bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Trade and Investment Implications of Carbon Trading for Sustainable Development
Authors: Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger , Markus Gehring 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter briefly examines, based on recent legal analysis and scholarship in the field of sustainable development, the trade and investment implications of carbon trading. First, it considers how trade regimes, investment rules, and emissions trading schemes can serve as tools for sustainable development. It then examines the trade and investment implications of new emissions trading regulations, suggesting ways to minimize overlaps with trade and investment disciplines when drafting carbon-related regulations, and addressing issues related to technology transfer. It considers how trade and investment regimes might be refined to complement and support climate-change-related measures. The chapter concludes with a call for integration and, at a minimum, coherence among trade, investment, and climate change regimes that share common sustainable development objectives.
Carbon Markets and Policy in Australia: Recent Developments
Authors: Wilder Martijn , Fitz-Gerald Louisa 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the recent developments in climate policy in Australia, with a specific focus on the recently introduced legislation for emissions trading in Australia. It also considers the newly implemented mandatory greenhouse and energy reporting regulations, which provide detail on the mandatory corporate greenhouse emissions and energy reporting scheme, and the design proposals for an expanded national renewable energy target. The chapter concludes by considering some recent developments in the voluntary carbon market in Australia, including the investigation by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) into ‘green’ marketing.
The Voluntary Carbon Market: Its Contributions and Potential Legal and Policy Issues
Authors: Michelle Passero 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Over the past several years, transactions for the voluntary purchase and sale of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reductions have grown significantly. Also known as the ‘voluntary carbon market’, this market has provided a benefit to the climate by building public awareness and infrastructure for transactions and informing government climate policy. This chapter begins with a background on the voluntary carbon market — what it is and the reasons for its growth. It elaborates on the contribution of the voluntary market including the development of GHG reduction accounting standards, registries and policy. It then discusses the additional actions that could be taken in this respect, and identifies the potential need to clarify the legal nature of reductions in the voluntary market.
Aviation and Climate Change Regulation
Authors: Clarke Claybourne Fox , Chagas Thiago 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Aviation emissions are the fastest growing source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Aviation emissions from Annex I Countries increased by 67% between 1990 and 2005 and, according to some estimates, by as much as 90% when aviation emissions from non-Annex I Countries are included for this period. This chapter examines the current status of international aviation under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the ongoing debate over developing measures under the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) or including the sector in a post-2012 agreement, the moves by the EU to bring international aviation under the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), and issues that will need to be considered when implementing measures at the international level to reduce the sector's emissions.
Design of Environmental Tax Reforms in Europe
Authors: Speck Stefan , Jilkova Jirina 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of carbon‐energy taxation introduced under environmental tax reforms in Europe. First a broad overview of the relative shares of taxes on energy, transport, and pollution is presented. This overview treats developments in EU‐15 as well as in the ten new member states and shows that tax‐reform proposals are considered across Europe as a whole. Developments in tax‐shifting are most advanced in Denmark, Finland, Germany, Netherlands, Slovenia, Sweden, and the UK. Comprehensive reform proposals have also been put forward in countries such as France, Italy, and Belgium, while currently among the new member states Estonia and Czech Republic have announced tax shifts to be implemented. The chapter investigates whether there have been ‘implicit’ tax shifts, i.e. by examining how the ratios of labour taxation‐to‐GDP and of environmental taxes‐to‐GDP have developed during the last decade. Furthermore, the chapter looks into how European countries have designed their tax shifts, and in this connection how the concern of potential losses of competitiveness have been addressed and mitigated. This is done by explaining the different principles and measures applied in the seven countries which have already introduced tax shifts.
Trends in the Competitiveness of Selected Industrial Sectors in ETR Countries
Authors: Salmons Roger , Miltner Alexandra 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThe objective of this chapter is to assess whether the carbon‐energy taxes introduced under the environmental tax reforms (ETRs) that were implemented in seven European Union countries between 1990 and 2001 have had any impact on the competitiveness of selected industrial sectors in those countries. Underlying the analyses is a series of country datasets with each dataset containing generic data such as exchange rates and emission factors, and sector‐specific data on energy use, energy prices and taxes, economic variables, and labour market variables. By definition, if an ETR raises the production cost of a firm, or the average production cost for a sector, then it has a negative impact on competitiveness compared to the (hypothetical) situation if the ETR had not been implemented – all else being equal. However, from a policy perspective it is more relevant to consider whether there has been any deterioration in competitiveness compared to the (actual) situation before the ETR was implemented.
