bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Organ Music of Johannes Brahms
Authors: Owen Barbara 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Influenced by Robert and Clara Schumann and Joseph Joachim, Johannes Brahms not only learned to play the organ at the beginning of his career, but also wrote significant compositions for the instrument as a result of his early counterpoint study. He composed for the organ only sporadically or as part of larger choral and instrumental works in his subsequent career. During the final year of his life, however, he returned to pure organ composition with a set of chorale preludes—though many of these are thought to have been revisions of earlier works. Today, the organ works of Johannes Brahms are recognized as beautifully-crafted compositions by church and concert organists across the world and have become a much-cherished component of the repertoire. Until now, however, most scholarly accounts of Brahms's life and work treat his works for the organ as a minor footnote in his development as a composer. Precisely because the collection of organ works is not extensive, the pieces—composed at different times during Brahms's lifetime—help to map his path as a composer, pinpointing various stages in his artistic development. In this volume, the author offers the first in-depth study of this corpus, considering Brahms's organ works in relation to his background, methods, and overall artistic development, his contacts with organs and organists, the influence of his predecessors and contemporaries, and analyses of each specific work and its place in Brahms's career. Her expert history and analysis of Brahms's individual organ works and their interpretation also investigates contemporary practices relative to the performance of these pieces. The book's three valuable appendices present a guide to editions of Brahms's organ works, a discussion of the organ in Brahms's world that highlights some organs the composer would have heard, and a listing of the organ transcriptions of Brahms's work.
The Organ in the Life of Brahms
Authors: Owen Barbara 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses Brahms's involvement with organ music. From all evidence, Brahms had relatively little contact with organists and organ composers. With the exception of the Bach organ works, which he may have practiced in the 1850, it is unlikely that Brahms ever actually played much of this music, except perhaps on the piano. In the case of the Baroque works, however, he doubtless studied some of them.
Bach, Counterpoint, and Chorales
Authors: Owen Barbara 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter shows that Brahms's interest in playing the organ seems to have burned out rather quickly after only two or three years in the 1850s, never to revive. With the exception of his performance of piano transcriptions of Bach organ works, his interest in organ music, too, appears to have lain largely dormant for nearly four decades. This period did, however, see the publication, in 1864 and 1882, of two earlier organ works that he had gone to some trouble to revise, as well as his occasional provision of organ parts to the orchestral scores of at least two of his own larger choral works, along with works by Bach, Handel, Mozart, and others. By no means dormant, however, was Brahms's interest in the music of the Baroque period, counterpoint, and the Lutheran chorale. The contrapuntal skills he had honed so conscientiously in the few short months of his exchanges with Joachim in 1856 continued to mature, along with his expertise in orchestration, songwriting, and other facets of his art. Even in his later years, he continued to exhort budding composers to sharpen their skills by diligently studying counterpoint.
Brahms as Revisor
Authors: Owen Barbara 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on how Brahms seems almost never to have left any musical form alone without experimenting with several examples. Virtually everything he ever published, even some relatively short works, appears to have undergone gestation periods of varying length. He is also known to have rearranged and transformed earlier compositions into a quite different mold. A classic example is the Piano Concerto in D minor (op. 15), which began life as a piano duet in 1854. Brahms then unsuccessfully attempted to work it into a symphony before discarding a few tentative movements as it metamorphosed into its ultimate concerto form in 1859. One of the discarded symphonic movement sketches was preserved, however, to eventually provide material for something very different—the second movement of the later Requiem, begun in 1861.
The Eleven Chorale Preludes
Authors: Owen Barbara 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter argues that Brahms's Eleven Chorale Preludes are a fitting summary to the whole of his work in the vast field of musical art, an act of supreme homage from a musical poet to the sacred poetry of the canticles. Brahms's friends were warm in their approval of the early organ works that were given to them in manuscript, but of the two that were eventually published in his lifetime, little or nothing is known about their reception by the musical world at large. Ironically, the opposite is true of the posthumous Elf Choralvorspiele, op. 122. Although the first seven had been prepared for publication by Brahms's copyist in the summer of 1896, and apparently even sent to his publisher, Fritz Simrock, they were not published until five years after the composer's death, following a certain amount of litigation with regard to Brahms's estate. By this time, four additional chorale preludes had been discovered among Brahms's papers and edited by Eusebius Mandyczewski to accompany the first seven.
