bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ionic Liquids
Authors: Stark Annegret , Seddon Kenneth R. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractThis article deals with the literature on ionic liquids, with the focus on nomenclature, preparation, and handling of the second‐generation ionic liquids. In the older (and some current) literature, ionic liquids are sometimes called liquid organic salts, fused salts, molten salts, ionic melts, NAILs (nonaqueous ionic liquids), room‐temperature ionic liquids, OILs (organic ionic liquids) and ionic fluids. Their most prominent feature, namely the potential of tuning their physical properties to suit a particular application, is discussed in detail. In addition, areas in which ionic liquids are already applied, and in which their properties promise favorable application in transition‐metal catalyzed reactions, are reviewed.In recent years, many ionic liquids have emerged as environmentally benign alternatives to volatile organic compounds (VOCs, such as trichloromethane, ethanenitrile and dimethylmethanamide), which cause emissions and effectively damage the ecological balance. The merit of ionic liquids, in this respect, is their negligibly small vapor pressure; therefore they are easily retained in a process. This concept has been realized, especially in preparative chemistry, as shown in many examples in this article: when used as solvents in catalytic processes, separation of the solvent (and the catalyst) from the product is facilitated, and recycling is easily possible.
Particle Technology
Authors: Alissa Park Ah‐Hyung , Zhu Chao , Fan Liang‐Shih 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Particulate systems are involved in numerous industrial processes and are present in various natural phenomena. Particle technology is a term that refers to the field of the science and technology associated with the characterization, formation, processing, and utilization of particles. It is concerned with the systems in which one or more of the components are in the form of particles. Recently, the scope of particle technology has been extended to cover systems containing nanoparticles, aerosols, liquid droplets, emulsions, and bubbles.
Particle technology is an interdisciplinary field. Due to the complexity of particulate systems, particle technology is often treated as art than science. Hence, efforts in synthesizing, measuring, modeling, and developing particle and particulate systems are being pursued actively in both academia and industry. This article describes the fundamental principles governing the key aspects of particle science and technology.
Yeasts, Molecular and Therapeutic Applications
Authors: Macreadie Ian 
Published: April 2010

AbstractRecombinant DNA technology made possible exciting new uses for yeasts as it did for various other organisms. For yeast, however, the opportunities are greater than for any other organism due to many attributes of yeast. Some of these attributes stem from its exceptionally long, safe and impressive track record. Other opportunities stem from its versatility, stability, variety, and the immense knowledge it has contributed to human health. Some of the recent ways in which yeast are being applied include the production of human therapeutics, the production of new and rare chemical entities, the screening for new drugs, and the elucidation of disease processes, including malaria, cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. In addition, if genetically‐modified foods gain greater acceptance we could see a plethora of new forms of the traditional yeast products. An overview of the new molecular and therapeutic applications of yeast are presented in this chapter.
Zeolites and Other Micro‐ and Mesoporous Molecular Sieves
Authors: Čejka Jiří , Kubička David 
Published: April 2010

AbstractZeolites have become indispensable materials for chemical industry being applied as detergents, adsorbents and particularly catalysts. Over the past decades this broad research and application field has experienced rapid development. New zeolite structures were synthesized, fundamental knowledge of micro‐ and mesoporous materials synthesis and characterization was substantially deepened and, consequently, more economical and environmentally acceptable industrial technologies were developped. This chapter summarizes the fundamental as well as practical aspects of zeolite synthesis, the most important properties of zeolites and their implications for practical use together with the main industrial applications. In particular, the attention is focused on zeolite use as adsorbents and catalysts. Zeolite research field was broadened to related materials, including zeotypes, mesoporous molecular sieves, hierarchic systems and metal‐organic‐frameworks. Synthesis, properties, and application potential of these novel and exciting groups of porous molecular sieves are briefly highlighted as well.
Cognition
Authors: Hudkins Robert L. , Marino Michael J. , Williams Michael 
Published: April 2010

