bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Tax, Economic Globalization and Development
Authors: Guerrero Alejandro 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Fiscal economists formulated during the 1960s what came to be branded as the theory of tax structure developments. Governments update tax systems according to the evolving economic structure, administrative capacity and stage of development (Alt 1983; Tilly 1992). Ancient and medieval tax systems relied heavily on taxes associated with fixed assets, such as land tenure or mines. During the mercantilist age, trade tariffs and duties became the main source of government revenues, and remained hegemonic until the Industrial Revolution. New forms of taxation emerged as industrial societies became more complex, and there was a broadening and diversification of taxable sources of income. Consumption taxes and, later, income taxation emerged as the dominant sources of revenue for developed countries. Simultaneously, the expansion of pension programs and welfare states was associated with the emergence of social security contributions.
Neoconservatism
Authors: Kukreja Sunil 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Neoconservatism as a worldview reached its zenith during the presidency of George W. Bush. It became the compelling and driving force that shaped the way that the United States, under the Bush Administration, conducted its foreign policy, and framed its role in the international community, particularly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 (9/11).
Postglobalization
Authors: Coward Martin 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Postglobalization refers to the potential temporal, empirical, conceptual, normative and political transcendence of the perceived limits of globalization. Typically, postglobalization implies that extant conceptual resources are inadequate for understanding the emergence of social, cultural, economic and political structures that are constituted by, and yet are themselves qualitatively different for, the supraterritorial dynamics associated with the period of globalization. As such, this historically specific transformation demands a novel concept, clearly differentiated from extant theories of globalization. In this sense, postglobalization refers to the historical surpassing of globalization (and globalization theory). Moreover, it is contended that this transformation will have either normative or political implications.
Precarity
Authors: Castelein Tammy Lynn , Ieven Bram 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Precarity refers to the fragile and insecure employment conditions to which an increasing amount of workers are subjected in the global economy. The concept refers to the fact that there is a large amount of workers who are employed on temporary contracts, are forced to work with flexible schedules and have little or no job security or social security. The result is that these groups are in a socially and economically precarious condition. This form of precarity, which is understood as a major issue in the current economy, has been studied intensively by economists and sociologists and has been at the center of attention of various social movements (Bourdieu 1998; Bauman 2002). The situation is usually understood as the result of the new global post‐Fordist economy in which the demand for temporary workers is higher than the demand for long‐term workers. In contradistinction to Fordism, post‐Fordist economy does not rely on a consistent production output that is brought into the market, but largely produces on demand from the market. The result of this new economic production system is that there is a growing need for temporary workers who can be employed for short stretches of time. In extension, the rise of temporary employment agencies can be seen as a symptom of the new economy and the precarious workers it produces.
Public Sphere
Authors: Rhomberg Markus 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Public spheres may be defined as the collection of places and spaces – from neighborhood cafes to mass media and Internet chat rooms – where private individuals can express their opinion in public, pass judgments, and have the possibility of becoming independent agents in governing the state (Habermas 1989). Ideas about how to transfer this national model to the transnational and even global scale are widespread and have not been restricted to the twenty‐first century. The concept has been extended increasingly from the nation‐state to an international, transnational, cosmopolitan and global level. Public spaces are built from condensed networks of communication. The idea of a public sphere can be found in many modern social theories (for example, Luhmann's concept of a functionally differentiated society) but it was Juergen Habermas who first introduced the idea of a public sphere into modern social theory. In a normative manner, he conceptualized the public sphere within the nation‐state as a sphere of private individuals discussing freely and rationally, where all matters are oriented to the common good, and serving to crystallize public opinion. Public spheres should legitimize the political system, control it and produce transparency. A well‐developed, pluralized and vital media system is one of the conditions for establishing a public sphere and thus democracy within nation‐states. In contemporary modern society, the news media are important in determining who communicates with larger publics. The structures and contents of public spheres are determined by the production routines of the media. The mass media permit the circulation of opinions. We emphasize the role of the media, although some scholars state that the mass media themselves are dominated by money and power and therefore cannot be an independent societal force (Herman & Chomsky 1988).
World Bank
Authors: Lee Susan Hagood 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The World Bank is a multilateral development bank (MDB) that provides low‐interest loans, interest‐free credits, grants, and technical assistance to middle‐ and low‐income countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Eastern Europe. The Bank's goals are to eliminate poverty, reduce inequity, and improve opportunities for people in low‐ and middle‐income countries. It originated in the 1944 Bretton Woods conference with its sister organization, the International Monetary Fund, to stabilize the international economy after World War II. The Bank raises funds through subscriptions and donations from its 186 member states, the Bank's owners, and through the sale of bonds on the international market. Voting is weighted by the size of member nations' economies, and the United States has the most influence. The Bank makes loans at concessional rates for infrastructure, agriculture, social programs, and private enterprise development. Since the debt crisis of the 1970s, the Bank has required structural adjustment policy reforms as a condition of its loans. Critics charge that World Bank policies have hurt the most vulnerable, increased poverty, and damaged the environment.
World Cultural Heritage: Conventions
Authors: Schmutz Vaughn , Elliott Michael A. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The conceptualization and definition of world cultural heritage, as well as the principles guiding its preservation, have gradually emerged through a series of international conventions and other agreements since the nineteenth century. The most influential of these agreements has been the
Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
, also known as the World Heritage Convention (WHC), adopted by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1972. The WHC represents a comprehensive effort to formalize and globalize the process by which world cultural heritage is identified and preserved. Subsequent conventions have sought to expand UNESCO's original interpretation to include underwater and intangible heritage, for example, and have taken measures to protect world heritage sites from a variety of threats, such as globalization.
World Wildlife Fund
Authors: Wapner Paul 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The World Wildlife Fund (WWF), called the World Wide Fund for Nature outside the United States and Canada, is one of the oldest international environmental conservation organizations. A group of British naturalists (including Julian Huxley and Peter Scott) established the WWF in 1961 to defend endangered species from extinction. Headquartered in Switzerland, this charitable trust relies on private donations from its more than 5 million members, which fund about 60 percent of its activities, averaging 1300 projects in 100 countries at any given moment. WWF employs science to preserve biodiversity and healthy ecosystems through the protection of wild plant and animal populations and the promotion of efficient, renewable, or otherwise sustainable, natural and energy resources.
Socialism
Authors: Shevchenko Olga 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The rise, and later the decline, of state socialism has defined the political landscape of the twentieth century. While the number of countries that claim to adhere to the state socialist model has dwindled (and the exact extent to which they embody socialist principles is questionable), the potential of the socialist model as a conceptual alternative to capitalism continues to fascinate social thinkers, politicians and rank‐and‐file citizens alike. Socialist (or social‐democratic or labor) parties, whose policies may have little in common with those of state socialist regimes, remain important players in the political landscape of many democratic nations, from Australia to Norway, and in that sense, socialist principles remain relevant to the world's political imagination.
Transnational Speech Regulation
Authors: Kyckelhahn Tracey 
Published: March 2012

