bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Re-Regulating Energy Supply in the Netherlands: A Balancing Act between Energy Security and Energy Liberalization
Authors: Roggenkamp Martha M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses that the issue of supply security is gradually becoming more important in the Netherlands. It adds that whereas the government traditionally focused on the security of oil supply, the energy liberalization process has led to an increasing interest in the security of gas and electricity supply, as well as the reliability of energy supply. It notes that one of the most important issues is the need to continue a reasonable level of investment in production facilities and energy networks. It explains that although the use of renewable resources is promoted, their inflexible nature means that wind and solar will never constitute a complete alternative for traditional primary sources like oil and gas. It examines the structure of the Dutch gas and electricity sector.
The ‘Fear Factor’: Why We Should Not Allow Energy Security Rhetoric to Trump Sustainable Development
Authors: Noé Susan Y. , Pring George (Rock) 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter explores examples where the rhetoric of ‘energy security’ has been used to justify developments that ignore sustainability and result in and/or threaten grave environmental and social harms, while making scant contribution to any real, long-term energy security. It illustrates that there is a problem inherent in an over-emphasis on energy security standing alone. It explains that energy security is an important factor, but one which cannot be the overriding concern that takes precedence over national and international sustainable development requirements for the protection of human rights and the environment. It discusses that the purpose of the case studies shown in this chapter is to present examples of energy development projects in various countries which have had, or are, predicted to have enormous adverse social and environmental consequences, but that have been justified by proponents based on the overriding concern of ‘energy security’.
Grammaticalization, Reanalysis, and CP Layering
Authors: MUNARO NICOLA 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter shows that grammaticalization phenomena can function as the trigger of a process of reanalysis leading to a change in a given derivational path. The relevant empirical evidence is provided by the development of the distributional properties of the two wh-items che and cossa in some northern Veneto dialects, insofar as it is detectable diachronically from the 16th century up to the 20th century. The wh-item cossa, which had initially an exclusively nominal use, has gradually taken up, in the course of the last centuries, the function of interrogative operator; this process is strictly connected to the change in the distributional properties of the wh-item che: while in the first stages che occupied the initial position of a main wh-question, it appears in sentence internal position in modern dialects. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 2.2 summarizes the diachronic development of the two wh-items che and cossa; Section 2.3 discusses some issues concerning the wh-items parché and parcossa; and finally, Section 2.4 contains a few concluding remarks.
Verb Movement and Clitics: Variation and Change in Portuguese
Authors: PIRES ACRISIO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter attempts to explain certain robust aspects of (diachronic) syntactic variation in Portuguese, focusing specifically on Brazilian Portuguese (BP), especially regarding verb movement and clitic placement. Analysing these phenomena is especially relevant for the evaluation of theories of diachronic and parametric syntactic variation in Romance and other languages. The chapter is organized as follows. First, it summarizes a possible analysis of the properties that distinguish different Romance languages regarding the placement of clitics. Second, it argues that BP lost V movement to a position higher than the inflectional head. It shows that the loss of V movement in BP had different consequences in BP, especially in the placement of clitics. The chapter addresses the question of possible triggers for the kinds of change that took place in BP. It concludes by discussing other aspects of the change in clitic placement that took place in BP.
Changes in Clausal Organization and the Position of Clitics in Old French
Authors: LABELLE MARIE , HIRSCHBÜHLER PAUL 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
From the perspective of language change, grammaticalization is generally viewed as the process whereby ‘a lexical item or construction in certain uses takes on grammatical characteristics’. Roberts and Roussou (1999) account for this type of change as resulting from the reanalysis of lexical heads into functional heads. This chapter discusses the diachronic changes that do not fall under this definition, viewed as exemplifying a type of grammaticalization whereby illocutionary features come to be associated with distinct functional heads. It analyses the changes in the clausal organization of Old French as following from the fact that the Topic/Focus functional head common to all clause types of the first stage gives way to a system with a number of separate illocutionary heads. The chapter argues that the weakening of the Tobler–Mussafia (TM) constraint excluding object clitic pronouns from initial position in main clauses in Old French (OF) results from a gradual replacement of a common representation for V1 initial clauses by a new system where (1) satisfaction of a discourse-related [Top]/[Foc] feature by V is minimized, and (2) there is a reanalysis of the CP layer, with grammaticalization of illocutionary type features.
