bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
2 Sex Radical Challenges to Marriage
Authors: Simmons Christina 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
White and African American sex radicals in the 1910s, mostly leftists, feminists, and bohemians, rejected Victorian mores, proclaimed the goodness of sex, and labeled sexual repression damaging. They reconceived women's sexuality as more similar to men's and demanded greater freedom for both men and women from social surveillance and control. They promoted birth control, free love, nonmonogamy, interracial relations, and lesbianism, but men and women, whites and African Americans, differentially favored these practices. White men supported free love and nonmonogamy and black men supported interracial sex more than their female peers. Both white and African American women supported women's claim to a sexual life and to birth control. By the 1930s a few lesbians articulated their desire. But many women resisted the individualistic practices of interracial sex, free unions, and nonmonogamy.
Electrical activity of nerve: The background up to 1952
Authors: HUXLEY SIR ANDREW 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses ideas about nerve conduction and developments up to 1952. Topics covered include studies on excitation of the nerve, the all-or-none character of the propagated response of individual motor nerve fibers and individual fibers of skeletal muscle, propagation of the impulse, and generating of the electric charge.
The oligodendrocyte, the perinodal astrocyte, and the central node of Ranvier
Authors: BLACK JOEL A. , SONTHEIMER HARALD , OH YOUNGSUK , WAXMAN STEPHEN G. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
The central role of Ranvier is a complex structure involves three cellular elements: the axon, the oligodendrocyte, and the perinodal astrocyte. This chapter examines the interaction of these three cell types at central node of Ranvier. It begins by examining the mechanism that regulates the development of the myelinated tracts that have properties that optimize the number of axonal functions. It then considers the molecular structure of the axon membrane, and the glial-axonal interactions that participate in the development of the axon membrane. It looks at the relationship between astrocytes and the central nervous system myelinated fibers.
Mechanisms of adhesion between axons and glial cells
Authors: SALZER JAMES L. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses the structural features of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) and their role in axonal-glial interactions of myelination and nerve fiber outgrowth. CAMs mediate many of the morphogenetic events that occur during nerve fiber outgrowth, ensheathment, and myelination. Dramatic changes in the expression of these molecules accompany and are likely to underlie these complex developmental processes. The molecular mechanisms by which these molecules regulate these events probably involve reorganization of the cytoskeleton and intracellular signaling events, but they remain little understood.
Axonal transport: Function and mechanisms
Authors: GRAFSTEIN BERNICE 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter presents an overview of axonal transport. Axonal transport comprises at least two kinds of movement, broadly distinguished as “fast” and “slow” transport. Fast transport is dedicated to the movement of organelles, anterograde transport being responsible for their movement from the cell body toward the axon terminals and retrograde transport operating in the reverse direction. Organelle movement in either direction can attain instantaneous velocities of several microns per second. Slow transport conveys cytoskeletal and cytoplasmic proteins and advances at a rate of no more than a few microns per minute.
Ion pumps and exchangers
Authors: STYS PETER K. , WAXMAN STEPHEN G. , RANSOM BRUCE R. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
Excitable cells are dependent on adequate transmembrane ion gradients for normal function. Electrochemical gradients of the major cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+) and anions (Cl- and HCO3 -) permit excitable cells to carry out signaling, sensory transduction, and effector functions. Axons are similarly dependent on the same ion gradients for their function. This chapter discusses transporting systems that function to maintain or restore gradients.
Mechanisms of accommodation and adaptation in myelinated axons
Authors: BOSTOCK HUGH 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses accommodation in the nonspecialized parts of the axons of peripheral nerve. The term “accommodation” is taken to embrace both the processes that oppose the increase in axonal excitability caused by long-lasting, subthreshold depolarizing currents and also the processes of adaptation that limit repetitive firing to a maintained subthreshold current. In normal mammalian fibers, subthreshold accommodation is less important than often assumed, and closely related to electrotonic changes in membrane potential that depend on slow (Ks) and fast (Kf1) potassium channels. In depolarized fibers, inactivation of sodium channels plays a major role and accommodation becomes faster and stronger and less related to membrane potential. In hyperpolarized fibers, the passive cable properties become relatively more important and accommodation is weaker and delayed.