AbstractTherapeutic approaches to ameliorating cognitive dysfunction can be viewed as ends of a continuum, from the prophylactic enhancement of cognitive function to the restoration of function and/or arrest of the decline of cognition that occurs in the aging or traumatized brain. Research in the field of cognition is a high priority as the elderly population increases, with a great need to discover and develop drugs to treat age‐related cognitive disorders, including dementias, as well as cognitive impairments associated with neuropsychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia. Aspects of cognitive dysfunction also occur in association with several CNS disorders, including Parkinson's disease, AIDS‐associated dementia, stroke, stress, sleep deprivation, depression, and anxiety, as well as with recreational and prescription drug usage and surgical procedures. Cognition is a complex set of processes, including attention, perception, emotion, learning and memory, action, and problem solving. Drugs currently approved for use in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as AD include the cholinesterase inhibitors donepezil, rivastigmine, and galantamine, and memantine, a partial agonist at glutamate receptors. Since none of these drugs works especially well in treating the symptoms of AD, a variety of new chemical entities are currently being explored to identify new cognitive enhancers. This chapter covers the biological aspects of cognition and memory and the medicinal chemistry approaches to targeting cognitive deficits in disease.
Rubber, Guayule
Authors: Cornish Katrina , Schloman William W. 
Published: April 2010

AbstractGuayule (Parthenium argentatum) is a rubber‐producing woody shrub native to the Chihuahuan Desert of northern Mexico and Texas. Guayule produces linear, high molecular weight natural rubber that can have physical properties and applications equivalent to those of Hevea (Hevea brasiliensis) rubber. Guayule rubber can be extracted as a solid bulk polymer or as a latex. Guayule also is one of very few rubber‐producing plants to have ever been used commercially for rubber production. Although guayule rubber was commercially produced in the early part of the last century, more recent efforts to reinstate production have not led to commercial success because the production costs of bulk rubber were too high to permit direct competition with Hevea rubber. Guayule commercialization has been revitalized in recent years by use of the plant to produce low protein hypoallergenic latex, a higher value rubber raw material.
The Dopamine Receptors
Authors: Civelli Olivier , Borrelli Emiliana 
Published: April 2010

Abstract

Dopamine receptors have a prominent place in our understanding of brain function. Drugs blocking dopamine receptors are used as antipsychotic drugs, drugs activating dopamine receptors as relieving Parkinson disease symptoms. Dopamine receptors have been pharmacologically divided into two classes the receptor that activate and the ones that inhibitory second messenger responses. Molecular cloning approaches have shown that this classification indeed hides not two but five receptors. Of particular importance were the discoveries of two additional inhibitory receptors, because they gave hope for the development of better antipsychotic drugs. But understanding novel receptors discovered on the basis of their sequences presents the challenge to search for their function. Although pharmacological tools are being developed targeting the new dopamine receptors, the engineering of mice lines devoid of these receptors and the studies on the gene expression of these receptors have led our major advances in our renewed understanding of the dopamine system.

Key Concepts:

Application of homology screening approaches has revolutionised the search for novel G protein‐coupled receptors.

Molecular biological approaches can lead to the discovery of pharmacologically unexpected receptors.

The new dopamine receptors raised high hopes for the development of new drugs for psychiatric disorders.

In spite of the fact that the new dopamine receptors have been discovered approximately 20 years ago, their role in the organism remains mostly not understood.

The D
4
dopamine receptors carried out the most hopes for the development of new antipsychotic drugs, it is still viewed as involved in the etiology of attention‐deficit disorders.

