bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The heat treatment of invar
Authors: Matthys Robert James 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Even though invar is the most common material used for the pendulum rod in a good clock, it is still a poor material for the purpose because of its relatively poor dimensional stability over time compared with other materials such as quartz or platinum. Invar is usually considered for its low thermal expansion coefficient (tempco) rather than its dimensional stability. Quartz, however, is an ideal material for a pendulum rod, if you can get around the glass breakage problem. There are three types of invar available: regular invar, regular invar free machining, and super invar. Each has a different tempco and is dependent on heat treatment and any coldworking or machining that the part has received. What never gets mentioned and is not widely known is how big the changes from heat treating and machining really are.
Time error due to air pressure variations
Authors: Matthys Robert James 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The rate of a pendulum clock is affected by air pressure. As the air pressure increases, the clock slows down, and vice versa. The basic cause is that the pendulum floats in a sea of air, and when the density of the air changes, the effective weight of the pendulum changes by a small but significant amount. A pendulum's sensitivity to air pressure depends on bob shape and density, and is in the range of 0.2-0.4 second per day per inch of mercury. A pendulum clock is normally set to run true over some length of time, meaning a nominally zero time error is obtained at the average air pressure during that time period. This chapter shows that a clock's time error varies considerably with location. In addition, the predominant effect of air pressure is long-term time error, not short term, as any effects of one year or more in duration are considered long term.
Photoelectronics for pendulums
Authors: Matthys Robert James 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Photoelectronics make good sensors for pendulum clocks, because they add no power losses to the pendulum. A swinging pendulum interrupts a light beam, and a light detector provides an electrical signal to compare to a time standard or to incrementally drive the second hand on a clock face. Most photoelectronic circuitry is aimed at very simple applications, such as counting slow-moving cans or boxes on a production line, or detecting the passage of a slow-moving pendulum. For the pendulum application, where the light source and light detector are about a half-inch or so apart, the most suitable light source is an infrared light emitting diode. There are four basic things that can be done to improve the dimensional and time resolutions of a pendulum: narrow the light beam down to just a slit width, use a voltage comparator on the light detector's output signal, better stray light reduction, and use a faster light detector.
Check your clock against WWV
Authors: Matthys Robert James 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In the United States, WWV is the obvious time standard to check a clock against. WWV's claimed time accuracy as transmitted in Boulder, Colorado is 10 microseconds short term, and 1 second in 3,000 years long term. The received short-term accuracy is reduced to 0.001 second due to variations in the time signal's transit time. An exception is the better received short-term accuracy of 100 microseconds in WWV's 60-kHz ground wave signal, which can be improved even further to 10 microseconds by using proper averaging techniques. A shortwave radio receiver is needed to pick up the WWV signal. This chapter describes an electronic method of accurately comparing a clock's time against WWV's time.
Introduction
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This introductory chapter discusses basic concepts of the kinetic theory of granular gases and mentions some of the exciting phenomena in gas dynamics. Topics covered include kinetic theory for dissipative particles, atomic level of material deformation, continuum description of particles, pairwise collision of particles, many-particle systems, and hydrodynamics.
Chapman-Enskog Approach for Non-Uniform Granular Gases
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
For slightly non-uniform gases with small gradients of the hydrodynamic fields, the velocity distribution can be written as a perturbation expansion f = f(0) + f(1) + f(2) +..., where f(k) depends on the kth order of the gradients. This chapter derives a set of entangled equations for f(k). The Chapman–Enskog schemes provides a technique for solving these equations and calculating the transport coefficients.
Introduction To Hamiltonian Mechanics
Authors: Johns Oliver 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The power of Lagrangian mechanics has caused generations of students to wonder why it is necessary or even desirable, to recast mechanics in Hamiltonian form. The answer is that the Hamiltonian formulation is a much better base from which to build more advanced methods. The Hamilton equations have an elegant symmetry that the Lagrange equations lack. Another answer, not directly related to classical mechanics, is that the Hamiltonian function is used to write the Schroedinger equation of quantum mechanics. The differences between the Lagrange and Hamilton equations result mainly from the different variable sets in which they act. This chapter deals with phase space, Hamilton equations, example of the Hamilton equations, non-potential and constraint forces, reduced Hamiltonian, Poisson brackets, Schroedinger equation, and Ehrenfest theorem.