Electrophysiological approaches to the study of axons
Authors: STYS PETER K. , KOCSIS JEFFERY D. 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses the theory and practice of some of the more common techniques devised for recording electrical activity in single axons or fiber bundles. It focuses on electrophysiological methods, whereby potential changes are measured by instruments in direct electrical contact with the preparation using various electrodes. Topics covered include whole nerve extracellular recordings, field potential recordings from central nervous system tracts, suction electrodes, intra-axonal recording, and patch-clamp recordings.
Action potential conduction recorded optically in normal, demyelinated, and remyelinating axons
Authors: SHRAGER PETER 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses optical studies on axonal properties. Topics covered include optical studies on vertebrate myelinated axons, experimental demyelination of axons, optical recording from single myelinated axons, cellular control of demyelination and remyelination, axonal coding during repetitive activity, and optical recording from central nervous system slices and organotype cultures.
Axonal degeneration and disorders of the axonal cytoskeleton
Authors: GRIFFIN JOHN W. , GEORGE EDWIN B. , HSIEH SUNG-TSANG , GLASS JONATHAN D. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses cytoskeletal changes in axonal degeneration. It begins with a review of the organization of the normal axonal cytoskeleton, followed by a summary of the current understanding of Wallerian degeneration. It then considers the slowly evolving axonal degenerations in which alterations in neurofilament content are an early aspect, and their pathophysiology is assessed in terms of abnormalities of neurofilament synthesis, entry into the axon, transport, and turnover.
Pathology of demyelinated and dysmyelinated axons
Authors: ROSENBLUTH JACK 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
Glial cells exert a reciprocal influence on axons, affecting both structure and function in ways that have important physiological consequences. The functional abnormalities associated with myelin pathology arise not from myelin defects alone, but from a combination of the myelin damage per se and secondary alterations in the demyelinated or dysmyelinated axons, involving changes in the structural differentiation of the axon and in the complement and distribution of axolemmal ion channels. This chapter reviews this subject using as prototypical examples studies previously carried out on congenitally myelin-deficient animals, and on acutely and chronically injured myelinated nerve fibers.
Abnormal excitability in injured axons
Authors: DEVOR MARSHALL 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses the abnormal excitability of injured axons. Injured axons display abnormal hyperexcitability. This is expressed in the form of abnormal sensitivity to a broad range of depolarizing stimuli: physical, chemical, and metabolic. Associated with this hyperexcitability are a number of processes that tend to amplify the abnormal afferent barrage. Prominent among these are different forms of axon-to-axon cross-excitation. The underlying hyperexcitability as well as the specific stimulus sensitivities are the result of remodeling of membrane electrical properties in end-bulbs, sprouts, and patches of demyelination. Of particular importance to this remodeling process is accumulation of Na+ channels in the local axonal membrane.
Clinical electrophysiology of peripheral nervous system axons
Authors: KIMURA JUN 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the assessment of axonal function in situ in peripheral nerves in humans. It describes current methods for clinical electrophysiological study of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The proper application of electrodiagnostic studies in the differential diagnosis of peripheral nerve disorders must take advantage of changing concepts in nerve stimulation techniques.
Clinical assessment of central nervous system axons: Evoked potentials
Authors: JONES STEPHEN J. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
Evoked potentials (EPs) are electrical waves that can be recorded from the head and boy after stimulation of the sense organs. For over thirty years, EPs of the auditory, somatosensory, and visual modalities have been used to investigate neurological disorders. The techniques for recording EPs are significantly different from those used for recording axonal potentials in vitro. This chapter describes the principal mechanisms by which EPs come to be generated, the techniques used for recording, and some of the areas of neurology to which EPs have been applied, specifically those related to central axonal disorders.