The Effects of Environmental Tax Reform on International Competitiveness in the European Union: Modelling with E3ME
Authors: Barker Terry , Junankar Sudhir , Pollitt Hector , Summerton Philip 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter assesses the macroeconomic effects of carbon‐energy taxation introduced under unilateral environmental tax reform (ETR) in the 1990s undertaken in six member states of the European Union: Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the UK. The effects are estimated using the large‐scale Energy–Environment–Economy (E3) model for Europe, E3ME, which covers the countries involved, as well as the complete single market, so that the effects on other economies can be considered, along with any effects on competitiveness. The method is to identify the key characteristics of the green tax reform packages and include these in the modelling of the price and non‐price effects of the ETR on energy use and international trade in E3ME. The effects are then compared with a ‘reference case’ (i.e. a counterfactual case) generated by E3ME over the period 1995–2012 including current and expected developments in the EU economy, e.g. the impact of the EU Emission Trading Scheme, but without the ETR. The ETRs caused a modest reduction in fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions in all six of countries and a very small increase in employment and GDP. All the ETRs were assumed to be revenue‐neutral. The revenue recycling meant that the cost of ETR to the economy was significantly reduced and in several cases resulted in an increase in GDP. The method for revenue recycling strongly affects the results, as does the scale of exemptions offered to certain fuel user groups.
Second occurrence focus andRelativized Stress F
Authors: Rooth Mats 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter identifies a tight relation between information structure prominence, in terms of focus, and prosodic prominence, in terms of accent. This is done by way of a detailed analysis of second occurrence focus (SOF), a phenomenon that has drawn the attention of semanticists and phonologists only in recent years. There are parallels between the semantics and phonology which can be captured by means of two generalizations. The first one is Stress F, which posits that a pitch accent must be placed somewhere in the prosodic domain of the focus constituent. The second one, called Relativized Stress F, establishes a hierarchy between two bound foci with overlapping or embedding domains. The focus with higher semantic scope is prosodically more prominent than the focus with lower scope. The effects of both constraints can be captured in a strictly local fashion by the introduction of operators that operate as modifiers on semantic combination functions, such as Functional Application. These modifiers pass the information of semantic and prosodic prominence up the syntactic tree. Thus, the chapter, despite its strong semantic bias, relates the semantic interpretation of focus to the prosody, mediated by the syntax.
Subject focus in West African languages
Authors: Fiedler Ines , Hartmann Katharina , Reineke Brigitte , Schwarz Anne , Zimmermann Malte 
Published: February 2010

AbstractIn chapter 10 ‘Subject Focus in West African Languages’, Ines Fiedler, Katharina Hartmann, Brigitte Reineke, Anne Schwarz, and Malte Zimmermann investigate the peculiarities of subject focus marking in three West African language groups. After a discussion of various strategies of focus realization, it is shown that most languages in the sample exhibit a subject/non‐subject asymmetry with respect to focus marking: While focus on non‐subjects can often go unmarked, subject focus must always be marked. The grammatical ways of subject focus marking vary widely across the languages under discussion. Strategies used include syntactic, morphological and prosodic focus marking, as well as the reorganization of the entire clause into a thetic statement. It is argued that the special status of focused subjects follows from the fact that the default interpretation of subjects is a topic interpretation. In order to avoid this default reading, a focused subject must be marked as such.
Information structure and OV order
Authors: Hróarsdóttir þorbjörg 
Published: February 2010

AbstractChapter 11 ‘Information Structure and OV order’ by Þorbjörg Hróarsdóttir studies the change from object‐verb order to verb‐object order. A number of European languages have undergone such a change and here the focus is on the change in Icelandic. Morphological triggers, or the absence thereof, have often been related to clustering of syntactic properties in both diachronic change and acquisition. As seen from the English viewpoint inflectional morphology may express the relevant cue for parameters, and hence the loss of inflection may lead to a grammar change. This paper argues that this analysis does not carry over to Icelandic, as the loss of OV in Icelandic took place despite rich case morphology. Instead, it is argued that the relevant cue may be expressed differently among languages: While it may have been expressed through morphology in English, it was expressed through information structure in Icelandic. In both cases, external effects led to fewer expressions of the relevant (universal) cue and a grammar change took place. It is also shown how Object Shift in Modern Icelandic supports the claim that the placement of the object in Older Icelandic is connected to information structure.
