bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Problem for a Polycriterial Theory of Probability
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter describes the problem for a polycriterial theory of probability. Recent philosophical theories about probability have tended to be polycriterial rather than monocriterial. The identification of mathematical structure does not suffice to explain why such-and-such criteria are all criteria of probability. Nor can a family-resemblance theory explain this (or any other) conceptual unity. The chapter also discusses the mathematicist theory. A formal axiomatization of probability is in principle open to non-standard interpretations. It then evaluates family-resemblance theory. The family-resemblance account imposes an all-too-familiar kind of gloss on the data, but cannot be relied on to lead to anything new.
Probability as Gradation of Provability
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the probability as gradation of provability. It is stated that probability is to be viewed as a generalization on the notion of provability. Proof-criteria that are general, necessary, and extensional generate probabilities that are appropriate to games of chance. Proof-criteria that are general, contingent, and extensional produce the probabilities that are appropriate to empirical statistics. In addition, proof-criteria that are general, contingent, and non-extensional generate probabilities that are appropriate to the measurement of causal propensities. Moreover, proof-criteria that are singular and necessary generate probabilities like those of Carnapian confirmation-theory, and proof-criteria that are singular and contingent generate probabilities appropriate to subjectivist, or personalist theory. Finally, probability-statements are evaluations of inferential soundness, and cannot be elucidated as acts of guarded assertion.
The Difficulty about Corroboration and Convergence
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter examines the difficulty about corroboration and convergence. It begins by addressing the common structure of testimonial corroboration and circumstantial convergence. The chapter also considers the traditional, Bernoullian analysis. The elucidation that has been most commonly proposed is at least as old as James Bernoulli's Ars Conjectandi. The chapter describes it in the admirably perspicuous form in which it was expounded by George Boole. In addition, the need to take prior probabilities into account is shown. Moreover, a demonstrably adequate analysis of corroboration and convergence in terms of mathematical probability is presented. It then reports the legal inadmissibility of positive prior probabilities. The method of contraposition is elaborated as well.
The Foundations of Inductive Logic
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter offers a description on the foundations of inductive logic. In order to provide a rational reconstruction for the concept of inductive probability, it is necessary first to provide one for the concept of inductive support. But a theory of inductive support should not aim to axiomatize its author's intuitions. Its primary data are the judgements of reputable scientists, not the intuitive deliverances of philosophers. Questions about the nature of inductive support are not easily answered. The issues are highly controversial and there is not even any general agreement about the premisses on which a resolution of the issues should be founded.
The Grading of Inductive Support
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter starts by exploring a justly famous paradigm of experimental reasoning about animals — Karl von Frisch's work on bees. An analysis of von Frisch's reasoning about bees' colour-discrimination illustrates that support builds up for a hypothesis when it fails to be falsified in more and more complexly structured tests — where complexity of structure depends on the number of relevant variables manipulated in the test. The results of any such test are essentially replicable, which has important consequences for detachment and the treatment of ‘anomalous’ test-results. The series of relevant variables for testing a generalization has to be defined in a way that will ensure that each variable is non-exhaustive, and independent of every other variable, and it is also necessary to ensure a suitable ordering for the series as a whole. There is also a certain tension between the ontological and epistemological points of view in the philosophy of inductive support. In addition, the subsumption of Mill's canons under the method of relevant variables is explained. It then addresses how the method of relevant variables applies to scientific theories. Furthermore, the chapter elaborates Whewell's consilience, and Lakatos' progressive problem-shift, as inductive criteria. Next, it presents the problem of anomalies.
Criteria of Merit for Explanations of Individual Events
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter explores the criteria of merit for explanations of individual events. It first introduces Hempel's theory of explanation for individual events. The covering laws for both proofs and explanations are reviewed. Apart from various forms of incompleteness that do not necessarily invalidate what Hempel calls deductive-nomological explanation, there is also a kind of insufficiency in the statement of explanatory conditions that according to Hempel renders an attempt at such explanation merely programmatic. But this is paradoxical and the paradox can be avoided by recognizing that the adequacy of the explanation varies with its inductive probability. In explaining individual events, it does not need to aim at maximum comprehensiveness in the covering laws invoked, as when uniformities are explained: rather, the more adequate the explanation, the more heavily qualified the covering law is likely to be.
