bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Thoughtful Brain
Authors: Hundert Edward M. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractIn this chapter, there is reconsideration of Kant's approach as applied to the biological reality of the nervous system. The neuroscientist's view of the necessary conditions for self-conscious experience of an external world is quite different from the conditions Kant devised. In particular, Edelman's theory of ‘group selection and phasic re-entrant signalling’ requires such conditions as the selection of degenerate groups of neurons as well as sequential and parallel processing by (R of R) groups capable of recognizing not only ‘inputs’, but also each other. Furthermore, this chapter explores sensorimotor ‘intelligence’ and the limits of neuroscientific research, the participation of the world in thoughtful brains and the biologic basis of intersubjective knowledge. This chapter concludes that it is, in a very practical sense, biology which supports the coherence theory of knowledge.
The City of Scythopolis
Authors: BINNS JOHN 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter examines monastic history of Scythopolis, the capital of the province of Palestine II during the Byzantine period. In this city, monasticism had penetrated into the fabric of society and this city provides the best example of the nature of provincial urban society during this period. Scythopolis attracted the construction of monasteries because of its central position in the network of roads built by the Romans.
The Origins and Development of the System of Planning and Control
Authors: Thain Colin , Wright Maurice 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe Public Expenditure Survey Committee (PESC) system originated in the 1950s and its development is traced in this chapter emphasising the system's context in the planning and controlling of public expenditure in Britain. This is referenced through the publication of the Plowden Report in 1961 and also includes an introduction to the proposed cash planning in 1982. This chapter argues that the process was a gradual one and the new planning and control system's principles were rooted in the official Treasury's response to changing government objectives in the 1950s. The gradual development of PESC was abruptly halted in the middle of 1970s as the need to cut expenditure and restore control coincided with the Keynesian principle's crumble. After the planning of how PESC was to be done and implemented, monitoring and cash control were then the dominant characteristics of the process.
The Treasury and FMI
Authors: Thain Colin , Wright Maurice 
Published: October 2011

AbstractDuring the 1980s and 1990s, the planning and control of expenditure was conducted within the context of major changes in the Civil Service structure and organisation. A programme to reduce the size and scope of the public sector to make the remaining services more efficient and effective was an important part of the Conservative Party's manifesto at the 1979 general election. More significant was the Financial Management Initiative (FMI) launched in 1982, and the implementation of ‘Next Steps’ which led to the creation of Executive Agencies. The implementation of both has had, and will continue to have, profound effects upon the relations between the Treasury and the spending departments, and is the issue which runs through all the remaining chapters of this book: central control and departmental autonomy. This chapter looks at the involvement of the Treasury and other central departments in the design and implementation of FMI leading up to ‘Next Steps’.
The Structure and Organization of the Treasury
Authors: Thain Colin , Wright Maurice 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
It was only since 1947 that the British Treasury has been formally responsible for economic policy coordination as its main functions were on raising of revenue through its subordinate departments of Inland Revenue and Customs and controlling public expenditure. This chapter includes a thorough definition of the Treasury's role in planning and controlling public expenditure as set in its annual Department Report as well as a tally of ministerial responsibilities and duration of service. The Treasury possesses an advantage over other departments in the sense of perspective as the organisation is uniquely placed to see the ‘bigger picture’ of expenditure functions. Expenditure Controllers are professional administrators and their skills and qualifications are outlined in this chapter with an overview on how they deal with changes in the system of planning and controlling public expenditure.
The Whitehall Expenditure Policy Network
Authors: Thain Colin , Wright Maurice 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe Treasury and the spending departments have a dynamic relationship and this is explored in this chapter as it looks into the concepts of policy community and policy network that can be used to identify and characterize the principal players and their roles, and to explain the behavioural and policy ‘rules of the game’ regulating the relationships of spending departments and Treasury. Exchange of information is crucial and the communication channels to which decisions between officials are conveyed are examined. This is important especially in determining the robustness of a department's financial management and the reliability and quality of people running the organization. Credibility is established through information delivered in a two-way process in which Expenditure Controllers must be able to bring what is promised on a proposal and equally the Finance Division or Policy Division must also be reliable.
