bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Revelation, Book of
Authors: Mueller Steven P. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe book of Revelation, also known as the Apocalypse of St. John, has long been a source of controversy and confusion in the Christian church. Its subject matter and compelling themes have also attracted considerable attention and interest. Often improperly identified as “Revelations,” the proper title of the book is singular, as it refers to “The revelation of Jesus Christ …” (v. 1). Revelation 1:1 identifies the author as John who calls himself “your brother.” The traditional view, first found in Justin Martyr (c.140), identifies him with the author of Gospel and Epistles, though some 3rd century church fathers questioned Johannine authorship. While some have maintained that the Greek style varies too much from these other books for it to be the same author, others reply that this may be attributable to the different genres of the books. Eusebius quotes Papias (c.60–130), who appears to make a distinction between the disciple John and an elder John. Some attribute Revelation to this latter John, though the distinction is uncertain. While generally acknowledged as the last of the New Testament books, the date of Revelation is somewhat dependent on its context. It was clearly written in the face of persecution. Two options are possible: the reign of Nero (ad54–68) or the reign of Domitian (ad81–96). Irenaeus and Eusebius claimed that it was Domitian's reign, making this the more dominant view.
R
ichard of
S
aint
V
ictor (
d
. 1173)
Authors: Coulter Dale M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Richard of Saint Victor most likely arrived at the Abbey of Saint Victor sometime during the second half of the 1140s. Although born either in Scotland or northern England, like many other scholars from Britain he made his way to Paris, which was a growing intellectual center stimulated by a large number of schools that began to emerge around the Cathedral of Notre Dame in the 12th century. After arriving at Saint Victor, Richard soon advanced through its ranks beginning with the position of master of the novices (early 1150s) who had entered the Order of Saint Victor. As master, his task was to communicate the basic program of Saint Victor that centered on moral and spiritual formation. He accomplished this task by utilizing passages of scripture in order to develop his own thoughts on the moral and spiritual life. He also composed a comprehensive “text book,” the
Book of Selections
, that offered an overview of the basic information students should learn before proceeding to more advanced levels.
Righteousness
Authors: Allen Michael 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Righteousness refers to covenantal obedience or loyalty as legally depicted in the court of divine judgment. Arising from the Old Testament witness to God's covenantal stipulations placed upon Adam, Abraham, Israel, and David, righteousness described the way to follow the Lord's command (Ps. 1) and thus results in blessing and life (Deut. 30: 11–20). Righteousness also describes God's loyalty to the covenant people and to creation itself. The New Testament brings the concept of righteousness to the fore in two ways: its call for holy living and its testimony to divine justification of sinful humans, leading to great theological debate and ecclesial division.
Rolle
d
e Hampole,
R
ichard (c.1300–1349)
Authors: Condict Ellen 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Richard Rolle was a 14th century English mystic and hermit, notable for the spiritual fervor and devotion of his prolific writing about the soul's love for, journey toward, and ecstatic union with God. His writings were extremely popular, treasured by unlearned laypeople and by those in religious vocations, both for the spiritual renewal he encouraged by his instruction and for the lyricism or accessibility of his language: wanting to reach a wide audience, he wrote in Latin and in English, the first English mystic to write in his native tongue.
R
osenstock‐
H
uessy,
E
ugen (1888–1973)
Authors: Emerick Christopher C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Eugen Rosenstock was born in 1888 in Berlin to a successful banker. Though a Jewish home, Rosenstock's family observed Christian holidays like many other German Jews. Thus, his conversion to Christianity in his teens was less radical than it might have been, but later became paramount in all his academic work. After a rigorous childhood education, Rosenstock received a doctorate in law in 1909. He lectured until World War I, which served to redirect his career. During the crisis of war, Rosenstock embarked on a search for foundational realities that could reunite humanity. He developed his grammatical method, which esteems speech and discourse as the possibilities for human peace and genuine achievement. The first stages of this development were later published as
Angewandte Seelenkunde
. Also during the war, he engaged in a famous exchange concerning the relationship of Judaism to Christianity with Franz Rosenzweig, with whom Rosenstock served in the German army near the western front. The exchange is preserved in the book
Judaism Despite Christianity
.
