bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Polybutadiene Rubbers and ResinsAdapted from
Polybutadiene Rubbers and Resins
, First Edition.
Authors: Dreyfuss Peter 
Published: July 2012

Abstract

1,3‐Butadiene, CH
2
CHCHCH
2
, can be converted to a wide variety of polymeric materials such as noncrystallizing rubbers, highly crystalline plastics, liquid, castable resins, and so on. The variety of polybutadiene products arises from two sources: differences in molecular weight and differences in microstructure. Moderately high molecular weight polymers are solids, while low molecular weight polymers are liquid. Differences in microstructure determine the properties of both solids and liquids.

Properties of these polymers and some examples of processes for resin are discussed in this article. Moreover, some applications of polybutadiene‐based composites are presented, and at the end, some aspects on the toxicity of these resins are discussed.
Polymeric Composites: Heat TransferThis is a revision of an article of the same title by M. R. Tant and J. B. Henderson originally published in The International Encyclopedia of Composites, Stuart M. Lee, Ed., VCH Publishers, 1991.
Authors: Tant Martin R. , Stretz Holly A. , Ambuken Preejith 
Published: July 2012

AbstractHeat transfer is quite important during the processing of polymer composites and nanocomposites, and very often is important during their application as well. The low thermal conductivity of these materials, as well as the energy involved in internal chemical reactions or changes in phase, results in specific effects on structure and properties that must be considered during design of both the composite material and the processing operation required to make it. In this article, we describe the basic mechanisms of heat transfer and the energy equation, the thermophysical properties of polymers and polymer composites that are important during their processing and application, the nature and effects of heat transfer during processing, and heat transfer in both low temperature and high temperature applications. Over the last 30 years, many advances have been made in the characterization and modeling of heat transfer in polymer composites and nanocomposites exposed to a high heat flux, such as in ablative applications or during exposure to fire. These advances will support the development of newer and more advanced polymer composites more aptly suited to the as yet unknown but sure‐to‐be demanding engineering applications of the future.
Polymeric Extrusion
Authors: Incarnato Loredana , Di Maio Luciano 
Published: July 2012

AbstractIn the field of composites, the extrusion operation is mostly used to perform the continuous blending and compounding of both miscible and immiscible polymers, for carrying out chemical reactions and to remove volatile substances from the polymeric stream before its shaping. In the following sections of this article, a fundamental survey on extrusion processes is provided with particular attention to the analysis of both single‐ and twin‐screw systems and their applications in composite technology. A basic theoretical analysis of the process is reported in order to highlight the fundamental process parameters and their relation to the quality and performance of products. Some examples of extrusion operations applied in the field of composite processing are provided, focusing on the mixing of particulate solids in thermoplastic polymers, including the nanocomposite issues.
Polyimides: Condensation
Authors: Ding Mengxian 
Published: July 2012

Abstract

Linear‐condensed polyimides as composite matrices were introduced in three parts. Polycondensation processes include three categories: imide ring formed in the polymerization process, polyimide formed by the reaction of monomers possessing imide rings, and polymerization by Diels‐Alder reaction from bismaleimide and a bisenphilics. Polyimides from isomeric dianhydrides describe the properties of the polyimides, particularly in
T
g
, and rheologic behavior and composites using linear polyimides as the matrix resin: six types of condensation polyimides used as composite matrices were introduced.
Polyimide Fibers, AromaticAdapted fromPolyimide Fibers, Aromatic, First Edition.
Authors: Chang Stephen Z. D. , Harris Frank W. 
Published: July 2012

AbstractIn the 1980s, one of the developments in high performance fibers was the use of aromatic heterocyclic polymers such as poly(p‐phenylene benzobisthiazole) (PBZT) and poly(p‐phenylene benzoxazole) (PBO).Aromatic polyimides are known for their excellent thermal stability, chemical and solvent resistance, and light stability. Because of these outstanding properties, they are widely used as industrial films, coatings, adhesives, and moldings at high temperatures. In the first part of the article, the synthesis of aromatic polyimides are discussed, describing the one‐step method and the two‐step method. Moreover, a discussion on the basic technology for forming synthetic fibers, which includes spinning and heat treatment under drawing, is presented. In the second part of this article, structure, morphology, and different properties such as color, density, thermal stability, and so on of aromatic polymide fibers are presented.
Partially Fluorinated Polyimide Resins and Composites
Authors: Boyd Jack , Pratte James 
Published: July 2012