Determining the Priorities of Public Spending
Authors: Thain Colin , Wright Maurice 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
From 1976 until the introduction of the New Control Total in 1992, the priorities of total public expenditure were determined by various officials and departments. It is argued in this chapter that the budget was set not in line with prospective revenue but more as a result of considerations concerned with broad macroeconomic strategy as well as the result of pressures for additional resources from spending ministers. Determining the total expenditure and the process of allocating costs were changed in 1992 when the New Control Total was introduced and throughout the transition of the processes and their effects, priority cases were given emphasis. Cross-departmental comparisons were made and the significance of priority in government is briefly discussed.
The Public Expenditure Survey
Authors: Thain Colin , Wright Maurice 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe processes of planning and controlling public expenditure have evolved by the late 1980s and 1990s up to the decision to introduce the Unified Budget and the New Control Total in 1992. This chapter explains the changes made through the timeline of public expenditure control. Previous practices include the introduction of cash limits in 1976 until volume planning was abandoned and cash planning was introduced in 1982 and became the turning point for the Public Expenditure Survey (PES). The annual Medium Term Financial Strategy was also one of the past measures as well as the centrally determined pay factors which were abolished, separating programme and running costs expenditure and the impact of fiscal crises in 1992 which verified the differences of the PES from those in the 1970s. These changes are yet to be seen if they have a lasting effect on the decision-making process as the state of the PES in the 1990s is assessed in this chapter including the immediate effects of changes in 1992.
Departmental ‘Winners’ and ‘Losers’
Authors: Thain Colin , Wright Maurice 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe most significant output of the Public Expenditure Survey (PES) system is the aggregate total of public expenditure planned for the coming financial year. This is measured in terms of the government's short- and long-term public spending objectives, in the context of its broader politico-economic objectives, and is attributable to the government collectively and to the Treasury as the instrument of its policy. The intermediate outputs of the system of interest are the departmental allocations published formerly in the November Autumn Statement, and from 1993 the Unified Budget. The PES allocations cannot be read as a scorecard of who has won and lost in the process of bidding and negotiating with the Treasury and Cabinet Expenditure Committee. There are problems of definition, measurement, and interpretation.
Controlling Public Expenditure More Effectively?
Authors: Thain Colin , Wright Maurice 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Through the 1990s, pressures for more public spending continued unabated, and governments continued to attempt to restrain the growth of the aggregate, and to decide upon the allocation of mereasingly scarce resources. Yet there are constitutional and practical limits to the exercise of tight Treasury control. This chapter discusses how the processes of making and carrying out expenditure policy might be changed to enhance the effectiveness of that control. The structure and organization of the Treasury, as well as the techniques of budgeting which it employs, are examined. The chapter also considers whether the collective responsibility of the Cabinet could be made more effective, in the light of the changes introduced in 1992. It concludes by focusing on the circumstances in which a paradigm shift might occur.
Lessons of the Golden Age: An Overview
Authors: Marglin Stephen A. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter provides an overview of the historical and theoretical arguments of the book. It differentiates causes and triggers. It notes that conventional wisdom dates the end of the ‘golden age’ by the first oil shock, OPEC I in 1973. The second oil shock, OPEC II in 1979, is conventionally argued to have ushered in the current phase of neoliberalism, monetarism, and the return to the market. However, this book's argument explains that OPEC I and II are not fundamental causes but triggers which set off forces that had deep roots in the internal economies of the industrial countries and in the relationships among them and between them and the Third World. It discusses the relationship between the underlying reasons why different periods of postwar capitalism ended (‘causes’) and the events that sparked off these ends (‘triggers’).