Divine Commands and Deontic Logics
Authors: Quinn Philip L. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Deontic logics are formal systems that capture the logical principles which govern reasoning involving what ought to be. Sometimes, what ought to be is thought of, narrowly, as encompassing no more than the obligatory; other deontic logicians take what ought to be as covering whatever is ideal, good, or valuable. This chapter attempts to discover whether the fundamental conceptions of some of the more intriguing systems of deontic logic are compatible with a divine command conception of what ought to be. It argues that several of these systems of deontic logic can be provided with foundations in a divine conception of what ought to be.
Divine Justice and Divine Mercy
Authors: Quinn Philip L. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the doctrine about the nature of God that allows us to attribute to him some excellences of character which are, according to divine command theories, the analogues of moral virtues that we ought to possess. This chapter attempts to explain divine justice and divine mercy and to state precisely what God would be doing in exercising a divine forgiving disposition. This chapter concludes that there is a perfectly sensible interpretation which can be given to the theistic doctrine that God forgives our sins and that, for this reason, there is no conceptual difficulty involved in saying that God has a forgiving disposition or that he sometimes exercises the virtue of forgiveness, though such exercises are not morally required of him as they are required of us.
Conclusion
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter argues that the relationalist programme can always be made to work, but in some cases only by the invention of a surrogate entity to bear the properties that, prior to the reduction, were alleged to be borne by space or time. This book has been concerned with four basic paradoxes regarding space and time. These four basic paradoxes are specifically presented. There is always a possible reduction of expressions involving ‘space’ and ‘time’. It is clear that because evidence is involved, and because ontological reductions are being offered, the issue is not simply verbal. But that does not mean that it is decidable by a few isolated experiments – whatever their results.
Hegel'S First Philosophy of Nature
Authors: Harris H. S. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter examines Hegel's first philosophy of nature. The direct evidence about Hegel's philosophy of nature in 1801/2 is not quite so sparse and indirect as the evidence about his ‘logic and metaphysics’. The first section examines his concept of ‘true physics’. The dialectical concept of matter as ‘real gravity’, an identity which is a unity, of opposites, and ‘an infinitely opposed identity, a thoroughly relative identity’ is the main physical theme of the Dissertation. The second section explores the solar system in the Dissertation. The last section examines the concepts of mechanism, chemism, and organism.
Original Meanings and Historical Interpretation
Authors: Jardine Nicholas 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter begins by reviewing the question-oriented account of historical understanding of explaining scenes of inquiry, local reality, and interpretation. It follows with an argument of an account that avoids the most blatant forms of hermeneutic circularity, unlike related question-oriented accounts. It then discusses the main topic, the relation between the explication of historical understanding and the craft of historical interpretation. In particular, it examines the validity of two additional criteria of adequacy of interpretation: faithfulness to authorial intention and imputation of consistency. It argues that the theoretical account pointed out in this chapter entails definite stances on these issues, and that these stances are in good accord with common sense and sound historical practice. The chapter concludes with a reflection on the prospects for extension of this account from the history of philosophy and the sciences to the history of writings in general.
The Ontology of Mind
Authors: Steward Helen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis book puts forward a radical critique of the foundations of contemporary philosophy of mind, arguing that it relies too heavily on insecure assumptions about the nature of some of the sorts of mental entities it postulates: the nature of events, processes, and states. The book offers an investigation of these three categories, clarifying the distinction between them, and argues specifically that the assumption that states can be treated as particular, event-like entities has been a huge and serious mistake. The book argues that the category of token state should be rejected, and develops an alternative way of understanding those varieties of causal explanation which have sometimes been thought to require an ontology of token states for their elucidation. The book contends that many current theories of mind are rendered unintelligible once it is seen how these explanations really work. A number of prominent features of contemporary philosophy of mind token identity theories, the functionalists conception of causal role, a common form of argument for eliminative materialism, and the structure of the debate about the efficacy of mental content are impugned by the book's arguments. The book concludes that the modern mind-body problem needs to be substantially rethought.
Events, Particularity, and Properties
Authors: Steward Helen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter considers two theories of events which connect the category of event quite closely to the category of property by utilizing the notion of a property exemplification. Both Jaegwon Kim and Jonathan Bennett have defended views according to which events are exemplifications of properties; and though there are significant differences between the two accounts, both share the thought that events relate to properties not merely by having them, in the ordinary way in which anything which is characterizable in any manner at all can be said to have properties, but in a special way, whereby the event is deemed to be something whose identity is actually tied to some particular property (Kim) or to a collection of properties (Bennett). It is argued that views of this sort result in a conception of events on which they have really ceased to have any status as genuine particulars. Kim's events despite his frequent claim that they are particulars, are better classified as fact-like entities. And Bennett relies illicitly on a particularist conception of events in order to develop his anti-particularist theory of what they are, so that his view ultimately founders in incoherence.
