bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
MEMORIZING, RECODING AND PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION
Authors: ALLAN MARY D. 
Published: April 2011

Attention is drawn to the important part which memorizing plays in all formal instruction. The limited span of immediate memory is discussed in terms of a communication channel of limited capacity. A memorizing task is reported in which the human communication channel was repeatedly bombarded with a sequence of events too numerous for immediate absorption. The results suggest that perceptual organization may be a basic activity of the human communication system under certain conditions of stress. Further memorizing experiments are described in which an attempt was made to find an answer to the question ‘Does the activity towards perceptual organization occur only when the channel is overloaded?’The results indicate that perceptual organization is a function of overloading and will not occur when the channel is operating below capacity.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERCEIVED SIZE AND PERCEIVED DISTANCE*
Authors: RUMP E. E. 
Published: April 2011

Two experiments are described in which subjects judged both the real size and the distance of objects viewed under reduced‐cue conditions. The results provide further evidence that perceived size and perceived distance are not necessarily related in the positive linear manner that the Invariance Hypothesis predicts, and that therefore the predictive value of this hypothesis is limited. However, some aspects of the results of the first experiment do conform to its predictions.The results also show that the direction of the size‐distance relationship for successive judgements by individual observers may be affected by their assumptions concerning the relationship, and concerning the nature of the stimulus‐object, when stimulus‐cues are reduced.
HERING'S ILLUSION
Authors: HOLT‐HANSEN KRISTIAN 
Published: April 2011

A series of optical experiments was designed to investigate several factors that may help to explain the Hering Illusion. In this illusion subjects are shown two vertical lines crossed by angular lines which stem from the point midway between them; subjects then report the straight pair of parallel lines as appearing curved in a bow‐shaped manner.Findings indicate increased perceived curvature of the lines when the angles presented are greater in number or size. The illusion is further increased if the angles and lines are shown sequentially rather than simultaneously. Similar results occur on presentation of a circle cutting through the rays of a quadrangular star; the circle looks ‘squarish’. When lines or circles are presented to one eye only while the other eye receives the angles or star, this illusion still holds.All perceived curvature shows anti‐apical distortion, which appears due to neuro‐cortical after‐effects underlying visual perception.
TOLERANCE FOR UNREALISTIC EXPERIENCES: A STUDY OF THE GENERALITY OF A COGNITIVE CONTROL*
Authors: KLEIN GEORGE S. , GARDNER RILEY W. , SCHLESINGER HERBERT J. 
Published: April 2011

A previous study demonstrated that subjects consistently differed in their willingness to experience perceptual organizations contradicting what they knew to be true. Subsequent work has suggested that these individual differences reflect the operation of more general ‘cognitive controls’. Results of the previous study, originally described in terms of ‘tolerance’ and ‘intolerance’ for one form of instability, are here conceived as representing a cognitive control more aptly described as ‘tolerance for unrealistic experiences’. In an attempt to discover the range of applicability of this hypothesized control principle, and to gain further knowledge about it, 30 subjects were tested in a series of laboratory experiments. The Rorschach test was administered to 27 of these subjects. The tests were chosen to bring about unconformable, i.e. unrealistic, experiences by two general means: (a) by manipulating the physical stimulation so that reality is altered; and (b) by presenting subjects with relatively ambiguous stimuli for which ‘reality’ provides no clear‐cut confirmation, so that subjects are free to organize them in a number of ways.The results generally support those of the original study and extend the range of situations in which the control principle can account for individual differences.
A STUDY OF RELIGIOUS BELIEF
Authors: BROWN L. B. 
Published: April 2011

