bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
On the Laws of Development of Existing Vegetation and the application of these laws to certain Geological Problems
Authors: Walton John 
Published: October 2009

The author's remarks are chiefly founded on the excentrical position of the pith of exogenous trees, which he states are caused by unequal heat afforded to the north and south side. He supposes that a north and south line drawn through the central axis in a transverse section of a tree will generally bisect the section, while an east and west line divides it into two unequal parts; but that at the equator and poles such section will be bisected by either line.
He then alludes to the prevailing wind as a disturbing cause, not however obliterating the action of the sun, and concludes that contemporaneous plants, whether fossil or not, being in their upright position with their roots downwards, and having lines of like development parallel to each other, have grown in the place where they are found and are in their original position. He also concludes that if the lines of development are not parallel in beds of different ages, the line of action of the cause of that development has changed. He considers that many important geological conclusions may be deduced by applying these propositions.
The author next proceeds to the subject of internal heat, and considers that since it would tend to produce an equality of development, we may determine its former extent of action by examining the trunks of exogenous trees.
Although at first he only applied this theory to exogenous vegetables, he afterwards considered that the central pith of Stigmaria and some other fossil
On the Geology of a part of Eubœa and Bœotia
Authors: Spratt  
Published: October 2009

Since my examination of the freshwater deposits on the east coast of the Ægean sea and in the island of Samos, I have been enabled to pursue some geological researches on its western shores; and there, as I had expected, I found corresponding formations in several localities, establishing the fact of a great eocene lake having extended over the whole of the Grecian Archipelago, where now there is a sea which in many places is known to be more than 300 fathoms deep.
I shall first briefly notice the distribution of the older rocks in the Negropont. The southern part of the island is composed of gneiss, mica schist, chlorite and crystalline marble, elevated into very high ridges, and forming a very mountainous tract of country, the highest peak of which is Mount Elias, near its south extremity. It attains a height of 5000 feet. The formations dip in various directions and at all angles; generally the dip is either to the N.W. or S.E., and the angle not exceeding 25°.
The marble was extensively quarried by the ancients; numerous deserted quarries exist along a range of coast fifteen miles in length, in which columns and blocks of various sizes are still lying ready for transportation, and some exceed thirty feet in length. The marble is the Cipollino of the Italians, and these quarries seem to have been the chief source which supplied Rome for many of its buildings.
These older rocks terminate at Aliveri, and are succeeded by secondary
On the Wave of Translation in connexion with the Northern Drift
Authors: Whewell W. 
Published: October 2009

The great geological problem of the “Northern Drift” has been attacked in various ways; and the diffusion of Scandinavian rocks and northern detritus over a vast area in the northern part of Europe has been ascribed to various kinds of natural machinery. Of late, a large part of this operation has been attributed to “Waves of Translation,” produced by the sudden upheaval of the bottom or shore of the sea. This view is advocated in the ‘Geology of Russia’ by Sir Roderick Murchison. There are some very simple numerical calculations which belong to this subject, and which may throw some light on the probability of such a theory. These calculations must necessarily be hypothetical as to their quantities, but as to their quantities only; and even these will be capable of correction by a more careful survey of the facts. For the mathematical doctrine on which they proceed is rigorously true, and does not depend upon any hypothetical view of the structure of the masses which we have to deal with. Mr. Scott Russell. tells us that the wave of translation may be regarded as a mechanical agent for the transmission of power, as complete and perfect as the lever or the inclined plane. Assuming this property of the wave of translation as a basis, I shall point out some of the results of its operation in the case now to be considered.
It has been stated to the Geological Society, that, by supposing the sudden elevation of a submarine
On the Slow Transmission of Heat through loosely coherent Clay and Sand
Authors: Nasmyth James 
Published: October 2009