Human peripheral nerve disease (peripheral neuropathies)
Authors: BERGER ALAN R. , SCHAUMBURG HERBERT H. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the classification of peripheral nerve diseases. These are different ways to categorize human peripheral nerve disease: by modality (e.g., motor versus sensory), by fiber size affected (e.g., large versus small), or by anatomical distribution and pathology. The latter approach is favored because it stresses the site of probably pathological change, using clinical and electrophysiological data. The chapter then discusses the diagnosis of peripheral neuropathies.
Religion of the Gods
Authors: Patton Kimberley Christine 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
In many of the world's religions, both polytheistic and monotheistic, a seemingly enigmatic and paradoxical image is found—that of the god who worships. Various interpretations of this seeming paradox have been advanced. Some suggest that it represents sacrifice to a higher deity. Proponents of anthropomorphic projection say that the gods are just “big people” and that images of human religious action are simply projected onto the deities. However, such explanations do not do justice to the complexity and diversity of this phenomenon. This book takes up anew a longstanding challenge in ancient Greek religious iconography: why are the Olympian gods depicted on classical pottery making libations? The sacrificing gods in ancient Greece are compared to gods who perform rituals in six other religious traditions: the Vedic gods, the heterodox god Zurvan of early Zoroastrianism, the Old Norse god Odin, the Christian God and Christ, the God of Judaism, and Islam's Allah. The book examines the comparative evidence from a cultural and historical perspective, uncovering deep structural resonances while also revealing crucial differences. Instead of looking for invisible recipients or lost myths, the book proposes the new category of “divine reflexivity.” Divinely performed ritual is a self-reflexive, self-expressive action that signals the origin of ritual in the divine and not the human realm. Above all, divine ritual is generative, both instigating and inspiring human religious activity. The religion practiced by the gods is both like and unlike human religious action. Seen from within the religious tradition, gods are not “big people,” but other than human. Human ritual is directed outward to a divine being, but the gods practice ritual on their own behalf. “Cultic time,” the symbiotic performance of ritual both in heaven and on earth, collapses the distinction between cult and theology each time ritual is performed.
“Divine Libation”: A Century of Debate
Authors: Patton Kimberley Christine 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter explores what has been said about the problem of the sacrificing gods, and the implications of each commentary. With some exceptions, two intellectual tendencies prevail in discussions. One is a real reluctance on the part of classical scholars to confront or analyze the anomaly. Comments dating from the late 19th century onward are characteristically brief, and are sometimes included almost as an afterthought to a more general discussion of libation or the larger theme of sacrifice. More common, however, is an aside—a “stab in the dark” at an explanation of this religious phenomenon—in the scholarly publication of a particular artifact or group of artifacts that happen to feature the libating gods theme.
The Problem Defined and a Proposed Solution: Divine Reflexivity in Ritual Representation
Authors: Patton Kimberley Christine 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter addresses the intellectual reasons for why the Greek god with libation bowl in hand has been so problematic. It analyzes the common theoretical stumbling blocks observed in the secondary literature, both religionist and archaeological. It then suggests a workable theoretical solution, based on an ancient Greek understanding of the relationship between their gods and their practiced religion. The chapter goes on to present a new descriptive category, “divine reflexivity,” which can dissolve some of the previous hermeneutical obstacles, in that it comprises rather than avoids paradox, and allows religious worlds both self-referential and self-organizing potentials. Seven characteristics that are the signifying characteristics of divine reflexivity are discussed.
