and in N. misera the fronto‐parietals unite with the prootic bone. Posteriorly the prootic is indistinguishable from the exoccipital.
Of the plectral apparatus a large pars externa, a bony pars media, and a large pars interna are seen. A pars ascendens plectri—a commissural cartilage between pars externa and crista parotica—is noticed in all.
The operculum is sickle‐shaped and depends from the otic capsule.
In N. misera the quadrate cartilage is feebly invaded by the quadrato‐ maxillary.
The complete absence of the “bursa angularis oris” of Fuchs (1931) (the “Mundwinkeldrüse” of de Villiers) is noteworthy.
The Carboniferous Coalacanth Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland.
Authors: Thomas J. A. Moy 
Published: August 2010

Summary.1. The Carboniferous Cælacanths of the British Isles have been re‐examined and together with the foreign forms have been rediscussed.2. Although many of the more fragmentary species may belong to another genus, all have been included in the single genus Rhabdoderma, which has been distinguished from the Permian genus Coelacanthtis.3. The anatomy of RhaModerma has been redescribed and the following new points described for the first time:–The presence of a suboperculum, the coronoid, the ectopterygoid, the dermo‐ and auto‐palatines, the shape of the basisphenoid olico‐occipital and ethmoid region and the nature of the circumorbital plates, and the course of the sensory canal. The pectoral and pelvic girdles and internal skeleton of the pelvic fin. The skeleton of the anterior dorsal fin and its articulation with the neural spines in some forms. The internal skeleton of the anal fin. The presence of basiventrals in the vertebral column.4. The following species have been considered synonymous with R. elegans: “C.” ornatus Newb., “C.” robustus Newb., “C.” summiti Wellb., “C.” elongatus Hux., “C.” watsoni Aiding., “C.” arcuatus Hibb. & “G.” newelli Hibb.5. “C.” mucronatus Pruvost is considered synonymous with R. tingleyense.6. “Ccelacanthopsis curta” Traq. is shown to be a peculiarly preserved, but normal Cælacanth. It is considered specifically and generically indeterminable.7. The following new species have been described:–R. ardrossense, R. (?) aldingeri, R. (?) abdenense, R. (?) davisi.8. Details of anatomy have been described in R. elegans, R. tingleyense, R. huxleyi, R. corrugatus.
On the Systematic Position of the Ptilonorhynchidse.
Authors: Stostor C. R. 
Published: August 2010

Summary.Thus, from a study of the cranial osteology, the pterylosis, the geographical distribution, the plumage pattern, the bower‐building habit, and the eggs, I am unable to find a single feature which warrants the inclusion of the Ptilonorhynchidse with the Paradiseidae. The structure and the colour‐pattern of Loria ally it unmistakably with the latter group.I have not been able to investigate the structure of Prionodura, Sericulus, Cnemophilus, æluroedus, or Loboparadisea. The first two are quite clearly Bower‐Birds, since they build bowers, and have the typical coloration in both sexes. Cnemophilus has, likewise, the characteristic yellow and black male and the brown and grey female of some of the others, and has no superficial characters that I can discover to suggest any relationship with the Paradiseidae. ælurcedus, with its green and mottled markings, and very stout bill, has little in the way of superficial characters to ally it with either, and I do not know on what grounds it was first placed among the Ptilonorhynchidae, but until its relationships can be established by dissection, we must presumably keep it there. Loboparadisea is another rather problematical case; as already indicated, it is not typical of either group, but in view of the greater uniformity existing among the Ptilonorhynchidae as compared with the Paradiseidae, I regard it as an aberrant member of the latter family.With regard to relationships with other groups than the Birds of Paradise, Gadow (1888) has suggested affinity with the Wattled Crow (Calleeas) of New Zealand. But this form does not show a single common feature in the skull, which possesses very individual structure both of the palate and the lachrymal. Likewise (contrary to the statement of Nitszch) the pterykrais is dissimilar, and there is no apterion in the dorsal tract. The New Zealand Thrush, Turnagra, is another form whose relationship to the Bower‐Birds has been suggested. But from his investigation of the anatomy Gadow (1888) was quite unable to confirm this.As far as I can see, the Ptilonorhynchidae constitute a singularly complete and isolated family of the acromyodian passerine birds and show no special relationship to any other, being sharply marked off by the structure of the skull, the colour‐pattern, and the bower‐building habit; from the evidence I have endeavoured to bring forward I exclude Loria and Loboparadisea, and re‐consiitute the Ptilonorynchidss, as possessing family rank, and consisting of the following genera:–ælurædus. Ptilonorhynchus.Amblyornis. Scenopætes.CMamydera. Sericvlus.Gnemophilus. Xanthomelus.Prionodura.
Further examples of Allometric Growth in Spiders
Authors: Locket G. H. , Gardiner Phyllis C. 
Published: August 2010

Summary.Measurements of all the limbs, and of their separate joints, have been made on both sexes of the spiders Linyphia triangularis Cl., Linyphia hortensis Sund., Tetragnatha montana E. Sim., and Tetragnatha extensa L. The values of α in Huxley's formula, y=bxδ, have been calculated for the lengths of all the parts, using the root of the sternum area as the standard. In addition, the values of r (the ratio of length to corresponding length in the penultimate instar) have been found and used to give a measure of growth towards the end of the developmental period.The growth‐gradients, showing relative allometry of the limbs, are similar within each genus, but are different as between the genera.Allometry is positive in the cheliceræ of the Linyphiæ, increasing towards their distal ends, but negative in the legs and markedly so in the male palps. The enforced size‐limits of the palpal organs may be a disturbing factor inducing allometry in other limbs.There is little allometry in the limbs of the males of Tetragnatha, but in the cheliceræ of the females it is positive. Growth in these two spiders is very rapid.The extent of growth (as measured by r) and allometry do not necessarily follow one another in the various joints, and would seem to be independent.Allometry is probably of frequent occurrence in spiders, and seems to be emphasized by sexual influence, probably through the agency of hormones.
Bird‐Migration over the North‐western Part of the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and the Mediterranean
Authors: Moreau R. E. 
Published: August 2010