Information Technology and Economic Growth: Introduction and Conclusions
Authors: POHJOLA MATTI 
Published: October 2011

AbstractWhile there are large discrepancies between the average incomes of the world's poorest countries in contrast with the world's richest countries, such evidences point out that there are significant differences in human welfare and in the quality of life experienced by people who come from these different countries. In terms of both the poverty of basic choices and opportunities and that of incomes, about one third of the people in various developing countries are experiencing a great deal of poverty. Considering the importance of both human and physical capital, and other such economic factors, developing and developed countries alike have expressed interest in turning to modern information technology (IT) for improved economic growth. The information revolution is said to be brought about by the decline in information processing prices, the developments in network computing, and the merge of computing technologies with communication, and such will hopefully give rise to an economy with knowledge-based services.
The Problem of Public Order and the Knights
Authors: Kaeuper Richard W. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the role of knights in public order. It presents the misadventure of Balain which depicts the problem of public order. This story is all the more powerful for being a part of a major structural contrast built into this widely read cycle of romances. The contrast is embodied in two knights who possess undoubted and praised prowess, but the results of their knighthood could scarcely be more different. The source of Balain's misery and misfortune is set opposite Galahad, bringer of joy and release. The Unfortunate Knight stands on one side, the Good Knight on the other.
Social Dominance of Knights
Authors: Kaeuper Richard W. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter argues that the fundamental bond of prowess and honour is strengthened by an assertion of high status. The commendation given to chivalry can be understood without recognizing its bonds with these crucially important social issues. Assertion of a right to social dominance gives another important component to the fusion that made chivalry and gave it such power in medieval society. Over time, knights rose in status and even the nobility decided to wear the chivalric mantle.
Knights, Ladies, and Love
Authors: Kaeuper Richard W. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter argues that the fundamental bond of prowess and honour is strengthened by a troubled link with love and gendered relations. The eulogies sung to chivalry — and the worries more prudently expressed — can scarcely be understood without recognizing its bonds to these crucially important social issues. It shows that chivalry formed the frame for the important issue of gendered relations. It documents the variety of medieval views on this subject to show that chivalric literature is a literature of criticism and reform, as much as a mirror to society. It establishes the link between love and gendered relations. Lastly, it discovers the continuing concern over the issue of violence as it relates to chivalry.
Solutions to the Puzzle Cases
Authors: Gallois André 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter examines possible solutions to the identity puzzle called the ship of Theseus. It explains the intuition developed for the puzzle which considers the ship assembled from a collection of planks as ORIGINAL, the ship constructed from the planks removed from the ORIGINAL as REASSEMBLY, and the progressive replacement of the ORIGINAL's planks as the REPLACEMENT. It suggests that the multiple location view cannot be possible because while it is compatible with the main intuition, it violates Leibniz's Law. The chapter evaluates the applicability of the occasional identity thesis to this puzzle case.
Identity Strict and Loose
Authors: Gallois André 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter evaluates three possible solutions to the problems presented by the five identity puzzle cases previously described. It explains the applicability of the view about arbitrary undetached parts and the illusion of strict identity to the ship of Theseus puzzle. This chapter suggests that philosopher Roderick Chrisholm's account of diachronic identity and the flexible designation view satisfied the desideratum laid out at the outset and provided the solution to all the puzzle cases. This is because both views reject an assumption whose truth is required to generate any of the puzzles about diachronic identity.
Building the New Nationalism
Authors: Stears Marc 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Educated and well-informed Britons and Americans radically changed the way they thought about the nature of their society as a series of philosophical, sociological, and psychological movements from idealism to Darwinism and from Fabianism to pragmatism stretched out during the 20th century. This chapter analyses the conceptual debate on liberty based on the structure of theorists. First, the chapter examines the theorists' immediate response to the conceptual agenda of their predecessors. Through this examination Herbert Croly, Walter Lippmann, and Walter Weyl are shown first to have adopted and then significantly radicalised the conceptual understandings their idealist, Darwinist, and pragmatist predecessors in the United States had outlined. Secondly, the chapter considers the distinctly political uses to which this conceptual approach was put, exploring the ways in which conceptual agenda and political programme were closely related together. It then presents a new interpretation of the theoretical structure and the practical scope of the ideological movement that was known as the ‘new nationalism’.
