bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Some Experiments on the Dyeing of Nylon Yarn
Authors: BOULTON J. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryDirect dyes which remain in solution in an acidified dyebath, as most do, can be dyed on nylon yarn at rates comparable with those of the same dyes when dyed on viscose rayon yarn from a neutral bath. In the absence of acid, nylon yarn absorbs direct dyes much more slowly than does viscose rayon. The rate and equilibrium absorption of direct dyes by nylon yarn is dependent upon the pH of the dyebath.Increase of dyeing temperature increases the rate of absorption of both direct dyes and acid dyes and decreases the equilibrium absorption.With direct dyes, neutral salts raise the rate and degree of dyebath exhaustion from a neutral bath and decrease both in an acid bath; the latter behaviour is also shown by acid dyes on wool or nylon.Nylon, like wool, has an acid‐binding capacity which increases with the mol. wt. of the acid for a series of organic sulphonic acids, and is lower than that of wool.Nylon yarn dyed with direct dyes exhibits dichroism when examined in polarised light. Some acid dyes produce dichroism on nylon and some do not.All the above facts are accommodated if a dual behaviour is attributed to nylon, viz. that its union with dye may result from (a) the formation of a salt link as with wool and/or (b) the exertion of residual valency forces as with cellulose.SummaryThe fastness to washing and light of nylon yarn dyed with acid dyes, direct dyes, cellulose acetate rayon dyes and chrome dyes has been compared directly with that of viscose rayon, cellulose acetate rayon and wool. Recommendations as to the potential usefulness of different classes of dyes are made.Direct dyes do not cause appreciable degradation of nylon when the dyeings are exposed. Vat dyes cause extensive degradation, which takes place more rapidly than is the case with cellulosic fibres and is accompanied by similarly rapid fading of dye.Whereas fading of dyes occurs in the presence or absence of oxygen, an atmosphere containing oxygen is essential for photodegradation of the fibre.
Measurement of Damage in Wool Materials. Part III–The Degree of Modification produced by treating Wool Fabrics with Buffered Acid and Alkaline Solutions*
Authors: WHEWELL C. S. , BEE D. M. 
Published: July 2010

SummaryMeasurements are made of the resistance to wet abrasion of patterns of light‐weight flannel which have been treated at various temperatures with buffered solutions of pH 1–12. The results show that the degree of modification increases with rise of temperature, and at a fixed temperature the reduction in resistance to abrasion depends on the pH of the liquid with which the cloth has been treated, being a minimum in the region of pH 4–7. The presence of residual acid or alkali reduces the resistance of fabries to wet abrasion. The degree of modification produced by blowing at various pH values increases with increasing acidity or alkalinity, outside the region pH 5–7. Whenever possible, processing should be carried out at pH 5–7.
The Action of Light on Cellulose dyed with Vat Dyes
Authors: LANDOLT A. 
Published: July 2010

The tendering activity of thirty–eight vat dyes has been examined by various tests, and an attempt made to discover from the constitutions of the dyes which substituents are responsible for tendering or non–tendering properties.It is found that most of the anthraquinone–carbazole dyes tested are non–tendering. The tests on other groups of dyes show that certain substituents appear to exert a tendering influence and others a protective action. It seems that the simpler chemical compounds of the vat dye series have an inherent tendering action, which is repressed or enhanced by the nature and orientation of the substituents and the resulting configuration. It therefore seems unlikely that any general rule of tendering based on the chemical constitution of the dyes can be given.A difficulty in estimating the relation of constitution to tendering is the impossibility of comparing dyes of different light absorption, since the light energy depends on the wavelength.It is also found that both oxidation and reduction phenomena can be brought about by irradiating cotton dyed with vat dyes. This result confirms earlier suggestions that the tendering reaction may be caused by a succession of reducing and oxidising processes.
The Mechanism of the Photochemical Degradation of Textile Material
Authors: EGERTON G. S. 
Published: July 2010