The Network Model of Causation in Philosophy of Mind
Authors: Steward Helen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter describes and attempts to undermine a model or picture of causation which is believed dominates contemporary philosophy of mind (as well as many accounts of the nature of causation in general) and shapes prevailing ideas about the form of some of its most important questions — the network model of causation. The network model informs much contemporary discussion of such matters as the status of folk psychology, the commitments of physicalism, and the efficacy of mental content. It is found lurking amongst the assumptions of philosophers whose positive theories have otherwise little in common; evidence of some commitment to it can be found in the writings of philosophers as diverse in their views on the nature of mind as Fodor and Stich, Davidson and Lewis. But the network model of causation is badly mistaken. It ignores the important differences: that between singular and sentential causal claims, for instance, and relatedly, the differences between particulars and facts, and between causing and causal relevance. It is argued that once these distinctions are properly appreciated, the network model of causation cannot any longer be sustained. But without its help, some of the problems dogging contemporary philosophy of mind cannot so much as be raised, at any rate in their present form.
Minor Western Versions
Authors: METZGER BRUCE M. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the introduction of Christianity into Britain and the translation of the New Testament there. The minor Western versions of the New Testament considered in this chapter are the Anglo-Saxon, certain Old High German, and the Old Saxon versions. The oldest extant New Testament material in Anglo Saxon is in the form of interlinear glosses to a Latin text, one of the most noteworthy is the famous Lindisfarne Gospels. This chapter also lists all the known Anglo-Saxon manuscripts of the Gospels. It also describes the characteristics and textual affinities of the Anglo-Saxon version of the New Testament.
Is There a Centre to the New Testament?
Authors: Reumann John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
‘Jesus Christ’ provides a centre for the twenty-seven books and pamphlets that makes up the New Testament. Loyalty to the Jew, Jesus, whom God has made Lord, is the thread that cane be found running through each and every canonical book. There has been for years a swing back and forth in the study of the Bible between ‘unity’ and ‘variety’. Certain periods have responded more to the pluralism within ‘the Book’ and other eras have asserted its unity. This book stands by itself as a treatment of oneness, while being part of a series where some New Testament books are also treated elsewhere in the depth they deserve. There is another way in which this volume stands between two others in the same series, linking and drawing on both while possessing its own identity.
Jesus of Nazareth as Starting-Point
Authors: Reumann John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
To choose a starting-point amid the pluralism of the New Testament canon is no easy task, whether the approach is ‘historical’ or ‘theological’ or both. In terms of the literary references, Jesus is the chief figure in or behind all New Testament writings, along with God. Jesus was the Lord presented in the gospels, from whom was derived what Paul and John said. But as the pendulum swung and critical scholars questioned how much, even in the synoptics, really was from Jesus, a position at the opposite pole emerged. The topic of Christology with regard to the historical Jesus hovers between the principle that ‘Jesus preached God and not himself’. To oversimplify some much-debated areas, it is suggested that Jesus, who lived a life of service to others and spoke as a prophet of God, did not himself use the title of ‘servant’ or welcome that of ‘messiah’.
The Johannine Line of Development: Revelation
Authors: Reumann John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The Revelation of Jesus Christ is an amalgam of visions, letters, and sequences of catastrophic judgements, which devastate the sinful world, particularly the oppressor ‘Babylon’; all interspersed with precious glimpses of hope, including a thousand-year reign by Christ and then the consummation in the new Jerusalem. Sounds and silence, vivid colours, exquisite song and fateful dirge, mysterious numbers, beast figures, mythic symbols, hints of persecution, gore, famine, death, and tangible details about the promised city of God combine to overwhelm the reader/hearer privileged to share this extravaganza for God's faithful. Not surprisingly, Revelation has had its ups and downs as Christian Scripture. It was clearly alluded to by 2nd-century writers. Furthermore, over the centuries, Revelation has often attracted those apocalyptically inclined and repelled others servant-saints. Having given the book a specific setting in history, critical study also helped demystify Revelation by identifying the genre that this puzzling book embodies.
Post-Qumran Perspectives on Exegesis
Authors: Lim Timothy H. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The scrolls found in the caves near the archaeological site of Khirbet Qumran have often been hailed as the greatest manuscript discovery in Palestine and Israel in the 20th century. The scrolls, when viewed within the context of the Qumran-Essene community, contribute substantially to Bible interpretation of the Second Temple period by portraying a group that searched the scriptures and by providing some of the results of this exegetical endeavour. Unlike the exegetical compositions, the biblical scrolls found at Qumran have not enjoyed the same recognition of relevance for Bible interpretation, even though they too should have fundamentally modified the manner in which exegesis is viewed. The reasons for this neglect are attributable in part to the indirect nature of the evidence and the division of the Qumran scrolls into the categories of ‘biblical’ and ‘non-biblical’.
