bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
S
orsky,
N
il (
d
. 1508)
Authors: Paffhausen Archimandrite Jonah 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The dates and circumstances of Nil of Sora are unknown, probably lost in the chaos of the Russian 16th century. However, it is known that he was well educated, and probably of noble origins. He entered the Kirillo‐Belozersky Monastery, several hundred miles northeast of Moscow, at an early age. He later traveled to Mt. Athos where he lived as a monk, imbibing the spirit of the hesychast revival. He copied, translated, and studied the spiritual writings of the great Byzantine saints, and brought back their style of life to Russia: small sketes, which consisted of a few monastic cells around a church. He refused any kind of external wealth, even adopting wooden vessels for the church, and rejected rich decoration for the temple.
Spiritual Formation
Authors: Crabtree Mara Lief 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe term spiritual refers to the nature of the human spirit; the inward and unseen spirit that is part of the human person; the moral or religious nature that seeks to relate to God. Formation refers to God's loving, ongoing actions in forming an individual or faith community, to be and to become disciples of Jesus Christ. The process of formation includes an individual's growth in faith, becoming knowledgeable of and conformed to God's will, and ultimately transformed to Christ‐likeness by “renewal of the mind” (Rom. 12:2), as evidenced in loving and glorifying God, and through serving God and others.
J
ohn,
S
aint
Authors: Senior Donald 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The earliest reference to John is found in Paul's Letter to the Galatians where, along with James and Cephas, he is called one of the “acknowledged pillars” of the Jerusalem church who endorse Paul's and Barnabas' mission to the Gentiles (Gal. 2:9–10). The Synoptic Gospels, particularly Mark and Matthew, identify John as the “son of Zebedee” and the brother of James (Mark 1:19–20). Both brothers receive the nickname “Boanerges,” or “Sons of thunder” (Mark 3:17), which perhaps refers to their impulsive character, indicated in John's impatience with an “unauthorized” exorcist (Mark 9:38; Luke 9:49) or his suggestion to Jesus that the disciples command fire to come down and consume the inhospitable Samaritans (Luke 9:54–55). John seems to be one of Jesus' closest followers. John is among the first called by Jesus by the Sea of Galilee where he is identified as a fisherman working with his father Zebedee and some hired hands (Mark 1:19–20; Matt. 4:21–22); he is also listed among the “Twelve” (Matt. 10:2). He witnesses the healing of Simon's mother‐in‐law in Capernaum (Mark 1:29) and the raising of Jairus' daughter from the dead (Mark 5:37; Luke 8:51). Jesus invites John, along with Peter and James, to accompany him at the transfiguration (Mark 9:2; Matt. 17:1; Luke 9:28) and during Jesus' anguished prayer in Gethsemane (Mark 14:33; Matt. 26:37). In Luke's account Jesus directs Peter and John to prepare his final Passover (Luke 22:8). In concert with Peter, James, and Andrew, John questions Jesus about the time of the parousia (Mark 13:3). In a less favorable light, along with his brother James, he seeks a position of power in Jesus' coming kingdom, earning his Master's rebuke and the anger of his fellow disciples (see Mark 10:35–45). The brothers are promised by Jesus that they would “drink the cup that [Jesus] would drink” (Mark 10:39).
Stave Church
Authors: Whytock Jack C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A timber‐framed and walled church construction as practiced in northwestern Europe from the 11th century using vertical planks (staves) is known as a stave church. Stave churches developed from early medieval churches or chapels, which were built out of wood with earth‐bound post construction. Humidity led to rot, thus earth‐bound post construction had certain disadvantages. This led to the next stage for wooden church construction in which the posts were set on stones, and staves or planks were incorporated vertically, rather than using horizontally placed logs. Technically speaking, this development was the stave church. A further development was to set the posts on a raised sill, thereby creating a freestanding structure. This stage also incorporated a more elaborate, internal post system (often referred to as masts) with internal rows of posts and cross‐bracing beams stabilizing the structure. Thus, according to archaeologists, there were different techniques used in building stave churches following the earlier post churches from which they were a descendent. Examples still in existence today, or reproductions, include sill beams and corner posts on stone.