AbstractTransnational speech regulation is the legislation from multinational bodies such as the United Nations (UN), the Council of Europe (CofE), and the European Union (EU) that prohibits certain types of written and spoken statements. Often the legislation focuses on speech deemed hateful, discriminatory, or offensive towards certain groups and includes both criminal and civil laws. While there is debate over what such speech should be called, for the purpose of this entry such speech will be called “hate speech.” In addition, statements deemed libelous or slanderous against an individual or corporation are also the targets of such legislation. Major treaties include the UN's International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) and the International Convention of Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the CofE's Convention on Cybercrime and European Convention on Human Rights. Other transnational speech legislation includes the EU's Framework Decision on combating racism and xenophobia.
Tripartite Standards Regime
Authors: Loconto Allison , Stone John V. , Busch Lawrence 
Published: March 2012

AbstractStandards are exemplary measures against which people and things are judged. They can be informal, resembling norms and habits; they can also be formal, resembling laws or written codes of conduct or embedded in material objects. Both formal and informal standards are involved in nearly every aspect of human life. However, we will use the term “standards” to refer exclusively to “formal standards” which are those that are primarily invoked in global governance. In order for formal standards to create and keep the ordering that is intended by their use, a number of elements employed: (i) processes for certifying compliance to the standards, (ii) processes for accrediting the certifiers who audit the standards, and (iii) relatively clear sanctions for violation of these standards. Generally referred to as “conformity assessment,” these processes traverse and integrate the public and private sectors domestically and internationally. As such, formal standards are part of a “tripartite standards regime” (TSR), which is a regime of governance that consists of standards‐setting, accreditation, and certification (Loconto & Busch 2010). These three processes involved in constructing a TSR emerged pragmatically at different times and in different geographic spaces beginning in the late nineteenth century.
Assessment of Motor Coordination and Balance in Mice Using the Rotarod, Elevated Bridge, and Footprint Tests
Authors: Brooks Simon P. , Trueman Rebecca C. , Dunnett Stephen B. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractIn order fully to utilize animal models of disease states, to test experimental therapeutics, and to understand the underlying pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disease, behavioral characterization of the model is essential. Deterioration of normal motor function within a disease state signals the progression of an underlying pathological process, and identifies disease‐sensitive time points according to which the onset of therapeutic trials may be scheduled. Deterioration in the performance of motor tasks may also indicate the point when motor deficits begin to compromise our ability to measure other deficits within cognitive and behavioral domains. In acute therapeutic trials, the separation of motor from cognitive or behavioral function may be crucial in determining the functional specificity of the drug effect. If we are to accurately measure motor performance in disease progression or during drug trials, tests of motor function that have been highly optimized with respect to sensitivity must be applied. Since motor coordination and balance are essential to normal motor function, tests that probe these facets are ideal for the purpose. In this chapter, we describe in detail three test protocols that principally measure motor coordination (the rotarod and footprint tests) and balance (the elevated bridge test) in mice. Curr. Protoc. Mouse Biol. 2:37‐53 © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Dysregulation of the autonomic nervous system and its association with the presence and intensity of chronic widespread pain
Authors: Barakat Ansam , Vogelzangs Nicole , Licht Carmilla M. M. , Geenen Rinie , MacFarlane Gary J. , de Geus Eco J. C. , Smit Johannes H. , Penninx Brenda W. J. H. , Dekker Joost 
Published: March 2012