When I lately had the pleasure to see you at the foundry, on drawing your attention to what appeared to me a remarkable example of the low capability of mineral substances for conducting heat, I was much gratified to find that you agreed with me in considering that the instance in question had an important bearing on several interesting geological questions, especially those relating to the theory of the central heat of the earth.
At your request I have much pleasure in sending you a statement of the instance in question, under the impression that it may chance to prove of some interest as an illustration of what may yet exist in respect to the state of the interior of the globe, as regards its high temperature.
The instance in question, you will remember, was that of a large plate-iron pot, containing eleven tons of white-hot melted cast-iron—a temperature so high as to be quite beyond all thermometric certainty, but well-known to be the highest intensity of furnace heat, being quite equal to that of welding hot iron.
This vast mass of white-hot melted cast-iron, you will remember, stood in the pot for upwards of twenty minutes, and but for a thin coating of clay and sand of about half an inch thick, would have soon melted the bottom and sides of the pot.
This half-inch thickness of mineral substance, however, was quite sufficient to prevent the conduction of the heat to the exterior; so completely, so, that after this
On the Gypsiferous Strata of Cape Dauphin, in the Island of Cape Breton
Authors: Brown Richard 
Published: October 2009

Previously to Mr. Lyell's visit to Nova Scotia in the year 1843, it was generally supposed that the marls and sandstones containing those remarkable beds of gypsum, which have recently occupied so much attention, were both in age and position analogous to the new red sandstone of Europe. Such indeed was my own opinion (as stated in an imperfect outline of the geological structure of this island which appeared in Haliburton's ‘History of Nova Scotia,’ published in 1829), founded chiefly upon the occurrence of gypsum and brine springs in a formation bearing considerable resemblance in lithological character to the new red sandstone, without any reference whatever to its fossils, which at that period had not been examined by competent observers.
Mr. Lyell, in a paper on this subject read before the Society in 1843, and more recently in his ‘Travels in America,’ has clearly shown, from their proximity to the older rocks, the great disturbances which (compared with the coal-measures) they have undergone, and more particularly from their characteristic fossils, that the gypsiferous strata of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton are the representatives of the lower beds of the carboniferous limestone of Europe; but hitherto I am not aware that any decided example of the superposition of the millstone grit and coal-measures has been observed. It affords me therefore much satisfaction to be able to furnish a section of the strata forming a lofty cliff at Cape Dauphin, the western boundary of the Sydney coal-field, where the carboniferous limestone and
On the probable Age of the London Clay, and its Relations to the Hampshire and Paris Tertiary Systems
Authors: Prestwich J. 
Published: October 2009

It is not intended on the present occasion to enter generally upon the subject* of the London clay, nor yet to describe its structure and fauna further than may he necessary to prove the argument of this paper, which is, that tne London clay of Highgate, Sheppey, and other places in the neighbourhood of London, apparently is not, as it has hitherto been considered, synchronous with the Calcaire grossier of Paris, nor yet with the clays of Barton, and the clays and sands of Bracklesham; but that it is of older date than these, and consequently occupies a lower position in the Eocene series.
Old terms are altered with difficulty; they have the sanction of usage and weight of successive authorities, and are in geology occasionally apt, by their theoretical signification, to stand in lieu of proof. In the case before us, considering up to a late period the contemporaneity of the marine strata of London, Bracklesham, Barton, and Paris well established, I thought it scarcely necessary to investigate the data on which their identification rested; or rather, proceeding under the full impression of its correctness, I yielded to it facts, and endeavoured to conform to it phænomena, which, had I allowed them their due influence, would have earlier led to independent inferences. The differences known to exist in the fauna of these groups had been attributed solely to changes of condition and distance—causes, which as they produce effects whose limits are not easily assignable, sometimes prevent inquiry by offereing
On the New Red Sandstone of Nova Scotia
Authors: Dawson J. W. 
Published: October 2009

