bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Another Visual Representation, the Cat Clare-Bishop Area
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a paper entitled “Visual Area of the Lateral Suprasylvian Gyrus (Clare-Bishop Area) of the Cat”. On anatomical and physiological grounds, a zone of cat cortex deep in the medial bank of the suprasylvian sulcus (the Cat Clare-Bishop area) was known to receive strong visual projections from the lateral geniculate body and area 17. This study mapped receptive fields of single cells in this area in eight cats.
Encoding of Binocular Depth in a Cortical Area in the Monkey
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter presents a paper entitled “Cells Sensitive to Binocular Depth in Area 18 of the Macaque Monkey Cortex”. Possible differences between binocular depth cells in the cat area 17 and monkey area 18 were the failure of most depth cells in the monkey to respond to stimulation of either eye, and the linking, in the monkey, of vertical disparity to receive field orientation. Area 18 in the monkey seemed to have at least two independent functions, linking the two visual half fields across the vertical midline, and the elaboration of stereoscopic depth mechanisms.
Anatomy of the Geniculo-Cortical Pathway: The Nauta Method
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a paper entitled “Laminar and Columnar Distribution of Geniculo—Cortical Fibers in the Macaque Monkey”. This paper demonstrated the ocular dominance columns anatomically. Small lesions were made in single layers or pairs of layers in the lateral geniculate body, and the striate cortex was later examined with a Fink—Heimer modification of the Nauta method. It shows that the long narrow stripes of alternating left-eye and right-eye input to layer IV were an anatomical counterpart of the physiologically observed ocular dominance columns. Because of this segregation of inputs, cells of layer IV were almost invariably influenced by one eye only. A cell above or below layer IV would be dominated by the eye supplying the nearest IVth layer stripe but would generally receive a subsidiary input from the other eye by diagonal connections from the nearest stripes supplied by that eye.
The Roman Law of Trusts
Authors: Johnston David 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Few legal institutions developed solely under the Roman Empire, but there is one which can provide a rare illustration of the emperors' involvement in building private law: although Roman law did not recognize a ‘trust’ in the same sense as it is used in common law today, it did develop a device — the fideicommissum — which achieved very similar ends. It has remained largely ignored, and yet it is an ideal case study in the evolution of law. As the most versatile institution of Roman inheritance law, it crucially affected the strategies of succession open to testators, and gives insights into a social history of testators' ambitions and legislative concerns. Over six centuries the trust expanded at the expense of established legal institutions, and with Justinian's reforms it finally became dominant. This book studies the history of the trust and its rise to prominence, with reference to the possible influence of the Roman ‘fideicommissum’.
Of Action and Execution: Procedure
Authors: JOHNSTON DAVID 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Trusts were not actionable during the advent of the Republic. Contrary to traditional methods wherein jurisdictions were established within the civil courts' existing structure or within the formulary system, Augustus entrusted this jurisdiction not to the magistrates but instead to the consuls. Once these were already deemed actionable, trusts became subject to common use which led to certain modifications in the jurisdictional scheme that was said to be introduced by Claudius. Such however does not signify the end of the consular jurisdiction since some sources reveal the coexistence of two different jurisdictions during this period. Whether such actions involved how consuls had to deal with cases or how these cases were brought before one of the praetors fideicommissarii, these were perceived to be under a system other than the formulary system. This chapter studies how trusts could have been subject not only to the classical formulary ordo but also to a legal system of procedure. The chapter also examines the procedural consequences attributed to the trusts' legal system.
From Morals to Obligations: Evolution
Authors: JOHNSTON DAVID 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
As trusts allowed persons other than heirs to be charged with benefits, this entailed several complex implications since it enabled trusts to be established in intestacy. Because trusts were not restricted to following a set form, they expanded and veered away from principles of civil law. Lastly, trusts were actionable only under cognitio — a specific procedural system. All in all, despite the fact that the classical law of trusts was at a disadvantage in terms of capacity, trusts still had advantages because they were not subject to much restriction. This concluding chapter first attempts to identify and examine the differences that are revealed in studying both legacies and trusts. After this, it considers how, in terms of classical law, legacy and trust may have some similar features, and how we may be able to synthesize the attributes of both.
