bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
L
ivingstone,
D
avid (1813–1873)
Authors: Bruce James E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

David Livingstone, a Scottish medical doctor, missionary, and explorer, was already an international celebrity when
New York Herald
reporter and adventurer Henry Morton Stanley (1841–1904) searched for him in the jungles of Africa. When he found Livingstone, Stanley purportedly quipped, “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?” — a phrase that has perhaps become more famous than the man himself.
Laying on of Hands
Authors: Fatokun Samson Adetunji 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In biblical Christianity, the culture of laying on of hands has its origin in the Old Testament scripture for such purposes as parental bestowal of inheritance rights, conferment or transfer of authority and installation into offices, and substitution sacrificial rites. In Genesis 48:14–20, for instance, Jacob laid his hands on the two sons of Joseph for blessings and bestowal of inheritance rights; in Numbers 27:18–23, in strict compliance with divine injunction, Moses made Joshua stand before Eleazar the priest and all the congregation of Israel, and laid his hands on him — thus transferring his leadership authority to him and commissioning him as his successor to take Israel to the promised land (cf. Deut. 34:9). Similarly, in the ritual prescriptions for sin offering, hands are to be laid upon the head of the sacrificial animal used as a substitute for sin (see such passages as Exod. 29:10, 15, 19; Lev. 1:4; 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4, 15, 24, 29, 33; 8:14, 18, 22; 16:21). In Numbers 8:10–11, hands were laid upon the Levites by the elders of the tribes of Israel to set them apart as the representatives of the nation in the service of God as a substitution for all the firstborn of the other tribes (vv. 16–19). The ritual of laying on of hands in the Old Testament also features in the rituals surrounding the execution of a blasphemer — witnesses are to lay hands on such a fellow as a substitution of their innocence for his or her guilt, after which the whole congregation are to participate in the stoning of the offender to free the land from guilt (Lev. 24:13–16 cf. Deut. 13:9; 17:7).
L
loyd‐
J
ones,
D
avid
M
artyn (1899–1981)
Authors: Bruce James E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
David Martyn Lloyd‐Jones, a famous evangelical preacher, was born in Cardiff, Wales, but moved to London in 1914. He practiced medicine for a short time, from 1921 to 1927, before returning to Wales to be a minister.
Lordship Salvation
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Lordship salvation is prevalent terminology for a current controversy that seems to have begun in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Everett F. Harrison and John R. W. Stott first debated the issue in the September 1959 issue of
Eternity
magazine. Three positions have since been defended: pro‐lordship, non‐lordship, and anti‐lordship. The term “lordship salvation” is a connotation that insinuates much confusion, and is a source of discomfort for those who have engaged in the debate. Those who affirm a pro‐lordship view believe faith and obedience are the result of God's effective (efficacious) grace; this view would be better understood as the “effective‐grace” position. Pro‐lordship advocates argue that faith alone justifies, but not the faith which is alone (
la fides justificat, sed non fides quae est sola
). The kind (or quality) of faith that is the means of justification results in obedience since the existence of spiritual life (regeneration) is assumed. Charles C. Ryrie defended the non‐lordship position (“non‐effective‐grace”) in a chapter of his book,
Balancing the Christian Life
(1969), which compared the pro‐lordship position to the Galatian legalism (Gal 1:6–9). Non‐lordship advocates argue that obedience should be a consequence of justification and is essential for perseverance in complete discipleship. A necessary corollary of the non‐lordship position is belief that a true Christian can remain in a state of carnality (sin). In defense of the pro‐lordship view, John F. MacArthur responded with his work,
The Gospel According to Jesus
(1988), to which Ryrie responded in 1989 with
So Great Salvation
. In defense of the anti‐lordship view (“Free Grace”), Zane Hodges entered the debate the same year. MacArthur responded a second time in 1993 (and also provided clarifications). Numerous other advocates of the three positions have since responded. The “Free Grace” movement best represents the terminology desired of those affirming anti‐lordship. Anti‐lordship advocates affirm the possibility of being a Christian yet such an individual by their works may deny Jesus Christ (cf. Titus 1:16).