Sabbath
Authors: Pannell Randall J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Sabbath (Heb.
shabbōth
), according to the Old Testament (OT), is the seventh day in a sevenday week. Within the Mosaic law of the OT (i.e. the fourth commandment, Exod. 20:8–11; Deut. 5:12–15), Sabbath is a permanent day of rest for Israel based upon the Creator's resting from his work on the seventh day. In Genesis 2:1–3, the Decalogue requires that no work shall be done by any creature on the Sabbath.
Sabellianism
Authors: Johnson Keith L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Sabellianism is a trinitarian heresy. It stresses that God, as the one divine subject, stands above or behind three modes of appearance in his relation to the world. The first recorded proponent of this view was Noetus of Smyrna, a monk who preached a form of this doctrine in the 2nd century. The view takes its name, however, from Sabellius, a 3rd century church leader who advocated a sophisticated version of the doctrine. Adherents sought to formulate a trinitarian doctrine that maintained both the oneness of God and the deity of Christ. They worried that the use of the terms “Father” and “Son” to indicate numerically distinct persons inevitably leads to the formulation of two distinct Gods. As an alternative, they insisted that numerical distinctions within the Godhead cannot be made, and that “Father” and “Son” are names that are applied to the one God at different times, as God acts in history. As such, these names designate the modes of appearance by which the one God is revealed successively in the economy of salvation. As the one divine person, God is revealed first as the Father, the creator and lawgiver; second as the Son, the redeemer; and third as the Holy Spirit, the giver of grace. One implication is that, because the Son is a temporal mode of appearance of the one God, the Son's suffering on the cross was the Father's suffering as well. This implication led opponents to call this view “patripassianism.” The emphasis on the strict unity of God led others to call it “monarchianism,” while the idea of temporal modes of appearance has prompted the label “modalism.” A combination of the two labels, “modalist monarchianism,” has also been used.
Sanctification
Authors: Estes Douglas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Sanctification is the process of making holy; the root of the theological concept comes from the verb form of the word “holy” in the original biblical languages. Sanctification encompasses a broad range of ideas from the cleansing of ceremonial instruments (Exod. 30:26–9) to the proper use of a person by God (2 Tim. 2:21). Central to the idea is the drawing out the sacred from the profane, whether in a simple act of consecration or a progressive act of spiritual refinement. It is common to see the concepts of sanctification and holiness defined as “set apart” – the mundane source for the theological concept – but this idea of separation is misleading as it only gives half of the picture. Anything sanctified is set apart by virtue of the fact that it has first moved from the profane to the sacred, and thus it is set apart from the profane, and not the other way around – separation does not in and of itself make anything sanctified (e.g. Heb. 13:12; 1 Cor. 6:11). God is holy (integral, complete), and therefore anything that becomes as God becomes holy (integral, complete), and by virtue of this becomes distinct from the unholy (fragmented, broken) and fallen world. Sanctification is always a divine act of grace.
S
carlatti,
A
lessandro (1660–1725)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Italian composer of oratorios. He served as maestro di cappella in the San Girolamo della Carita at Rome. Later he also served as maestro di cappella at the Oratorio della Vallicella. In 1716 the pope granted him the title of Cavalieri for his services to the church.
S
chaff,
P
hilip (1819–1893)
Authors: Clarkson Craig R. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Philip Schaff (January 1, 1819–October 20, 1893) was an American religious scholar born in Switzerland and educated in Germany. Generally considered a church historian, Schaff's work was wide‐ranging and reflected a strong and abiding dedication to ecumenism.