Reanalysis and Conservancy of Structure in Chinese
Authors: WHITMAN JOHN , PAUL WALTRAUD 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The relegation of syntactic variation to lexical features under the Minimalist Programme has led to a growing awareness that syntactic change should be characterized in the same way: by changes in the discrete features of individual lexical items. This insight has given rise to the following distinctively minimalist typology of syntactic change: (a) loss or gain of a feature driving movement; (b) grammaticalization as shift ‘up the tree’ to a functional category; and (c) reanalysis as relabelling: lexical items change categorial or projection ([±max, ±min]) features under preservation of hierarchical (c-command) relations. This chapter applies this typology to several well-known examples of syntactic change in Chinese. It shows that earlier analyses exaggerate the scope of syntactic change in the long-documented history of Chinese languages. The changes that are in fact attested can be characterized as featural change, without rearrangement of hierarchical structure.
Accusative Alternation in Old and Modern Romance
Authors: KAUFMANN ANNA BARTRA 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter investigates the evolution of the argument structure of (psychological) transfer verbs from Latin to Romance. It proposes that the original Latin structure — a construction labelled as accusative alternation in parallelism with the locative alternation or the dative alternation — consists of a small clause selected by the verb and headed by a final coincidence abstract preposition that relates two NP arguments. The Latin abstract preposition would be replaced by a lexical preposition in Romance as a consequence of the loss of case noun morphology and the extension of the use of prepositions. This change would yield in Old Romance two alternating structures that semantically differ in the SOURCE or GOAL meaning of the preposition. This semantic difference becomes crucial to the development of the argument structure in Modern Romance.
Parametric Comparison and Language Taxonomy
Authors: GUARDIANO CRISTINA , LONGOBARDI GIUSEPPE 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
It is still a widely held opinion that the contribution of formal syntactic theories to modern linguistics is essentially focused on synchronic generalizations and that it does not extend to the most classical problems of the historical paradigm. Such a belief is beginning to fade away as a consequence of increased work in diachronic syntax. This chapter argues that the generative theory of syntactic parameters might interestingly renovate another stronghold of the historical study of language, phylogenetic taxonomy, and undermine the Humboldtian received distinction between the latter and grammatical typology.
Clause Type Asymmetries in Old English and the Syntax of Verb Movement
Authors: HAEBERLI ERIC 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Old English exhibits main clause/subordinate clause word order asymmetries comparable to those found in modern West Germanic languages such as Dutch or German. Finite verbs generally occur near the beginning of a main clause whereas they tend to occur towards the end of subordinate clauses. Furthermore (in contrast to modern West Germanic), it has been observed that conjoined main clauses often have subordinate clause word order in Old English. This chapter addresses the question of how these clause type asymmetries can be accounted for. Section 16.2 presents the main word order properties of Old English and some quantitative data concerning the distribution of finite verbs in different types of clauses. Section 16.3 presents recent proposals for the structural analysis of the Old English word order patterns, and discusses some problems for the treatment of subordinate clauses. Section 16.4 presents a solution to these problems; the remainder of the chapter explores some consequences of this approach with respect to the analysis of conjoined clauses and the development of verb movement in the history of English.
Is there Gradient Phonology?
Authors: COHN ABIGAIL C. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins by explaining why there might be gradience in the phonology. It then briefly discusses the nature of phonology versus phonetics. It considers the status of gradient phonology, that is, phonological patterns best described in terms on continuous variables. It explores some possible ways in which gradience might exist in the phonology, considering the various aspects of phonology such as contrast, phonotactics, morphonemics, and allophony. A fuller understanding of the status of gradience in the phonology has wider implications for our understanding of the nature of the linguistic grammar in the domain of sound patterns and their physical realizations.
Degraded Acceptability and Markedness in Syntax, and the Stochastic Interpretation of Optimality Theory
Authors: VOGEL RALF 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter shows that violation profiles can be employed to predict contrasts among expressions in empirical investigations, and that markedness is the grammar-internal correlate of (some) phenomena of gradedness that is experienced in empirical studies. In contrast to other empirically oriented work within optimality theory (OT), this chapter claims that a standard OT grammar is already fitted for showing gradedness. It then talks about gradedness and categoricity within the tradition of generative grammar, especially in its relevance for the competence/performance distinction. It introduces a particular case of syntactic markedness — case conflicts in argument free relative constructions. It presents data from an experimental study and demonstrates how an OT grammar inferred in the way described in this chapter can predict the observed gradient data.