Lourdes, Apparitions At
Authors: Hayes Patrick J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
According to the records, Bernadette Soubirous, age 14, shepherdess, began to receive 18 visions of what she described as a girl dressed in white on February 11, 1858. The apparitions at Massabieille, near the river Gave de Pau which flows by the city of Lourdes, would continue until July 16. The vision would identify herself: “I am the Immaculate Conception.” The visions of Mary Immaculate were not shared with her companions, whom Bernadette at first had believed saw the same sight. But the visions belonged to her alone, though they would quickly be rent from her control. Successive investigations of her truthfulness in relating the accounts gradually moved from dubiousness to belief. Local townspeople, civil, and ecclesiastical authorities all made the visions an object of their concern, drawing hundreds and then thousands — both for spiritual and economic reasons. Nearly four years after the experience, Bernadette's visions were authenticated by the local Bishop of Tarbes, Bertrand‐Sévère Laurence. Bernadette Soubirous entered the Sisters of Charity at Nevers and died on Easter Day, 1879, aged 35. One of the miracles used for her canonization (1939) was the incorruptibility of her body postmortem. Within a decade after her visions ceased, local officials approved massive railroad construction projects in anticipation of making Lourdes a shrine and a major pilgrimage destination. The “chapel” which the Virgin asked for has become an elaborate complex in order to accommodate as many sick pilgrims as possible, many of which are bedridden. Today the Lourdes shrine gathers around 5 million pilgrims annually. There have been 67 thoroughly documented miraculous cures related to the shrine's baths, which are fed by natural springs. These cures are given approbation by the local bishop and are considered inexplicable by the Medical Bureau of the Sanctuary and the International Medical Committee of Lourdes.
Love
Authors: Vacek Edward 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
When asked which of the 613 Jewish Commandments was the greatest, Jesus responded by naming two (Deut. 6:5; Lev. 19:18). The first is to love God completely; the second is to love the neighbor as oneself (Matt. 22:37–40). Throughout history and still today, this double demand has not secured a commonly accepted meaning. Four fundamental areas receive widely divergent interpretations: the nature, the kinds, the objects, and the subjects of love.
L
ucado,
M
ax (
b
. 1955)
Authors: Brenneman Todd M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Inspirational author and minister. Max Lucado grew up in the West Texas town of Andrews as the youngest of four children. He attended college at Abilene Christian University, a school affiliated with the Churches of Christ (spiritual descendants of Alexander Campbell). Originally planning to be a lawyer or to become involved in politics, Lucado decided to go into missions. After a graduate degree, Lucado prepared to be a missionary by working in ministry for two years in Miami. During his time there, Lucado developed columns for the church bulletin that eventually became his first book,
On the Anvil
.
Lutheran Churches
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
As different countries in Europe became Lutheran during and after the Reformation, numerous church buildings that once were Catholic became Lutheran churches. The physical structure of these churches for the most part reflected the Gothic architectural design, although most of the smaller churches did not have the splendor of the large Gothic cathedrals. But similar to the Gothic cathedrals, these churches commonly had a narthex, a nave, a center aisle (symbolizing the virtual shaft of the cross), a transept (symbolizing the horizontal arm of the cross), sanctuary (also known as chancel), altar, stained‐glass windows, and a steeple(s), usually capped with a cross(es). Most of these features, except for the large stained‐glass windows, were also part of the Romanesque church architecture that preceded the Gothic churches. Retaining the architecture of formerly Catholic churches was not problematic to Lutherans, for similar to Luther, they never questioned or rejected the use of Christian symbols, such as the cross, crucifixes, or altars.
Lutheranism
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
On October 31, 1517, an Augustinian monk named Martin Luther, according to tradition, nailed to the door of All Saints Church (also known as the Castle Church) 95 Theses that he argued needed to be discussed and debated by professors at the university in Wittenberg. The Theses questioned the biblical basis of church authorities selling indulgences to people to obtain the forgiveness of their sins.