Hamilton’s Principle
Authors: Johns Oliver 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The general calculus of variations discussed in the previous chapter may be used to derive variational principles in mechanics. Two different, but closely related, variational principles are presented here: Hamilton’s principle and the phase space Hamilton’s principle. Variational principles play a crucial role in quantum theory, general relativity, and theoretical physics in general. The path in configuration space that is a solution to the Lagrange equations is often referred to as the classical path. This is the path of natural motion of a mechanical system as it responds to the forces included in the potential part of the Lagrangian. This chapter discusses Hamilton’s principle expressed in Lagrangian equations, Hamilton’s principle with constraints, and phase space and Hamilton’s principle.
Rotational Dynamics
Authors: Johns Oliver 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The successful description of the motion of a rigid body is one of the triumphs of Newtonian mechanics. Having learned in the previous chapter how to specify the position and orientation of a rigid body, this chapter deals with its natural motion under impressed external forces and torques. The dynamical theorems of collective motion are extended using rotation operators. Some basic facts about rigid-body motion are discussed, along with the inertia operator and the spin, inertia dyadic, kinetic energy of a rigid body, meaning of the inertia operator, principal axes, time evolution of the spin, torque-free motion of a symmetric body, Euler angles of the torque-free motion, body with one point fixed, time evolution with one point fixed, work-energy theorems, rotation with a fixed axis, symmetric top with one point fixed, initially clamped symmetric top, approximate treatment of the symmetric top, inertial forces, calculations of the Coriolis force, and the magnetic-Coriolis analogy.
Hamilton’s Principle and Noether’s Theorem
Authors: Johns Oliver 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents extended forms of Hamilton’s principle and the phase space Hamilton’s principle based on the extended Lagrangian and Hamiltonian methods developed earlier. It also discusses Noether’s theorem, a method for using symmetries of the extended Lagrangian to identify quantities that are conserved during the motion of the system. Noether’s theorem is a powerful technique for discovering conserved quantities in complex Lagrangian systems. The basics of the method are analysed in the simple context of Lagrangian systems with a finite number of degrees of freedom.
Canonical Transformations
Authors: Johns Oliver 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers a broader class of transformations known as canonical transformations, which transform the whole of the extended phase space in a more general way. Each new canonical coordinate or momentum is allowed to be a function of all of the previous phase-space coordinates, including the previous canonical momenta. Thus the new position and time variables may depend, through their dependence on the momenta, on the old velocities as well as the old positions. The Lagrange equations will not in general be form invariant under such transformations. Canonical transformations are the most general phase-space transformations that preserve the extended Hamilton equations. There are several equivalent definitions of canonical transformations, three of which are the Poisson bracket condition, the direct condition, and the Lagrange bracket condition. The definition of canonical transformation includes the Lorentz transformation of special relativity. Also discussed are symplectic coordinates, form invariance of Poisson brackets, and form invariance of the Hamilton equations.
Molecular vibrations and molecular force fields
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In a classical mechanics approach, the description of motion requires a dynamic trace of the displacement of an object in time, a trajectory that collects the variation in time of some coordinates q. But which coordinates? For molecules, a first choice could be cartesian coordinates for each nucleus in a laboratory reference frame. In general, molecular motion is a combination of translation, rotation, and vibration. If one is interested only in vibration, the translational and rotational components of motion must be deconvoluted out, and that requires a change in coordinates. In order to have pure vibrations, a set of coordinates that vary in time in such a way that there is no net angular velocity around the three inertial axes is required. This chapter discusses molecular vibrations and molecular force fields, along with vibrational modes and force constants, molecular mechanics, and evolution of molecular force fields.
Molecular structure and macroscopic properties: Calorimetry and thermodynamics
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Spectroscopic and diffraction experiments can give a detailed picture of molecular objects. The dimensions of a water molecule are known with extreme reliability and accuracy. In real life, however, one is never confronted with a single water molecule, but rather with bodies composed of a very large number of molecules. Chemical systems do not tend to equilibrium by minimising their internal energy. Another driving force is provided by spontaneous randomisation of the position of molecules in space and of the distribution of energies among available energy levels. This fundamental fact is embodied in the macroscopic property called entropy. Temperature, pressure, internal energy, and entropy are the basic functions of chemical thermodynamics. This chapter discusses calorimetry and thermodynamic measurements of the molecular structure and properties of macroscopic systems, partition function and calculation of molecular energies, measurement of heat capacity and entropy, calculation of entropy for chemical systems, free energy and chemical equilibrium, and thermodynamic measurements of melting enthalpies and sublimation enthalpies.