Effects of Processing Difficulty on Judgements of Acceptability
Authors: FANSELOW GISBERT , FRISCH STEFAN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter highlights the effect of processing difficulty on acceptability. It analyses evidence demonstrating that parsing problems often reduce acceptability. It shows that the fact that processing difficulty may increase acceptability is less obvious, but this probability is nonetheless borne out. The preferred interpretation of a locally vague construction can have a positive influence on the global acceptability of a sentence even when this is later abandoned. The occurrence of the positive impact of local ambiguities in a domain that goes beyond mere syntactic feature differences is confirmed by the experiments focusing on long wh-movement. Thus, local acceptability perceptions during the parsing process influence the global acceptability of a sentence.
What’s What?
Authors: ERTESCHIK-SHIR NOMI 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter shows that the source of graded acceptability judgments cannot be purely syntactic. Instead, such data area forecasted by information structure (IS) constraints. The chapter argues that extraction is completely determined by IS constraints, in particular that only focus domains are apparent for purposes of extraction. It concludes that any phenomenon which differs with context among and across speakers cannot have a syntactic account. An account in terms of IS is aided to predict this kind of variation. Thus, a syntactic constraint violation will be ungrammatical, a violation of an IS constraint will allow contextual variation and will thus result in gradience. There will be no weak syntactic constraints, only strong ones. A theory of IS, — f(ocus)-structure theory — geared to interact with syntax, phonology, and semantics, is introduced and viewed as an essential part of grammar.
East Timor: Trials and Tribulations
Authors: Bertodano Sylvia de 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
One of the major issues facing the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) when it arrived in East Timor in October 1999 was the question of how those responsible for the violence of the preceding ten months were to be brought to justice. UNTAET created the Special Panels for Serious Crimes (composed of national and international judges) in East Timor's capital Dili, to try suspects in East Timor. These panels are the first specially constructed internationalized courts which have tried serious crimes within a local justice system. However, due to a lack of commitment in terms of funding, personnel, and political will, the success of this experiment has been limited. This chapter reviews the experiment in internationalized justice taking place in Dili. In an attempt to provide an overall assessment, it also discusses the progress of the ad hoc tribunal in Jakarta, Indonesia.
Getting Untrapped, Struggling for Truths: The Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation (CAVR) in East Timor
Authors: Lyons Beth S 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Truth commissions have become an almost ubiquitous policy option in the range of accountability mechanisms for human rights violations. In East Timor, the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation (CAVR) is only one of multiple processes to deal with human rights violations of a past regime. It co-exists with criminal trials conducted by the Serious Crimes Panel, and an ad hoc Human Rights Court established by Indonesia. The CAVR, established by a United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) Regulation, is an independent state-sanctioned entity whose objective is ‘to promote national reconciliation and healing following the years of political conflict in East Timor, in particular, following the atrocities committed in 1999’ by ‘establishing the truth regarding the commission of human rights violations’. This chapter examines the CAVR, and identifies some of the potential areas of tension which it faces, particularly in its function as an accountability mechanism for human rights violations.
Internationalized Courts and their Relationship with Alternative Accountability Mechanisms: The Case of Sierra Leone
Authors: Schabas William A 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
A Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was established in Sierra Leone in order to: create an impartial historical record of violations and abuses of human rights and international humanitarian law related to the armed conflict in the country; address impunity; respond to the needs of the victims; promote healing and reconciliation; and prevent violations and abuses in the future. Both the TRC and the Special Court began operations in mid-2002. Although they operated in parallel for more than 18 months, the work of the TRC was essentially completed by the time actual trials of the Special Court commenced in June 2004. Both the TRC and the Special Court fit within the palette of transitional justice options being used to address impunity in post-conflict situations. This chapter compares the two organizations in terms of legal status and functions, mandates, and jurisdictions. Some of the issues that may arise in the relationship between them are examined.
The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for Prosecuting Crimes Committed by the Khmer Rouge: Jurisdiction, Organization, and Procedure of an Internationalized National Tribunal
Authors: Meijer Ernestine E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses certain aspects of the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia; namely, their jurisdiction, organization, and procedure. It examines the last phase of the negotiations between the United Nations (UN) and the Cambodian government, which led to the adoption of the Agreement between the UN and the Royal Government of Cambodia concerning the Prosecution under Cambodian Law of Crimes Committed during the Period of Democratic Kampuchea (the UN-Cambodia Agreement). The relationship between the UN-Cambodia Agreement and Cambodian law is discussed, along with general principles of criminal law, and settlement of disputes between the UN and Cambodia.