Slavemaster President
Authors: Dusinberre William 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book examines both the social and the political history of slavery. James Polk — President of the United States from 1845 to 1849 — owned a Mississippi cotton plantation with about fifty slaves. Drawing upon previously unexplored records, this book recreates the world of Polk's Mississippi plantation and the personal histories of his slaves, in what is arguably the most careful and vivid account to date of how slavery functioned on a single cotton plantation. Life at the Polk estate was brutal and often short. Fewer than one in two slave children lived to the age of fifteen, a child mortality rate even higher than that on the average plantation. A steady stream of slaves temporarily fled the plantation throughout Polk's tenure as absentee slavemaster. Yet Polk was in some respects an enlightened owner, instituting an unusual incentive plan for his slaves and granting extensive privileges to his most favored slave. By contrast with Senator John C. Calhoun, President Polk has been seen as a moderate Southern Democratic leader. But this book suggests that the president's political stance toward slavery — influenced as it was by his deep personal involvement in the plantation system — may actually have helped to precipitate the Civil War that Polk sought to avoid.
Introduction
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The spirit that infused the antebellum slave system was vigorously entrepreneurial. Although Polk inherited some of his slaves, he bought most of them from strangers to improve his own financial prospects. Polk's long struggle from 1831 into the 1840s to make a financial success of his plantation enterprise, and to impose order on his often unruly bondpeople, colored his stance on slavery-related political issues. When in 1846 he provoked the Mexican War, President Polk's concerns were not to extend slavery beyond Texas; but he sought to make slavery secure in the states (including Texas) where it already existed. However, he had persuaded himself — in what may have been a disastrous miscalculation — that slavery could not be secure in the Southern states unless the North gave substantial recognition to slavemasters' rights in the western territories too.
1 A Market for Labor Power
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Polk was caught up in the expansive, entrepreneurial ethic of the cotton frontier, and his principal impulses as a slavemaster were acquisitive rather than paternalist. He sought, successfully, to keep his purchases of slaves after the presidential election of 1844 completely secret. Polk and his wife had inherited thirteen “family slaves” and they bought others from members of his family. But by 1844, Polk had already purchased fourteen other slaves from strangers, nearly always to secure labor for his undeveloped cotton land. Between the election of 1844 and his death in 1849, Polk secretly bought nineteen more slaves. Thirteen of these were children between the ages of ten and seventeen, who were separated from their parents.
2 Flight (I)
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Polk had established a small cotton plantation in West Tennessee for three years, before selling up in 1834 and moving on to new cotton land in Mississippi. He had been inexperienced at plantation management and was uncertain about how best to impose discipline on his slaves. He depended on an overseer, Ephraim Beanland, whom Polk's brothers-in-law came to regard as a brutal tyrant, and who drove, within an eleven-week period, five of Polk's nine adult male laborers into temporary flight. While attempting permanent escape Chunky Jack hit the pursuing Beanland with a stick, whereupon Beanland stabbed him twice. Five months later Chunky Jack escaped for the second time to the Arkansas territory, but was recaptured and sold. When Polk transferred his plantation operations to Mississippi he felt he must impose strict discipline, and reappointed Beanland to manage the new plantation.
3 Flight (II) The Mississippi Plantation
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
During a nineteen-year period after Beanland had finally been dismissed, more than half of the adult men at the plantation (at least thirteen out of 25 adult males) fled at least once. These fugitives fled, on average, on more than three separate occasions. Thus, the total number of flights was at least forty during the same period. Occasionally a fugitive voluntarily turned himself in to a well-disposed white man who he hoped would protect him from a brutal overseer. Flight was dangerous — one fugitive received buck shot in his thigh when he returned at night to fetch clothes for a comrade; sleeping out in the woods led more than once to serious illness. Recapture was normally punished by a severe whipping. Flight never, apparently, led to permanent escape. Yet it was the principal safety valve that gave Polk's slaves a vent for their discontent.
4 Profit
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Polk's plantation enterprise was a risky business. The first years of his Mississippi venture were discouraging, and Polk considered selling out in 1838. But he ended up by buying out his business partner, thus greatly increasing his investment in plantation land and slaves. Although he wavered again in 1843, he continued buying additional slaves when he felt he could afford it. By persisting in the face of difficulties, Polk established a splendid (from his own point of view) source of income for himself and later for his widow, the average annual profit rate of which was virtually 11 percent during the thirteen years from 1845 to 1857. This was much higher than the 6 percent return he received from investing some of his presidential salary into U.S. Treasury certificates.