In several late papers on the carboniferous rocks of Nova Scotia, reference has been made to a deposit of red sandstone skirting the shores of Cobequid Bay, and resting unconformably on strata of the carboniferous system. I propose in the present paper, to describe this formation as it occurs in the above-named locality, and in other parts of the country bordering the southern arm of the Bay of Fundy, retaining provisionally the name of New Red Sandstone, which is at least locally appropriate.
The new red sandstone of Nova Scotia has already been described by Messrs. Jackson and Alger, and by Dr. Gesner. The attention of these geologists was however directed rather to the structure of the trap, and to the numerous crystallized minerals which it contains, than to the geological relations of the deposit; and they did not distinguish it from a group of sandstones, with beds of limestone and gypsum, occurring in its vicinity, which has since been shown by Mr. Lyell to belong to the carboniferous system.
On the Genera and Distribution of Plants in the Carboniferous System of New South Wales
Authors: Clarke W. B. 
Published: October 2009

In Count Strzelecki's work on New South Wales, it is stated that the Australian coal-fields are entirely deficient in the genera
Sigillaria, Lepidodendron, Calamites
, and
Coniferæ
. This view Mr. Clarke considers as erroneous, and endeavours in this paper to remove. After some general remarks on the supposed similarity of the plants found in the Australian coal beds to those in India, he gives the following list:—

Genera of Coal Plants found by Mr. Clarke in the carboniferous deposits of New South Wales

1.
Pecopteris.

2.
Neuropteris.

3.
Odontopteris.

4.
Cyclopteris.

5.
Sphenopteris.

6.
Glossopteris.

7.
Genus intermediate between Tæniopteris and Glossopteris.

8.
Halonia.

9.
Cannæform plants.

10.
Reed-like stems.

11.
Calamites.

12.
Phyllotheca.

13.
Zeugophyllites.

14.
Equisetum.

15.
Lycopodites.

16.
New genus of plants with wedgeformed stems.

17.
Lepidodendron, sometimes Lepidostrobi

18.
Ulodendron.

19.
Sigillaria and Stigmaria.

20.
Coniferæ.
On the Tertiary Deposits of the Moray Firth and the Great Caledonian Valley, with a brief notice of the Older Formations
Authors: Cumming J. G. 
Published: October 2009

Abstract

T
he
district which is the subject of the present memoir has been rendered familiar to geologists by the labours of Professor Sedgwick and Sir R. I. Murchison*, whose descriptions have reference to the older rocks, and to their connection with equivalents in the English system.

Very valuable additions have since been made to these records by Mr. George Anderson of Inverness, and Mr. Hugh Miller, whose accurate local knowledge, both written and oral, I was privileged to avail myself of. My attention however was chiefly directed to the distribution of the boulder-clays and the gravels of the tertiary series, and on these I venture at this time to offer a few remarks. Still, as introductory to a description of these more recent deposits, it may be useful to take a hasty view of the general physical contour of the country.
A very cursory glance at the condition of its surface must convince us that enormous denudation has occurred over the district under consideration. The now isolated masses of old red conglomerate, perched on mountain summits, must clearly at one time have formed continuous strata. We may instance particularly the fine dome-shaped mountain Mealfourvonie, on the western side of Loch Ness, rising upwards of 3000 feet above the sea. Craigora, rising to the height of 1500 feet above Temple, on the west side of the Bay of Urquhart on Loch Ness, is a round detached mass of old red conglomerate, which was obviously at one time connected with Mealfourvonie. Both these
On Craters of Denudation, with Observations on the Structure and Growth of Volcanic Cones
Authors: Lyell Charles 
Published: October 2009

I
n
the first edition of my ‘Principles of Geology’ published in 1830 (vol. i. ch. 30), I explained the grounds of my objection to the theory previously advanced by Baron von Buch to account for the origin of the Caldera of Palma, the Gulf of Santorin, and other bowl-shaped cavities of large dimensions, for which he proposed the name of “Craters of Elevation.’ I regarded the circular escarpments surrounding these vast cavities as the remnants of cones of eruption, the central parts of which had been destroyed, and I conceived that the removing cause had been chiefly, if not wholly, engulfment.