The photochemical degradation of textile materials is discussed under two main heads—I. PHOTOLYTIC DEGRADATION WITH Short‐WAVE ULTRA‐VIOLET RADIATION‐ The degradation of cotton and other textile fibres with radiation of wavelength 2537 A. is not dependent upon the presence of oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere. In some cases (e. g. cotton and visoose rayon) the loss in strength in carbon dioxide or nitrogen is nearly as great as in oxygen; in other cases (e. g. nylon) there is greater degradation in oxygen, but still substantial degradation in carbon dioxide.The effect of vat dyes on the rate of degradation of cotton is discussed. All the vat dyes examined were found to desensitise the photolytio degradation of cellulose. Dyes such as Caledon Yellow 5G and Cibanone Yellow R decreased the degradation of cotton in atmospheric air, dry oxygen, and inert gases.II. PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDATION WITH NEAR ULTRA‐VIOLET AND VISIBLE LIGHT‐ The photochemical degradation of cotton and other textile fibres by light transmitted through glass is increased by various dyes and pigments. The sensitising dyes may belong to the following classes‐ vat, acetate, direct cotton, basic, acid, and sulphur; the pigments include zinc oxide, zinc sulphide, and titanium dioxide. The degradation of the various textile fibres is dependent upon the presence of oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere and is negligible in its absence. The mechanism of the degradation is discussed, and the evidence for the suggestion that the degradation is due to oxidation of the fibre by activated oxygen and hydrogen peroxide is examined. Evidence is described which favours the belief that activated oxygen is a metastable form of molecular oxygen.
The Application of s‐Bisalkoxymethylureas (Dialkyl Ethers of Dimethylolurea) to Wool
Authors: Alexander P. , Carter D. , Earland C. 
Published: July 2010

Condensates derived from dialkyl ethers of dimethylolurea have been applied to wool fabrio with a view to rendering it unshrinkable. Although the lower ethers are ineffective for this purpose, the condensate from the di‐n‐butyl ether makes fabric unshrinkable with a deposit of less than 10%. Fabric treated with this condensate possesses a greatly improved resistance to abrasion, and yarn an increased tensile strength. It is considered that resins derived from these ethers function by a “spot‐welding” mechanism, as do the melamine resins and anhydrooarboxyglycine.We wish to thank Messrs. Wolsey Ltd. for permission to publish this paper.
Fixed Standards for Staining Assessment in Fastness Testing
Authors: Davies O. L. , Marney E. 
Published: July 2010

A series of twenty‐four patterns, representing typical stains likely to be encountered in fastness testing, were assessed by 103 assessors, making 3192 assessments in all; each assessment was made with both the I.C.I, standards (nine hues) and the Munsell grey standards.Statistical analysis of the results showed that the difference in reliability of the two scales was not of sufficient magnitude to be of practical importance. Although the two scales were developed independently, the differences between them are surprisingly small, and for all practical purposes the scales may be regarded as identical.
The Reaction of Acrylonitrile with Macromolecular Hydroxy Substances I—A General Survey of the Reaction
Authors: MacGregor J. H. 
Published: July 2010

The interaction of acrylonitrile with the reactive hydrogen atoms of the hydroxy groups of macro‐molecular organic substances such as cellulose, starch, and polyvinyl alcohol is described. It is shown that water‐insoluble (caustic alkali‐soluble), water‐soluble, and acetone‐soluble β‐cyanoethyl ethers are produced by modifying the molar amounts of acrylonitrile reacting with these macromolecular hydroxy substances. The properties of these partly and fully cyanoethylated ethers are reviewed and probable industrial applications suggested, with special reference to the textile field.The nature of the rather complex reactions which occur when acrylonitrile reacts with aqueous solutions of these high polymers in the presence of a caustic alkali as catalyst is discussed and explained. The stepwise course of the alkaline hydrolysis of the β‐cyanoethyl ethers is also described.
The Reduction of Vat Dyes in Printing Pastes
Authors: Marshall W. J. , Peters R. H. 
Published: July 2010