Chapter 7 A Layered European Public Sphere
Authors: Eriksen Erik O. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThe development of post‐national democracy in Europe depends not merely on rights but also on the emergence of an overarching communicative space that functions as a public sphere. But is this possible when there is no collective identity? Although the EU is not a state, nor a nation, its development as a new kind of polity is closely connected to the formation of a common communicative space. Cooperation and problem‐solving create public spaces but have not produced a single, non‐exclusive, general European public sphere. Rather, we find a layered public sphere containing several transnational, segmented publics evolving around policy networks, as well as legally institutionalized discourses—strong publics, such as the EP, Comitology, the ECJ, and conventions. The lack of a truly European public sphere can be seen as the consequence of the democratic deficit, the deeper causes of which may result from a weak European civic solidarity.
Chapter 10 Parliamentary Democracy without a Demos
Authors: Eriksen Erik O. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis last chapter addresses the puzzle of why parliamentary democracy has become the legitimacy standard for the EU when there is no demos. We witness a development from a situation in which democracy served as a guiding norm for national systems only, to one where democracy has become an increasingly relevant standard also for evaluating the EU. Following its empowerment, the European Parliament, together with national parliaments, is part of a European multi‐level parliamentary field. But why has the reform process taken the form of support for a parliamentarian model of representative democracy when central conditions for it to work properly are not in place? The solution to the puzzle is sought in the normative thrust of the parliamentary principle as the main embodiment of popular rule. But the lingering question is whether there can be democracy based on an empowered parliament without a political community.
Chapter 10 The Outlook for Canada's Public Sector Employee Pensions
Authors: Pozzebon Silvana 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the context and features of occupational pension plans in the Canadian public sector and compares these with their private sector counterparts. Relative to the declining importance of registered pension plans in the private sector, pension coverage rates of public sector employees remain high and their pension plans retain traditional characteristics. Yet funding considerations have brought considerable change to public sector employee pensions. These and other challenges are discussed.
Chapter 15 Pension Fund Activism: The Double‐Edged Sword
Authors: Barber Brad M. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractMany public pension funds engage in activism by using their pooled ownership of stock to affect changes in the corporations they own. The merits of activism depend on (1) the conflicts of interest between corporate managers and shareholders, and (2) the conflicts of interest between portfolio managers and investors. These conflicts lead to two types of activism: shareholder activism and social activism. Portfolio managers can use their position to monitor conflicts that might arise between managers and shareholders (shareholder activism), but they can also abuse their position by pursuing actions that advance their own moral values or political interests at the expense of investors (social activism).
Peacekeeping
Authors: Lehnardt Chia 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter surveys the roles that PMSCs have taken on and the more ambitious possibilities that have been proposed in the area of peacekeeping. There is, at present, little guidance on what functions can be outsourced in the implementation of a UN Security Council mandate. In fact, PMSCs have been engaged in a broad spectrum of activities, including some of the more ancillary aspects constituting peace consolidating measures or post-conflict measures, such as the recruitment and training of troops and the clearing of mines. At the same time, the status of PMSCs under international humanitarian law is murky at best. The situation is compounded by the questions of who ultimately bears responsibility for the company misconduct. Despite these concerns, suggestions have been made for expanded use of PMSCs, such as employing them as UN blue helmets or even as UN-mandated or UN-led troops carrying out military operations.
The responsibility of states
Authors: Schutter Olivier De 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter looks at the varied efforts to use the international law of state responsibility to hold states in which private military and security companies (PMSCs) are registered or incorporated (home states) accountable for their conduct. It examines whether, under international law, the home state is obliged to control its companies. Must such a state allow its courts to adjudicate claims filed against these companies? Home states can be held responsible for PMSC actions when the company is a mere fiction used to pursue state interest, if governmental authority has been delegated to it, or if it is in fact under state direction or control. Such ‘easy cases’ do not capture the growing instances of PMSCs being employed by private entities (rather than states), however.
Human rights and self-regulation in the apparel industry
Authors: DeWinter-Schmitt Rebecca 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the evolution of regulatory regimes in the apparel industry as a comparison with efforts to regulate PMSCs. Lessons learned from the efforts of the Fair Labor Association and the Workers Rights Consortium might provide a road map for creating a hybrid public-private regulatory regime for PMSCs that contains all the necessary elements of high standards, implementation guidelines, independent monitoring, an enforcement mechanism, and public reporting. Incentives could be established by giving companies an industry seal of approval that would indicate their adherence to ethical business practices. This could be attractive to non-state customers, like NGOs and other companies that need security and are worried about the reputations of their providers. The existence of a hybrid regulatory regime would not, however, alleviate the state's responsibility to conduct ongoing assessments of the human rights impact of such an effort, including by examining the global structure and operations of the PMSC industry.