5 The Nature of the Regime
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Polk was a product of the entrepreneurial, fast-developing society of middle Tennessee. His father, Sam Polk, his father's cousin Colonel William Polk, and James Polk's brother-in-law James Walker were all hard-headed businessmen, who combined land speculation and other business enterprises with the ownership of slave plantations. They managed their plantations with the same keen eye for maximizing the return on their capital investments in land, enslaved labor, and equipment that they employed in their other business enterprises. The slave-labor system of this society was vastly different from the wage-labor system of the North, but in other respects the entrepreneurial ethos and the productive system were so similar that the South's might well be denominated a “semi-capitalist slave society”.
7 Births and Deaths
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The health of Polk's slaves was poor. Child mortality at this plantation, up to the age of fifteen, was at least 51 percent: thus even greater than the norm for other Southern slaves. Of the twenty-one young adult women at the plantation (1835 to 1849), at least one-third died by the age of forty, usually during their twenties. The mortality rate of young adult males — 21 percent — though not so bad as for females, was also grim. The low-lying plantation land may have been unusually unhealthy; and the fact that Polk was an absentee planter meant that he was not regularly present to curb overseers' propensity to push slaves too hard.
8 Family and Community
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Like slaves elsewhere, Polk's bondpeople established as strong family and community lives as was feasible. But the strength of their family institutions was weakened by the prevalence of “abroad” marriages; by the discontent that impelled many married males to flee the plantation; and by the influx of newly purchased slaves, usually cut away from all of their previous family links. Fifteen years after the plantation had been established, the strength of community life also remained attenuated because many of the bondpeople had been only very recently purchased. By 1860, fewer than half of the twenty-one slaves originally deported to the plantation in 1835 were still there: eight had already died, and four more had been sent away, leaving only nine slaves from the original group to carry on a sense of community.
9 Privileges
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
As early as 1844, Polk extended to his plantation slaves the unusual privilege of raising some cotton of their own, by voluntarily working during their free time, especially on Sundays. This put an average of just over $6 into the pocket of each overtime worker. The sums were minuscule compared to Polk's own plantation revenues, but the scheme seems for some time to have allayed the slaves' discontent. For several years before 1848, Polk extended to Blacksmith Harry (his most privileged slave) the extraordinary favor of allowing Harry annually to find his own employer, so that he could live near his wife and children, some thirty miles south of the plantation. Harry's satisfaction with this arrangement led him into remarkable demonstrations of fealty to his master. These grants of privilege, however, did not alter the fundamental inhumanity of the slave system for the great mass of Polk's bondpeople.
10 Polk’s Early Response to the Antislavery Movement
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Although during the 1840s James Polk cultivated the image of a Southern moderate on the slavery question, his early career contradicted this impression. In 1832 he had provoked a furious debate in the U.S. House of Representatives, aimed at discouraging any criticism there of slavery, which foreshadowed later debates over the “gag rule.” In October 1839, as governor of Tennessee, he publicly adopted the Calhounite view that it would be unconstitutional for the federal government to take any antislavery action, even in the District of Columbia or in the federal territories. Both publicly and behind the scenes, Polk promoted the view that disunionism would be an inevitable consequence of the enactment of the (allegedly) abolitionist-tainted slavery policies of the Whig Party. Polk acted from political conviction, but also in accordance with his own economic interest, as he doubled his Mississippi plantation investment during the twelve months before October 1839.
13 Alternatives
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The South's response to the growth of an antislavery movement in the North proved disastrous to Southern white people. James Polk — the most powerful Southern politician in the late 1840s — imposed his will upon Mexicans and upon the Whig Party, but he failed to develop alternatives to the self-destructive tendencies of Southern Democrats. Instead of acknowledging that most Northern antislavery leaders respected the constitutional right of each Southern state to reach its own decisions about the future of slavery, Polk smeared every such leader with the “abolitionist” label. Instead of resolutely opposing Southern disunionism, he declared that disunionism was the natural response to the growth of an antislavery movement. The ultimate triumph of a secessionist policy arguably owed much to the suicidal policies pursued by influential Southern Democrats like James Polk.
Epilogue: Slavery and the Civil War
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The self-destruction of the slave system from 1860 to 1865 cannot be attributed primarily to an eccentric group of South Carolina extremists. The real responsibility for secession was widespread throughout the Deep South and the middle South, and it fell most heavily on Democratic Party leaders such as James Polk and his successors. Their ideology — an expanded version of states' rights, plus unconstrained economic individualism — meshed perfectly with the short-term interests of slavemasters and would-be slavemasters. But Polk and his Southern Democratic colleagues (aided by many of their Northern Democratic allies) did nothing at all to open the eyes of the electorate to the long-term interests of Southern whites. Secession was on the cards from the moment Polk launched his war against Mexico in May 1846. The language of key addresses by President Polk suggested that, when the crunch finally came, nearly the whole Southern Democratic Party would follow South Carolina into secession.
