bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Neuronal plasticity after stroke
Authors: Nudo Randolph J. , Eisner-Janowicz Ines 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter begins by reviewing the sequence of events that results in neuronal injury after stroke. It then reviews the advantages and disadvantages of various animal models used to model stroke and ischemic cortical injury. It considers the relationship of various aspects of behavioral assessment and the understanding of post-stroke plasticity and recovery. After a brief review of the organization of the motor cortex, the chapter reviews the evidence that neurophysiological and neuroanatomical plasticity occurs after cortical injury, emphasizing the role of postinjury behavior in the modulation of injury-induced changes. The cellular and synaptic basis for postinjury plasticity is briefly reviewed. Finally, the role of the intact hemisphere in recovery of function after unilateral cortical injury is discussed.
Adaptive plasticity and sensory substitution in the cerebral cortex
Authors: Rauschecker Josef P. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter considers adaptive plasticity which allows experience-based cortical expansion within a modality if used as a model for the cross-modal plasticity accompanying the loss of a sense. This plasticity is shown through auditory and somatosensory activity in occipital cortex in blind subjects. Hebbian principles are thought to be the underlying mechanism of this reorganization.
Activation of the visual cortex by Braille reading in blind subjects
Authors: Merabet Lotfi B. , Amedi Amir , Pascual-Leone Alvaro 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes imaging studies showing responses to tactile and auditory stimuli in the occipital cortex in blind subjects. TMS, sensory deprivation, and further imaging techniques are employed to describe the functionality of, and possible mechanisms behind, this cross-modal plasticity.
Chance variation
Authors: Elwood J. Mark 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses the effects of chance variation that can be assessed by applying statistical tests. It is divided into three parts: the application of statistical tests and confidence limits to a simple 2 x 2 table; applications to stratified and matched studies, and to multivariate analysis; and life-table methods for the consideration of the timing of outcome events in a cohort study or intervention study. Self-test questions are provided at the end of the chapter.
Moral decision-making and the brain
Authors: Churchland Patricia Smith 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses the question of whether we can have thought without biology. Developments in neuroscience and cognitive science have made it possible to formulate a rough hypothesis concerning the neurobiology of ‘in-control’ brains, and the respects in which it differs from that of ‘not-in-control’ brains. This hypothesis must be framed in terms of a parameter space, the dimensions of which are specified in terms of neurobiological properties, especially of the prefrontal cortex, the limbic system, and the brainstem. As a consequence, ‘in control’ can be characterized neurobiologically as a volume within that parameter space. This provides a framework for further research on planning, decision-making, evaluation, and choice in nervous systems.
A case study of neuroethics: the nature of moral judgment
Authors: Roskies Adina 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes one particular neuroethical project in more depth, in order to provide a glimpse of what a neuroethical analysis might look like and the kinds of issues that such an analysis might engender. It characterizes in some detail a body of empirical results from neuroscience, and considers the implications of trying to integrate such knowledge into our social and ethical frameworks. It argues that moral belief or judgment is intrinsically motivating and that, in judging morally, one is automatically motivated to act in accordance with one's judgment.
Engineering the brain
Authors: Foster Kenneth R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the ethical issues raised by new technologies that allow investigators to monitor and control the brain, and how they are distinctive from those raised by other medical technologies, such as genetic testing. It begins with a brief review of some new technologies that have emerged from neuroscience. These devices are intended to stimulate selected regions of the brain or peripheral nervous system for therapeutic purposes, or, more recently, as brain-computer interfaces to allow the brain to exchange information with the outsideworld through direct recording of potentials measured by means of electrodes implanted in the motor cortex, or placed on the surface of the head.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation and the human brain: an ethical evaluation
Authors: Steven Megan S. , Pascual-Leone Alvaro 
Published: September 2009

AbstractTranscranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a neuroscientific technique that induces an electric current in the brain via application of a localized magnetic field pulse. The pulse penetrates the scalp and skull non-invasively and, depending on the parameters of stimulation, facilitates or depresses the local neuronal response with effects that can be transient or long lasting. While the mechanisms by which TMS acts remain largely unknown, the behavioral effects of the stimulation are reproducible and, in some cases, are highly beneficial. This chapter reviews the technique in detail and discusses safety as the paramount ethics issue for TMS. It further examines the ethical arguments for and against neuroenhancement with TMS and how the framework for acceptable practice must differ for patient and non-patient populations.