AbstractThe review article gives historical insight to the developments in this area and where future activities should focus on as the industry moves forward with high temperature materials in a few select applications. Processing of the latest generation of partially fluorinated polyimides has improved significantly over the earlier generation, which had limited adoption of these materials primarily in aeroengine applications. Yet, challenges still remain in achieving higher durability while increasing the temperature capabilities of these materials. The developments over the last 30 years and how the current commercial systems have resolved the earlier technical challenges are discussed. Recent research and development efforts are reviewed and briefly discussed in terms of how they will improve the processing and performance of these materials.
Polypivalolactone–Carbon Fiber CompositesAdapted fromPolypivalolactone‐Carbon Fiber Composites, First Edition.
Authors: Paul C. W. , Akkapeddi M. K. , Mares F. 
Published: July 2012

AbstractIn this article polypivalolactone ‐ carbon fiber composites are presented.In particular the crystallinity of polypivalolactone (PPL) is higher than that of polyetherether ketone (PEEK)or polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) and this high value leads to far better strength, stiffness, solvent resistance, and temperature resistance than would be expected of a simple aliphatic polyester. This article describes techniques for prepregging PPL‐carbon and the mechanical properties of PPL‐carbon composites. Moreover a comparison between mechanical properties of PPL‐carbon composites with PEEK and PPS composites, and a comparison between the solvent resistance of PPL and PEEK neat resins are discussed.
Polyquinoxaline Matrix Resins and CompositesAdapted from
Polyquinoxaline Matrix Resins and Composites
, First Edition.
Authors: Hergenrother Paul M. , Connell John W. 
Published: July 2012

Abstract
Polyquinoxalines (PQs) are heterocyclic polymers that contain the heteroaromatic benzo [α] pyrazine (quinoxaline) ring along the main chain. They represent an important class of polymers that offer high chemical and thermal stability coupled with high mechanical properties. They are potentially useful as functional resins (e.g., films and coatings) and structural resins (e.g., adhesives and composite matrices) in many applications.
In this article, some neat resin properties such as thermal and mechanical properties are presented. The properties of the PQs can be altered by changing the chemical structure of the polymer backbone and also the chemical nature of the pendent group on the quinoxaline ring, and this unique feature provides versatility in designing PQs with an attractive combination of properties for use in specific applications, in particular, matrix resins in fiber‐reinforced composites.
Polyvinyl Chloride Composites
Authors: Sheng Kuichuan , Adl Mehrdad , Wang Hui , Qian Xiangqun 
Published: July 2012

Abstract

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as a thermoplastic polymer stands at the third rank after polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) among the most frequently used polymers in the world. This article reviews in brief the physical and mechanical properties of PVC and discusses the incorporation of other materials with it in order to prepare new products called
composites
. Emphasis of this article is on fibers as reinforcements for improvement of mechanical and physical properties of manufactured PVC composites. The most common parameters for qualitative evaluation of these composites have been summarized in this article. As PVC matrix and reinforcements may demonstrate rather poor compatibility and homogeneity in their natural form, a variety of coupling agents and surface modifiers are utilized to compensate these problems. A brief introduction to manufacturing techniques as well as market outlook of PVC composites is presented in the context of this article.
Processing of Biofiber‐Reinforced Composites
Authors: Faruk Omar , Bledzki Andrzej K. 
Published: July 2012

AbstractBiocomposites from renewable resources have been attracting increasing attention over the last two decades, mainly for two major reasons: first, environmental concerns, and second, the realization that our petroleum resources are finite. Nowadays, biofiber‐reinforced composites are seen as potential materials for many engineering applications. Unfortunately, there are still issues that limit their future applications including long‐term performance and processing variability. This article gives an overview of the wide variety of biocomposite processing techniques as well as the factors (moisture content, fiber type, content as well as coupling agents, and their influence on composites properties) that affect the processes. Before processing biocomposites, semifinished product manufacturing is also a vital part, which is illustrated. Processing technologies for biofiber‐reinforced composites are discussed on the basis of the thermoplastic matrix (compression molding, extrusion, injection molding, LFT‐D method, and thermoforming) and thermosets (resin transfer molding, sheet molding compound) as well as other implemented processes, that is, thermoset compression molding and pultrusion. Furthermore, we include comparative studies between different processes regarding the biocomposites' structure–property relationships.
Project Management Considerations: Design Architectures for Civil and Military Aircraft
Authors: Gambino Benedetto 
Published: July 2012