S
chillebeeckx,
E
dward
C
ornelis
F
lorent
A
lfons (1914–2009)
Authors: Hayes Patrick J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Edward Schillebeeckx was a Fleming and Dominican friar, professor‐theologian, and an advisor to the Dutch episcopate at the Second Vatican Council. Born in Antwerp on November 12, 1914, the sixth of fourteen children in a middle class family, Schillebeeckx was educated by French‐speaking Jesuits at Turnhout, beginning at age 11. His older brother Louis had joined the Society of Jesus and later influenced Edward toward religious life. Schillebeeckx joined the Dominicans in 1934 and professed the following year. He studied in Ghent with Dominicus DePetter, OP (d. 1971), a noted philosopher who openly rejected neo‐Thomism as an overarching system and maintained a willingness to begin philosophy from the perspective of human experience. This was to have a decided effect on Schillebeeckx, whose own theological anthropology is at once deeply historical and pastoral. Schillebeeckx pursued theological studies at Le Saulchoir, the Dominican Studium at Etiolles in France, and the Sorbonne. He taught young Dominicans at Louvain from 1943 to 1957 and was appointed to the chair in dogmatics at the University of Nijmegen the following year, teaching there until his retirement in 1983.
S
chubert,
F
ranz
P
eter (1797–1828)
Authors: Howie Crawford 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A prodigiously gifted composer of both sacred music (several motets and six Mass settings) and secular music (instrumental, orchestral, operatic, and vocal, including more than 600 song settings), Schubert lived most of his short life in Vienna, apart from two brief periods as music tutor to the daughters of Count Esterházy in Zseliz, Hungary and the occasional summer walking tour in Upper Austria and the Salzburg region. After receiving his early musical education from his father, brothers, and the local church organist, he was awarded a choral scholarship at the Hofkapelle, where he was taught by the court organist, Wenzel Ruzicka, and the court music director, Antonio Salieri, and became a student at the attached Imperial Seminary. He left the seminary in 1813 and lived at the family home for about three years, studying successfully at the Imperial Teachers' Training College and then working as one of his father's assistants. During these years, in which he also continued to have regular composition lessons from Salieri, he wrote an enormous amount of music, including three piano sonatas, three string quartets, five symphonies, six operas, four Masses, several motets, a number of part‐songs and about 300 solo songs. At the end of 1816 Schubert made the move to leave home and continue his career in the more central part of Vienna. He continued to compose in all genres, made friends with artists and poets whose verses he set to music, and gradually had some of his works performed and published. But he failed to make the same kind of decisive breakthrough in Vienna achieved by his older contemporary, Beethoven. Schubert stayed in different lodgings in central Vienna until his premature death from typhoid fever in 1828.
S
cofield,
C
yrus
I
ngerson (1843–1921)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The youngest of seven children, Cyrus Ingerson Scofield was born to Elias and Abigail Scofield, in Lenawee County, Michigan, on August 19, 1843, and he died at his Douglaston residence on July 24, 1921. His father was a farmer and lumberer, and his mother died shortly after his birth. The Scofields soon moved to Tennessee. On May 20, 1861, Scofield enlisted in the Tennessee Infantry, claiming to be in his early twenties (it was not an unusual practice for minors to join the Confederacy). He served as a private in the Confederate Army during the Civil War, and was decorated for his valor at the Battle of Antietam (or Sharpsburg) on September 17, 1862. The same year in which he received the Southern Cross of Honor, he requested release from service; he claimed to be an “alien” (i.e. from Michigan) and admitted to falsification of enlistment regulations.
Scribal Practices, EarlyChristian
Authors: Solomon Kenneth R. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractOne of the factors that most distinguishes Christianity from other religions of Greco‐Roman antiquity is the prominent role that literature plays in the religion. Literature is lacking from nearly every Greco‐Roman religious system during the first three centuries of Christianity, yet there is an abundance of Christian writings from the period. This suggests that Christians, unlike their religious counterparts from the surrounding world, took an exceptional interest in literature. The caretakers of this early corpus of texts were the Christian scribes. These scribes transcribed, copied, edited, and assisted in composing nearly every Christian document that has survived from antiquity. In addition to helping shape early Christianity, theses scribes and their distinct practices helped shape civilization by transforming the use and the very form of the book.