Roles of Early and Late Nocturnal Sleep for the Consolidation of Human Memories
Authors: Born Jan , Gais Steffen 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the degree of memory processing following the first half of the night (the bulk of which is deep NREM sleep) compared to the memory processing in the second half of the night (which is composed mostly of REM sleep). It compares the memory for various types of acquired tasks after these two time intervals, and shows that declarative or episodic material is enhanced after a session of NREM sleep, while procedural/implicit or emotional material is not. On the other hand, memory for procedural/implicit and emotional material is enhanced after a session of REM sleep, but not after NREM sleep. The role of neuroendocrine and neurotransmitter processes is examined.
Role of Rem Sleep in Brain Development and Plasticity
Authors: Mirmiran Majid , Ariagno Ronald L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses the role of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep in early brain development. Existing data suggest that REM sleep deprivation (REMD) in infants may retard brain growth and synaptic plasticity. The chapter also reviews past findings and provides an interesting hypothesis about the possible role of REMD in the development of depression.
Cerebral Correlates of Memory Consolidation During Human Sleep: Contribution of Functional Neuroimaging
Authors: Peigneux Philippe , Laureys Stevan , Cleeremans Axel , Maquet Pierre 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe brain dynamics in humans can be explored using a wide variety of non-invasive neuroimaging techniques: electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), single photon emission tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). This chapter focuses on the contributions of PET and fMRI. It concentrates on two main topics. First, the pattern of regional brain activity during sleep is consistent with the mechanisms described in animals at the microscopic systems level for the generation and maintenance of sleep states. This aspect is important because if sleep processes are similar in humans and in animals, the links between sleep and memory processes described in the latter are potentially valid in the former. Second, far from being fixed and stereotyped, regional brain function during sleep is modulated by the individual experience acquired during the previous waking period. The chapter presents evidence that these experience-dependent changes in regional brain activity are related to the amount of learning achieved by the subjects prior to sleep and also depend on the material to which the subjects have been exposed. These experiments provide the first experimental evidence in humans for a link between learning, as measured by behavioral methods, and the activity of neuronal populations during sleep.
Maintenance and Modification of Firing Rates and Sequences in the Hippocampus: Does Sleep Play a Role?
Authors: Buzsáki György , Carpi Daniel , Csicsvari Jozsef , Dragoi George , Harris Kenneth , Henze Darrell , Hirase Hajime 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter begins with a discussion of a two-stage model of memory trace formation. It then discusses the similarity of long-term firing rates and co-activation in the waking and sleeping brain, the impact of experience in a novel environment on firing patterns in subsequent sleep, homeostatic maintenance of firing rates, and downstream effects of cortical activity during sleep.
Recent Evidence of Memory Processing in Sleep
Authors: Pavlides Constantine , Ribeiro Sidarta 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIt has been hypothesized that sleep, and more specifically rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, plays a role in brain plasticity and memory consolidation. Although the initial evidence in support of this hypothesis was indirect or anecdotal, recent experimental evidence showing a direct link between sleep and information processing has been forthcoming. This evidence is derived from a wide variety of sources including behavioral, electrophysiological, and molecular studies. This chapter briefly reviews evidence from the former, then discusses recent molecular studies. It presents a model of how sleep may act to consolidate memories acquired during wakefulness.
Theoretical underpinning for the use of sibling studies in life course epidemiology
Authors: Strully Kate W , Mishra Gita D 
Published: September 2009

AbstractSiblings can have a great deal in common (e.g., parents, genes, early life home env1ironments, etc.), but they are also distinct individuals with unique personalities and physical traits. This chapter discusses how researchers can use similarities and differences across siblings to investigate questions of life course epidemiology. First, it discusses how sibling fixed effects models may help deal with residual confounding from unobserved family-level factors. Second, it discusses how behavioural genetics approaches can help unravel genetic heritability from environmental determinants of health. Finally, it explains genetic linkage studies in which researchers use siblings' DNA information to learn more about the effects of chromosomal regions and genes. When considering each of these strategies, the chapter reviews the relevant literature and discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the particular methods.