AbstractThe historical evolution of the use of composite materials in actual aerospace vehicles is presented. The work emphasizes the application of composite structures in moderately to heavily loaded aerospace vehicles. Applications of composite materials are reviewed for large commercial transport aircraft, general aviation, and military aircraft.Currently, a large variety of composite components are used in aircraft. An overview of the state of the art of advanced technologies and architectures is presented.While significant improvements have occurred to structural analysis methodologies over the last two decades, the current structural design and analysis methodologies used by the aeronautics industry are still largely semiempirical. Very accurate finite element methods and sophisticated computer codes are used routinely to calculate the stress, strain, and displacement fields in complex structural geometries. State of the art of composites material simulation is presented.An overview of certification of integrated/combined composite‐metallic primary airframe structure is presented.The work is concluded with an evaluation of the future technology challenges associated with applications of composite materials to the primary and secondary structures of commercial aircraft.
Shells: Buckling Loads of Laminated Cylinders
Authors: Wetherhold Robert C. 
Published: July 2012

AbstractStructural elements in the form of cylindrical shells are often designed to be thin to save weight, and this can lead to buckling. The patterns and values of buckling loads depend greatly on the type of loading, the end support conditions, and effective laminate material properties and couplings. For many typical buckling loadings, there is a variety of similar buckling states, which causes sensitivity to initial imperfections. Understanding this phenomenon requires the consideration of nonlinear strain‐displacement relations, usually in the von Kármán form. In addition, shells of composite materials require deformation assumptions that permit transverse shear deformation. A review of the results obtained using theoretical techniques is given as well as finite element predictions and experimental observations. A very brief summary of references is given for the optimization of shell buckling loads and for the additional effects of stringer reinforcement, thermal loadings, and other topics.
Static Electricity and Aircraft
Authors: Gigliotti Katia 
Published: July 2012

AbstractThe accumulation of electrostatic charge, generating during flight on the outer surfaces of aircraft and inside aircraft piping systems, cannot be considered as an immediate danger for flight safety, but it has to be seriously prevented to avoid upset in flight communications and risks of explosion in fuel areas or during refueling operations.An overview of the methods adopted in aircraft industry to eliminate or reduce the electrostatic charge accumulation on insulating surfaces is presented: the most used techniques consist in applying coatings containing metal particles, “thermal spraying” metallic powders, or wires on nonconductive materials. The use of lightning protections, such as metallic mesh and expanded metal foil, on nonconductive composites also limits the static charge buildup, but it is foreseeable that, in the near future, nanocomposites will replace traditional lightning and shielding protection because of the wide range of possible electrical charging quantity and types.Another significant issue in aircraft life is the possible electrostatic charge accumulation during refueling operations: while the tires will discharge static electricity, because of the presence of carbon black within the rubber matrix, they are not relied on to earth the airframe; therefore, when buildup of static electricity is of concern, it is always important to use mechanical means to ground the aircraft.Lastly, the static charge control methods for electrostatic‐discharge‐sensitive (ESDS) equipment handling are introduced; in particular, instructions to avoid potential electrostatic charge accumulation during production and assembling, which could be a hazard to personnel and can damage equipment, are listed.
Stitched Preforms,NCF
Authors: Himmel Norbert 
Published: July 2012

AbstractIn this article, the manufacture of dry fiber noncrimp fabrics (NCFs) and the effects of stitching on the geometrical, processing, and mechanical properties of NCF and their polymer matrix composites are described. The terminology used in the context of these products is described and the motivation to consider and use NCF as compared to other fiber products is outlined. The types of stitching used to produce NCF products and complex structural preforms, the effects of stitching on the NCF geometry, and available modeling approaches are presented. The characteristics of the liquid resin infusion process into NCF fabrics and dry fiber preforms are described. Furthermore, effects of stitching on the mechanical properties of composites with NCF reinforcement subjected to static, cyclic fatigue, creep, and high strain rate loading are presented. The article is concluded by a brief outline of simulation models for the prediction of NCF permeability, resin infusion, and mechanical properties.
Structural Natural Composites
Authors: Neves Nuno M. 
Published: July 2012

Abstract
Structural natural composites are synthesized and maintained by living organisms in mild conditions of temperature and pressure or in challenging aqueous saline environments unlike their synthetic counterparts, having remarkable properties. The study of the properties of bones, trees, or sea shells allows concluding that nature engineers materials with unusually high performance and particularly well adapted to the function in their native environments.
This article analyzes the structure and its relation with the properties in three examples of natural structural composites: wood, nacre, and bone. It is aimed with those examples to illustrate the hierarchical structure at several length scales and the high effectiveness of the materials solutions to overcome the limitations of the original properties of biologically derived materials. The detailed analysis of those structures gives valuable insights and inspiration to the development of new and high performance composites needed in many engineering applications.
Structures: Marine Sandwich
Authors: Mitra Nilanjan 
Published: July 2012