“Myself to Myself”: The Norse Odin and Divine Autosacrifice
Authors: Patton Kimberley Christine 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the self-immolation of the hanging god Odin, self-told in Norse skaldic poetry. It argues that whatever the reasons for Odin's ordeal—a reflexive sacrificial mystery which, like that of Christ, is so exalted that it may be beyond comprehension—the specificity of its cultic features do not require the influence of Christianity. Rather, they serve as an idiosyncratic confirmation of the particular power of a pagan god. Odin sacrifices himself to himself in the unique ritual terms of his own cult and becomes his own cult's centerpiece.
Conclusion: “Religion of the Gods”
Authors: Patton Kimberley Christine 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter presents a synthesis of discussions in the preceding chapters. It argues that, from the perspective of a given tradition, religious action ought to be understood as an attribute and reflex of the divine, not simply as the projection of human ritual obligation, or as paradigmatic showcase for right action. It is shown that the idea of divine reflexivity can encompass and illumine the interpretive dilemma of the god in ritual performance.
Materials Analyzed
Authors: Schmahmann Jeremy D. , Pandya Deepak N. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter outlines the different methods used to study the association, commissural, and projection of fiber pathways in the rhesus monkey brain. Topics discussed include autoradiography, the Nissl-stained template brain, cytoarchitecture of rhesus brains, the rationale for use of a standard template for brain selection of template brain sections, and photomicrography.
Parietal Lobe
Authors: Schmahmann Jeremy D. , Pandya Deepak N. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter describes the isotope injection cases in the parietal lobe of six rhesus monkeys. It analyzes the resulting association, striatal, commissural, and subcortical fiber trajectories, as well as the cortical and subcortical terminations. The injections were in the superior parietal lobule in area PGm, encroaching upon area PEc (Case 1), the medial part of area PEc at the junction of area PE (Case 2), and the lateral part of area PEc at the junction of area PE (Case 3). Injections in the inferior parietal lobule were placed in the caudal part of area PG and in area Opt (Case 4), the rostral inferior parietal lobule, area PF (Case 5), and the middle part of the parietal operculum (Case 6).
Inferior Temporal Region
Authors: Schmahmann Jeremy D. , Pandya Deepak N. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter describes the isotope injection cases in the inferior temporal region of five rhesus monkeys. It analyzes the resulting association, striatal, commissural, and subcortical fiber trajectories, as well as the cortical and subcortical terminations. The injections were in the ventral part of the temporal lobe in areas TE2 and TE3 (Case 12), the ventral temporal region, area TF (Case 13), the cortex in the rostral part of the superior temporal sulcus involving area IPa, and encroaching on the lateral border of the hippocampus (Case 14), the medial part of the inferior temporal gyrus in areas TE1 and TE2 (Case 15), and the rostral temporal lobe in the midportion of area TE2 (Case 16).
Occipital Lobe
Authors: Schmahmann Jeremy D. , Pandya Deepak N. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter describes the isotope injection cases in the occipital lobe of five rhesus monkeys. It analyzes the resulting association, striatal, commissural, and subcortical fiber trajectories, as well as the cortical and subcortical terminations. The injections were in the medial preoccipital gyrus involving the medial part of area 19 (area PO) and area PGm (Case 17), the dorsal preoccipital gyrus in area DP and the upper part of area V4D (Case 18), the dorsal part of area V4 and the adjacent area V4T (Case 19), the ventral preoccipital gyrus above inferior occipital sulcus in area V4 (Case 20), and in ventral area V4, with some encroachment in ventral area V3 (Case 21).
Prefrontal Cortex
Authors: Schmahmann Jeremy D. , Pandya Deepak N. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter describes the isotope injections that were placed in the prefrontal cortex of four rhesus monkeys. It analyzes the resulting association, striatal, commissural, and subcortical fiber trajectories, as well as the cortical and subcortical terminations. The injections were in the medial surface of the prefrontal cortex involving mainly area 32 (Case 30), above the midportion of the principal sulcus in area 46d (Case 31), the middle part of ventral area 46 in both the sulcal and gyral cortices (Case 32), and the orbital frontal cortex in the orbital part of area 47/12 (Case 33).