Procedural Fairness in the English Common Law
Authors: Galligan D. J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractNotions of due process and procedural fairness have a long and interesting history in the English common law. Some are able to trace an unbroken line through the passages of English history to Magna Carta itself, although whether such claims are valid is a matter of debate. This chapter provides a historical background both to the procedural nature of English law and to the special place of procedural fairness. It also outlines the special problems that have been confronted in translating ideas of procedural fairness into administrative contexts.
The Legal Approach to Procedural Fairness
Authors: Galligan D. J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter describes and analyses the general judicial approach to procedural fairness. It examines a number of issues: the tests developed by English law as to who is entitled to fair procedures; the extent to which abstract principles are translated into more detailed procedural rules; and the general judicial approach to exactly what procedural fairness requires and how those requirements are reconciled by the courts with competing considerations, especially costs.
The Hearing Principle
Authors: Galligan D. J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThe idea that a person ought to be heard before a decision is made or action taken affecting his or her interests is often thought to be the most fundamental element of procedural fairness. This chapter primarily considers the hearing in various administrative contexts and examines briefly the elements of a hearing and other parts of the process, such as notice and disclosure, which are closely linked to it. It then goes on to consider the hearing principle and doctrine relating to it in different administrative contexts.
From Air Law to Space Law
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter examines what has so far been achieved in air law, and the possibility of extending to outer space principles and standards that have already gained wide acceptance in the sphere of aerial navigation. In particular, attention will be focused on four basic principles underlying the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation, 1944, to which in 1960, seventy-seven States were parties. These four principles are airspace sovereignty; nationality of aircraft; certain conditions to be fulfilled by aircraft engaged in international aerial navigation, their crews and passengers; and international co-operation and faci1itation.
International Co-operation and Control: from Atoms to Space
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter considers the main forms of international co-operation which have so far been established in the nuclear field and the principal safeguards which have been incorporated in them. It argues that the experience of international co-operation and control in both the military and peaceful uses of nuclear energy can provide valuable lessons in the regulation of the future exploration and exploitation of outer space, where the problems of dual use are likely to be equally complex. The systems of inspection administered by international agencies in the field of nuclear energy, as found in the Statute of IAEA and in the ENEA Security Treaty, if allowed to operate, will provide helpful precedents not only for similar schemes of international cooperation and control in the peaceful uses of outer space but also for any effective plan of general disarmament without which there is no real hope in the effective demilitarization of either nuclear energy or outer space.
The Extraterrestrial Application of International Law
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter, through a re-examination and a reclassification of the concept of State jurisdiction, demonstrates that international law and international treaties, such as the United Nations Charter, are in principle applicable to outer space from the very beginning and do not need to be specifically extended to it. Inasmuch as outer space and celestial bodies are of concern to all States, whether having space capabilities or not, it would seem to be in the interest of every State to seek the early conclusion of a general treaty on the boundary between national space and outer space, and another on non-appropriation of celestial bodies, even though ultimate success must depend on their being acceptable to, and accepted by, the majority of space powers and both superpowers.
The United Nations and Outer Space
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter provides from the legal point of view a general survey of the work of the United Nations in the space field, as well as an examination of certain related and very specific issues and disputes which the United Nations was dealing with at the time. Among these were the problem of the allocation and control of radio frequencies, the legality of the use of reconnaissance satellites, which was related to the question of the definition and delimitation of outer space, and the military use of outer space. The dispute in and outside the United Nations between the Soviet Union and the United States over two aerial incidents which occurred in 1960 provided the basis for a clear and fundamental distinction being drawn between the legality of peripheral and penetrative reconnaissance in international law. This distinction is crucial in determining the legality of reconnaissance by means of satellites, provided of course that it is possible to define the boundary between national airspace and outer space.
The United Nations and the Development of International Law Relating to Outer Space
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter discusses the work of the United Nations in the development of international space law. It covers resolutions, treaties, and conventions; procedure, the legal status of general assembly resolutions and the nature of general international law, and conditions governing international rule-making. These are worthy of attention, first, because of the intrinsic importance of this new branch of international law. Secondly, since the United Nations is likely to remain the main forum for the future development of general international space law, an understanding of the process whereby its work has been carried out will be of help in shaping its future approach to the subject. Lastly, a study of the subject may provide useful insights into the nature of general international law and the process of its formation; for in the development of space law in the United Nations one witnesses in effect, in almost laboratory conditions, the birth and growth of an entirely new branch of international law. UN resolutions, treaties, and conventions; and UN procedure, the legal status of general assembly resolutions and the nature of general international law, and conditions governing international rule-making are discussed.