AbstractObjectiveTo test the hypotheses that dysregulation of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is associated with the presence of chronic widespread pain (CWP), and that dysregulation of the ANS is associated with higher pain intensity in CWP.MethodsCross‐sectional data were obtained from 1,574 subjects (healthy controls as well as persons with depressive and anxiety disorders) participating in The Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety. The Chronic Pain Grade was used to assess pain intensity and pain‐related disability. Heart rate (HR), SD of the normal‐to‐normal interval (SDNN), the preejection period (PEP), and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) were used to assess the ANS. Logistic regression analyses and linear regression analyses were conducted with adjustment for potential confounders.ResultsNo differences in HR, PEP, SDNN, or RSA values were found between CWP subjects and controls after adjustment for confounders. However, lower SDNN and lower RSA were associated with higher pain intensity in subjects with CWP.ConclusionLower parasympathetic activity, as assessed with SDNN and RSA, is associated with higher pain intensity in subjects with CWP. This large and well‐controlled study does not provide evidence for an association between dysregulation of the ANS and the presence of CWP.
Engineering Integration: Real‐Time Approaches to Performative Computational Design
Authors: Fisher Al 
Published: March 2012

AbstractParametric techniques herald an age of predictive design. Results from simulations, analytical data and design performance criteria directly influence or drive architecture. However, this is still a relatively passive design approach: parameters go in, design comes out. Al Fisher explains the work of Buro Happold's SMART Solutions team on developing real‐time simulations where the analysis is persistent within the model. Lightweight, mobile versions of tools traditionally reserved for detailed analysis can form the early conceptual stages of design. Interactive models can be tweaked and manipulated, with the live feedback of results providing a link to the materiality of the design. Through a responsive approach, hybrid design can be achieved that blends performance with design intent. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
PCL Nanopillars Versus Nanofibers: A Contrast in Progenitor Cell Morphology, Proliferation, and Fate Determination
Authors: Prasad Ashok , Berger Dustin , Popat Ketul 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe role of nanotopography on the long‐term response of progenitor cells is explored using polycaprolactone (PCL) nanopillar and nanofiber surfaces seeded with plastic‐adherent rat multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs). After 4 weeks in culture under normal expansion media conditions, MSCs cultured on nanofibers exhibit better adherence, increased proliferation, and maintain increasingly dense fibroblast‐like morphologies. In contrast, MSCs seeded on nanopillar surfaces display lowered adherence, reduced proliferation, and adopt highly elongated cellular morphologies. Immunofluorescent staining of MSCs on PCL nanopillars reveals the presence of two bone marker proteins, osteopontin and osteocalcin, providing evidence for surface induced differentiation into osteoblast‐like cells. Unlike the nanopillar topography, MSCs cultured on nanofiber and smooth PCL surfaces did not appear to undergo osteogenesis. Observed differences in cellular response to the PCL nanotopographies offer strategies to direct progenitor cell populations solely based upon submicron surface modifications. This study provides a foundation for future work exploring variations in PCL nanopillar topography with the goal of optimizing adherence and osteogenic response of MSCs.
Asymmetric Hydrosilane Reduction of Ketones Catalyzed by an Iridium Complex Bearing a Hydroxyamide‐Functionalized NHC Ligand
Authors: Kawabata Shun , Tokura Hiromu , Chiyojima Hiroyuki , Okamoto Masaki , Sakaguchi Satoshi 
Published: March 2012