The Financing of Internationalized Criminal Courts and Tribunals
Authors: Ingadottir Thordis 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
One of the most important departures of the internationalized criminal courts and tribunals from typical full international tribunals is the way in which they are funded. While the bulk of the cost of the international panels in Kosovo and East Timor is incorporated in the budget of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) and the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET)/United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor (UNMISET) respectively, important budgetary items were left to national authorities. These tribunals have also brazenly accepted voluntary contributions, whether in terms of personnel or equipment. The Special Court in Sierra Leone became the first internationalized tribunal to be funded solely by voluntary contributions.
Some Tentative Remarks on the Relationship Between Internationalized Criminal Jurisdictions and the International Criminal Court
Authors: Benzing Markus , Bergsmo Morten 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter identifies preliminary issues and possible difficulties in the relationship between the International Criminal Court (ICC) and internationalized criminal jurisdictions in terms of policy, law, and practical aspects. Although all of the hybrid jurisdictions presently operating or about to start operation in the near future are concerned with crimes that were committed prior to the entry into force of the Rome Statute, and a conflict between these institutions and the ICC would not seem to be possible, such courts may serve as models for future hybrid tribunals. Questions concerning the relationship the ICC and such possible future courts could arise in connection with: an assessment of the efficacy, validity, or independence of such jurisdictions; a consideration of how multiple hybrid tribunals could affect the ICC's aspiration to be a permanent, universal institution; possible future cooperation between the ICC and such jurisdictions; and in terms of the ICC's complementarity regime.
Geographical and Jurisdictional Reach of ICC: Gaps in the International Criminal Justice System and a Role for Internationalized Bodies
Authors: Colitti Mariacarmen 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
On July 1, 2002, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) came into force. The establishment of the ICC can be considered a great achievement in the work for prosecution of gross violations of humanitarian law and human rights by individuals. Its purpose is to provide a permanent criminal forum, potentially with universal reach, to try war crimes and gross violations of human rights. On the other hand, the internationalized courts and tribunals in Kosovo, Sierra Leone, Cambodia, and East Timor were created in the interregnum between the adoption of the Rome Statute and its entry into force. This chapter examines the range of the ICC's jurisdiction to determine to what extent, and in which instances, internationalized criminal bodies might help try the most horrendous crimes.
Internationalized Courts: Better Than Nothing…
Authors: Pellet Alain 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In some respects, internationalized criminal courts and tribunals combine all the advantages and disadvantages of both national and international criminal courts. However, this would probably not give a true picture. This is because such tribunals are highly heterogeneous; the circumstances of their creation in Kosovo, Sierra Leone, Cambodia, and East Timor are extremely different; their degree of ‘internationalization’ is far from uniform; the scope of their jurisdiction varies; and their modes of functioning are hardly comparable. In addition, their common characteristics, in particular their ‘ad hocism’ and their semi-internationalization, raise specific issues compared with national courts, as well as with truly international bodies such as the International Criminal Court.
Introduction
Authors: Eidinow Esther 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This introductory chapter discusses the nature and significance of oracle consultation and curse writing for ordinary men and women of the ancient world. It considers these two activities together, in the belief that they share certain characteristics and a particular cultural role: that is, both were strategies for the individual and collective expression and management of aspects of future uncertainty and risk in everyday life. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
A Lapse into Unreason
Authors: Eidinow Esther 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In the Ancient Greek world, engagements with the supernatural were mundane, many, and varied: a spectrum of interactions at different social levels, involving different mortal and supernatural personnel and conducted with a variety of intentions. Alongside state-organized events, there was a vast market in supernatural services, offered both by institutions and individuals. This chapter examines the nature of this market, from the ritual specialists (male and female) who sold oracles, binding spells/curses, healing spells and initiations into mysteries, to the many different kinds of oracular sanctuaries scattered across the Greek landscape; as well as examining how modern attitudes to, and understanding of, these activities have changed over time.
A Catalogue and Summary of Published Questions by Individuals and Responses from the Dodona Oracle
Authors: Eidinow Esther 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents a catalogue of questions (and the very few answers that seem to have survived) that men and women posed to Zeus at his oracle at Dodona. The catalogue, organized in categories (question topics, and the formulae of inquiry), includes the published texts, as well as a few as yet unpublished, provided by the late Professor Christidis of Thessaloniki University.