bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
L'Union des écrivains
Authors: Dragomir Lucia 
Published: February 2011

Résumé Les politiques culturelles des États communistes entendent unifier les communautés des écrivains pour les diriger plus facilement vers des fonctions idéologiques précises et les contrôler. C’est ainsi qu’est créée l’Union des écrivains, institution littéraire monopolistique. Ce modèle est reproduit après la Seconde Guerre mondiale dans les pays d’Europe centrale et orientale passés sous régime communiste. Il est suivi tout au long de la période communiste autant par des stratégies internes que par une coopération intense avec les institutions homologues de l’espace soviétique. Les documents laissent pourtant transparaître des évolutions qui montrent les limites de l’Unions des écrivains, qui vont parfois jusqu’à la mise en doute du modèle et même jusqu’à la transformation de certaines unions en lieu de contestation du pouvoir politique, violant donc leur contrat initial. Les tensions internes des unions et certaines tensions enregistrées dans les échanges littéraires des « démocraties populaires » semblent nier l’existence d’une harmonie parfaite dans le bloc soviétique. Ces institutions représentent, de ce fait, un lieu propice à l’interrogation des significations et de la pertinence de la notion de bloc soviétique.
Les échanges universitaires, la logique de bloc et l'esprit de guerre froide
Authors: Verdery Katherine , Faure Justine 
Published: February 2011

Résumé	Katherine Verdery, anthropologue américaine spécialiste de la Roumanie socialiste, revient dans cet entretien sur plusieurs points importants de son parcours dans la guerre froide. Elle montre tout d’abord combien elle fut, intellectuellement et professionnellement, influencée par les effets structurants du conflit Est-Ouest. Elle souligne aussi combien la possibilité d’aller travailler sur le terrain, derrière le rideau de fer, changea sa perception du socialisme et lui permit de dissiper l’esprit de guerre froide. Elle revient enfin sur la question de la circulation des savoirs en anthropologie entre les États-Unis et la Roumanie, montrant que les obstacles rencontrés furent parfois créés par les contraintes de la guerre froide mais aussi souvent tout simplement liés à deux traditions intellectuelles différentes.
Transcriptomes of the B and T Lineages Compared by Multiplatform Microarray Profiling
Authors: Painter Michio W. , Davis Scott , Hardy Richard R. , Mathis Diane , Benoist Christophe ,   The Immunological Genome Project Consortium, Zhou Yan , Shinton Susan , Hardy Richard , Asinovski Natasha , Davis Scott , Ergun Ayla , Ericson Jeff , Heng Tracy , Hill Jonathan , Hyatt Gordon , Gray Daniel , Painter Michio , Laplace Catherine , Ortiz-Lopez Adriana , Mathis Diane , Benoist Christophe , Bellemare-Pelletier Angelique , Elpek Kutlu , Turley Shannon , Best Adam , Knell Jamie , Goldrath Ananda , Sun Joseph , Bezman Natalie , Lanier Lewis , Bogunovic Milena , Helft Julie , Sachidanandam Ravi , Merad Miriam , Jakubzick Claudia , Gautier Emmanuel , Randolph Gwendalyn , Cohen Nadia , Brenner Michael , Collins Jim , Costello James , Jianu Radu , Laidlaw David , Jojic Vladimir , Koller Daphne , Malhotra Nidhi , Sylvia Katelyn , Narayan Kavitha , Kang Joonsoo , Shay Tal , Regev Aviv 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
T and B lymphocytes are developmentally and functionally related cells of the immune system, representing the two major branches of adaptive immunity. Although originating from a common precursor, they play very different roles: T cells contribute to and drive cell-mediated immunity, whereas B cells secrete Abs. Because of their functional importance and well-characterized differentiation pathways, T and B lymphocytes are ideal cell types with which to understand how functional differences are encoded at the transcriptional level. Although there has been a great deal of interest in defining regulatory factors that distinguish T and B cells, a truly genomewide view of the transcriptional differences between these two cells types has not yet been taken. To obtain a more global perspective of the transcriptional differences underlying T and B cells, we exploited the statistical power of combinatorial profiling on different microarray platforms, and the breadth of the Immunological Genome Project gene expression database, to generate robust differential signatures. We find that differential expression in T and B cells is pervasive, with the majority of transcripts showing statistically significant differences. These distinguishing characteristics are acquired gradually, through all stages of B and T differentiation. In contrast, very few T versus B signature genes are uniquely expressed in these lineages, but are shared throughout immune cells.