M
acDonald,
G
eorge (1824–1905)
Authors: Johnson Kirstin Jeffrey 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born in Huntly, Aberdeenshire, in Scotland, to farmer and mill‐owner George and Helen (MacKay) MacDonald, George MacDonald was the author of approximately 50 volumes comprising poetry, fairy tales, novels, short stories, sermons, essays, hymns, translated poetry, and literary criticism. Best recognized today for his fiction, both for adults and children, he is considered a patriarch of modern Fantasy — but one of his many interfacing genres. Nineteenth‐century critics claimed that his presentation of God as loving and longing Father, within fiction, was revolutionary. His explorations of the theological role of the imagination, implicit throughout but carefully articulated in “The Imagination and Its Functions,” profoundly influenced G. K. Chesterton, C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, and Dorothy Sayers.
M
achen,
J
ohn
G
resham (1881–1937)
Authors: Buss Dietrich Gotthilf 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
An American Presbyterian theologian and professor of New Testament at Princeton Seminary, J. Gresham Machen was an eloquent defender of the evangelical position in the Modernist–Conservative controversy of the 1920s and 1930s. Machen was born on July 28, 1881 in Baltimore, Maryland into a family that had Southern roots. His father, Arthur Machen, was a prominent lawyer who taught John a love for the classics; his mother, Mary Gresham, was rooted in “Old School” Presbyterian theology and early taught John the love of Scripture and the Westminster Catechism. Machen attended a private academy and received a classical education that included Latin and Greek.
M
acquarrie,
J
ohn (1919–2007)
Authors: Carrigan Henry L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
One of the leading theologians of the 20th century, John Macquarrie developed a Christian existentialist theology that integrated the principles of Martin Heidegger's philosophy into traditional categories of Christian systematic theology. Although he taught at both Union Theological Seminary in New York and Oxford University, his experiences in the local church parish and as a chaplain in World War II convinced him of the deeply human anxieties, doubts, and needs that motivated most people's religious questions. Macquarrie pursued such questions throughout his career, even up through the publication of his last book.
Majority World Missions
Authors: Rance DeLonn 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Missionary activity is no longer predominately the domain of Western Christianity. Increasing numbers of missionaries are being commissioned and sent out from churches in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. As this movement has emerged and evolved, missiologist have referred to it as third world missions, two‐thirds world missions, non‐Western missions, emerging missions, and missions from the global south. “Majority world” is apropos of the majority of the world's land mass, population, ethnolinguistic groups, unevangelized people and Christians are found in these regions.
Mandaeans
Authors: Childers J. W. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Ethnic community from southern Iraq and southwestern Iran, today numbering possibly as many as about 30,000–40,000, though estimates vary significantly. Designated
subba
(“baptizers”) by their Arab neighbors, Mandaeans are distinguished by a religion that bears strong affinities with Judaism, a kind of monotheistic dualism with roots that go back at least into the 3rd century, by which time it appears that a group of Mandaeans had migrated westward from the Jordan valley to the rivers and canals of their present ancestral locale. The name
mandaiia
is normally taken to relate to the term
madda
/
manda
, i.e. “knowledge,” corresponding to Greek
gnosis
. However, it may instead refer to the
mandi
, a temple space consecrated for traditional rituals, or perhaps even to the principal redeemer figure, Manda d‐Hiia (“Knowledge of Life”).
Mar Thoma Church
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

“Mar Thoma Church” is the term used to refer to the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church which consists of 1 million members in India. A theologically reformed but structurally episcopal and oriental offshoot of the St. Thomas Christians, it gained its present identity between 1830 and 1889. Its roots date back to a Reformation movement started by a teacher and priest of the Syrian Orthodox Church, Palakunnathu Abraham Malpan in the 19th century. However, the Mar Thoma Church sees the history of the Thomas Christians as its own history. It is one of several groups of St. Thomas Christians tracing their origins to St. Thomas the Apostle who, according to tradition, came to India in
ad
52. Their bishops see themselves in the line of apostolic succession that leads back to St. Thomas, with bishop lists going back through the centuries. Milestones of the parenting church, the Syrian Orthodox Church, were the Synod of Diamper (1599), the Coonan Cross Oath (1653), Mavelikara Synod (1836), and the Synod of Mulanthuruthy (1876).