There is a need for the development of antagonists specific to the new dopamine receptors.
Bacterial Pili and Fimbriae
Authors: Huang I‐Hsiu , Dwivedi Prabhat , Ton‐That Hung 
Published: April 2010

Abstract

Bacterial proteinaceous filaments termed pili or fimbriae are nonflagellar, hair‐like structures protruding from the cell surface that are critical for bacterial virulence and fitness. Present in both Gram‐negative and Gram‐positive bacteria, pili are involved in many processes such as conjugation, adherence, twitching motility, biofilm formation and immunomodulation. Considerably diverse and complex, Gram‐negative pili are formed by noncovalent polymerisation of various pilin subunits; many of these pili require chaperones and usher proteins for their assembly. In contrast, fewer pilus systems have been described for the Gram‐positive counterparts; notably well studied are the heterotrimeric or ‐dimeric pili that are covalently assembled by a transpeptidase enzyme called
sortase
. Here we review the current knowledge of assembly pathways, structure and function of these pili in Gram‐negative and Gram‐positive pathogens.

Key Concepts:

Noncovalent pilus polymerisation is a general mechanism of pilus assembly in Gram‐negative bacteria, including the chaperon‐usher assembly pathway and type IV pilus pathway, which generates noncovalent pilus polymers.

Sortase‐mediated pilus assembly is a general mechanism of pilus assembly in Gram‐positive bacteria that involves a transpeptidase enzyme named sortase, which cleaves pilin precursors at sorting signals between threonine and glycine and involve the side‐chain amino groups of pilin motif sequences to generate covalent links between pilin subunits.

The sorting signal is consisted of an LPXTG motif followed by a hydrophobic domain and a positively charged tail.

The pilin motif is an 11 amino acid sequence of WxxxVxVYPKN located near the
N
‐terminus of major pilin subunits, in which the electron donating lysine residue forms an isopeptide bond with the threonine residue generated from the cleavage of the LPXTG motif of adjacent pilin subunits.

Tissue tropism is referred to as the ability of a pathogen to adhere specifically to some particular epithelial cells.

Phase variation involves switching of surface antigens such as pili that allows a pathogen to evade the host immune system.

Immunomodulation is a process of changing the host's immune system by certain molecules known as immunomodulators including pili that can activate or suppress immune cells.

Dental plaque is one of the most complex bacterial biofilms that is formed by sequential colonisation of initial colonisers such as
Actinomyces
spp. and oral streptococci and late colonisers; this process involves
Actinomyces
fimbriae.

Twitching motility mediated by pili allows translocation between mucosal surfaces, colonisation of host tissues and establishment of biofilms by a pathogen.
Antigens
Authors: Saha Bhaskar 
Published: April 2010

Abstract

The term ‘antigen’ refers to any molecule that is capable of being recognised by the immune system. Such molecules range from simple chemical compounds to complex macromolecules and are specifically recognised by one or more constituents of the innate and adaptive immune systems. In the innate immune system, the pattern recognition receptors recognise the pathogen‐associated specific molecular patterns. In the adaptive immune system, immunoglobulin and T cell‐receptor recognise either specific conformation on the antigen or the amino acid sequence in the peptide, respectively. Although antigens can be recognised by these receptors, all antigens do not necessarily elicit antigen‐specific immune responses; antigens that elicit an immune response are termed immunogens. The capacity to be recognised by these receptors expressed by the cells of the immune system is called antigenicity, whereas the ability to induce an immune response is immunogenicity. Thus all immunogens are antigens but all antigens are not immunogens.

Key Concepts:

Antigens are those molecules that are specifically recognised by the receptors of the innate and adaptive immune systems.

Immunogens are those molecules that are able to elicit immune responses with negative or positive effects such that immune responses are suppressed or activated, respectively.

Haptens are small molecules that are able to bind antibodies but are unable to evoke an immune response.

All immunogens are antigens but all antigens are not immunogens.

Toll‐like receptors in the innate immune system recognise many patterns on antigens whereas recognition with finer specificity is executed by immunoglobulin and T‐cell receptors, the constituents of the adaptive immune system.

The ability to rearrange the genes of the receptors (B‐ and T‐cell receptor) in the adaptive immune system creates a huge repertoire of antigen‐specificity and memory whereas such a feature is not available with the receptors of the innate immune system.