AbstractSandwich composite panels are being primarily utilized in many engineering sectors such as civil, infrastructure, mechanical, aerospace, marine, space, and nuclear industry primarily because of their high strength and stiffness to low weight ratio. This article considers primarily sandwich composite construction that is typically utilized in the marine industry. This article discusses the application areas of sandwich composite panels in the marine industry, material utilized as component materials for the sandwich composite construction, the manufacturing methodologies, the novel methodologies that are applied to sandwich composite construction, and different experimental procedures utilized for sandwich composite structures.
Surface Analysis
Authors: Weng Lu‐Tao , Chan Chi‐Ming 
Published: July 2012

AbstractSurface analysis has played an important role in the development of many advanced materials, including composites. This article describes the principles and instrumentation of the three most widely used surface analysis techniques: X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), and time‐of‐flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF‐SIMS). Applications of these techniques in composites have been highlighted using some typical examples published recently. The strengths and weaknesses of each technique as well as the precautions of using these techniques in composites have also been critically reviewed.
Testing: Methods for Strength Characterization of Woven Fabric Composites at Cryogenic Temperatures
Authors: Shindo Yasuhide , Fu Shao‐Yun 
Published: July 2012

Abstract
This article summarizes the current status of the characterization methods for the strength properties of woven composites at cryogenic temperatures. The double‐notch and short‐beam shear test methods are examined for evaluation of the cryogenic interlaminar shear strength of woven glass fiber‐reinforced polymer (GFRP) laminates. Tensile tests on various unnotched specimens are also discussed based on the results for the cryogenic tensile strength of woven GFRP laminates. In addition, a combined numerical‐experimental method using the open‐hole tensile test and finite element analysis was proposed to evaluate the composite tensile strength at cryogenic temperatures.
Thermoforming of Thermoplastics Matrix Composites
Authors: Greco Antonio , Gennaro Riccardo , Maffezzoli Alfonso 
Published: July 2012

AbstractThis review addresses thermoforming of thermoplastic matrix composites (TPCs) reinforced with long or continuous fibers and of sandwich panels obtained using TPCs as skins. Thermoforming is a very versatile class of processes, applied to the production of parts of different thickness, ranging from < 1 mm for neat polymers to several millimeters for TPCs. Thermoforming technologies are based on the simultaneous application of temperature and pressure to a composite sheet, which is forced against the surface of a mold and then rapidly cooled down to allow its extraction. Besides processes description, the review reports the mechanisms of consolidation accounting for TPCs' specific behavior associated with the very high matrix viscosity. Finally, a brief analysis of the most common process‐induced defects is presented. The latest technologies and materials developments as well as the future trends for TPC processing, either for mass production or for high technology applications, are envisaged.
Thermoset Resins
Authors: Chatterjee Amit 
Published: July 2012

AbstractThermosets are highly cross‐linked polymers that are cured or set using heat, pressure, light, microwave and/or, energy devices. This leads to high performance products for industry because of their high modulus, strength, durability, and resistance toward thermal stress and chemical attacks as provided by their high cross‐linking density. Within this contribution, a special emphasis was made on phenolics, epoxy, polyester, BMI, cyanoester, POSS, urethanes, flame‐retardant thermosets, nano‐poly‐petroleum‐based, and biobased thermosets.
Bio‐Based Chemistry for Polymeric Matrices
Authors: Cobror Sandro , Iannace Salvatore 
Published: July 2012

Abstract
Since the last decade, the whole world is facing a sharp increase in energy consumption in conjunction with a fast growth in world population and an increasing demand in emerging economies. The vast majority of energy sources are actually derived from fossil. Chemical industry also uses fossil sources, primarily oil and gas, both for the manufacturing of chemical products and base chemicals and also for its internal energy consumption.
Since late 1990s, according to the Kyoto protocol, a decision was taken to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on a global basis. Consequently, many countries have started relevant processes to implement national policies ultimately aimed at reduction of GHG emissions, at improving energy security, and at less reliance on fossil fuels. According to those policies, resources with no or minimal environmental impact have been indicated as alternatives to fossil ones for energy production. Vegetable or animal biomasses can be an option provided that they do not compete with food or with feed because of lack of food availability in developing Countries and potential risk of unacceptable agricultural commodities price increase.
A new kind of chemistry, based on the use of natural renewable resources, such as vegetable biomasses, widely available, inexpensive and with marginal environmental impact, is developing. This so‐called “bio‐based chemistry” will contribute to address some of the main concerns of the chemical industry. The depletion of nonrenewable and polluting oil resources, the effect of chemicals on human health, and the increase evidence of global warming can be the drivers to boost a new positive trend in the future for the entire chemical industry. In particular, the development of novel polymeric matrices from renewable resources for bio‐based composites appears very attractive as demand is expected to grow rapidly and significantly in next decades.