S
tott,
J
ohn
R
.
W
. (1921–2011)
Authors: Bain‐Conkin Jeffrey L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born in London in 1921, John Stott later trained at Cambridge for ministry in the Church of England. For decades he served All Souls' Church, Langham Place, in London as curate, Rector, and Rector Emeritus. This commitment to the local parish and practical ministry continued as a major theme throughout his broader ministry to global evangelical Christianity.
Subordinationism
Authors: Johnson Keith L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Subordinationism is a trinitarian doctrine that regards the Son and the Holy Spirit as sub‐ordinate to the Father with respect to the Father's deity. Some early Christian theologians, including Tertullian and Origen, held that the Son was subordinate to the Father because they emphasized the monarchy of the Father in the Godhead. These theologians set the stage for the important debates about subordinationism that took place in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Subordinationists argued that a fully divine Son would imperil the monarchy of the Father, and they believed that any distribution of the divine substance to more than one person would indicate that God is both divisible and subject to change. As a result, they held that any person other than the Father must be created by the Father and subordinate to him. They thus argued that the Son was begotten by the Father as the firstborn of creation before time, that the Son is thus subordinate to the Father in every respect, and that the Father is the only person of the Trinity who is God in the fullest sense. This view was rejected as heresy at the Council of Nicaea in 325, which declared that the Son is not a creature but is eternally begotten from the Father. As such, the Son is as fully divine as the Father and worthy of the same worship the Father receives. The debate over these questions continued in the decades that followed, with Arius and other Subordinationists ranged against Athanasius and other defenders of the Nicene formula. A similar debate occurred regarding the Holy Spirit, and it culminated with the Council of Constantinople in 381. Following the pattern of Nicaea, this council condemned the subordination of the Spirit as heresy and argued that the Spirit is equal in dignity and worthy of the same worship as the Father and the Son.
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Authors: Hartch Todd 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) and its sister organization, the Wycliffe Bible Translators (WBT), have translated the New Testament into more than 700 languages. Under the leadership of Cameron Townsend, an American with missionary experience in Guatemala, the Wycliffe group, as it was called at first, began its work in Mexico in 1933, at a time of great religious upheaval. The secular nationalist government, heirs of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) and enforcers of a new constitution that put onerous restrictions on religious activity, had no desire for missionary activity in Mexico. Townsend therefore presented himself as a “scientific investigator” interested in the plight of Mexican Indians and decided to limit his ministry to translating the Bible into indigenous languages. He and his recruits would not preach or start churches but they would serve Indian communities in practical ways, such as providing medicine and building community gardens, while they studied the language and then translated the Bible.
S
unday,
B
illy
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
William Ashley Sunday, the well‐known traveling evangelist, was born on November 19, 1862, in a log house just south of Ames, Iowa. His father never saw him, for before his son's birth he had joined the Union Army and never came home, having died of an infection. Initially, “Billy,” as he was known, and his two brothers attended a one‐room school near their home, but given the family's poverty, he and his two brothers were soon taken to an orphanage, where he received a relatively good education.
Symeon the New Theologian (949–1022)
Authors: Vlavianos Sotirios 
Published: January 2012

AbstractSymeon was a monk, recognized as a saint after his death. He was born in 949 in Galatia of Paphlagonia and died in 1022 near Constantinople. He is known as “the New Theologian.” In manuscripts he is also mentioned as “the new,” “the theologian,” “the new and theologian.” He came from a noble family and was educated in Constantinople. He was groomed for a life in politics, but when he was 27 years old, he was accepted as a novice in the Monastery of Stoudio under the guidance of Symeon the Pious (the Eulabes). Later he moved to the Monastery of Saint Mamas where he was tonsured a monk, ordained a priest, and elected as the abbot. Around 996–998 he faced a serious rebellion at his monastery and he was obliged by the ecclesiastical authorities to abandon it. He was exiled to a small town called Paloukiton, near Chrysoupolis, where he founded the Monastery of Saint Marina. A few years later Patriarch Sergios recalled him to Constantinople and offered him a bishop's see. Symeon refused and continued living as a spiritual guide of the faithful and a writer until his death. His disciple Nicetas Stethatos wrote a biography 30 years after Symeon's death, which is the main source of information about his life and teaching. Nicetas also preserved most of Symeon's writings.