Second Century Christianity
Authors: Hartog Paul 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe label “Apostolic Fathers” has traditionally been applied to Christian leaders thought to flourish in the generations immediately following the apostolic age. Key figures among those classified as Apostolic Fathers include the author of1 Clement, Ignatius of Antioch, and Polycarp of Smyrna.1 Clement, possibly written in the 90sce, addresses internal dissension within the Corinthian congregation. Perhaps around 110ce, Ignatius was led as a prisoner from Antioch to Rome. Along the journey (and contemplating his own martyrdom), he was able to compose six letters to various churches and a seventh personal letter to Polycarp of Smyrna. Polycarp's own epistle to the Philippians also survives. It addresses the moral lapse of an avaricious elder, warns of false teaching, and forwards the letters of Ignatius. TheMartyrdom of Polycarpdescribes the arrest and execution of this venerated leader.
S
elina Hastings, Countess of
H
untingdon (1707–1791)
Authors: Yeats John M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon financed and coordinated much of the Evangelical, Calvinist wing of the Wesleyan revivals. Born on August 24, 1707 into the aristocratic Shirley family, she married Theophilus Hastings on June 3, 1728. Hastings, Count of Huntingdon and peer of the realm held significant sway in the court of the newly crowned George II and had carried the Sword of State in his coronation.
Seventh CenturyChristianity
Authors: Casiday Augustine 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe 7th century was characterized above all by two major events: the advent of Islam (which can be seen as a competitor in the areas of geopolitics and religion, from the 620s) and the Monothelite controversy (which for nearly 50 years dominated theological and doctrinal conversations, c.633–682). To focus on those two events is necessarily to limit the frame of reference to events in the Mediterranean world, and so to some extent to neglect the developments within those Christian civilizations beyond the old Roman Empire, such as the institutional reform and revitalization of the church in the Sassanid Persian Empire that took place during the administration of Babai the Great from 611 until his death in 628. But although it is important to be aware that Christian merchants and monks were spreading their faith into central Asia during this period, there is an important sense in which the estrangement of Christian civilizations in Africa and Asia from those in Europe is itself a result of the momentous political and religious transformations of this century. But the effects were felt in Europe, too. Indeed, it has been argued that medieval European Christendom could not have existed at all if not for the development of an Islamic power ringing round the southern and (increasingly in the course of this century) eastern shores of the Mediterranean: without Muhammad (c.570–632), there could have been no Charlemagne (742 or 747/8–814). That thesis has been debated extensively and qualified by subsequent scholars, but it remains the case that the Islamic Caliphate must be considered along with the Christian states that were beginning to proliferate in this period. Within these states, Christian culture took on different flavors. So in addition to political developments, account must also be taken of developments in theology, law, and literature.
Shenute of Atripe
Authors: McGuckin John Anthony 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Also Sinouthi, Shenoute, Shenoudi, or Sinouti. Monastic saint (c.350–466) highly venerated in the Coptic and Ethiopian Orthodox churches. In his lifetime Shenute was one of the leading monks of Upper Egypt, and a powerful force in the monastic evangelization of the country at a time when Christianity was beginning to make its way more powerfully out of the capital (Alexandria) and areas of Lower Egypt (such as the Fayyum) where it had gained the ascendancy earlier, and into the regions of Upper Egypt, where the old religions were still powerful and highly resistant to Christianity. Shenute was an active supporter of Cyril, the powerful Archbishop of Alexandria, and accompanied him to the international Church Council of Ephesus in 431, subsequently moving on to agitate (successfully) for Cyril's vindication at Constantinople in the aftermath of the council, when for a short time Cyril had been placed under house arrest. The (highly legendary) life of Shenute tells how the saint was left in the capital without means of returning home to Egypt, and after prayer a cloud swept down to carry him back to Egypt through the air. These and many other legends about him bear out what a papyrus accidentally found buried at a crossroads in Upper Egypt also testified to, when it earnestly prayed to the gods to “prevent the entrance into the village of that magician Shenute.” His widespread reputation as a thaumaturg was part and parcel of the fact that he also spread fear and trembling among those hostile to the Christian ascendancy, never being averse to using his monks for strong‐arm missionary tactics (deconstructing pagan shrines) where necessary. He is one of the first to have advocated using the name “Jesus” as a repetitive incantation: a prayer for the Christians, doubtless, but something that must have seemed an incantation to contemporary pagans.