The relation between the reduction properties of vat dyes measured under conditions akin to practice and their printing properties has been examined. Leuco potentials have been determined from electrometric titrations in aqueous solutions, and they have been found to govern the sensitivity of the dyes to the Formosul concentration.Complementary to these measurements are those in which the reducing strengths of the pastes have been determined from the potentials developed at a platinum electrode. These results have been related to the leuco potentials of the dyes, and it has been shown that the maximum potentials reached are adequate to reduce all the dyes. Their duration, however, is short for the low concentrations of Formosul and long for the high concentrations. This is due to decomposition of the reducing agent in the presence of gum, and some decomposition rates are given.The rates of reduction have been measured in print pastes using a model steamer. The times required for complete reduction cover a wide range, but for most dyes they are a substantial proportion of the time allowed for steaming, and must be considered when the printing efficiency of a dye is assessed.Finally, provided the dye is completely reduced, the maximum fixation is determined by its affinity; rates of diffusion in the fibre, solubility of the leuco dye in the paste, and acid leuco formation do not appear to be important.
The Combination of Wool with Acids
Authors: Peters L. 
Published: July 2010

Conclusions drawn from experiments on the combination of keratin with mixtures of sulphuric and hydrochloric acids 1,5 are criticised. Inconsistencies in the data are corrected, and the results recalculated on this basis.It is shown that the statistical test employed cannot be used to decide between rival theories, and the exact meaning to be attached to t‐values is illustrated by an example.A critical examination is made of the assumptions which have to be made to test the Donnan and Gilbert‐.Rideal theories, and the claim that these data favour the latter is rejected.
The Design and Construction of a Differential Refractometer for Measurements on Coloured Solutions
Authors: Atherton E. , Cowgill E. 
Published: July 2010

A differential refractometer, suitable for the measurement of refractive indices of dyes, is described and some of its uses are indicated. The instrument is of the prism type, utilising a small spectrometer to provide monochromatic light. Refractive index values are obtained by means of a rotating mirror driven by a differential screw, which cancels the deviation conferred on the light beam by the dye solution.Several advantages of the instrument for measurements in spectral regions of maximum absorpation are discussed.
A Study of Certain Natural Dyes II‐The Structure of the Metallic Lakes of the Brazilwood and Logwood Colouring Matters
Authors: Arshid F. M. , Connelly R. F. , Desai J. N. , Fulton R. G. , Giles C. H. , Kefalas J. C. 
Published: July 2010

The lake‐forming reactions of the oxidised and reduced forms of the logwood and brazilwood colouring matters with the more important mordanting metals have been investigated. The oxidised forms appear to be the lake‐forming species, the o‐hydroxyquinone system of the molecule chelating with the mordanting metal atom; the leuco forms must first be oxidised by air or the mordanting salt before lake formation can take place. When a chromate or a dichromate is used as mordant, this is first reduced to the chromic cation, at the expense of the total destruction of some of the colouring matter, before lake formation occurs.The logwood colouring matter, when treated with a chromium salt in solution or on the fibre, forms a deep blue 2: 1 (dye: metal) complex, which is preceded by a transient purple 1: 1 complex. Aluminium, cobalt, and (ferric) iron also form 2: 1 complexes, and copper appears to form a 1: 1 complex.The lakes formed in substance are amorphous, infusible, and almost insoluble in all solvents. Exact characterisation of these bodies, which appear to be mixtures, is not practicable, but by a consideration of probable reaction sequences, in conjunction with the elementary analyses, a series of formulæ have been drawn up which are believed to represent their most probable constitutions. The development of insolubility is believed to be due to one or more of the following effects‐ mutual precipitation of cationic or anionic lakes by complex anions or cations respectively, formation of non‐ionic lakes, and the form of condensation polymerisation known as “olation“.It is suggested that similar changes occur in the fibre during the normal mordanting and dyeing processes, and that parallel reaction sequences may take place in dyeing other forms of mordant dye.The deep blue‐black logwood lake on the fibre is believed to be a mixture of an anionic complex, e.g. [hnCr(OH)2hn]‐ [Cr(OH)2H2O)4+, 4H2O with the derived olated body‐The iron lake is probably similar in constitution.In addition to the action of the chelating groups, the phenolic groups not in the quinonoid nucleus of the colouring matter molecule appear to take part also in salt formation with cobalt or copper, but not with chromium or iron.
The Mechanisms of some Reactions between N‐Halogenoamines and Wool*
Authors: Earland Christopher 
Published: July 2010