In an empirical study of religious belief, measures of strength of belief in an Australian student population were compared with beliefs in other areas and with personality and attitudinal variables.The correlation matrix shows that the religious belief measures belong together and that religious belief has its best relationships with institutionalization and denomination on the one hand and with authoritarianism on the other. The personality measures of anxiety were found to be related to dogmatism in opinionative and factual matters. In this way Thouless's finding that religious belief statements are assented to more strongly than are statements of fact has been confirmed, and extended.It is concluded that religious belief is a relatively isolated cognitive system requiring strong social support for its maintenance.
PERIPHERAL VISION, REFRACTORINESS AND EYE MOVEMENTS IN FAST ORAL READING
Authors: POULTON E. C. 
Published: April 2011

Naval ratings read typescript aloud through a window whose speed and size varied systematically in different trials. Eye movements were recorded electrically. Errors increased significantly as the window was reduced from a full line to five words, probably as a result of the tighter pacing and reduced peripheral vision. Regressions were unaffected. This is a serious criticism of reading films using windows to ‘improve’ the reading of adults.Errors rose steeply to 40% as the time for which letters were exposed fell from 0·3 to 0·2 sec.; fixations did not increase in frequency. Thus in reading the visual system behaves like a single‐shot camera firing at not more than about five times per second.
PREDICTING HYPNOTIZABILITY FROM THE MAUDSLEY PERSONALITY INVENTORY
Authors: HILGARD ERNEST R. , BENTLER P. M. 
Published: April 2011

In an attempt to repeat the findings of Furneaux & Gibson, 142 undergraduate students at Stanford were hypnotized by the procedures of the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale and a group adaptation of this scale. All subjects were also given the Maudsley Personality Inventory, including the Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Lie scales. When the subjects were subdivided into personality classifications according to the procedures of the Furneaux & Gibson study, significant differences between subgroups were found, but these were opposite to the significant differences found in the London study, ‘liars’ being below average in hypnotizability in England, and above in America, and, among the ‘honest’ subjects, Stable Extraverts and Neurotic Introverts being more hypnotizable than Neurotic Extraverts and Stable Introverts in England, less hypnotizable in America. Because of instability in successive samples in America, and some differences between English subsamples, it is suggested that elaborate hypotheses are not in order until there has been further replication both in England and America.Correlations between scores on individual MPI scales and hypnotic susceptibility show a most unsatisfactory variation from sample to sample; hence the most acceptable conclusion must be that the MPI cannot yet be used as a predictor of susceptibility to hypnosis.
CLASSIFICATION AND QUANTITATIVE JUDGEMENT
Authors: TAJFEL HENRI , WILKES A. L. 
Published: April 2011

The investigation is concerned with the effects on judgement of some relations between the manner in which stimuli of a series are classified and the magnitudes of the stimuli. It is shown that when the classification stands in a direct and predictable relation to a physical scale, the stimuli belonging to different classes are judged as farther apart on that scale than in an unclassified series. A classification which is not coherently related to the physical scale does not affect judgement in this manner.There is also evidence in the results that, as a function of past experience with the classification, an increase occurs in the apparent differences between stimuli belonging to different classes, and in the apparent similarity of stimuli belonging to the same class.The relevance of these findings to the general problem of stereotyping is discussed.
THE EFFECT OF IRRELEVANT CUES ON REVERSAL LEARNING IN THE RAT
Authors: MACKINTOSH N. J. 
Published: April 2011

Twenty‐four rats were trained on a brightness discrimination, given 0 or 150 overtraining trials, and then reversed. For one group only one irrelevant cue (position) was present throughout the experiment. For the other two groups the reversal was learnt with orientation as a second irrelevant cue; in one case this cue had been present during original learning, in the other it had not. Where there were two irrelevant cues, overtraining was shown to have a greater facilitating effect on reversal than where there was only one—whether or not the second cue had been present in original learning.The results are interpreted as suggesting that the effect of overtraining is to increase the probability that responses will be controlled during reversal by the relevant stimulus dimension.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING IN MONKEYS AND APES
Authors: HALL K. R. L. 
Published: April 2011