Some Causes of Variation in the Quality of Raw Rubber and Latex. The Sol: Gel Ratio in Relation to the Ultimate Physical Properties of Rubber
Authors: Spence D. , Ferry John D. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
When raw rubber is treated with solvents such as benzene or ether, dissolution is gradual and never complete; a swollen residue remains which disperses extremely slowly, if at all. The soluble portion is generally called the “sol”, and the insoluble the “gel”, and although these need not be considered as two distinct components, it is convenient, in view of the existing state of our knowledge regarding them, to continue to use this terminology. The nature of the gel fraction of raw rubber has long been under discussion. Gladstone and Hibbert were inclined to regard the less soluble modification as a product produced by heat during the drying of the latex and rubber, whereas Fessenden and Seeligman came to the conclusion that the two components were isomerides, a view which has long persisted. Weber, as the result of studies of the gel fraction of Para rubber, contended that the soluble and insoluble fractions were not identical in composition. Later it was shown by one of us that the gel fraction contained proteins which could be removed only by suitable treatment of the latex before coagulation or by digestion of the rubber in presence of acids or alkali. These early observations and records are of more than historical interest, as they foreshadow in large measure almost all that has been made known regarding the origin and nature of the gel fraction in raw rubber. The vast array of recent literature on this subject is admirably reviewed in the English edition of Memmler's “Handbuch der Kautschukwissenschaft”.
Structural Studies of the Vulcanization of Rubber under Stretch
Authors: Hauser E. A. , Smith I. N. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Just one hundred years have passed since the changes were discovered which rubber undergoes when mixed with sulfur and heated. Although “vulcanization”, as this reaction and the changes subsequent thereto have been termed, must be considered the most important development in the rubber industry, we are still far from being in a position to offer a fully satisfactory explanation for this phenomenon. Nevertheless we have been able to improve our concept of these changes by the application of such modern methods of research as x-ray diffraction, and recent attempts to shed more light on the phenomenon from a strictly chemical point of view also have been successful. The outstanding results of the latter work are the definite proof that the changes in physical properties, which become noticeable during vulcanization, show no correlation with the amount of combined sulfur or with the total loss in unsaturation. The experiments offered no direct experimental evidence as to the existence of specific chemical bonds or linkages in vulcanized rubber. However, it could be definitely ascertained that chemical reactions involving the double bonds of the hydrocarbon and its combination with the vulcanizing agent, in one way or another, are necessary to produce a vulcanized structure responsible for the observed changes in properties.
Temperature Coefficient of Vulcanization
Authors: Gerke R. H. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
One hundred years ago rubber was the only available substance having the property of long-range elasticity which makes rubber so useful to man. The invention of vulcanization tremendously increased the usefulness of rubber, since it decreased the plastic flow at elevated temperatures and increased the resistance to hardening at low temperatures. It is now the general consensus that vulcanization is caused by a chemical reaction or at least is attended by a chemical reaction. The fact that vulcanization is the result of a chemical reaction is an all-important factor in controlling the nature of the manufacturing processes in the rubber industry. The existence of a temperature coefficient of vulcanization like other chemical reactions exerts a powerful influence on the nature of the manufacturing processes. Thus, vulcanized rubber is made by a thermosetting rather than thermoplastic process.
Vulcanization of Rubber in an Ultra-High Frequency Field. A Preliminary Communication
Authors: Medvedchuk P. I. , Khimudis N. S. , Nemirovskii Ya N. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
There is no doubt about the theoretical interest and the technological significance of the action of ultra-high frequency on high-molecular compounds in general and on raw rubber in particular. The published data available on the effect of high-frequency currents on rubber indicate certain practical advantages and a high speed of “radiovulcanization” compared with the common thermal process. It is claimed that this new method can be applied to rubber articles of considerable thickness. Preliminary experiments in an investigation of the influence of an alternating electric field of ultra-high frequency on thin films and benzene solutions of rubber have given some positive results. In the present article no attempt is made to give the underlying theoretical principles and conclusions, since they require further experimental verification. In general, it can be said that ultra-high frequency currents produce not only a thermal effect but have a specific action on the objects under investigation.