Philosophy of Private Law
Authors: Lucy William 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
On what basis does tort law hold us responsible to those who suffer as a result of our carelessness? Why, when we breach our contracts, should we make good the losses of those with whom we contracted? In what sense are our torts and our breaches of contract ‘wrongs’? These two branches of private law have for centuries provided philosophers and jurists with grounds for puzzlement. This book provides an outline of, and intervention in, contemporary jurisprudential debates about the nature and foundation of liability in private law. After outlining the realm of the philosophy of private law, the book divides into two. Part I examines the various components of liability responsibility in private law, including the notions of basic responsibility, conduct, causation, and wrongfulness. Part II considers arguments purporting to show that private law does and should embody a conception of either distributive or corrective justice or some combination of the two. Throughout the book a number of distinctions — between conceptual and normative argument, between jurisprudential ‘theory’ and private law ‘practice’, between legal obligation and moral obligation — are analyzed.
2. Unity and Fragmentation of the Medieval Law of Contract
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter shows that with the emergence of the action of covenant as a specifically and exclusively contractual remedy, set the stage for the Common law of obligations to align itself with Roman law. If events had been allowed to run their course, trespass would have become the equivalent of the Romans' delictal ability and covenant the equivalent of their contract, leaving entitlement-based action of debt-retinue to cover the proprietary ground of Romans' vindication. That this did not occur resulted from a tiny procedural tightening in the rules of proof applicable to the action of covenant but not to trespass or debt, as a result of which it became less attractive to plaintiffs.
3. Trespass, Trespass on the Case, and the Medieval Law of Tort
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of how the action of trespass as an ordinary feature of the jurisdiction of the royal courts gives some shape to the emergent law of tort. It then shows how, by the beginning of the 14th century, the action of trespass became established around a core of (minimally) forcible wrongdoing. This is followed by a discussion of the origins of the trespass on the case.
(Re) Introducing International Institutional Law
Authors: ALVAREZ JOSÉ E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter reintroduces international institutional law to the reader. It also discusses a survey of charter provisions in relation to the influence of international organization to law-making proceedings. This survey includes charters or constitutions that aspire to global membership and draws certain general conclusions from this textual review. The ‘external’ ripples of ‘internal’ law are explained, including the following: the Assembly's purse-string power, legal personality and its consequences, the alleged treaty basis for charter powers, the limits of enumerated powers, and the distinction between external and internal rule-making. The chapter also revisits the development of international law through the political organs of the United Nations by discussing statehood and participation, participation by non-state actors, and human rights and the shrinking concept of domestic jurisdiction.
International Organizations as Treaty-makers
Authors: ALVAREZ JOSÉ E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the role of international organizations as treaty-makers. The broadest grant of delegated treaty-making power is arguably contained in the Constitution of the International Labour Organization. Treaties are no longer limited to states as parties, but now include international organizations as parties. The chapter also details initiating treaty negotiations. The wide diversity of processes for initiating treaty negotiations among international organizations makes generalization difficult. Organizational patterns for treaty-making are mentioned, such as UN treaty-making conferences, treaty-making by experts, ‘managerial’ forms of treaty-making, and treaty-making with ‘strings attached.’ Plenipotentiary treaty-making conferences convened by the United Nations may occur only after an exhaustive canvassing of views, decades-long study by an expert body, and agreement on a draft text by other intermediary entities.
Conclusion: The Promise and Perils of International Organizations
Authors: ALVAREZ JOSÉ E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the promise and perils of international organizations and their relationship with the traditional sources of law, the changing content of international law, the changing law-makers, and the changing conceptions of compliance. It also presents new challenges to the legitimacy of international law, including vertical and horizontal challenges, and the challenge of ideology and power. International organizations have helped to transform the substantive content of international law and helped generate a ‘participant revolution’ in the making of international law. The international organizations are now making international law outside the constraints suggested by the traditional doctrine of sources — that international organs need not find explicit delegations of power, are not confined to differentiated or closely circumscribed spheres of legal action, and are not limited to making ‘internal’ institutional housekeeping rules.