AbstractAn enantioselective hydrosilylation of prochiral ketones was achieved by using a catalytic amount of the readily accessible and air‐ and moisture‐stable iridium complex [IrCl(cod)(NHC)] at room temperature.
Handedness in nature: First evidence on manual laterality on bimanual coordinated tube task in wild primates
Authors: Zhao Dapeng , Hopkins William D. , Li Baoguo 
Published: March 2012

AbstractHandedness is a defining feature of human manual skill and understanding the origin of manual specialization remains a central topic of inquiry in anthropology and other sciences. In this study, we examined hand preference in a sample of wild primates on a task that requires bimanual coordinated actions (tube task) that has been widely used in captive primates. The Sichuan snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) is an arboreal Old World monkey species that is endemic to China, and 24 adult individuals from the Qinling Mountains of China were included for the analysis of hand preference in the tube task. All subjects showed strong individual hand preferences and significant group‐level left‐handedness was found. There were no significant differences between males and females for either direction or strength of hand preference. Strength of hand preferences of adults was significantly greater than juveniles. Use of the index finger to extract the food was the dominant extractive‐act. Our findings represent the first evidence of population‐level left‐handedness in wild Old World monkeys and broaden our knowledge on evaluating primate hand preference via experimental manipulation in natural conditions. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Technical note: Shape variability induced by reassembly of human pelvic bones
Authors: Bonneau Noémie , Bouhallier July , Simonis Caroline , Baylac Michel , Gagey Olivier , Tardieu Christine 
Published: March 2012

AbstractIn traditional as well as in geometric morphometric studies, the shape of the pelvis is often quantified after the reassembly of the two hip bones and the sacrum. However, on dry bones, the morphology of the cartilaginous tissues that form the two sacroiliac joints and the pubic symphysis before death remains unknown, leading to potential inaccuracies and errors during the reassembly process. A protocol was established to investigate the effects of reassembly on the quantification of pelvis shape. The shape of fresh pelves obtained after dissection, in which the three bones are in an anatomically relevant position, was compared with the shape of different reassemblies based on the individual dry bones of the same individuals. Our results demonstrated a significant effect of the reassembly. Variation in the reassembly process is likely related, first, to the complete absence of cartilaginous tissues on dry bones and, second, to the morphology of the sacroiliac joint which, in vivo, allows physiological movements, resulting in different potential positions of the two sacroiliac surfaces relative to one another. However, the artificial variation introduced by the reassembly process appears small compared with the biological variation between the different individuals. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Synthesis, Characterization, and Biological–Pharmacological Evaluation of New Phosphazenes Bearing Dioxybiphenyl and Schiff Base Groups
Authors: Cil Erol , Tanyildizi Mehmet Ali , Ozen Furkan , Boybay Mustafa , Arslan Mustafa , Gorgulu Ahmet Orhan 
Published: March 2012

AbstractA new spirocyclophosphazene, 2,2‐bis(2‐formylphenoxy)‐4,4,6,6‐bis[spiro(2′,2″‐dioxy‐1′‐1″‐biphenylyl)]cyclotriphosphazene (3), was obtained from the reaction of 2,2‐dichloro‐4,4,6,6‐bis[spiro(2′,2″‐dioxy‐1′‐1″‐biphenylyl)]cyclotriphosphazene (2) with 2‐hydroxybenzaldehyde. New phosphazene derivatives bearing Schiff base and dioxybiphenyl groups have been synthesized by the reactions of 3 with different amines. The structures of the compounds were defined by elemental analysis, IR, 1H, 13C, and 31P NMR spectroscopy. All the synthesized compounds were screened for their antibacterial activity against both types of Gram‐negative and Gram‐positive bacteria. The most potent antibacterial compound of this series was compound 12 which has the low MIC value of 3.75–0.9375 µg/mL. Both minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and inhibition zones were determined in order to monitor the efficacy of the synthesized compounds. New compounds were also screened for anticonvulsant, CNS depressant, and sedative‐hypnotic activity. After i.p. injection to mice at doses of 30, 100, and 300 mg/kg body weight phosphazenes were examined in the maximal electroshock‐induced seizure (MES) and subcutaneous pentylenetetrazole (scPTZ) induced seizure models in mice. The neurotoxicity was assessed using the rotorod method. Compounds 4, 5, and 11 were found to be active in both MES screen and scPTZ screen at 0.5 h. All except 12 showed more than 44% decrease in locomotor activity after 1 h of compound administration via actophotometer screen. CNS‐depressant activity screened with the help of the forced swim method resulted in some potent compounds. Except for 7 and 12 other tested compounds were found to exhibit potent CNS depressants activity as indicated by increased immobility time.