bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Endowment or Independence? Russell’s ‘Great Settlement’ Foiled, 1848–1849
Authors: KERR DONAL A. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
For a Church that sees its task as a mission to a large population, the provision of clergy is a priority; the Irish Catholic Church, with its highly developed sacramental system, needed a numerous clergy to administer its rites and preach the Christian gospel. Yet in the early years of the nineteenth century it was failing in this requirement. A great measure for Ireland was the Encumbered Estates Act. Russell’s general plan involved the establishment of a Catholic parson and a Catholic squire working in harmony with the state. The Encumbered Estates Act of 1848, however, proved abortive and had to be amended, along lines suggested by Peel, in a new Act in 1849. Russell’s expectations from it were not fulfilled. Furthermore, since his scheme to endow the clergy never got off the ground, by 1849 his great plan for Ireland had stalled.
Gendarmes and the State in Nineteenth-Century Europe
Authors: Emsley Clive 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe history of police and policing have been the subject of much interest and research in recent years, but this book provides the first serious academic exploration of the origins and development of the role of soldier-policemen: the gendarmeries of 19th-century Europe. The author presents a detailed account of the French Gendarmeries from the old regime up to the First World War, and looks at the reasons for how and why this model came to be exported across continental Europe in the wake of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic armies. In particular, their role is examined within the differing national contexts of Italy, Germany, and the Habsburg Empire. The gendarmeries, it is argued, played a significant role in establishing the state, particularly in rural areas. As the physical manifestation of the state, gendarmes carried the state's law and a promise of protection, whilst at the same time ensuring in turn that the state received its annual levies of conscripts and taxes. This account fully explores how the organization and style of 19th-century soldier-policing in France developed in such a way that it brought the idea of the state and the state's law to much of 20th-century continental Europe.
‘A Genuine and Dependable Army of the Interior’: Gendarmes Imperial and Republican
Authors: Emsley Clive 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the establishment of Gardiens de la Prix and a Gendarmerie unit, the Republican Guard in 1848. These guards were established because the gendarmes of Paris were disbanded due to their reputation of arrogance and brutality during the July Monarchy, and their fierce defence of the regime in February 1848 had left them with few friends. The Republican Guard was smaller than its predecessor of the July Monarchy, but the concern for order in Paris triggered the creation of a mobile Gendarmerie battalion of 700 men at Versailles in July 1848. Furthermore, a second battalion was established. This battalion was stationed in Paris in May 1850.
Hussars, Brigands, and Others: Policing Rural Europe before Napoleon
Authors: Emsley Clive 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter discusses the role of hussars in suppressing brigands, vagrants, beggars, and criminals in Europe. From the middle of the 18th century, southern German princes began to experiment with different kinds of police such as Hatschiere and hussars. Hussars were light troops, originating in Hungary, who specialized in scouting, skirmishing, and ambush. Brigands were the major problem of the country during the 18th century.
‘Compatriots and Friends’: Gendarmes Across the Empire
Authors: Emsley Clive 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter discusses the aim of the Gendarmerie beyond the old French frontiers. The Gendarmerie aims to enforce and preserve the perception of order and tranquility of the state. It serves as the eyes and ears of the government in the countryside, and brings in the conscripts and the taxes. It functions at the centre of the imperial police machine.
Variations: Landjägers and Gendarmes
Authors: Emsley Clive 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter discusses the contrast between the different national corps in the 19th century. The German Gendarmerie were intended to be rural police while the Prussian Gendarmerie remained a small force throughout the 19th century. One key difference between the French Gendarmerie and its German namesake was in their distribution across the national territory.
Variations: The Habsburg Lands
Authors: Emsley Clive 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter compares and contrasts developments in Europe and discusses their impact on the experience of the Habsburg lands. The Polish gentry in the Habsburg provinces of Galicia rose in revolt in February 1846, and many were killed. A rumor spread that the Emperor had abolished the Ten Commandments. The authorities of Habsburg were both appalled by the savagery of the peasantry's response and encouraged by its support for the monarchy over the landlords. Because of these events, Metternich began to consider extending the Habsburg Gendarmerie from Lombardy into the other provinces of the Empire.
The Quakers in English Society, 1655-1725
Authors: Davies Adrian 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The early Quakers denounced the clergy and social élite but how did that affect Friends' relationships with others? Drawing upon the insights of sociologists and anthropologists, this study sets out to discover the social consequences of religious belief. Why did the sect appoint its own midwives to attend Quaker women during confinement? Was animosity to Quakerism so great that Friends were excluded from involvement in parish life? And to what extent were the remarkably high literacy rates of Quakers attributable to the Quaker faith or wider social forces? Using a wide range of primary source material, this study demonstrates that Quakers were not the marginal and isolated people that contemporaries and historians often portrayed. Indeed the sect had a profound impact not only upon members, but more widely by encouraging a greater tolerance of diversity in early modern society.