The 1967 Space Treaty
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter details the events leading up to the ratification of the 1967 Space Treaty. The Space Treaty was born from the need to determine the legal status of celestial bodies before man’s landing on the moon, and based on a tacit agreement on the part of the super powers to forgo territorial claims and military activities on all celestial bodies. In converting into legally binding rules non-binding norms contained in successive General Assembly resolutions on the legal regime of outer space and celestial bodies and on international co-operation in their exploration and use, the treaty now provides a proper legal framework for future activities of States in this New World of the space age.
Nationality for Spacecraft?
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter suggests that nationality be conferred on space objects, as in the case of ships and aircraft, in order to remove some of the present anomalies. Nationality would denote that the national State enjoys quasi-territorial jurisdiction, including quasi-territorial jurisaction, over any space object bearing its nationality, including all persons and things on board or constructively on board. This quasi-territorial jurisaction would override all concurrent personal jurisactions of the national States of any foreigners who may be on board, but would give way to the territorial jurisaction of any State in which the space object may land intentionally or by accident. Such nationality may depend on registration, as is the case with aircraft, or on a combination of either registration or ownership, as is the case with ships.
International Responsibility and Liability for Launch Activities
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
It was only in 1957 that Sputnik I succeeded in being the first object launched from this planet to reach outer space. Yet today the launching of objects into space, although not quite yet, promises soon to be almost a daily occurrence. Responsibility and liability for launch activities consequently deserve close attention. In examining the problem of international responsibility and liability for launch activities, it is necessary to clarify the meaning of these different terms used, namely, international responsibility, international liability, and launch activities.
The Contribution of Air and Space Law to the Development of International Law
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter, among other things, sets out certain lessons that can be learned from the observation of the birth and growth of air and space law in the 20th century — lessons which may well assist us in our understanding of the nature, and the conditions for the future development, of the international legal system as a whole. Topics discussed include the sources of international law, the role of the dominant section in the making of rules of general international law, and conditions governing international rule-making.
Standing and Admissibility
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The Claims Settlement Declaration makes no reference either to the ‘standing’ of claimants to present and pursue their claims or to the ‘admissibility’ or ‘non-admissibility’ of claims. Nevertheless, the concepts of standing and admissibility were reflected in a few Awards. In general, the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal ruled that a claimant – or counterclaimant – lacked the standing to present or recover on a claim only when the evidence indicated that the claimant did not ‘own’ the claim, in the sense that any proceeds of the claim rightfully belonged to someone else. With respect to admissibility, the Tribunal’s very few holdings indicate that it considered claims based on penal, tax, or social security laws non-admissible, as well as claims too vague to state a cognizable claim or cause of action.
Interim Measures of Relief
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The Algiers Declarations make no direct reference to interim measures that the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal might order, but Article 3, Paragraph 2 of the Claims Settlement Declaration makes an indirect reference by providing that the Tribunal ‘shall conduct its business in accordance with the arbitration rules of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) except to the extent modified by the parties or by the Tribunal to ensure that this agreement can be carried out’. The relevant provision of the UNCITRAL Rules – which is unchanged in the Tribunal Rules – is Article 26. When the Tribunal first addressed a request for interim measures of protection, it based the measures it ordered, not on Article 26, but on its ‘inherent powers’. The Tribunal did not refer to Article 26 in requesting Iran to stay proceedings against E-Systems in an Iranian court that involved the same contract and many of the same issues as E-System’s claims before the Tribunal.
Contractual Issues
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Claims arising out of contractual relationships constituted a substantial part of the total claims presented to the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal. Included were contracts between agencies of the two governments, contracts between private persons and a government agency, and contracts between private persons where one government became liable for the debts of one of the parties by virtue of the Algiers Declarations and the exercise by that government of control over that party. The great variety of contracts, parties, and circumstances gave the Tribunal the opportunity to address many contractual issues. The effects of the Iranian Revolution on contractual relationships ensured that the Tribunal would deal extensively with the concepts of force majeure and the termination of contracts because of frustration or impossibility of performance.