Random effects models for sibling and twin-based studies in life course epidemiology
Authors: Ripatti Samuli 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter introduces statistical methods for twin and sibling studies using random effects models. The classic twin study begins from assessing the variance of a trait (called a phenotype by geneticists) in a large group, and attempts to estimate how much of this is due to genetic effects (heritability), how much appears to be due to shared environmental effects, and how much is due to unique environmental effects — events occurring to one twin but not another. This chapter shows how three families of random effect models, random effects models for normally distributed traits, generalized linear mixed models for binary and count data, and frailty models for survival data may be used for modelling variances in longitudinal, or life course setting. The methods are illustrated using data from The Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging. The appendix provides the R and Winbugs codes that are used in the analyses.
Family-based studies applied to the influence of early life factors on cardiovascular disease
Authors: Lawlor Debbie A , Leon David A 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThere is good evidence that associations exist between fetal and other early life factors and subsequent risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) that can be replicated in a range of settings. These associations provide the evidential basis for the developmental origin of CVD in humans, which posits that susceptibility to CVD in later life is importantly influenced by the nature of the in utero, infant, and childhood environment. However, much of this evidence is from cohort studies of unrelated individuals, and it has been argued that these associations may be explained by confounding by genetic variation or uncontrolled aspects of the environment. This chapter describes how family-based studies, including twin, sibling, and intergenerational studies demonstrate the potential of family-based studies in throwing light on the developmental origins of CVD.
Epistemic Normativity
Authors: Grimm Stephen R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractAmong contemporary epistemologists, the most prominent way to make sense of epistemic evaluations is in teleological terms. On this way of looking at things, a belief earns positive marks just to the extent that it seems to promote or in some way bring about things with intrinsic epistemic value. By focusing on the role that the notion of intrinsic epistemic value plays in these accounts, this chapter argues the majority of these views are flawed. The chapter then turns to Sosa's version of the view, which escapes some of these problems but only by leaving out the deontological force of our epistemic evaluations. The chapter then develops a proposal of my own, which seems to avoid these problems.
The Trivial Argument for Epistemic Value Pluralism, or, How I Learned to Stop Caring about Truth
Authors: Brogaard Berit 
Published: September 2009

AbstractRelativism offers a nifty way of accommodating most of our intuitions about epistemic modals, predicates of personal taste, colour expressions, future contingents, and conditionals. But in spite of its manifest merits relativism is squarely at odds with epistemic value monism: the view that truth is the highest epistemic goal. The argument from relativism to epistemic value pluralism may be called the trivial argument for epistemic value pluralism. In this chapter the argument is formulated and three possible ways to refute it are examined. It is then argued that two of these are unsuccessful and the third, which involves denying that there are genuinely relative truths, is defended.
Evaluation of public health brands: Design, measurement, and analysis
Authors: Evans W. Douglas , Blitstein Jonathan , Hersey James C. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractBrand equity is the higher order construct that captures the effects of commercial and public health brands on outcomes. This chapter focuses on the effects of brand equity on individual health behaviour, but effects on upstream outcomes are important topics for future research. Brand equity mediates the effects of message exposure on consumer choice and health behaviour.
Case studies of youth tobacco prevention campaigns from the USA:Truthand half-truths
Authors: Farrelly Matthew C. , Davis Kevin C. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractFor decades cigarette companies have successfully harnessed the power of branding to transform a simple product into a powerful tool that projects a complex set of images and personality traits to its user. Beginning with California's large-scaled anti-smoking campaign in 1990 — the first in twenty years — tobacco control efforts began to counter and deconstruct cigarette brand imagery. In 1998, the Florida ‘truth’ campaign extended earlier efforts by California and Massachusetts to counter tobacco brands by developing a tobacco control brand aimed at youth and intended to take market share away from cigarette brands. Evidence shows that tobacco countermarketing campaigns are effective in reducing youth and adult smoking, and emerging literature suggests that the brand value or equity of youth tobacco counter brands adds value to the campaigns. However, branding in tobacco countermarketing campaigns remains uncommon.
6 Financier or Facilitator? The Changing Role of the IMF in Low‐Income Countries
Authors: Bird Graham , Rowlands Dane 
Published: September 2009

AbstractWith the added challenge of trying to meet the Millennium Development Goals, close attention is being paid to the relationship between the IMF and the low-income countries with which the Fund has the majority of its programs. This relationship covers a number of inter-connected issues incorporating both external financing and economic adjustment. For any poor country, conceptually there will be an optimal blend of external financing, short run stabilization and longer term economic reform. The key question is whether and to what extent the IMF helps countries discover and implement this blend. Circumstances may change over time. At a time when aid flows are declining the principal test facing the IMF is whether it can organize additional external financing either directly through its own lending facilities or by catalyzing others to lend. If aid flows are rising and the constraints imposed by external financing are being relaxed, the test is whether the Fund can help ensure that the additional financial resources are used to maximum benefit. This chapter overviews the general issues involved, but it also examines in greater depth the relationship between IMF programs and aid inflows to low-income countries.