B‐cell receptors recognise virtually any antigens in a conformation‐dependent manner and do not need any processing of the antigen for its recognition whereas the T‐cell receptor recognition of an antigen depends primarily on the sequence of amino acids in the peptide.

T‐cell receptors recognise primarily peptide antigens in association with major histocompatibility complex molecules that necessitates processing of the antigens before the recognition.
Closteroviridae
Authors: Martelli Giovanni P , Candresse Thierry 
Published: April 2010

Abstract

Closteroviridae
is a family of plant viruses with filamentous, helically constructed particles showing distinct cross‐banding and varying in length from 650 nm (species with fragmented genome) to over 2000 nm (species with monopartite genome). The genome is a single‐stranded, positive‐sense RNA (
ribonucleic acid
), with size varying from 13 000 to nearly 19 000 nucleotides, thus being among the largest known for plant viruses. The family comprises three genera,

Closterovirus

,

Ampelovirus

and

Crinivirus

, which differ in genome type (monopartite, bipartite or tripartite) and size, and in epidemiological behaviour. Closteroviruses are transmitted by aphids; ampeloviruses by pseudococcid mealybugs and soft scale insects and criniviruses by whiteflies. These viruses are mostly phloem‐restricted, are all transmitted with a semipersistent modality regardless of the type of vector and are pathogenic to a wide range of herbaceous and woody crops, to which they may cause extensive damage. Control is based on preventive measures such as sanitary selection, sanitation and induction of resistance, primarily through conventional breeding.

Key concepts:

Closteroviridae
is a growing family of plant viruses with three genera.

All members of the family have filamentous virions with open particle structures and distinct cross‐banding.

Closteroviral genomes are among the largest for plant viruses and are highly diversified also within each genus.

The family represents a monophyletic lineage that has evolved in a modular way.

A characterizing trait of the genera is the type of vectors that mediate transmission from host to host.

Virus particles are primarily restricted to the phloem from where they are acquired by the vectors.

Virus dissemination over long distances is mediated by infected propagative material, rather than vectors.

Most members of the family have a restricted natural host range.

Many cause serious, if not devastating, epidemics to herbaceous and woody crops.

Disease control relies on preventive measures aimed at reducing vector populations and sources of inoculum.

Sanitary selection and sanitation are efficient means for producing certified stocks.
Virus Diseases of Grapevine
Authors: Martelli Giovanni P 
Published: April 2010

AbstractThere are more than 20 recognized virus and virus‐like diseases of grapevines (VitisandMuscadiniaspp.). Many have a clear‐cut detrimental effect on the vines, that is stunting, reduced vigour, malformation of the leaves and twigs, foliar discolourations ranging from reddening to chlorotic or bright yellow mottling, ringspots and line patterns. The productive life of the vineyards can be shortened and the quantity and quality of the crop badly affected. Prevailing disease agents are viruses transmitted by nematodes (nepoviruses and sadwaviruses), pseudococcid mealybugs and soft‐scale insects (closteroviruses and vitiviruses). Infected propagation materials (scions and rootstocks) are the major way for long‐distance dissemination of diseases, several of which have now a worldwide distribution and have entered areas where the grapevine industry is expanding. Control is based on preventive measures such as sanitary selection, sanitation and induction of resistance through conventional breeding or genetic engineering.Key concepts:Virus and virus‐like diseases are a major threat to the world's grapevine industry.The world of grapevine‐infecting viruses is the most variegated among woody crops.Prevailing viruses are soil‐borne and mealybug‐transmitted.Spreading of diseases and their agents is mediated by infected propagative material and vectors.Nursery productions have played, and still do, a major role in disease dissemination.Disease control relies on preventive measures aimed at reducing vector populations and sources of inoculum.Sanitary selection and sanitation are most efficient means for producing certified stocks.
Bacterial Replication Fork: Synthesis of Lagging Strand
Authors: Tanaka Taku , Masai Hisao 
Published: April 2010