Wording of the Biblical Text
Authors: Lim Timothy H. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Attention to the wording of the biblical text is a feature of ancient exegesis that does not admit facile summary. On one level, it is literalism and no more. However, stopping there would ignore the complexities with which the ancient exegete worked and the dynamics that underlie the tension between preservation and renewal of biblical tradition. The self-perception of the ancient exegetes and translators determines the role which they play in making the past relevant for the present. Tendency to literalism, whether in exegesis or translation, downplays the intrusive role of the ancient interpreter and discloses a high regard for the sanctity of the words of the biblical texts. The scribal practices too, especially in the phenomena of preparing, copying, and then correcting their texts, can similarly be characterized by the principles that underlie exegetical and translational activity.
Introduction
Authors: HARRISON CAROL 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter introduces the fall of man, using the metaphor from George Herbert's The Elixir of when one is looking into a mirror. Augustine makes this distinction: St Paul's looking into a mirror is an act of discernment, an attempt to make out the shapes and forms in the mirror and grasp what they signify. This looking through cloudiness and obscurity to make out shapes and forms is, for Augustine, a powerful metaphor of human life following the Fall. The vision of Divine Beauty, which man has lost, can also be grasped in the mirror of created reality, albeit obscured by a veil of temporality and corporeity. This is most especially the case with the revelation of divine beauty within that realm, which serves to reform deformed or ugly man by inspiring his faith, hope, and love, not simply to look at it, but in and through it.
Incarnation
Authors: HARRISON CAROL 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter examines the doctrine of incarnation, describing the crucified Christ, deformed in order to reform or make beautiful deformed or ugly man. It is Christ, in the union of his divinity and humanity, who defines and gives meaning to Augustine's ideas on beauty. His centrality cannot be overstated, nor can it be adequately expounded and illustrated. It stands at the hub of Augustine's thought and firmly holds together the diverse spokes of ideas leading off in different directions, forming them into a working and harmonious whole. By becoming man, Christ, who is divine truth, goodness, and beauty, enables man to perceive and to grasp these otherwise abstract ideas and principles, and leads him to their true centre and meaning in Himself, as God and as Trinity.
Conclusion
Authors: HARRISON CAROL 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
On the one hand, the alliance of beauty and matter can be seen in a negative way: matter is subject to the mind; beauty in matter can be taken as an ultimate in itself, and can cause man to sin. On the other hand, the fact that matter can incarnate and, so to speak, mediate ultimate beauty, makes their alliance a very positive thing. Both approaches are present in St Augustine's thought, and are held together in a somewhat paradoxical and problematic way. The first, negative approach to matter and beauty predominated in his early theory and is never totally lost in his later thought. The second, more positive approach, though present in the early works, becomes increasingly important as his theology, especially his theology of the Fall, develops. This work has focused on Augustine's theological analysis of the beautiful in the context of his exposition of Christian doctrine.
From the Pre-Socratics to Plato and His School
Authors: SCOTT ALAN 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter looks at the divinity of heavenly bodies from the pre-Socratics up to the time of Plato and his school. A formal cult of the stars was almost unknown in ancient Greece. Aristophanes, Plato, and Aristotle regarded their worship as either an archaic or foreign practice. The most powerful voice urging the Greeks to worship the stars in the 4th century was not that of popular religion but of a philosopher and astronomer. The author of the Epinomis was so skillful in attaching this treatise to Plato's Laws that he not only convinced many modern scholars that his work was genuine, but led others to consider the Epinomis as the nearest equivalent to a Platonic work, increasing the importance of the astral soul and astral religion in Hellenistic philosophy.
Aristotle
Authors: SCOTT ALAN 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter examines Aristotle's view of the nature and religious function of the stars. In the De Caelo, he believes that a series of concentric spheres are responsible for heavenly movement. Aristotle believed that each one was a body and referred to this substance as ‘the first body’, ‘the first element’, or ‘ether’. Another explanation that he offered was the theory of existence of a mover outside of the heavens. During the later era, Aristotle was an important source of the understanding of the astral soul, of ether, and of a religion of the cosmos. The discussion notes that it was the way in which he was misunderstood which caused his most important contribution to the way that the astral soul was discussed by the age of Philo and Origen.