Light Scattering in Stretched Rubber
Authors: Schwarzenbach H. A. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
It is already known that when pure rubber is stretched in one direction it acquires a lustre. This means that light falling upon it is scattered with appreciably different intensities at various angles to the direction in which the rubber is stretched. In view of this and in connection with earlier experiments, a study of the scattering of visible light by stretched rubber was undertaken and the first results are reported in a brief way in the present paper. First of all, however, it is well to describe the experimental apparatus and technique which were used. A practically parallel, sharp beam of light was produced, the direction of which may be represented by the X-axis of a system of right-angle coordinates. The rubber test-specimen, in the form of a strip, was placed in such a position in the path of this beam of light that it was illuminated by the beam at right angles to its surface. In other words, the specimen lay in the YZ plane of the coördinate system and by means of a special device it could be stretched in the Z direction. At a suitable distance behind the test-specimen a smooth, transparent paper screen was placed, likewise at right angles to the direction of the beam of light. The distribution of the scattered light around the bright spot formed by the transmitted light could be observed by eye and could be photographed by a camera. Samples of rubber as nearly pure as possible and containing no fillers were examined, including not only films prepared from pure unvulcanized and partially vulcanized latex, but also strips prepared from commercial sheets of “patent rubber” and from Para rubber.
Mechanical Properties of Raw and Vulcanized Rubbers during Periodic Deformation
Authors: Kornfel'd M. , Poznyak V. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The construction of an apparatus for measuring the modulus of elasticity and the mechanical losses in raw and vulcanized rubbers during the periodical deformation of compression is described. With the aid of this device it is possible to measure these characteristics at frequencies from 10 to 50 cycles per second for relative compression deformations from 1 to 50 per cent and in a wide range of temperatures. The relation between temperature and modulus of elasticity and mechanical losses was studied at 30 cycles per second for various grades of raw and vulcanized rubbers and a general regularity of this dependence was determined. In the solution of technical problems such as the construction of automobile tire treads, the behavior of rubber under conditions of rapidly changing periodic deformation is highly important. Here the two characteristics of rubber: the dynamic modulus of elasticity and the magnitude of that part of work of deformation which is irreversibly spent during one cycle (mechanical losses) are of the greatest interest. In previous studies of these properties, three basic methods have been used:
A Critical Analysis of the T-50 Test for State of Vulcanization
Authors: Vila George R. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
It is the consensus of opinion in the literature that the T-50 test is reliable, sensitive and easy to perform. The present analysis of the T-50 test, compared with other methods for determining state of cure, indicates it to be more sensitive and consistent than stress-strain data and easier to perform than sulfur analyses. In addition it seems to be a more constant function of state of cure than combined sulfur, and detects other factors contributing to state of cure which, for convenience and lack of a true understanding of their exact nature, may be referred to collectively as “vulcanization potential”. Plotting the logarithm of T-50, expressed as absolute temperature, against the logarithm of the time of cure seems to hold interesting possibilities for future study.
Determination of the Water Absorption of Crude Rubber and of Vulcanized Rubber
Authors: van Dalfsen J. W. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
In the introduction the purpose of the investigation is described which is the development of a method suitable for the determination of the water absorption of crude and vulcanized rubber, and which, in conjunction with ash and nitrogen determinations is especially adapted to the testing of purified rubber. The conditions which affect the results of water determinations are reviewed, with special reference to the formulas of Taylor and Kemp, which make it possible, within certain limits, to compare results obtained by different determination methods. The reasons for selecting the foregoing method of determination of water absorption are described. It is pointed out that water absorption depends to different degrees on the time of vulcanization. In the rubber-sulfur mixture which was chosen, the influence of the degree of vulcanization is small, so that it is sufficient to vulcanize all types of rubber for the same length of time. At the same time it is shown that the results obtained by immersion of rubber for 7 and 25 hours at 80° C. still sufficiently agree with the values computed from the formulas of Taylor and Kemp. A method of measuring water absorption is described in detail. The question arises to what extent rubber manufacturers may use this method, in conjunction with ash and nitrogen determinations, method for estimating the quality of purified rubber. Rubber manufacturers are urged to give their opinion of this proposed method. Some other method will be considered if it should appear that manufacturers prefer this other method.
Contributions to the Analysis of Rubber. IV. Determination of Manganese in Crude Rubber; in Rubber Mixtures and in Fillers
Authors: Dekker P. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
A scheme for the determination of manganese in mineral fillers, compounding ingredients, crude rubber, rubber mixtures and rubberized materials is described. It is shown that with this method the use of potassium persulfate and two drops of orthophosphoric acid, as proposed by Kehren for the oxidation of colorless manganese ions to red permanganate ions, is advisable. When potassium periodate is used, small quantities of manganese escape detection. It is further shown that there is no appreciable difference between concentration with nitric acid and evaporation with hydrochloric acid and a little sulfuric acid. If, however, the ash is decomposed by soda-potash mixture, the manganese contents are considerably higher. Doubtless these higher values can be accounted for by manganese compounds which are occluded in silicates, and which can be regarded as harmless. A reliable method for the decomposition of the manganese compounds is therefore desirable. The results of analyses of the manganese contents of a large number of various materials are tabulated, and the maximum manganese contents of various materials allowed by the Netherlands Government Rubber Institute are given.