Synergism
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThis is a theological term derived from two Greek words:syn(with) andergoi(works), that is, “to work with” God in terms of one's conversion to Christianity. Thus, synergism teaches that human beings are not totally dead spiritually before they convert in becoming Christians, and so they are capable of working with God, the Holy Spirit, to become Christians. They argue that the Bible words, “Repent and believe the Gospel” (Mark 1:15), imply that human beings cooperate in their conversion. They also contend that if human beings are entirely passive in the conversion process, then the conversion is mechanical.
S
yriac
Authors: Pannell Randall J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Syriac (sir'ē‐ă
k
), along with biblical Aramaic, is one of the chief dialects of Old Aramaic. Syriac is “the most richly developed [Aramaic] literature” (Bergsträsser 1983: 76). As the term
Aramaic
came to be associated with “paganism” and “heathenism,” the early Church of Syria and Mesopotamia applied the Greek name
Syriac
to its Aramaic dialect.
Syriac Versions of the Bible
Authors: Amar Joseph P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Diatessaron (lit. “out of four”), as it is known in Greek, is a Gospel harmony consisting of a continuous narrative of events drawn from the four Gospels. It was compiled by Tatian (d. c.175), a Mesopotamian by birth, and a student of the Roman Justin Martyr, who was not only bilingual in Syriac and Greek, but bicultural as well. Although it remains a question of scholarly debate, the preponderance of evidence suggests that Tatian originally wrote the Diatessaron in Syriac and later translated it into Greek. Beyond doubt, however, is the fact that the Diatessaron was the Gospel text of choice among Syriac‐speaking Christians who referred to it in Syriac as ′
ewangeliôn damhalltê
(“the mixed gospels”) to distinguish it from the four canonical Gospels, ′
ewangeliôn damfarshê
(“the separate gospels”).
T
aylor,
J
ames
H
udson (1832–1905)
Authors: Wilson Douglas K. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
James Hudson Taylor was born in Yorkshire, where his father served as a pharmacist and Methodist minister. His parents had dedicated him to Christian service even before his birth. He placed his faith in Jesus Christ at 17 and shortly afterwards committed himself to vocational ministry. The young Hudson determined to serve as a medical missionary to China, and received training in medicine and theology before departing for Shanghai in 1854 with the China Evangelization Society.
T
aylor,
W
illiam (1821–1902)
Authors: Lay Robert F. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Evangelist, author, and missionary, William Taylor served the Methodist Episcopal Church (MEC) in a career that spanned more than half a century (1842–1896), during which he pioneered independent evangelical missions to Australia, India, Latin America, and Africa. He was, moreover, America's first missionary bishop to Africa (Hempton 2005: 175).
T
eilhard
D
e
C
hardin (1881–1955)
Authors: Werntz Myles 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Fr. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin was born in Orcines, France and served in the Jesuit Order from 1913 to 1955. Teilhard studied theology in Sussex, and perhaps more significantly, paleontology at the Sorbonne. Teaching for a short time at the Catholic Institute of Paris, Teilhard ran afoul of Vatican officials over his statements regarding evolution and the nature of humanity. Consequently, most of his career was spent away from Europe, participating in archaeological digs in China, Africa, and Indonesia, briefly teaching at a Jesuit institution in New York.