Love and Marriage
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter describes love and the matrimonial ceremony of the Quakers. Love was officially recognized as a significant feature of marriage. During the matrimonial ceremony, the couple made a mutual declaration to be loving and faithful to one another. The meaning of terms such as ‘loving wife’ in wills and the desire of spouses to be buried next to one another conveys that couples looked upon one another with a marked degree of affection and respect.
The Growth and Decline of Quakerism
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the growth of Quakerism after the Restoration and its decline. An examination of the figures detailing the membership of the movement helps explain why so many of the official pronouncements of the Society emphasized the need to maintain Quaker children within the movement starting from the 1690s onwards. It has been suggested that Quakerism settled in those areas where Puritanism had never been strong. For this reason, it is believed that Quakerism had shallow roots in Essex. The consensus hitherto has been that Quakerism was predominantly a rural movement. In the 18th century, Voltaire hinted that the decline of Quakerism in London was because of the involvement of the members and success in commerce.
The Quakers in Society
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter explores the social interaction between Quakers and the world. There was a greater degree of cooperation between the early Quakers and their contemporaries than has hitherto been appreciated. To accept that relations between Quakers and the world were not universally hostile and were conducted at times in a spirit of moderation is not to suppose that they were uniformly rosy. Religious belief had a direct and practical effect in social relations between Quakers and the world.
The Weakness of Gregory
Authors: Leyser Conrad 
Published: October 2011

AbstractIn the modern era, Gregory the Great is often depicted as a man at the border, poised between the Roman and the Germanic worlds, between East and West, and above all, perhaps, between the ancient and medieval epochs. Certainly, in stationing Gregory at the frontier, this chapter begins to acknowledge the immense future influence of his account of Benedict of Nursia, as of all his writings, in the medieval Catholic Church and beyond. However, this acknowledgement is frequently based on the assumption that Gregory, as a hinge figure engaged in cultural transmission, has no original point of view. Gregory tends to be typecast as a ‘moral’ thinker, whose assimilation of the texts of Augustine of Hippo and John Cassian was of critical import — but who was himself less capable of analytical or innovative thought, and who therefore concentrated his energies on reducing the complexities of earlier patristic writings for consumption by a future medieval audience. This chapter also looks at Gregory's views on monasticism and asceticism.
The Background to Acta Sanctorum Hiberniae
Authors: Sharpe Richard 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
All the three major collections of Latin Lives from medieval Ireland and a significant proportion of the Irish Lives survive because of the interest taken in them by a few Irish scholars working in different places in the years between about 1610 and 1650. Irish Lives rescued from oblivion at this stage were deliberately collected and transcribed for a great hagiographical and historical project undertaken by Fr. Hugh Ward and other Irish Franciscans at Louvain. The same Franciscans also obtained copies of Lives in Latin from the two collections which they called the Codex Kilkenniensis and the Codex Insulensis; the original codices survived through the intervention of the Protestant primate, Archbishop James Ussher, and his associate, Sir James Ware. The Franciscans also enjoyed close links with a Jesuit project begun in Antwerp about 1607 by Fr. Heribert Rosweyde, and now famous as the Bollandists and their Acta Sanctorum. Three scholars who were their forerunners in searching for manuscripts containing Lives of Irish saints were Fr. Henry FitzSimon, Fr. Thomas Messingham, and Fr. Stephen White.
Conclusions and Continuations
Authors: Sharpe Richard 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The O'Donohue group of Irish saints' Lives must be added to the list of Latin texts from what is termed Phase I, the period roughly between 6650 and 850. These texts each have their own individual features, but in form they more nearly resemble Vita I S. Brigitae than any other definitely early vita. What we know of the methods of the compiler shows that, at the date when he worked, there must have been more than twice as many Lives available to him from before c. 1230 as now survive in their original form. The compilation of the Dublin collection, whether or not it was inspired by Albinus O'Mulloy, was the crowning achievement of hagiography in Ireland. The redactor has brought together some twenty-five Lives (besides a few outliers), effectively knitting them into a single statement that Ireland was justly to be regarded as insula sanctorum.