In natural groups of mammals, there is a variety of social influences which seem to inhibit or facilitate the expression of instinctive behaviour‐patterns, and indeed which contribute importantly to the form the repertoire of behaviour characteristic of the species takes. Such influences include what goes under the terms ‘social facilitation’ and ‘imitation’, as well as other terms such as ‘identification’ which imply a special affectional relationship.From an analysis of the evidence about these influences on monkeys and apes, it is clear that negative experimental findings have often been due to the limitations of the experimental procedures, and that some of the positive findings are difficult to interpret or assess for validity because of deficient method. By and large, there is convincing observational evidence, chiefly from informal developmental and from field studies, that young monkeys and apes acquire certain basic feeding and avoidance habits chiefly by applying their exploratory tendencies to places and objects indicated in the behaviour of their mothers or others of the group.Although, in terms of learning operations, it is unlikely that much more than stimulus‐enhancement or place discriminations is usually involved, a ‘new’ motor sequence almost never being in evidence, there is no doubt that the affectional situation of the participants is crucial as to whether a ‘demonstrator’ is attended to, closely approached, and ‘imitated’, or not. The nature of the affectional variables and their influence upon learning require extensive experimental study and analysis, and a comparison with related forms of early learning, such as imprinting, can then be made.
VIGILANCE CONSIDERED AS A STATISTICAL DECISION
Authors: BROADBENT D. E. , GREGORY MARGARET 
Published: April 2011

A number of experiments are described in which untrained subjects kept watch during long periods for inconspicuous signals. When they reported such a signal, they had to indicate their degree of confidence that the report was correct. By analysing the accuracy of reports in each category of confidence, it can be shown that they are quite inconsistent with the concept that stimuli are either definitely perceived or definitely fail to be detected, with no intermediate category. The results are more consistent with a model of perception as the outcome of a statistical decision made with more or less caution upon evidence contaminated by randomness.Analysing the empirical data according to this model, neither the duration of a watch nor the presence of loud noise during visual experiments affect the degree of randomness in the evidence used for decision. Both factors do, however, affect the degree of caution with which the decision is made, and this may explain the failures of perception previously found in experiments upon prolonged watch and upon noise. Changes during the watch appear primarily, however, when the decision is being made cautiously (with few false detections) while the changes with noise appear rather as a lessening of the difference between cautious and risky behaviour. This divergence between the effects of noise and of prolonged work may explain the fact that experimental conditions which reveal effects of noise have not always in the past been those which are sensitive to effects of prolonged work.
INTROJECTION: A FORM OF SOCIAL LEARNING*
Authors: ARGYLE MICHAEL 
Published: April 2011

Evidence from previous studies is interpreted in terms of introjection as the learning of self‐reactions from the reaction of others. This is a form of learning which differs from others in that it is more permanent, generalizes to all situations, and exists in conflict with the rest of the personality.A number of investigations are reported showing that introjection takes place for some children, but not others, particularly from the same‐sexed parent, and when there is a warm and dependent relationship.Several attempts to explain introjection in simpler terms are considered; it is concluded that the most plausible accounts are that parents persuade and teach children to react to their own behaviour in certain ways, and that two‐person interaction may lead to fantasied anticipation of the other's reactions.
AN OBSERVED AGE DIFFERENCE IN RESPONSES TO A PERSONALITY INVENTORY
Authors: CRAIK F. I. M. 
Published: April 2011

The two parts of the Heron Inventory give scores on two dimensions—emotional adjustment and sociability—which are held to be independent. However, results from a small sample study indicated that there was a strong positive association between the dimensions in a ‘young’ group but that no such relationship held in an ‘old’ group. This finding was confirmed for a group of 240 men ranging in age from 20 to 79. It was not confirmed in a similar group of 240 women.In the male group, the result did not appear to be due to concomitant changes in non‐verbal intelligence; it was apparently not caused by an increased tendency of the older subjects to agree or disagree with the items; it did not seem to be due to a change in the meaning or relevance of the items to older subjects, nor did it seem to be due to a decrease in the reliability of older subjects' responses. The result did, however, appear to be related to degree of adjustment. Possible reasons for this finding are discussed.
EFFECTS OF SENSORY INPUT AND SENSORY DOMINANCE ON SEVERELY DISTURBED, AUTISTIC CHILDREN AND ON SUBNORMAL CONTROLS
Authors: HERMELIN BEATE , O'CONNOR N. 
Published: April 2011