Teleology
Authors: Feser Edward 
Published: January 2012

AbstractAristotle (384–322bc) held that there are (at least) four distinct and irreducible components to a complete explanation of a thing: itsmaterial cause, the particular stuff out of which it is made; itsformal cause, the specific form or essence that stuff exhibits, and which makes it the kind of thing it is; itsefficient cause, that which brought it into existence; and itsfinal cause, the end, purpose, or function it serves. Hence, to understand what a heart is (for example), we have to understand each of its four causes: that it is made out of a particular kind of muscle tissue; that its form includes the having of ventricles, atria, and so forth; that it appears during embryonic development via such‐and‐such a process; and that it serves the function of pumping blood. In its talk of final causes, Aristotelian philosophy evinces a belief inteleology, viz. the existence of goal‐directedness or purposiveness as an irreducible and objective feature of the natural world.
Television Ministries
Authors: Bain‐Conkin Jeffrey L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Some Christians have always made use of innovative technologies in communications to spread their evangelistic message. Martin Luther's reforms benefited from the new printing press. George Whitefield and John Wesley utilized newspaper and cheap print in the 18th century. 19th century Protestants organized societies in the United States to publish and distribute small pamphlets, tracts, and Bibles. And 20th century radio evangelists broadcast almost as soon as radio became a mass medium.
Theological Aesthetics
Authors: Garrett Stephen M. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractTheological aesthetics examines the relationship of God, faith, and theology to human perception (the imagination and sensation), beauty, and the arts. For example, how might one understand the influence of movies, mass media, and the arts on the worship life of the church? What does a theological understanding of beauty imply for the arts? What role does the imagination play in theological method? The answers to these and other similar questions begin to elucidate the complexities, issues, and multifarious content of theological aesthetics.
Theology of the Cross
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Among Martin Luther's many theological insights and contributions is his concept of the theology of the cross (Latin,
theologia crucis
). In conveying what the theology of the cross means, Luther largely drew his insights from St. Paul, who on more than one occasion spoke of the theology of the cross, although he did not use that exact term. To the Corinthians, Paul wrote: “[T]he word of the cross is folly to those who are perishing, but to us who are being saved it is the power of God” (1 Cor. 1:18).
Theonomy
Authors: Green Bradley G. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

“Theonomy” etymologically means “God's law” (
Theos
=God and
nomos
=law, in Greek). The movement or school of thought known as theonomy has generally contended that the Law of God given to Moses should still be considered to be in force, and that the Mosaic Law should be used as the law of the land in contemporary society. Associated with such advocates as Rousas J. Rushdoony, Gregory L. Bahnsen, and Gary North, theonomy contends that the civil aspects of the Mosaic Law should be seen as the standard for statecraft today. Theonomy is also often called “Christian reconstructionism,” in that it seeks to “reconstruct” all things along explicitly biblical lines.
T
heophilus of
A
ntioch (
d
.
c
.188)
Authors: Parsons Stuart E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Theophilus was the bishop of the church in the great city of Syrian Antioch, and an early Christian apologist. He was active in the 2nd century literary confrontation between pagans and Christians. He served as the sixth Bishop of Antioch, according to the church historian Eusebius. He probably died around 188, when Maximinus became bishop.
Third Wave
Authors: Williams Joseph W. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The term “Third Wave” appeared in the 1980s and 1990s and refers to Christians who embrace the type of spiritual phenomena and charismatic gifts often associated with the Pentecostal‐Charismatic movement, but who do not identify themselves as part of traditional Pentecostal denominations (the so‐called “First Wave”) or with the Charismatic Renewal in the Roman Catholic Church and in mainline Protestant churches (the so‐called “Second Wave”). Individuals within the Third Wave affirm the validity of charismatic gifts such as healing, speaking in tongues, prophecy, and deliverance from demons. In general, however, they do not accept the traditional Pentecostal emphasis on the baptism of the Holy Spirit as a distinct experience separate from conversion, nor do they emphasize speaking in tongues as the “initial evidence” that someone has received the baptism of the Holy Spirit (as do traditional Pentecostals). Coined in 1983 by C. Peter Wagner (1930–) of Fuller Theological Seminary to highlight these trends among evangelicals and other Christians within mainstream churches, the term Third Wave has come to include independent, indigenous, and postdenominational groups that also fit the above description. (When used in this broader sense, the term “neo‐Charismatic” is frequently substituted in place of Third Wave.) These groups now represent a larger proportion of the worldwide Pentecostal‐Charismatic movement than the first two waves combined.