Vodka before the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Christian David 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Alcohol is a drug, a narcotic. In Europe, including Russia, the most important natural sources of alcohol have been honey, fruits, and grains — the sources, respectively, of meads, wines, and beers. Alcoholic drinks played a vital role in the ritual, spiritual, and social life of working class Russians in both town and country, from very early times. The traditional pattern of alcohol consumption was dominated by periodic binges accompanying the more important religious and personal festivals. These festivities linked together many strands of working class life in both town and country. Relations of idyllic directness and simplicity between governments and drinkers became an anachronism as soon as alcohol became a bearer of ‘exchange-value’ as well as an object of utility. This profound change was associated in Russia with the appearance of vodka, a distilled drink. This chapter examines how the Russian government went about exploiting its monopoly over the production and sale of vodka. The taxation of alcohol distillers and retailers is also discussed.
Making Vodka—The Nobility's Share
Authors: Christian David 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter examines how vodka was made. Russia's gentry distillers, who made the vodka traded during the 19th century, were more concerned with vodka as a substance than any other group apart from the consumers. But for distillers, too, the point of vodka was to be found in its value rather than in its chemistry. Distilling was both a technology and a way of redistributing wealth. So it is important to ask not only how vodka was made, but also how money was made from the making of vodka, and by whom. These two aspects of distilling interpenetrate each other, even though for the sake of clarity the technology of vodka-making must be distinguished from its economics. The giant government-run distilleries of the early 17th century were technologically advanced, but costly to run, so that the government soon began to employ contract distillers from the merchantry. Merchant distilleries were designed to produce for a commercial profit. This chapter also explores the social history of distilling and income generated from distilling.
Upper Class Protest—Press Attacks on the Tax Farm
Authors: Christian David 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
When Nicholas I died in February 1835, he left a world that still belonged to Nikolai Gogol. Much in this world still smacked of Muscovy, not least its taverns, its distilleries, and its vodka merchants. A decade later that world was dead, brought down by ten years of glasnost' and reform. Serfdom had gone, so had the Nicholaevan censorship, the old legal system, and the traditional structures of local government. The tax farms also disappeared. This overhaul of Russia's social and legal structure was the achievement of the decade of perestroika known as the period of the ‘Great Reforms’. This chapter examines the Russian liquor trade and the upper class opposition to tax farming.
Working Class Protest: Boycotting Vodka
Authors: Christian David 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
At first the working class assault on the tax farm, which began in September 1858, was peaceful and disciplined, taking the form of organized boycotts of vodka. In September 1858, consumers in the townships and villages of Catholic Lithuania began, with the support of the local Catholic clergy, to take oaths of abstention from vodka. By the end of 1858, the boycotts had spread from the Catholic provinces of Lithuania far to the East into the Orthodox provinces of Great Russia; and in the first months of 1859, they spread throughout much of European Russia. In May 1859, the protests turned violent. What had started out as a non-violent, even rather respectable, movement of protest was now beginning to look like an incipient peasant insurrection. For 1859, Soviet historians have listed as many as 636 incidents involving either boycotts or riots against tax farms in a year in which there were altogether 938 separate reports of peasant insubordination.
Working Class Protest: Smashing Taverns
Authors: Christian David 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
In May 1859, the vodka protests in Russia turned violent. There were attacks on taverns in town after town in Pensa province, mainly during local markets. The movement spread West to neighbouring Tamhov province and then East to the Volga provinces of Samara, Saratov, Simbirsk, Orenburg, and Kazan as well as to Vyatka in the Urals, and Voronezh province to the South. Meanwhile, riots broke out further to the West in Moscow province. After July, the protests began to subside, although there were minor outbreaks even into the first months of 1860. In contrast to the boycotts, which were mainly a rural phenomenon, most of the riots seem to have taken place in towns or large villages, and mainly on market days when large crowds were present. Amongst those arrested for ‘inciting’ the riots were landlords, priests, towndwellers, and several ex-soldiers or soldiers on leave, though it seems that state peasants probably played the major role. The riots reflected the same working class hostility to tax farms as the boycotts.
Contract Marriage
Authors: Stone Lawrence 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The courts survived the Reformation intact, and made regular use of archdeacon's visitations to oblige village churchwardens to report any cases of unmarried cohabitation, bastardy, adultery, or contract and clandestine marriages. The problem that faced the ecclesiastical courts after 1600 was how to deal with the massive revival during the late 1640s and 1650s of the practice of secret contracts, which had almost disappeared from court litigation before the war, and how to drive most of the population back into regular public weddings in the church. This chapter also examines the legal imperialism by the common law judges, suits for seduction of a daughter, and suits for breach of promise.