The Presentation of Authorship in Medieval German Literature 1220-1290
Authors: Coxon Sebastian 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book sheds light on the complexity of medieval German literary culture as it evolved in the course of the thirteenth century (c.1220-1290), by analysing the attitudes of narrative poets towards the issue of authorship. It describes the various ways in which vernacular writers could address the theme of their own authorship within their literary works, and explores the tensions that arose between such authorial strategies on the one hand, and their subsequent manuscript transmission on the other. The first part of the book deals with the presentation of authorship in the works of two poets who stand at the heart of literary tradition (Rudolf von Ems; Konrad von Würzburg), and involves discussion of such topics as authorial signature, acrostics, author portraits, and patronage. The second part deals with two genres (heroic epic; short story) that evince a rather more problematic relationship with the figure of the author.
Introduction: The Author In The Text
Authors: Coxon Sebastian 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the purpose of the book, which is to shed further light on authorship in the Middle Ages by examining its ‘presentation’ in German narrative literature between 1220 and 1290; that is to say, the medieval poetic practice of addressing the question of the authorship of a text within the literary work itself. It then reviews the main issues involved in the critical discussion of authorship for the Middle Ages, and presents an exposition of the various ways in which authorship was taken into account in the production of medieval (German) manuscript books. It introduces the phenomenon of the literary presentation of authorship properly, with specific reference to the works of the most distinguished German narrative poets of around 1200: Hartmann von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach, and Gottfried von Strassburg. In the examination of these authors' works the question of the relationship between the presentation of authorship and the appearance of a narrator in the text is of particular importance. Finally, the chapter discusses key socio-cultural developments that occurred in Germany over the course of the 13th century, in order to establish a broader historical framework of reference for the sustained close textual analysis which follows.
The Author Displaced, The Author Restored: The Case Of The Later Heroic Epic
Authors: Coxon Sebastian 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter analyses the later heroic epic. It draws on seventeen works that are widely held to have been composed in the course of the 13th century. Although they vary considerably in metrical form and thematic character, their repeated transmission in collections (so-called ‘Heldenbücher’) underlines their status as representatives of an identifiable genre.
Conclusion: The Medieval Author in the Text
Authors: Coxon Sebastian 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Michel Foucault's analysis of the author as a variable function has led to the re-evaluation of authorship for a number of historical periods. This chapter considers several of the particulars of Foucault's argument and measures the book's own findings against them. The centrepiece of Foucault's essay is his four-point characterization of the author-function in Western literary culture. By exploring the extent to which these points are relevant to German narrative literature of the 13th century (1220-90), it should prove possible to view the workings of medieval authorship from a fresh perspective. The issues that Foucault highlights still represent the best frame of reference for any future objective comparison of data relating to authorship in different times and cultures.
Venice and Venetia under the Habsburgs
Authors: Laven David 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This work deals principally with the fate of Venice and Venetia during the first twenty years of the so-called second Austrian domination. It begins by providing background to the period, by examining the fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797, and its early experiences of foreign domination during the Napoleonic era. It then focuses on the nature of Habsburg rule during the reign of Francis I. Challenging longstanding assumptions about the supposedly repressive and exploitative and nature of Austrian control, it highlights the difficulties faced by the authorities in balancing the needs of Venetia with wider considerations of imperial policy, and in particular the tensions generated by the retention of significant elements of the Napoleonic machinery of government established during the period 1806-1814. The central aim of the book is to move away from the traditional Risorgimento historiography, which focuses on unrest, to explain why Venetia was perhaps the most politically passive area in Europe in the two decades after the collapse of the Napoleonic Empire. The final section of the book examines the developments that took place in the period after Francis I's death in 1835, which permitted the outbreak of revolution in 1848.
The Napoleonic Legacy and the Imposition of Habsburg Rule, 1813–1818
Authors: LAVEN DAVID 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In the aftermath of the Congress of Vienna, the Austrian authorities were faced with a dilemma of how far to retain the relatively efficient, but widely disliked and costly, Napoleonic machinery of government. This chapter describes how Vienna eventually opted for an administrative system that combined elements of Theresian, Josephist, and Napoleonic models, but which slimmed down the role of the state, and paid little or no attention to Venetian traditions. Unfortunately this system would prove extremely ponderous and inflexible, and closed career opportunities for many talented and ambitious men.