M
arcion of
S
inope (Early 2
nd
Century)
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Of all the heterodox figures that flourished in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, Marcion's views were attacked the most frequently and extensively. Hegesippus, Justin Martyr, and Theophilus of Antioch wrote the earliest known refutations, but none survive. Major works against Marcion consist of Tertullian's five volume treatise (c.200) and Ephrem of Nisibis in Syriac‐speaking communities (4th century), but care is given to repudiating Marcionism by Irenaeus (late 2nd century), Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen (3rd century). Brief prologues to three gospels and most of Paul's letters have been discovered in various editions of the Old Latin Bible that may date as early as the 2nd century. Altogether, these serve as a solemn testimony to the widespread reception that Marcionism had in churches throughout the east and west. Unfortunately, none of Marcion's own writings have come down to us, which hampers our ability to know exactly what he taught and why. Our knowledge about Marcion and what became Marcionism is a project of reconstruction.
Marcionism
Authors: Hartog Paul 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Marcionism originated in the teachings of Marcion of Sinope, who was expelled from the church in Rome around 144
ce
. Since Marcion's
Antitheses
are no longer extant, scholars have attempted to reconstruct his doctrines via his opponents. Marcion argued that the rigidly just and vengeful God of the Hebrew Scriptures should be distinguished from the true, “alien” God, the loving Father of Jesus Christ. Marcion also rejected the Jewish Scriptures, which he considered to be cruel and crude and thus intellectually scandalous. He further argued that Jesus was not the prophesied Jewish Messiah and that Paul was the only apostle to have truly understood the new salvation found in Jesus, but even Paul's writings had been altered. The marcionite canon included a redacted edition of the Gospel of Luke and ten emended Pauline epistles. While Marcionism entailed an aversion to the material world, it lacked the elaborate, speculative myths and emphasis upon secret knowledge that characterized gnosticisms. According to Tertullian, Marcion espoused a form of docetism and denied a future resurrection of the body. Marcionism was usually characterized by a rigorous asceticism and a willingness to suffer persecution and even martyrdom. Marcionism developed a well‐organized ecclesiastical structure, enabling it to become a formidable alternative to the mainstream church. Justin Martyr claimed that Marcionism had already spread among “many people of every nation” (
Apology
, 1.26). Some of Marcion's followers developed their theologies in new and variant directions. For example, Apelles claimed that there was only one god, while others spoke of three divine principles: good, just, and evil. Marcionism survived in the west into the 4th century, and it continued in the east even longer. As late as the 5th century, Orthodox Church members were urged to use caution while traveling, lest they unintentionally enter and participate in a Marcionite assembly. The Trullan Synod at Constantinople (622
ce
) regulated the reception of Marcionites into the Orthodox Church. So‐called “Marcionite” prologues to the Pauline epistles appear in numerous Vulgate manuscripts, but their exact origin is disputed.
Maronites
Authors: Dekki Christopher George 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The history of the Maronite Church and its people has been one of constant struggle. Lebanese Maronites, with their insatiable desire for independence from the Arab world, have constantly been at odds with their neighbors both within the Levant and throughout the Middle East. Even in the early days of the Maronite Church, religious leaders and their flocks have gone to great lengths to embrace the West. As modern Middle Eastern Catholics attempt to resist Rome's attempts at Latinizing them, the Maronites stand alone as being content with Eastern Catholicism's subservience to the Roman papacy. Much like the humble Syrian hermit whose teachings and way of life led to the creation of this church, its people continue to choose to isolate themselves from their immediate surroundings.