In the second edition of my ‘Principles,’ published in 1832, or two years later, I discussed more particularly the origin of the single deep gorge, which in Palma, Barren Island, and other so-called elevation-craters, forms a breach in the circular range of cliffs, surrounding the central cavity. This ravine or narrow passage I attributed “to the action of the tide during the gradual emergence from the sea and upheaval of a volcanic island” (ch. 22. vol. i. p. 452), and I at the same time alluded to its analogy to the single passage leading into the lagoons of many annular coral islands of Atolls.
Although I then distinctly announced this theory in regard to such narrow ravines, the idea had not occurred to me that the same denuding power of the waves and tides, which were thus appealed to as adequate to remove the rocks once filling such deep
On the Vents of Hot Vapour in Tuscany, and their Relations to Ancient Lines of Fracture and Eruption
Authors: Murchison Roderick Impey 
Published: October 2009

Introduction
In surveying the principal localities of those remarkable vents of hot vapour in the Tuscan Maremma, called “Lagoni,” “Fumacchi,” “Fumarole,” “Soffioni,” “Mofetti,” and even “Volcani,” I perceived that their issue took place upon ancient parallel lines of fracture, along which serpentinous and other eruptive rocks had been emitted. As I am not aware that this coincidence in lines of eruption, acted upon at epochs so remote from each other, has been previously adverted to in any geological account of Tuscany, I will first call attention to the phænomenon. I shall next take this opportunity of expressing my opinion respecting the origin of the “gabbro rosso” of the Tuscans, a rock intimately associated with serpentine; and, after a brief allusion to recent earthquake shocks along the same lines, the memoir will be terminated by glancing at the simultaneous production of great divergent elevations in Italy and in the Alps, after the deposit of the nummulitic eocene formation.
On the Stratified Formations of the Venetian Alps
Authors: de Zigno Achille 
Published: October 2009

T
he
region to which the present memoir refers contains localities which at all times have attracted the attention of naturalists. The labours of Arduini, Fortis, Da Rio, Marzari, Brongniart, Catullo, Pagini, Brocchi, Trettenero, have pointed out its more remarkable features; and some of the Members of this Society have cast a rapid glance on the more interesting phænomena. Feeling convinced that this portion of our mountains would furnish the clue to the geology of Northern Italy, I have prosecuted my researches for several years, with the object of bringing the stratified formations of the Venetian Alps into co-ordination with the classic deposits of Europe. I have at length succeeded in recognising and establishing certain geological horizons, in rectifying some of the earlier observations, and in satisfying myself of the correctness of others subsequently made. I have had occasion to avail myself of stratigraphical and palæontological reasoning, according to the localities; and I indulge the hope that the result of my studies will be a more rational explanation of the structure of our mountains.

The district which I am about to describe is bounded on the east by the Tagliamente, on the south by the plain which extends to the Po.
The Tagliamente, after running from west to east along the valley called the ‘Canal di Sochieve,’ which is parallel to the main chain of the Alps, receiving the torrents which run from north to south (such as the Lumici, the Degan, the Bret, and the Fella), turns sharply to the
On British Fossil Lepadidæ
Authors: Darwin C. 
Published: October 2009

Abstract

M
r
. D
arwin
noticed that great confusion exists in the nomenclature of the comparatively few species of Cirrhipeds, hitherto found in a fossil state; arising both from the easy separation of the several dissimilar valves soon after the death of the animal, and from the imperfect characters afforded by the valves themselves, which are, as it were, but parts of the crustacean carapace, neither accompanied with, nor distinctly impressed by, any of the soft parts of the animal. He then pointed out such particular valves as were sufficiently distinct, and had sufficiently constant characters to he considered as characteristic of genera,–as, for instance, the keel, or dorsal, valve in
Sealpellum
, and the scutal, or inferior lateral, valve in
Pollicipes
. The pedunculated cirrhipeds (
Lepadidœ
) were stated to have made their first appearance in the lower oolite, and to have reached their culminant point in the cretaceous epoch. The absence of sessile cirrhipeds in the earlier and secondary formations, and their occurrence for the first time in the eocene deposits, were then noticed, the author dwelling on the characters of the genus
Verruca
, and pointing out that, as the type of a group intermediate between, and of equal value with, the sessile and the pedunculate cirrhipeds, it offered no real exception to the rule that sessile cirrhipeds do not occur in the secondary formations; but that, on the contrary, it harmonizes with the law of relation between serial affinities of animals and their first appearance on this earth. Mr. Darwin concluded with a few observations on the comparative ranges of recent and fossil eirrhipeds, and on the close affinities between the extinct and the living forms.
On the Sub-escarpments of the Ridgway Range, and their Contemporaneous Deposits in the Isle of Portland
Authors: Weston Charles Henry 
Published: October 2009

Since I had the honour of presenting to the Geological Society some remarks on the nature and superposition of the formations at Ridgway, I have had another opportunity of examining that locality, and the following are the conclusions to which I have been led.