Private Separation
Authors: Stone Lawrence 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses private separation, common among the middling sort and the elite. It traces the early history of the private separation deed from 1650 to 1760, as well as its legality from 1740 to 1860. Private deeds of separation developed to meet a growing need of incompatible but non-adulterous adults to break free from an insupportable cohabitation. Between 1790 and 1830, an attempt was made by lords Kenyon and Eldon to abolish private separation deeds. However, their efforts generated a backlash. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the chief defect of the private deed of separation was the shaky legal status of some of its clauses, and the difficulty of enforcement if they were challenged in courts. Still, it served as the most informal, but the most commonly used and most convenient legal option available to victims of marital discord.
Aid and Democracy
Authors: Edwards Jill 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Could Spain participate in the Marshall Plan while at the same time it was politically otracized at the United Nations? While the State Department monitored warily the fortunes of the monarchists, the more practical question of Spain's integration into international trade and commerce was rekindled in June 1947 with the launch of the European Recovery Programme, more popularly known as the Marshall Plan. The problem of integrating Spain into the new Western commercial system, designed to prop up the economies of Western Europe and prevent capitulation to communism, epitomizes the increasing division of interests created between Britain and the United States on that issue, and subsequently the North Atlantic Treaty. This chapter discusses the question of economic sanctions against Spain, the O'Konski amendment that would have allowed Spain to participate in the Marshall Plan, Francisco Franco's response to Spain's exclusion from the Marshall Plan, and Spain's improving commercial relations with several countries such as France and Britain.
Trouble at the United Nations
Authors: Edwards Jill 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Following the enormous acrimony of 1947 on the Spanish issue, the matter had been allowed to lie dormant in the United States. Despite the uncertain support of Britain and France, Harry S. Truman's advisers reviewed and decided to maintain U.S. policy. The State Department's policy and instructions on Spain to their United Nations (UN) delegation were also circulated to selected embassies. These reiterated that although the United States UN delegation should not take the initiative, they were to make known the United States government's sympathy with Brazil's motion for repeal. Dean Acheson's attempt to explain the government's change of policy after the last-minute decision in May to abstain on the Spanish question, riddled as it was with contradictions, sounded falsely contrived.
The Long Haul to the Accords
Authors: Edwards Jill 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
For Dean Acheson and Harry S. Truman, the ascendancy of military planners appeared to mark an admission of defeat on the Spanish question. The removal of the United Nations recommended sanctions on Spain facilitated the United States' pursuit of negotiations with Spanish leader Francisco Franco. Britain's negative response about the possible role of Spain in relation to the general defence of Western Europe was not simply a matter of socio-political factors, but military and economic as well. British defence chiefs placed the importance of Iberia high in the new NATO defence structure, but had more immediate and engrossing considerations in the Mediterranean than popular opinion or union pressure, had it so endeavoured, could alone have influenced. Like their American counterparts they had the politico-strategic dilemma presented by Spain under constant review. This chapter looks at the issue of military bases, accords, and the British armament industry in relation to Spain.
Traditional Systems of Social Security and Hunger Insurance: Past Achievements and Modern Challenges
Authors: Platteau Jean-Philippe 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter attempts to assess broadly the performance of traditional systems of social security as they exist or have existed in Third World village societies. It pursues the three following objectives: (1) to identify the main characteristics of the institutions providing social security in the societies under concern; (2) to bring into light the basic principles that their functioning obeys; and (3) to identify the most important problems and limitations to which they are subject. It achieves these objectives adopting the Scott–Popkin controversy as a convenient point of departure for the whole discussion. The chapter further provides a more detailed picture of apparently successful risk-pooling mechanisms as they have been found to prevail in several village societies. It evaluates the adequacy of traditional systems of social security in the light of modern challenges and present circumstances.
Introduction
Authors: Skinner Andrew Stewart 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Following the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, it appears that Adam Smith gave greater emphasis to jurisprudence and economics at the expense of the ethical material. While the lectures on theology have not been discovered as yet, it is at least possible that Smith's position would have shown agreement with that of Isaac Newton. Smith made use of a number of Newtonian analogies whose implications are not inconsistent with the view of God as the Divine Architect or Great Superintendent of the Universe. He made wide use of mechanistic (and other) analogies, seeing in the universe a ‘great machine’ wherein we may observe ‘means adjusted with the nicest artifice to the ends which they are intended to produce’. The remaining parts of Smith's lectures — ethics, jurisprudence, and economics — were seen by him as the parts, separate but interconnected, of an even wider system of social science, a point that emerges clearly from the advertisement to the sixth edition of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, published in the year of Smith's death.