Coagulation of Rubber Latex and Its Control
Authors: Twiss D. F. , Amphlett P. H. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Removal of ammonia or dialysis narrows the range of pH over which coagulation of preserved Hevea latex occurs with acetic acid; the addition of saline substances, e. g., potassium sulfate or ammonium acetate, broadens it. These results accord with the view that the rubber particles carry an adsorbed protein layer. The delayed coagulant effect of sodium fluosilicate, of which use is made in the manufacture of rubber articles, arises not merely from the gradual development of acidity, but also from the concurrent formation of zinc ions. If the zinc ions become effective at too high a pH value, the coagula may be undesirably weak. This can be prevented by the additional presence of a sparingly soluble zinc salt, e. g., zinc sulfite. The coagulant activity of sodium fluosilicate can also be controlled by the addition of salts which decrease its solubility or its rate of hydrolysis. At ordinary temperatures ammonium persulfate is too slow to be a satisfactory delayed coagulant, but its action can be accelerated by the addition of suitable reducing substances.
Van Harpen's Hydratant Acid
Authors: Altman R. F. A. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
In this article it is shown that the so-called hydratant acid or H-acid of van Harpen is not a definite chemical substance (a hydroxyamino acid), but is a mixture mainly of proteins and higher fat acids. The fat acids are responsible for the coalescent effect of H-acid when added to B latex.
The Concentration of Latex by Centrifugal Machines
Authors: Piddlesden J. H. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Rubber latex has become a very important raw material and finds many applications, ranging from the proofing of fabrics and impregnation of paper to the manufacture of elastic threads, can-sealing compounds, adhesives, and upholstery. A large amount of research work has been carried out in the East with a view to supplying preserved latex suitable for these processes. The latex as it leaves the tree has an average dry rubber content of about 33 to 35 per cent, and is so unstable that it will coagulate within a few hours unless a preservative is added. Ammonia has been found to be a suitable preservative and, in spite of the continued search for new materials, it remains in general use. The problem of concentrating the latex to avoid the shipment of surplus water arose early. Three methods for carrying out this operation were developed, namely, centrifugal concentration, creaming by the addition of gums and mucilages, and evaporation. A fourth method, utilizing the phenomena of electrodialysis, has recently been the subject of commercial development. The advent of concentrated latex widened the field of latex applications, since the concentrated products found uses for which preserved field latex was not suitable. For many processes the properties and applications of the latex or concentrate are now perhaps more important that the question of shipping cost. Various types of product, described briefly below, are obtained from the different processes of concentration.
Butyl Rubber. A New Hydrocarbon Product
Authors: Thomas R. M. , Lightbown I. E. , Sparks W. J. , Frolich P. K. , Murphree E. V. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The present distinction between the thoughts expressed by the terms synthetic rubber and rubber synthesis is indicative of the changes in viewpoint on which current progress in the duplication of rubberlike properties is based. For almost fifty years after the discovery by Williams that isoprene is the fundamental structural unit of rubber, research was directed toward rubber synthesis. Bouchardat, Tilden, Wallach, Hoffman, Mathews, and Harries all made valuable contributions to the chemistry of rubberlike products from isoprene. That none of them accomplished the purpose of synthesizing rubber is an accepted fact. In the preparation of a rubberlike material from dimethylbutadiene, Kondakow departed from classical attempts at rubber synthesis, and laid the foundation for the first commercial “synthetic rubber”, the German wartime “methyl rubber”. The tradition that rubber properties were related to high unsaturation persisted, and has led to numerous theories of elastic behavior based on geometric structures resulting from unsaturated linkages. Whitby and Staudinger questioned the importance of unsaturation in determining rubberlike behavior, but encountered some difficulty in finding adequate support for this view, owing to the poor elastic properties of the practical examples available to them. Our studies on polymers of the simple monoölefins, which have been in progress for the past ten years, have led to some interesting conclusions in regard to this point. It was shown that high-molecular-weight linear polymers derived from simple olefins, such as the butylenes, possess a majority of the properties characteristic of rubber. Only the susceptibility to chemical action can definitely be attributed to the unsaturation of the natural rubber molecule. Physical properties which appear not to be intrinsically dependent on the carbon-double bond-carbon configuration are: tensile strength, elasticity, rebound, elastic memory, x-ray structure, mechanical orientation, electrical properties, and fractional solubility. It was, however, conclusively demonstrated that the saturated polymers are not capable of vulcanization in conventional manner.