Sensory dominance in children differs with age, development and experience and may be a diagnostic differential in the case of autistic children. This hypothesis was explored in three experiments with autistic children, one concerned with sensory dominance, one with sense discrimination learning and one with the dynamics of this learning process. Imbecile children of the same performance I.Q. were used as controls.The experiments showed that psychotic and control children responded most readily to light stimuli, but that this was followed by response to touch stimuli in the autistic children, and by response to sound stimuli in the controls. Differential rewarding resulted in dominance changes to the same extent in each group. However, autistic children did not learn to suppress a previously dominant stimulus orientation habit as quickly as the controls.
THE SPIRAL MAZE
Authors: GIBSON H. B. 
Published: April 2011

The writer discusses previous work on the use of psychomotor tests in the discrimination between normal subjects and subjects who are maladjusted or delinquent. A new test, the Spiral Maze, is described. Details of two experiments using the Spiral Maze are described: (a) contrasting a group of 22 young delinquent boys with 39 normal controls; and (b) testing 234 normal schoolboys aged 8–9 for whom teachers' ratings on ‘naughtiness’ were available.It was found that: (i) the delinquent group were significantly different in their preference for speed at the expense of accuracy; (ii) there was a significant relationship between psychomotor scores and the categories of ‘naughty’, ‘average’ and ‘good’ which were derived from the teachers' behavioural ratings; (iii) although, as expected, ‘naughty’ boys predominated in the group which was quick and careless, this ‘naughty’ category also predominated in the slow and careless group.The implications of these findings are discussed.
PATTERNS OF REACTION TIME RESPONSES
Authors: KERR MYFANWY , MINGAY ROSEMARY , ELITHORN ALICK 
Published: April 2011

The reaction time responses of forty‐four subjects to paired stimuli separated by an interval of 100 msec. were analysed to test whether there was evidence for several distinct types of response patterns, and, if so, whether these patterns were associated with individual performances.The analysis confirmed both these hypotheses, six main types of response being distinguishable and the response patterns being markedly different for different individuals.
A SIMPLE LABORATORY DEMONSTRATION OF SUBCEPTION
Authors: MURCH GERALD M. 
Published: April 2011

A simple, replicable demonstration of subception is described, using a discriminatory response as the independent variable. Stimuli were exposed to thirty‐six subjects in a tachistoscope until they were able to report the perception of a black line, appearing in the centre of a white field. The subjects were then asked to choose one of two geometrical figures from six pairings of four figures, each pair shown separately. The tachistoscope projections, presented in a counterbalanced design, consisted of one of the figures to be discriminated drawn in red, divided by a 3 cm black line. The black line, having a stronger contrast, was perceived before the red figure, defining the supraliminal and subliminal thresholds as the contrast relation between red and black lines. A significant tendency was found for selection of the projected figures, without verbal report of the subliminal stimulus. In a second part of the experiment one figure was to be chosen, after each projection, from the finite population of four figures; the results did not differ from chance expectation.The use of a perceptual discriminatory response for the recovery of a subliminal stimulus was discussed, and the plausibility of a threshold for intensity relations was demonstrated.
CATEGORIES OF INTERFERENCE: VERBAL MEDIATION AND CONFLICT IN CARD SORTING
Authors: MORTON JOHN 
Published: April 2011