Conclusion
Authors: Stears Marc 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Between 1909 and 1925, the American nationalist progressives and British socialist pluralists outlined two sharply distinct political philosophies: one apparently state-centred, the other fiercely anti-statist. The nationalist progressives, it appeared, wished to construct an entirely new central state machine in the United States, one capable of overcoming the obstacles of localism and sectionalism and imposing a nationwide political agenda and social identity across several States. The socialist pluralists, on the other hand, seemed fiercely to reject the state-centred programmes of their contemporaries. They celebrated diversity, social difference, and group autonomy, and argued for a radical decentralization of authority in all aspects of social, economic, and political life. And yet, despite these stark differences, the ideological evolution of these two groups also appeared intricately intertwined. Indeed, not only did the groups' leaders involve themselves in a continual dialogue, they also identified individual programmes of concrete reform that could be shared between them.
Midsummer Eve in Sweden: a natural fluid challenge in patients with heart failure
Authors: Gudmundsson Kristjan , Lyngå Patrik , Karlsson Helena , Rosenqvist Mårten , Braunschweig Frieder 
Published: October 2011

AimsVolume overload exacerbations in patients with chronic heart failure (HF) are associated with a dismal prognosis and are often triggered by dietary incompliance. We aimed to describe the effects of dietary changes on measures of fluid retention in HF patients.Methods and resultsThirty‐one HF patients with an implantable defibrillator (age 64 ± 11 years, ejection fraction 25 ± 12%, median NT‐proBNP 2090 ng/L, resynchronization therapy: n= 25) were followed by daily body weight (BW) (telemonitoring) and intrathoracic impedance (by the implanted device) around Swedish Midsummer 2009, a holiday traditionally celebrated with meals including salty fish dishes and ample intake of fluids. Midsummer Eve celebrations caused a distinct and rapid increase in BW and a decrease in impedance indicating increased fluid retention. Compared with baseline values, peak BW increased by 1225 g [interquartile range (IQR) 475–2013 g)] which was accompanied by a decrease in impedance (3 Ω; IQR −5.2 to −1.2) and a clear deflection on the impedance‐based fluid detection algorithm (OptiVol) that crossed the preset fluid‐alert threshold six times following Midsummer. Body weight and impedance values were normalized after a period of 20 and 8 days, respectively. A clustering of minor clinical events following Midsummer suggests a possible adverse impact of dietary incompliance. However, none of the patients were hospitalized for HF.ConclusionsDietary incompliance, e.g. on the occasion of a ceremonial meal, may lead to marked disturbances in the fluid balance of patients with HF reflected by increased BW and decreased intrathoracic impedance. These findings underline the importance of maintaining stable volume conditions in HF patients.