Corpus Callosum
Authors: Schmahmann Jeremy D. , Pandya Deepak N. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins with historical accounts of the corpus callosum (CC). It then discusses the results of the investigation of the CC of rhesus monkey brains. Fibers destined to traverse the CC and travel to the opposite hemisphere leave the cortex of any given cortical area as part of the dense cord of fibers lying in the central part of the white matter. Callosal fibers are sometimes identifiable as distinct from the subcortical bundle that forms the other major component of the cord, but more usually they are indistinguishable from them early in their course. As the cord fibers leave the white matter of the gyrus, they separate into two major components—the commissural fibers course medially to enter the CC, and the subcortical fibers take a course unique to each cortical area. Callosal fibers from the different parts of the cerebral cortex gather above and lateral to the lateral ventricle, enter the CC, and course medially in a compact bundle in a topographical manner to reach the opposite hemisphere.
Thalamic Peduncles
Authors: Schmahmann Jeremy D. , Pandya Deepak N. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the five principal thalamic peduncles: the superior, lateral, inferior, and anterior thalamic peduncles and the ventral subcortical bundle. These peduncles represent staging areas of the fibers from the cerebral cortex before they pass through the reticular nucleus to enter the respective thalamic nuclei. It then considers the cortical origins of thalamic peduncles.
Composite Summary of Cerebral White Matter Fiber Pathways in the Rhesus Monkey
Authors: Schmahmann Jeremy D. , Pandya Deepak N. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter presents a series of diagrams of rostral to caudal coronal sections of the brain of a rhesus monkey that illustrate in a composite manner the association, commissural, projection, and striatal fiber bundles. The fiber bundles are outlined on the coronal sections, and the fibers traveling within the bundles are color-coded according to the lobe in which they originate.
Clinical Significance
Authors: Schmahmann Jeremy D. , Pandya Deepak N. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter draws upon the cases of selected individual patients, mostly from personal clinical experience, to focus on the apparent wider clinical relevance of white matter anatomy and disorders. It discusses diseases of the white matter that cause dementia, selected examples of focal white matter lesions that produce cognitive and sensorimotor manifestations, and the phenomena of white matter attrition and pruning. Finally, it addresses the question of the effect of lesion location on recovery from neurological deficit.
Shall We Even Understand the Fly’s Brain?
Authors: Laurent Gilles 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on work on olfactory systems. It illustrates two main things: the first is that small systems, and particularly small olfactory systems, seem to use mechanisms and strategies that are not unique to them. The second is that small systems are not at all that simple. It argues that much integrative work is needed to understand the computational organization of olfactory systems. It proposes a systems perspective that is based on experimentation with small olfactory brains.
Can We Understand the Action of Brains in Natural Environments?
Authors: Wagner Hermann , Gaese Bernhard 
Published: May 2009

AbstractOne of the major challenges for future research will lie in trying to reconcile current reductionist approaches and results with the real demands of nervous systems: the online operation of brains and organisms in natural environments. In other words, can we understand the action of brains in natural environments? This chapter begins by introducing the early concepts formulated by the ethologists to define the problem. It then illustrates one case—hunting in the barn owl—in some detail to sketch a philosophy toward a possible way to obtain answers to this question, and finally the chapter ends with some general remarks.
Hemisphere Dominance of Brain Function—Which Functions Are Lateralized and Why?
Authors: Ehret Gunter 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter argues for the investigation of the hemisphere dominances of brain functions rather than structural, cellular, and molecular asymmetries in brains. Although the latter are certainly neural bases of perceptual and behavioral asymmetries generated in the brain, the relationships are largely unclear and most probably complicated in details. Such an approach has both an evolutionary perspective, asking for the common origin and advantages of hemisphere specializations of vertebrate brains, and a perspective of genetic and physiological mechanisms responsible for the realization of hemisphere specializations of certain kinds.