Reconciling Public Health and Investor Rights: The Case of Tobacco
Authors: Sara Vadi Valentina 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter explores the linkage between investment law and international instruments protecting public health, focussing on the specific issue of tobacco control. Since the recent inception of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, which has established cognitive and normative consensus for promoting global public health through tobacco control, states have gradually adopted a series of measures to comply with this convention. However, international investment governance risks undermining the goal of tobacco control, for example by facilitating access to tobacco products, increasing competition, and lowering tobacco prices. After analysing the relevant legal framework, this chapter explores the potential conflict areas between investment governance and tobacco regulation, and proposes some legal tools that might help reconciling the interests at stake. In particular, it proposes recourse to customary rules of treaty interpretation.
4 Background Considerations to a Re‐Regulation of the US Financial System: Third Time a Charm? Or Strike Three?
Authors: Kregel Jan 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Kregel's chapter notes that the United States financial system is currently undergoing its third episode of major financial turmoil and response in the form of financial re‐regulation. The first was the creation of the national bank system in the 1860s, the second was the New Deal legislation of the 1930s, and the third is that currently under way. The first two episodes produced similar responses and similar financial structures, and laid the basis for subsequent crises. Given the similarity of the present crisis with the two previous experiences, there is, therefore, the risk that the solutions introduced will in fact lay the groundwork for the next crisis.
11 Governing the Global Regulatory System1
Authors: Williams Dr. Marion 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Williams attempts to analyze the national and international financial governance system, their strengths and weaknesses. A number of issues are explored and a number of recommendations made. The author does not call for a total revamp of the financial governance structure, but rather for a number of improvements, among them some dealing with the issue of legitimacy. Williams emphasizes that serious institutional gaps have emerged, with no international financial institution having a clear mandate to require remedial regulatory measures when risks arise, especially from large countries like the United States. She argues for creating a multi‐purpose regulatory oversight body. This could be based on the Financial Stability Forum (FSF), but it would require global representation and clear authority.
16 Reforming the Global Reserve System1
Authors: Antonio Ocampo José 
Published: February 2010

AbstractOcampo argues that the current global reserve system exhibits three fundamental flaws. First, it shows the deflationary bias typical of any system in which all the burden of adjustment falls on deficit countries (the anti‐Keynesian bias). Second, it is inherently unstable due to two distinct features: the use of a national currency as the major reserve asset (the Triffin dilemma) and the high demand for “self‐protection” that developing countries face (the inequity‐instability link). The latter is related, in turn, to the mix of highly pro‐cyclical capital flows and the absence of adequate supply of “collective insurance” to manage balance of payments crises, which generate a high demand for foreign exchange reserves by developing countries. This implies, third, that the system is inequitable (the inequity bias), and that such inequities have grown as developing countries have accumulated large quantities of foreign exchange reserves. On the basis of this, it argues for a system based on the counter‐cyclical issues of Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) that finance IMF facilities, and some possible “development links” in SDR allocations.
1 Prologue
Authors: Giudice Gian Francesco 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter introduces the LHC project and its main motivation: the exploration of ‘zeptospace’. Zeptospace is a word invented in this book to designate the world as viewed at lengths of hundred billionths of billionths of a millimetre. Physicists expect that new particles and new phenomena (such as the Higgs boson, supersymmetry, or extra dimensions) exist in zeptospace. The chapter contains also a short synopsis of the book.
12 Exploring the Universe With a Microscope
Authors: Giudice Gian Francesco 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Results from the LHC can expand our knowledge of the early stages of the universe. The connection between the world of particle physics and the structure of our universe is probably one of the most profound results of modern science, which captivates the imagination of anyone who is confronted with its wonders. This chapter describes this connection, explaining how the process of inflation could be at the origin of the cosmological properties we observe today. The empirical evidence in favour of dark matter is by now overwhelming. This still unknown form of matter could be made of some new kind of particle that can be produced at the LHC. This chapter presents the case of dark matter at the LHC and the ways in which the new form of matter could be discovered. It explains what dark energy is and its potential impact on the naturalness problem.