Synthetic Antisense Oligodeoxynucleotides to Transiently Suppress Different Nucleus- and Chloroplast-Encoded Proteins of Higher Plant Chloroplasts
Authors: Dinç Emine , Tóth Szilvia Z. , Schansker Gert , Ayaydin Ferhan , Kovács László , Dudits Dénes , Garab Győző , Bottka Sándor 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Selective inhibition of gene expression by antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) is widely applied in gene function analyses; however, experiments with ODNs in plants are scarce. In this work, we extend the use of ODNs in different plant species, optimizing the uptake, stability, and efficiency of ODNs with a combination of molecular biological and biophysical techniques to transiently inhibit the gene expression of different chloroplast proteins. We targeted the nucleus-encoded phytoene desaturase (pds) gene, encoding a key enzyme in carotenoid biosynthesis, the chlorophyll a/b-binding (cab) protein genes, and the chloroplast-encoded psbA gene, encoding the D1 protein. For pds and psbA, the in vivo stability of ODNs was increased by phosphorothioate modifications. After infiltration of ODNs into juvenile tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana) leaves, we detected a 25% to 35% reduction in mRNA level and an approximately 5% decrease in both carotenoid content and the variable fluorescence of photosystem II. In detached etiolated wheat (Triticum aestivum) leaves, after 8 h of greening, the mRNA level, carotenoid content, and variable fluorescence were inhibited up to 75%, 25%, and 20%, respectively. Regarding cab, ODN treatments of etiolated wheat leaves resulted in an up to 59% decrease in the amount of chlorophyll b, a 41% decrease of the maximum chlorophyll fluorescence intensity, the cab mRNA level was reduced to 66%, and the protein level was suppressed up to 85% compared with the control. The psbA mRNA and protein levels in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) leaves were inhibited by up to 85% and 72%, respectively. To exploit the potential of ODNs for photosynthetic genes, we propose molecular design combined with fast, noninvasive techniques to test their functional effects.
Cucumber mosaic virus: viral genes as virulence determinants
Authors: MOCHIZUKI TOMOFUMI , OHKI SATOSHI T. 
Published: October 2011

SUMMARYTaxonomic relationships: Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) is the type species of the genus Cucumovirus in the family Bromoviridae, which also encompasses the Peanut stunt virus (PSV) and the Tomato aspermy virus (TAV). Nucleotide sequence similarity among these three cucumoviruses is 60%–65%. CMV strains are divided into three subgroups, IA, IB and II, based on the sequence of the 5′ untranslated region of the genomic RNA 3. Overall nucleotide sequence similarity among CMV strains is approximately 70%–98%.Geographical distribution, host range and symptomatology: CMV is distributed worldwide, primarily in temperate to tropical climate zones. CMV infects more than 1200 species of 100 plant families, including monocot and dicot plants. Symptoms caused by CMV infection vary with the host species and/or CMV strain, and include mosaic, stunt, chlorosis, dwarfing, leaf malformation and systemic necrosis. CMV disease is spread primarily by aphid transmission in a nonpersistent manner.Physical properties: In tobacco sap, the thermal inactivation point of the viral infectivity is approximately 70 °C (10 min), the dilution end‐point is approximately 10−4 and viral infectivity is lost after a few days of exposure to 20 °C. Viral infectivity can be retained in freeze‐dried tissues and in the form of virions purified using 5 mm sodium borate, 0.5 mm ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid and 50% glycerol (pH 9.0) at −20 °C. CMV particles are isometric, approximately 28–30 nm in diameter and are composed of 180 capsid subunits arranged in pentamer–hexamer clusters with T= 3 symmetry. The sedimentation coefficient (s20,w) is c. 98 S and the particle weight is (5.8–6.7) × 106 Da. The virions contain 18% RNA. The RNA–protein interactions that stabilize the CMV virions are readily disrupted by sodium dodecylsulphate or neutral chloride salts.Genomic properties: The genomic RNAs are single‐stranded messenger sense RNAs with 5′ cap and 3′ tRNA‐like structures containing at least five open reading frames. The viral RNA consists of three genomic RNAs, RNA 1 (c. 3.3 kb), RNA 2 (c. 3.0 kb) and RNA 3 (c. 2.2 kb), and two subgenomic RNAs, RNA 4 (c. 1.0 kb) and RNA 4A (c. 0.7 kb). The 3′ untranslated regions are conserved across all viral RNAs. CMV is often accompanied by satellite, noncoding, small, linear RNA that is nonhomologous to the helper CMV.Useful websites: http://www.dpvweb.net/dpv/showdpv.php?dpvno=400 (general information); http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/explore/explore.do?pdbId=1f15 (structure).