Procedural Issues
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The Claims Settlement Declaration provided in Article one for efforts to settle claims covered by Article two during a six-month period, following which claims could be submitted to the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal. The resulting deadline was January 19, 1982. Despite the publicity given to that deadline, a number of claims were received by the Tribunal after January 19, 1982. The Tribunal’s Registrar refused to file those claims. Some claims which had been timely filed were also refused by the Registrar for various failures to comply with other requirements of the Declaration or the Tribunal Rules. All those whose claims were refused were notified by the Registrar that the refusals could be appealed to the Tribunal, and many appeals were filed. Each appeal resulted in a Decision by the Tribunal with respect to the correctness of the refusal. While a few refusals were reversed on appeal, most were upheld.
Miscellaneous Issues
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter reviews the Decisions by the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal on certain issues. One result of the Iranian Revolution was the abrupt and massive departure from Iran of foreign nationals, including Americans. The concept of liability for wrongful expulsion was first referred to in dicta in International Technical Products Corp., et al. v. The Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, et al. The Tribunal noted that the claimants conceded that they had decided to leave Iran in December 1978 because of the conditions then prevailing, and the Tribunal concluded that it could decide the claims and counterclaims without deciding whether they were expelled from Iran. The first expulsion Award by the Tribunal was Alfred L. W. Short v. The Islamic Republic of Iran, and it held that the claimant had failed to prove that his departure was attributable to wrongful conduct by Iran.
Structure and Function in Criminal Law
Authors: Robinson Paul H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This book provides a new critique of the often neglected problem of classification within the criminal law. The author presents a discussion of the present conceptual framework of the law, and offers explanations of how and why formal structures do not match the operation of law in practice. In this scholarly exposition of applied criminal theory, the author argues that the current operational structure of the criminal law fails to take account of its different functions. He goes on to suggest new sample codes of criminal conduct and criminal adjudication which mark a real departure from the pragmatic approach which presently dominates code-making. This rounded exploration of the structure of systems of criminal law is an important work for law teachers and policy makers world-wide.
Drafting a Code of Conduct
Authors: Robinson Paul H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter describes the strategies for drafting an effective code of conduct. Specifically discussed are the five drafting principles. Eliminating the liability and grading language from the provision leaves a fairly readable and understandable rule. Many offences in current codes prohibit conduct identical to that prohibited by other offences; the offences are defined separately only for grading purposes. The use of simple and plain language can enhance a code's communicative potential. A code of conduct inspires greater compliance if, in the public's view, it describes conduct that the public sees as wrongful. In other words, the code's credibility as an accurate statement of what is wrongful conduct enhances its effectiveness; its lack of credibility can undercut compliance.
Sources of the Constitution
Authors: Bell John 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter introduces the various sources of the Constitution and how they relate to each other. It is specifically about the ‘formal sources’ (to use the French term) of the Constitution, in the sense of the authoritative standards by reference to which constitutional norms are identified. Necessarily, this also leads to a discussion of the ‘material sources’ of the Constitution, namely, the particular texts from which constitutional norms are quarried. It is not directly concerned with the sources for the political legitimacy of these constitutional norms — why they have come to be treated as authoritative — but such issues will arise tangentially from time to time. The 1958 Constitution is fairly full and complete in its provisions establishing the organs of government and their powers. Remaining rules are found in organic laws and parliamentary standing orders. Moreover, the decisions of the Conseil constitutionnel will provide a concrete source to which most French lawyers will turn. They do not constitute a formal source of the Constitution in the way that some English court decisions do.
Law in the Crisis of Empire 379-455 AD
Authors: Honoré Tony 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis book is a work of reference, which also features an essay on the analysis of style, a contribution to the prosopography of the late Roman quaestorship and a reflection on the fall of the Western and the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire. The author examines the laws of a crucial period of the late Roman Empire (379–455 AD), a time when the West collapsed while the East survived. Wherever possible, the author assigns each law to the likely imperial quaestor who drafted it. This approach yields a list of office holders (Fasti), in which each quaestor is associated with the laws he drafted. The author shows why the Eastern Theodosian Code (429–438 AD), intended to restore the legal and administrative unity of the Roman Empire, came too late to save the West. The Palingenesia on an accompanying disk will enable scholars to read the texts chronologically and to judge the soundness of the arguments advanced.