When subjects sort cards by the number of symbols on the cards, the nature of the symbols interferes with the sorting in ways which are similar to those shown by Klein (1964) using a variant of the Stroop test. When the symbols have names, such as letters and words, there is a decrement in performance; when the symbols are digits the decrement is increased. These and related results form the basis of a functional model in which different types of interference between stimuli can be enumerated, and those operating in the sorting task isolated.The features of the final model are: (1) sorting proceeds via a verbal mediation; (2) the process of recognition of familiar named symbols is autonomous and results in the availability of the name of the symbol; (3) this name enters the same store as the mediating response and so can delay it; (4) in the present range of tasks there is no interference prior to the availability of the symbol name; (5) learning to reduce interference does result in a change prior to this stage; (6) the interference effects are analogous to word recognition phenomena.
EFFECTS OF IMAGING ON SIGNAL‐TO‐NOISE RATIO, WITH VARYING SIGNAL CONDITIONS
Authors: SEGAL SYDNEY J. , FUSELLA VINCENT 
Published: April 2011

Perky's finding, that an observer confuses his internal imagery with a normally supraliminal stimulus, has been reinterpreted in signal detection language. Two experiments compared a task where the subject was asked concurrently to image items and discriminate signals from noise to a task where the subject only discriminated signals. The subject's criterion was slightly higher in the imaging task and sensitivity (d′) was significantly lower, whether the imaging task was given before or after the discrimination task. As d′ measures signal‐to‐noise ratio, it was suggested that imaging alters d′ because it is a source of neural activity. This activity can be conceptualized as internal noise or as another signal.For some subjects, stimuli were gradually brightened; for others, they were presented briefly at full brightness. Mode of onset did not affect d′, rather d′ depended on brightness summed over time.
SHORT‐TERM MEMORY PROCESSES IN THE DEAF
Authors: CONRAD R. 
Published: April 2011

Two experiments are reported. In the first, profoundly deaf schoolboys read consonant sequences for immediate written recall, reading, according to instruction, either silently or aloud. Detailed error analysis suggested a dichotomous classification of subjects into those primarily relying on artioulatory coding (A group) and those relying on some other mediating code which could depend on shape (non‐A group). This classification correlated significantly with teachers' ratings of speech quality.The A group showed no effect of reading mode on total number of errors. But the non‐A group were significantly worse when reading aloud. Errors were distributed across serial positions effectively identically, regardless both of coding behaviour and reading mode. A recency effect was found of an order somewhere between that for hearing subjects reading this kind of material silently and reading it aloud.A test of the reliability of the classification into A group and non‐A group was made in the second experiment. In this the same subjects silently read word lists for immediate written recall. Lists were drawn from one of two vocabularies: one consisting of five pairs of common homophones, the other of five pairs of common words assumed to look similar. The A group recalled significantly more words of the latter lists, while the non‐A group recalled both lists equally well.The results are discussed in relation to current models for short‐term memory and to their implications for the education of the deaf. In the former connexion, the presence of recency with subjects who have no auditory feedback would be an embarrassment to ‘echo‐box’‐type accounts of recall. With respect to the latter, two main points are made: (1) Deaf school children do not all memorize in the same code, and for some it may be different from that used by teachers. (2) If memorizing names of things is impaired by reciting them aloud, a hitherto concealed weakness of a common instructional procedure is exposed.
A CONFLICT BETWEEN SELECTING AND EVALUATING INFORMATION IN AN INFERENTIAL TASK
Authors: WASON P. C. , JOHNSON‐LAIRD P. N. 
Published: April 2011

An inferential task was investigated in which the subjects had to select which of four cards they needed to inspect in order to determine whether a rule was true or false. In one condition crucial information was concealed on the other side of the cards, and in another condition it was on the same side of the cards, but covered by a mask. A previous experiment suggested that subjects sometimes confused the notion of ‘the other side of the card’. But no difference was found between these two conditions. Only two out of the 36 subjects initially made the correct selection.An attempt was made subsequently to enable the subjects to correct their errors by asking them to evaluate the cards in relation to the rule. When a conflict occurred between the selection of the cards and their evaluation, some insight was gained. In other cases these two processes passed one another by, in spite of the fact that this involved self‐contradiction.