It is shown that the reactions occurring between wool and N‐halogenoamines do not proceed by common mechanisms. Although these reactions are complex, it is concluded thatndash(a) N‐Chlorourea diffuses into the fibre, where the chlorine produced by the equilibrium—NH2·CO·NHCl+H++CI‐NH2·CO·NH2+Cl2reacts with the keratin. This explains why the properties of the wool after reaction with N‐chlorourea differ from those of wool which has been treated with chlorine in acid solution, since under the latter conditions reaction proceeds from the outside to the interior of the fibre.(b) It has been shown previously that N‐chlorosulphamic acid enters into reactions with wool in acid solution, although reactions that confer unshrinkability occur only in presence of chloride ions at high concentration. Kinetic studies indicate that the rate‐determining stop in these reactions is the ionexchange process that determines the rate of access of the N‐chlorosulphamic acid to the wool. The overall rate of the reactions occurring is accordingly reduced by increasing the concentration of anions, including chloride ions, in the solution. Examination of a number of anions, other than chloride, as possible promoters of the anti‐shrink reaction indicates that nitrate also is a promoter, though much less effective than chloride.(c) The high concentrations of free bromine which are produced when solutions of N‐bromoacetamide and N‐bromosuccinimide react with wool show that these reactions are essentially brominations. In the initial stages direct reaction between the bromamines and wool is possible, the rate‐controlling factor being a diffusion process.
An Explanation of Dyeing Mechanisms in Terms of Non‐polar Bonding
Authors: Derbyshire A. N. , Peters R. H. 
Published: July 2010

Inadequacies are demonstrated in previous attempts to explain dyeing mechanisms on the assumption of polar forces between dye and fibre. The important part played by non‐polar forces in adsorption phenomena generally is illustrated by examples. It is postulated that such forces are mainly responsible for dye‐fibre attachment and that in aqueous solution they occur between hydrophobic surfaces.The relative importance of hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties in fibres is deduced from their moisture regain figures and is discussed in relation to fibre structure. The properties of dyes are then similarly considered. Thence the dyeing behaviour of each type of fibre is predicted from the postulate that dye substantivity is due to non‐polar forces. It is concluded that this assumption is sufficient to explain the methods adopted for dyeing different fibres and that it eliminates anomalies incapable of explanation on the assumption that dye‐fibre attachment is due to polar forces.
The Rates of Desorption of Level‐dyeing Acid Dyes from Wool
Authors: NICHOLLS C. H. 
Published: July 2010

A study of the initial rates of desorption of level‐dyeing acid dyes from wool into sodium borate (borax) solution has indicated a linear relationship between the dye removed, expressed as a percentage of the total dye initially present, and the square root of the time. Activation energies of diffusion during desorption from wool have been determined for several dyes.The effects of method of application of dye, nature of dye, and nature of substrate on rates of desorption of acid dyes from wool have been determined. It is shown that the rate of desorption is controlled by the relative magnitudes of the forces of repulsion between the charged fibre and the dye anion and the forces of attraction, such as van der Waals, hydrogen bonds, etc., between fibre and dye. Any fibre modifieation which results in an increase in the number of free acidic groups, such as dyeing at low pH values, acid chlorination. or peroxide bleaching, increases the rate of removal of dye by alkaline solution.
The Disperse Dyes — Their Development and Application
Authors: FOURNESS R. K. 
Published: July 2010

The disperse dyes have come to be applied to a very large number and variety of fibres and have therefore achieved an importance which is probably greater than the weights used would suggest. They were the first type to be applied directly to a fibre from an insoluble suspension. Their preparation includes a process of particle size reduction and often subsequent drying, both in the presence of a dispersing agent. The mechanism of dyeing with them would seem to entail their passing from suspension through solution on to the fibre, to which they become attached by non‐polar forces.The colouring matters used in the preparation of disperse dyes belong mainly to three chemical groups. The connection between dyeing and fastness properties on the one hand and chemical constitution on the other is in general indefinite. However, the best fastnesses are obtained by moving in the direction of greater molecular complexity, but this unfortunately is accompanied by a reduction in dyeing power. The introduction in recent years of the man‐made fibres has accelerated the development of new application methods, and these are assisting the dyer to utilise these more complex dyes. This tendency emphasises that the achievement of better fastness with disperse dyes will require, as with other dyeing classes, a close understanding between, and the combined efforts of, both those working on the elaboration of new dye structures and those whose interests lie in one or other aspects of dye application.
The Dyeing of Cellulose Acetate with Non‐ionic Dyes IIIndashDyeing from the Vapour Phase
Authors: Majury T. G. 
Published: July 2010