I.

That the entire valley of Upway, although disturbed, is yet one of
denudation
and not a
synclinal trough
, as hitherto considered.

II.
That the section of the Ridgway cutting exhibits, more or less, the normal structure of the whole range.

III.
That my views respecting the extension of the Purbeck group to the most westerly limits of the Corton Hill and Whaddon Ridge, have been confirmed; and

IV.
That the same Formation, on the other side of the great anticlinal axis of this district, does not terminate at the centre of the Isle of Portland, but exists also at the Bill, its most southerly point.
On the Southern Border of the Highlands of Scotland
Authors: Sharpe D. 
Published: October 2009

Having lately visited many of the passes leading into the Highlands, I found the arrangement of the rocks along the border so different from what I had been led to expect by what has been published on the subject, that I venture to offer the following remarks upon the Border formations, although I am far from having materials for a complete account of them.
Mr. Nicol's ‘Guide to the Geology of Scotland’ gives us a good summary of what was known on the subject up to 1844, and little or nothing has been added since; his account, therefore, will often be referred to.
In MacCulloch's Map of Scotland a band of blue colour, indicating “Clay-slate or Greywacke,” stretches across Scotland from Stonehaven to Bute and Arran, bounded on the south by the Old Red Sandstone, and on the north by mica schist, and within this clay-slate are represented the bands of limestone of Loch Lomond and Aberfoyle. Mr. Nicol's map includes in the same band of clay-slate the limestones of Callander and that on the South Esk near Cortachie. Mr. Buist's Map of Perthshire, published in the forty-fifth number of the Journal of the Highland Society, draws into the same Clay-slate Formation the limestone between Dunkeld and Blair Gowrie.
On the Upper Tertiaries at Copford, Essex
Authors: Brown John 
Published: October 2009

Of the geological features of the county of Essex, none are more interesting than its various freshwater deposits, especially those of Grays, Clacton, and Copford. Notices of these deposits have appeared at various times, and a general description of the freshwater beds and erratic tertiaries of the last-named place forms the subject of the present paper.
The Copford freshwater beds have been for several years extensively excavated to obtain brick-earth, and an idea of the relative position of the beds exposed by these excavations is given by the accompanying section. The clay or “earth” is obtained from three extensive workings, hereafter referred to as the western, eastern, and southern sections respectively. Other sections of these beds have also been obtained by casual excavations and by borings, to the west and south of the brick-field. This brick-field is about half a mile N.W. of Stanway Church, and lies between the railway and the high road, occupying about five acres. The ground slopes from the high-road northward to the flat marshy ground which is crossed by the railway embankment.
On the Ornithoidichnites of the Wealden
Authors: Beckles S. H. 
Published: October 2009

Since the publication in January 1851 of the notice of the peculiar trifid bodies occurring in the Hastings rock, the author has added several specimens to his collection, some of which appear to afford additional evidence in favour of the opinion of their being natural casts of the prints of birds′ feet.
To the west of St. Leonard's the specimens occur on small blocks lying on the beach and subjected to tidal action. These as yet have presented solitary ornithoidichnites only. To the east of Hastings, however, the trifid bodies are found under more favourable circumstances.
At a distance of between six and seven miles from St. Leonard's immense blocks of stone, some of them several tons in weight, lie for some distance along the beach in confused masses, immediately at the base of the cliff and above high-water-mark. On these blocks the ornithoidichnites are frequently found, and sometimes in pairs or groups. The following specimens have been selected as being of most interest.