8 Signaling, Aid, and IMF Financial Arrangements for Low‐Income Countries
Authors: Lane Timothy 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on how the IMF interacts with macroeconomic policy formulation in low-income countries (LICs). It addresses four related concerns. Can the IMF remain fully engaged with LICs without having a loan program (such as the PRGF) in place? How can it sign up to a macroeconomic approach characterized by greater fiscal flexibility? Is its approach (jointly with the World Bank) to debt sustainability adequate, especially in the context of aid concessionality? Is the type of technical assistance it offers suitable to the needs of LICs? The general conclusion is that the Fund has made considerable progress in addressing these issues, but that much more remains to be done: specifically, it should strengthen the underpinnings of its technical assistance and advice, develop a more focused low-income analytic perspective, build its own capacity to assist countries to explore their macroeconomic options, and more systematically evaluate its technical advice in the light of the outcomes this has helped to induce.
2 From Realism to Legalization: A Rationalist Assessment of the International Criminal Court in the Democratic Republic of Congo
Authors: Leonard Eric K. , Roach Steven C. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractRationalist or mainstream theories focus on the causal effects and functional properties of international law. One of the central problems of explaining the effectiveness of the ICC is that not all states can be expected to cooperate with the Office of the Prosecutor. While such uncertainty involves primarily the interests of non-State Parties, it is not entirely clear as to how territorial States Parties will seek to maximize their interests in their dealings with the Court. This chapter addresses this issue by focusing on the relationship between the institutional effectiveness of the ICC and the interests of State Parties. A key issue examined is the maximization of interests of these states vis-à-vis ICC prosecutorial discretion, and the problem that this raises for full cooperation. Employing a legalization framework, the chapter analyzes this issue in the context of the self-referral by the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). It argues that legalization theory, while limited in certain respects, offers an important analytical framework for examining the parameters or matrix of politicized justice.
3 Explaining the International Criminal Court: A Practice Test for Rationalist and Constructivist Approaches
Authors: Fehl Caroline 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe Court's controversial institutional design raises a crucial puzzle: Why was the new institution designed in such a way that it failed to gain the support of the one country which is, by all accounts, most important for enforcing its future decisions? In addressing this question, this chapter looks at two groups of theories for potential explanations: rationalist theories of international institutions, and the constructivist literature on the subject. It confronts theoretical arguments from both perspectives with the evidence given by participants and observers of the meetings and actions that have shaped the ICC. The purpose of this approach, however, is not a competitive theory testing in order to demonstrate which theory is correct or inherently better. Rather, it is to assess how helpful different theories are as analytical tools for identifying the relevant explanatory factors in a specific case, and especially how they can be usefully combined.
2 Principal parts and degrees of paradigmatic transparency
Authors: Finkel Raphael , Stump Gregory 
Published: September 2009

AbstractParadigm transparency is the extent to which an entire inflectional paradigm is deducible analogically from a subset of its component parts. This chapter proposes precise measures of paradigm transparency. Evidence from Chinantec and Fur demonstrates that paradigm transparency is a significant domain of typological variation, and that the No-Blur Principle is incompatible with this range of variation.
4 Resolving pattern conflict: Variation and selection in phonology and morphology
Authors: Wedel Andrew 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn a feedback-driven model of language change, conflict between patterns at distinct levels of linguistic organization can be understood as a form of multi-level selection. Simulations of conflicts between phonological and morphological patterns show that positive feedback can promote pattern consolidation at one level at the expense of the other. In this way, analogical generalizations over subparts of the lexicon can be shown to be emergent properties of complex linguistic systems.
7 Morphological analogy: Only a beginning
Authors: Goldsmith John 
Published: September 2009

AbstractA range of approaches to word structure assume segmentation of words into morphs. This chapter proposes explicit algorithm that takes natural language text as its input, and produces the morphological structure of text as its output. Within this model, formal notions that correspond naturally to the traditional notion of analogy are useful and important as part of a boot-strapping heuristic for the discovery of morphological structure. At the same time, it is necessary to develop a refined quantitative model in order to find the kind of articulated linguistic structures that are to be found in natural languages.