A study has been made of the absorption from the vapour phase, by secondary cellulose acetate, of five model dyes. These are p‐nitroaniline, NN‐dimethyl‐p‐nitroaniline, azobenzene, p‐aminoazobenzene, and NN′‐dimethyl‐p‐aminoazobenzene. The amounts absorbed at equilibrium have been measured, and their dependence on the vapour pressure of the dyes and the temperature of the substrate has been established.The vapour pressures of the dyes have been measured over a range of temperatures, those of azobenzene by manometry and the remainder by Knudsen's effusion method. The results together with the absorption data yield absorption isotherms from which are derived the isosteric heats of absorption of the dyes on cellulose acetate. The values, in the above order, are as followsndash21.2,–21.4,–17.8,–22.0, a22.7 kcal. /mole.The vapour pressure data are also used to evaluate the heats of vaporisation or sublimation of the dyes. These heats are applied to aqueous dyeing data already published to derive the absolute heats of association of the dyes on cellulose acetate. The results are in substantial agreement with the heats of absorption of the vaporised dyes.A brief study has been made of the absorption by, nylon and Terylene of vaporised azobenzene. The results for nylon yield a value for the heat of absorption of–18.0 kcal./mole. The results for Terylene are insufficiently complete for quantitative treatment.
The Spectral Regions of Daylight which cause Fading
Authors: McLaren K. 
Published: July 2010

Organic colouring matters are faded by absorbed ultraviolet and visible radiation up to a critical wavelength, above which radiation is non‐actinic even if strongly absorbed. This wavelength is generally related to the normal light fastness of the colouring matter, “normal” referring to the substrate for which it was originally developed, e.g. vat dyes on cotton, disperse dyes on acetate rayon. The critical wavelength decreases as the resistance to fading increases, being in the red when the light fastness is 1–2 (minimum) and in the blue when it is 6–8 (maximum); there are, however, some exceptions to this rule.As long‐wave radiations preponderate in daylight and as the absorption bands are usually strongest in the visible spectrum, fugitive organic colouring matters are mainly faded by visible light, whilst those of high normal light fastness can in general be faded only by ultraviolet, violet, and blue light.The differences between the composition of actinic radiation constituting daylight and that emitted by the enclosed carbon arc have been shown to be relatively unimportant as a possible source of gross anomalies in light fastness testing based on comparison with light fastness standards. These differences do, however, render meaningless any attempts to equate one hour's lamp exposure with so many hours' sunshine.
Some Observations on the Dyeing of Dicel and Tricel Yarns and Fabrics
Authors: OLPIN H. C. , WOOD J. 
Published: July 2010

Full colours are obtainable on Dicel and Tricel with disperse, azoic, and developed dyes. A carrier technique, no longer considered necessary for Dicel, is valuable for Tricel, for which high‐temperature dyeing also can be used. Azoic combinations, applicable to both fibres by the concurrent technique, show variable resistance to permanent change of colour on ironing. Some combinations are substantially free from this trouble, but in all cases where it takes place it is associated with change in the degree of aggregation, which suggests redispersion of the dye aggregates in the fibre.Developed navy blues and blacks are more satisfactory than direct dyeings, and 3‐hydroxy‐2‐naphthoic acid can be used as a developer for both navy blues and blacks on Tricel owing to its greater resistance to change in colour with alkali on that fibre.Disperse dyes of the C. I. Disperse Blue 27 type are acidic, and their alkali‐metal salts are very vulnerable to destruction by light and by oxidising agents, which imposes restrictions on their usefulness on Dicel. On Tricel, however, where salt formation does not take place, these blues are quite safe for all purposes.