AbstractHow can an antiparallel DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) strand be duplicated by aDNA polymerasethat synthesises DNA in only one direction? This paradox of DNA synthesis on the lagging strand was dissolved by discovery of Okazaki fragments. The major components of the bacterial replication fork includereplicative helicase,primaseandDNA polymerase. The loading ofreplicative helicase,DnaB, is the most critical step for assembly of a primosome, a protein complex responsible for duplex unwinding and primer RNA (ribonucleic acid) synthesis at the replication fork.DNA polymerasemay be an asymmetric dimer, each of which may concurrently synthesise leading or lagging strand. Several different modes of primosome assembly have been identified in bacteria. AtoriC(origin of chromosome),DnaA‐dependent primosome is assembled for initiation of a round of DNA replication, whereasPriA‐dependent primosome is assembled at stalled replication forks to facilitate replication restart.Key Concepts:Initiation of DNA replication: DNA replication is initiated by the initiator protein, which specifically recognises and binds to the origin sequence and recruits other primosome components including a DNA helicase.Leading and lagging strands: Leading strand is the one in which the direction of DNA chain elongation and overall fork movement is the same and lagging strand is the one in which they are opposite.Replicative helicase: An enzyme which catalyses continuous unwinding of the parental duplex DNA at the replication fork.Replication fork: The site of DNA replication where two replicating single‐stranded DNA separates.Primer RNA: A short stretch of RNA, the 3′‐terminus of which is utilised by DNA polymerases for DNA elongation.Primosome: A name given to the protein complex capable of duplex DNA unwinding and primer RNA synthesis at the replication fork.Stalled replication fork: A replication fork the movement of which is blocked by internal and external ‘replication stress’ including DNA damages and depletion of nucleotide precursors.Replication restart: The process of reassembly of primosome at a stalled replication fork to resume DNA chain elongation.
Poxviruses
Authors: Pickup David J 
Published: April 2010

Abstract

Poxviruses are brick‐shaped, enveloped viruses, each containing a linear, double‐stranded DNA (
deoxyribonucleic acid
) genome of 130–380 kilobases (kb). Several family members, including

variola

,

monkeypox

,

cowpox

,

vaccinia

,

orf

and

molluscum contagiosum viruses

, cause disease in humans. Smallpox, which was caused by

variola virus

, was once responsible for the deaths of millions each year. In 1796, Jenner showed that inoculation of material from a cowpox lesion could protect against smallpox: Vaccination had been introduced into medicine. Moreover, through the use of

cowpox

and

vaccinia virus

vaccines, the dread disease of smallpox was eradicated from the natural environment. Although

variola virus

, the principal poxvirus pathogen, is no longer a public health hazard, the poxviruses have continued to be the focus of intense study because they provide unique systems for investigation of mechanisms important in molecular biology, viral pathogenicity and immunity. Attenuated poxviruses now provide some of the most promising contemporary platforms for broad‐spectrum, live‐virus vaccines.

Key concepts

Variola virus
, which causes smallpox, is one of the most virulent human pathogens.

Variola virus
is the only virus eradicated from the natural environment.

Jenner showed that infection with cowpox could protect against infection with smallpox.

Cowpox virus
was the original vaccine, hence the name vaccine, from the Latin word
vacca
for cow.

The worldwide eradication of the disease of smallpox was achieved by immunization with vaccines containing live
vaccinia viruses
(viruses similar to, but more attenuated than,
cowpox virus
).

Except for
variola virus
and
molluscum contagiosum virus
(MCV), most of the poxvirus diseases of humans are zoonoses (diseases transmitted to humans from animals).

Among viruses, the poxviruses are unusually independent of host cell functions, employing mainly viral enzymes for viral gene transcription and viral DNA replication in the cytoplasm of infected cells.

Poxviruses do not establish latent infections.

Poxviruses possess many accessory genes that are not required for virus replication
in vitro
, but which are advantageous for virus replication
in vivo
.

Most of the accessory proteins encoded by poxviruses of vertebrates interfere with either innate or adaptive immune responses.