M
arshall,
P
eter (1902–1949)
Authors: Streett R. Alan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Peter Marshall was a Presbyterian minister and Chaplain of the United States Senate. Born in Coatbridge (near Glasgow), Scotland, on May 27, 1902, Marshall was reared in a poverty‐stricken coal‐mining community by his mother and stepfather. From an early age Peter enjoyed reading stories about missionaries and decided that one day he would be a missionary to China. To meet the educational requirements, he enrolled in evening classes while working in the mines by day, but his progress was slow. In 1927, when he was about to give up hope, a cousin offered to pay Peter's way to America, where he could receive proper ministerial training.
M
artini,
S
imone (1284–1344)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Siennese painter, the most distinguished after Duccio. His earliest dated work is a large fresco in the town hall at Sienna of the
Maestà
(1315 and 1321), a Madonna and child enthroned in the midst of saints. Later Simone went to Assisi where he painted a chapel in the lower church with scenes from the
Life of St. Martin
. The frescoes are characterized by sinuous lines and vivid naturalism. In 1324 Simone married the sister of the painter Lippo Memmi, who became his partner. Both signed the
Annunciation
(1333), an altarpiece. A later work is a polyptych with separate panels containing the
Annunciation
,
Crucifixion
, and
Deposition
, as well as the
Entry into Jerusalem
and
Entombment
. In 1401 Simone went to Avignon and remained there until his death. At Avignon he painted
Christ Returning to his Parents after Disputing in the Temple
. Two frescoes in the Cathedral of Notre‐Dame des Doms in Avignon,
Christ in Majesty with the Angels
and
Virgin and Child with Angels
, were commissions from the papal court but now survive only as underpaintings. Martini was one of the main sources of the International Gothic.
Martyrdom
Authors: Rushing Scott 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The word “martyr” is derived from the Greek word
marturia
, meaning “witness.”
Marturia
is a legal word that implies observation and attestation in the Greek courts. Within Christian usage, martyrs were those persons whose deaths witnessed to Christ as Lord, while the label of “confessor” was given to those who had confessed Christ but not been punished by death.
Martyrs and Martyrology
Authors: Culpepper Scott 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Tales of the martyrs, faithful Christians who sealed their witness in blood, have inspired the Christian church since its inception. The Greek term
martys
literally means “one who bears witness.” The term generally denoted the act of giving testimony at a legal proceeding. While all early Christians were called to bear witness of Christ, the term
martys
or martyr gradually became specifically applied to those who paid the ultimate earthly price for that witness. The stories describing those deaths were widely circulated, creating a “cult of the martyrs” in which the deeds of these witnesses were recounted to inspire devotion in others. Both the Latin and Greek churches produced martyrologies detailing the deaths of prominent saints and listing their feast days. In the 16th century, Protestants began to collect martyr stories and publish them as martyrologies. Protestant martyrologies were often as much attempts to tie a particular Christian theological tradition to the early church as they were conduits of inspiration for the faithful. These story collections had a typical style and focus that created a new, distinct genre of Christian literature.
Material Belief
Authors: Morgan David 
Published: January 2012

AbstractChristianity has generally been understood as a system of beliefs. From the perspective of doctrines and dogmas, wrought by intense argument that has defined the contentious line distinguishing orthodoxy and heterodoxy, that is certainly what it is. But that very history, so much a history of the body, opens onto a broader world of belief. As a lived matrix of practices, Christianity is what people do and feel, and this domain of behavior, intuitions, and inclinations is invested in the things that believers display, exchange, or venerate. Belief has a larger register than propositions to which one assents, important and relevant as these are. An inclusive history of Christian belief is one that integrates creed and body since the body of belief, properly speaking, is word and flesh bound together in a history of suffering and ecstasy, nurture and community, controversy and sacrifice. This essay offers an account of the history of Christian materiality from the apostolic age to the present, focusing on what operate as various and sometimes rival material economies of belief.