T
homas à
K
empis (
c
.1380–1471)
Authors: Loyer Kenneth M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Thomas à Kempis, monk and renowned ascetical writer, was born to a poor family in Kempen, near Düsseldorf (modern‐day Germany). He is widely believed to have written
The Imitation of Christ
, which has influenced Christian spirituality perhaps more than any other book except the Bible. In 1399, after his education at Deventer at the school of the Brethren of the Common Life, he entered the monastery of the Augustinian Canons at Mount St. Agnes, near Zwolle, where his elder brother John had become prior. Here Thomas began his long and fruitful life as a monk. He took his solemn vows in 1406 and was ordained priest in 1413. With the exception of one short trip to visit his dying brother (who had gone on to found another monastery), he remained in the monastery at Mount St. Agnes for the rest of his life. In all he lived there for 72 years.
T
iepolo,
G
iambattista (1696–1770)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The last of the great Venetian religious painters and the exponent of Rococo. He began his career as a fresco painter with a fresco of
Abraham and Jacob
for the palace of the Patriarch of Aquileia in Udine, the
Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew
(1722), and the
Madonna of Mount Carmel
(1721). He also did altarpieces and ceilings. For the Udine Palace he painted an illusionistic ceiling,
The Fall of the Rebel Angels
.
Trinity and Trinitarianism
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Trinity is one of the key defining doctrines of historic Christianity, held by all branches of the Christian church, Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant. Trinitarian doctrine asserts that God is one in nature and essence and exists in three equally powerful, equally eternal persons, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This conception of God is taught, implicitly or explicitly, in all three of the “Ecumenical Creeds” of the church: the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene‐Constantinopolitan Creed, and the Athanasian Creed.
UrbanII,Pope (c.1035–1099; Pontificate from 1088)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe family name of Pope Urban II was Otho de Lagery. He was born in about 1035 to a knightly family and received most of his education in Rheims, northern France, where later he became canon and then archdeacon. In 1070 he entered the abbey at Cluny and became grand prior there, where he remained until 1079 or 1080. Before he was elected pope in March 1088, he had been appointed cardinal bishop in Ostia (southwestern Italy) by Pope Gregory VII.
v
an
E
yck,
J
an (1390–1441)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Dutch painter, famous for his Ghent Altar, also known as the
Adoration of the Lamb
, called by Durer a “stupendous painting.” The central scene is set in Paradise representing the Heavenly Jerusalem. The altarpiece, completed in 1482, consists of three parts: a large central area and two wings which close over it, each wing painted on both sides. In all there are 20 panels, of which four on the outside of the wings are again divided into an upper and lower section. Inside the altarpiece is again divided into two. The upper panel represents Christ enthroned as the King of Heaven with the crown of this world at his feet. He is flanked by Virgin Mary on his right as the Queen of Heaven with John the Baptist on his left wearing a robe over his animal skin clothing. This is the Perpetual Sabbath of the Saints and the Heavenly City described in the Book of Revelation. In the wings, the Angel musicians appear on the right and the Angel singers on the left, flanked by Adam and Eve. The large lower panel is actually three panels in which Pilgrims, Hermits, Knights of Christ, and Just Judges worship the Lamb of God. On the exterior of the wings, the upper part contains the Annunciation, with two prophets, Micah and Zechariah, and two sibyls, Erithrea and Cumae. Below are grisaille paintings of fictive statues of St. John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist. On the altar is the Lamb of God, blood spurting from his breast into a chalice with the words “Behold the Lamb of God Who takes away the sins of the world” and at the bottom the blood flows down toward the physical altar. Adoring the Lamb is a large crowd of more than 300 representing the elect and at the top of the panel is an aureole with a hovering dove representing the Holy Spirit. On the outside of the panel is the
Annunciation
in two small panels showing Adam and Eve with emblems of the Old Testament and the symbols of the Annunciation, as the water vessel and basin and the hanging towel. When open, the panel is 12 feet high by 18 feet wide