Summary..It is shown on theoretical grounds that so long as nearly all observers travel towards the U.K. in spring and towards India and East Africa in autumn, i.e., with the general trend of migration, the proportion of the true migration density observed in the Red Sea and south of Guardafui must tend to be less than that observed in the Mediterranean.Many migrants were seen 50–100 miles off‐shore between Guardafui and 3o S. 9–12. xi. From their course the passerines must have come from S.E. Arabia, with or without a stop on Sokotra. Two Falco spp. and Merops persicus flying east to west may well have come direct from India. Several species were still at sea as far south as the limit of their African ranges, indicating that they were approaching the coast obliquely.Many migrants reach Sokotra, Abd‐el‐Kuri, Pemba, and Zanzibar. Through the last two some travel on passage, cutting across a re‐entrant of the African coast. Only stragglers of a few Palsearctic land species reach the Seychelles or Madagascar, except that many Falco concolor reach the latter from the Near East. Several species have been seen in both spring and autumn in the Arabian Sea 500 miles from land. It is probable that, winds being favourable at both seasons, about six long‐winged land species regularly migrate straight across the Arabian‐Sea, 1600 miles, which would be the longest such crossing in the world.There are a good many records of birds crossing the Gulf of Aden, towards the mouth as well as at the narrow end. Throughout the Red Sea a large variety of birds has been noted; they are least numerous in the extreme north; there is no evidence of concentration on the narrow crossings available at the north and south ends; and apparently many of the birds cross on a slant. In conjunction with the recent work of Bates and Philby the records of birds in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden leave no doubt that a broad‐front migration crosses the whole of Arabia.Migration across the Mediterranean is surprisingly ill documented. It has been held that migration takes place mainly in three belts and that in good weather birds are not seen far out at sea. Our observations are in direct conflict with these generalizations. We saw ample and varied migration all the way from long. 9o E. to 28o E. in perfect weather and between 50 and 150 miles from land.On a general review I conclude that migration between Africa and Eurasia takes place through a great quadrant, one arm of which runs up the Atlantic coast, the other across the Indian Ocean about lat. 10o N.; and that the movement is of an essentially broad‐front nature throughout.
The Pupal Contraction as an Epigenetic Crisis in Drosophila.
Authors: Waddlngton C. H. 
Published: August 2010

Summary.1. In flies homozygous for thick there is a partial failure of the contraction of the leg from the highly inflated condition characteristic of the beginning of the true prepupal period; the same is true, to a lesser degree, of the wings.2. This is preceded, and probably caused by, an over‐contraction of the longitudinal larval muscles at the time of puparium formation, which is such as to give rise to an increased fluid pressure inside the body of the animal.3. In humpy flies there is an over‐contraction of the epidermis of the wings and thorax, which is responsible for the shortening of the wings and the formation of grooves and “vortices” on the thorax.4. At the time of puparium formation, the larval muscles of humpy contract irregularly, and a similar irregular muscular contraction plays a part in producing the deformations during the beginning of the true pupal period‐ The abnormal larval contractions sometimes cause modification of the normal internal anatomy, which in their turn result in irregular eversion of the legs, leading to abnormalities in their later contraction during the pupal period.5. It is pointed out that such a mechanism reduces the difficulty of understanding the apparently dissimilar effects of the different dumpy allelomorphs, some of which produce the humpy type of wing while others produce the humpy type of thorax.6. The relevance of the data for the general theory of development is briefly mentioned.
Quantitative Studies in the Geographical Variation of Birds.– The Common Guillemot (Uria aalge Pont.).
Authors: Southern H. N. , Reeve E. C. R. 
Published: August 2010

Summary.1. The bridled form of the Common Guillemot (Uria aalge) is a single factor mutant, which is present in varying proportions over the North Atlantic colonies of that species.2.‐ Counts were taken, with the help of the British Trust for Ornithology, at the breeding cliffs during the summers of 1938 and 1939, and the proportions of bridled to normal birds ascertained.3. The full results show that the percentage of bridled birds increases from south to north and, in a less degree, from east to west. This cline in dimorph‐ratio is not even: in the British Isles the population shows sudden increases in the bridled percentage at two zones, the Mull of Kintyre and the channel between Pair Isle and Shetland. In Iceland the cline is reversed in sign and the percentage of bridled birds decreases again from the south to the north.4. This stage of dimorphism may be due to the unimpeded spread of an advantageous mutation, or it may be reaching a balanced condition owing to counter selection at various levels by environmental factors. This balance might or might not have been reached; a repetition of the inquiry after ten years should settle this question. Coincidence of the cline with an increase in humidity northwards and westwards is noted.5. Statistical analysis of ledge counts shows that there is no heterogeneity within the separate colonies, with the exception of Mingulay, where a special factor seems to be in operation. This suggests the absence of any marked degree of assortment. Fisher's hierarchical x2 test demonstrates the step‐like nature of the cline over the region from the Faeroes to the Hebrides. In particular, there is local heterogeneity but no general trend in dimorph‐ratio over the area stretching from Fair Isle to Mingulay.