Networks and the Issues of ‘Excess’, the ‘Gift’, ‘Non-exchange’, and ‘Trust’
Authors: Thompson Grahame F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter looks at the concepts of excess, gift, non-exchange, and trust that could provide the raw materials for the construction of an analytical logic that is peculiar to networks. These three categories are juxtaposed and combined to explore their analytical properties, and the results are applied to a preliminary case where network structures are said to operate, namely, information and communications technology (ICT) dot-com type relationships and their accounting practices. Of the three categories, ‘the gift’ and ‘trust’ are the most widely discussed in the context of networks for their role in socio-economic coordination and governance. This chapter also considers the argument that networks can, in part, be productively reconceptualised in the context of what has been termed a ‘general economy of excess’.
Political Networks and the Politics of Network Governance
Authors: Thompson Grahame F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter investigates the political manifestations of networks, particularly as they pertain to the governance of organisational and economic matters. The idea of ‘policy networks’ is examined and how they operate. Specifically, the chapter explores how the internal structure of decision-making is organised, much of which has a resonance outside of policy networks proper to address how networks more widely might operate. The chapter also lays out the principles and trends associated with the issue of how to place networks in a wider context of other socio-organisational mechanisms of management and regulation. Finally, the chapter opens up on the issues of power in political networks, something that pervades these forms of organisational entity just as it does hierarchies and markets. Networks of political power and authority are discussed, along with policy networks and the formation of public policy, multi-level governance, network forms of governance and game theory, and social capital.
Old Turks and Young Fogeys: Bentham and Brasenose
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on H. L. A. Hart's decision to devote himself to the further analysis and editing of the works of Bentham. Hart's decision to take early retirement from the Oxford Chair in 1968 was born of a loss of intellectual confidence and the feeling that he had no further original contribution to make, but this turning point was far from marking the end of his intellectual work. There were a number of psychological factors at play in both Herbert's decision to concentrate on the editing and interpretation of another scholar's work, and his specific choice of Bentham. In the first place, this new role allowed him to sidestep the increasing pressure to speak in his own voice in answer to the rapidly multiplying commentators on his own work. At the same time, the proximity between Bentham's and Herbert's views meant that commentaries on Bentham afforded Herbert the opportunity of oblique revision and refinement of his own ideas. Secondly, his genuine, if exaggerated, feelings of diffidence and discomfort about his own success were assuaged by the devotion of his energies to a scholar whom he felt to be both a more original thinker and to have been inadequately recognized. Thirdly, he felt at some level a personal affinity with and affection for the eccentric and deeply obsessive Bentham. Hart also became Principal of Brasenose College in 1973.
The Nightmare and the Noble Dream
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on H. L. A. Hart's views about Ronald Dworkin. In ‘The Nightmare and the Noble Dream’ lecture, published in the Georgia Law Review in 1977, Hart sketched a bold map of the American 20th-century jurisprudential scene. American legal theory was, he argued, focussed on adjudication because it was organized around the need to justify the power of judges to strike down democratically validated legislation on constitutional grounds. American legal theorists have reacted to this distinctive constitutional situation, he suggested, in one of two ways: the ‘nightmare’ of total indeterminacy and unconstrained judicial discretion and the ‘noble dream’ of complete legal determinacy. The ‘nightmare’, represented by the Realist jurisprudence of the early part of the 20th century indulges in scepticism about whether judges are bound by law at all in either complex constitutional cases or more generally. By contrast, the American ‘noble dream’ is particularistic and holistic: it finds reasons constraining judges' discretion within the resources of particular legal systems, and it sees law as consisting in more than merely rules, asserting that even when appearances are to the contrary, judges are in fact finding and declaring rather than making law.
Land Transport in Roman Egypt
Authors: Adams Colin 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Transport has been seen as one of the greatest failures of ancient technology. Land transport especially, due to its cost, restricted growth in the Roman economy. This book challenges these views, using the evidence of papyri from Roman Egypt, and argues that land transport, even in a country so dominated by a river which provided a natural highway, was an essential part of a system of transport that allowed for vigorous trading activity, but provided the Roman state with valuable resources which, through careful management, it could use for its own transport requirements: supplying the Roman army, transporting tax profits, and transporting bulk commodities such a stone for imperial building projects. It explores the economics of animal ownership, the role of transport in the agricultural and commercial economies of Egypt, state bureaucracy and the organization of transport. It examines the complex relationship between the state and private individuals and seeks to show that transport by land formed a vital part of everyday economic activity in Egypt. It contributes to our understanding of the economy of a Roman province and argues for a positive view of the role of transport in the ancient economy.