S
imons,
M
enno (1496–1561)
Authors: Hill Bracy V. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Parish priest, religious reformer, theologian. Credited with moving the Anabaptism of northern Germany and the Netherlands toward organization and a peace witness, Menno gave leadership after Münster and until his natural death to groups of Dutch Anabaptists which came to bear his name as Mennonites.
S
mith,
J
oseph (1805–1844)
Authors: Lasater Gayle Ann Spiers 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Joseph Smith Jr. was the first “prophet, seer, and revelator” of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter‐Day Saints, commonly known as the Mormon Church. Founded as a separatist new religious movement in 19th century North America, Smith's church is now considered a mainstream Christian faith, with nearly 13 million members worldwide.
S
obrino,
J
on (
b
. 1938)
Authors: García Alberto L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

A Jesuit Catholic priest, professor and author and one of the most significant theologians of liberation, Jon Sobrino was born in Barcelona on December 27, 1938 into a Basque family during the Civil War. He entered the Jesuit Order when he was 18, and in 1957 he migrated to El Salvador. After studying electrical engineering at St. Louis University and receiving his degree in 1965, he pursued graduate theological studies at the Hochsuchle Sankt Georgen in Frankurt, obtaining his Doctor of Theology in 1975. He served as director of the Centro Monseñor Romero and as professor of Theology for over three decades (until 2007) at the Central American University in San Salvador. In March 2007 the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and the Vatican admonished him for his teaching on the divinity and incarnation of Christ. Archbishop Fernando Saenz Lacalle, the primate of San Salvador, prohibited him from teaching theology and lecturing in his archdiocese, which also means that he cannot teach at the Jesuit University that he was instrumental in founding. The archbishop also removed the
nihil obstat
(zeal of approval) from all his writings. The Congregation of the Faith did not, however, prohibited him from teaching, as they had with L. Boff in 1984.
Socinianism
Authors: Gomes Alan W. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The “Socinian” movement originated around the middle of the 16th century among Italian humanists who rejected a number of biblical, orthodox doctrines, including the doctrine of the Trinity and the two natures in Christ. When the Inquisition made residence in Italy unsafe, they fled to Switzerland, where they were influenced by Servetus's criticisms against the doctrine of the Trinity. Included in this group was Laelius Sozzini (Latinized as “Socinus”) (1525–1562), the man from whom Socinianism derived its name. Laelius harbored doubts about the aforementioned doctrines, and also questioned the doctrine of satisfaction, viz., the teaching that Christ's death on the cross satisfied God's wrath against sin.
S
oga,
T
iyo (1829–1871)
Authors: Olabimtan Kehinde 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Tiyo Soga was a South African minister of the Scottish Presbyterian Mission. The son of an influential counselor to the Ngqika chief Sandile, among the Xhosa of Eastern Cape, he was born near Chumie Presbyterian station and had his early education in their school. The emerging colonial dispensation saw young South Africans converging in Xhosa land at this time to take up job opportunities at Port Elizabeth and other private establishments opening in the colony. Some of them used the missions' night schools to improve and position themselves for advantage in the unfolding scheme of events. This was the milieu in which Tiyo Soga was born and nurtured by mission. His leadership potential came to the notice of the missionaries, who enlisted him among the first 11 African students in the multiracial Lovedale Institute when it opened in 1841. When returning home in 1846 for a visit, the first principal of the institute, William Govan, took along the gifted Xhosa boy to continue his education in Scotland. There Soga studied theology, received ordination as the first black minister from South Africa, and married Janet Burnside, a Scot.