bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Operational Experiences Large Scale Condition Monitoring for a Subsea Gas Compression System Pilot
Authors: Eriksson Klas Goran 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
A 15 MW Subsea compressor station pilot has been produced, and will startoperating 1Q2012. During pilot operation, a large quantity of conditionmonitoring data is being logged (appr. 1 M values logged per second, resultingin appr. 200 TBytes of logged data per year). The intent with this massivedata-logging is to be able to pinpoint the root cause of any problems ordegradations occurring.
This paper describes the condition monitoring system, and initial operationalexperiences.
The system consists of sensors, subsea data collection units, topside datastorage units and analyzing / visualization / reporting functions.
The paper discusses each of these parts in detail, and also discusses necessarytradeoffs and optimizations.
One problem encountered is that data are being generated in a multitude offormats, which need to be correlated and viewed simultaneously on a higherlevel. The handling of correlation of multi-format data is discussed indetail.
Results from initial operation are presented.
For the final subsea version, the logging requirements will be relaxed.
A sketch of the final subsea version will be presented.
Best Practice in Flare Gas Measurement
Authors: Marshall Craig 
Published: April 2012

1 INTRODUCTION
This paper focuses on the measurement of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions fromgas flaring activities in the oil and gas industry. This includes theregulatory requirements for monitoring and reporting flare gas emissions, thechallenges faced by industry in implementing accurate measurement schemes, andcurrent technologies and best practice used by oil and gas operators.

1.1 Background
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions like carbon dioxide (CO2) have risensignificantly over the past hundred years and they are thought to be theprimary cause of global warming. In order to combat their effect, manygovernments have agreed to reduce the amount of GHGs they release into theatmosphere through different conventions and policies, some legallybinding.
One of the first was the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC). The UNFCCC is an international treaty set up at the ‘Earth Summit’held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The objective of this treaty is to keep the GHGemissions at a stable level that would not cause any permanent affects to theatmosphere or climate. At present, 194 countries (May 2011) have signed up forthis treaty although it has no real deliverables; only the convention for eachmember country to reduce its GHG emissions.
The Kyoto Protocol extended this premise by holding member countriesresponsible for their GHG reductions. The protocol came into effect on 2005 andhas the aim of reducing the levels of GHG emission by 5.2% compared to the 1990level. In total 37 countries signed up to this legally binding agreement toreduce emissions. The majority of these 37 countries were from the developedworld as they have been responsible for the majority of emissions to date. However the number of countries signing up to the Kyoto Protocol has increasedsignificantly since then and currently sits at 191 (April 2010).
A number of mechanisms were set-up under the Kyoto Protocol to provide acost-effective path for reducing GHG emissions. These include EmissionsTrading, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the Joint Implementation (JI). The EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) is to date the largest carbon-tradingscheme in existence.
Whether it is for emissions trading or emissions reduction projects as set outunder the CDM or JI, accurate measurement is essential to substantiate reportedemissions levels. To ensure transparency and consistency, monitoring andreporting guidelines have been established to support the Kyoto Protocol's CDMand JI flare reduction schemes. In addition, the EU has developed its owndomestic monitoring and reporting guidelines under the EU ETS.
The EU ETS was set up to help member countries meet their Kyoto Protocolemission reduction targets. The EU has a legal obligation to cut greenhouse gasemissions in Europe by 20% by 2020, compared to 1990 levels. Now in its secondphase, the scheme covers around 11,000 energy intensive installations acrossEurope.
Regulatory Compliance Issues for the LLOG WHO DAT Floating Production Unit
Authors: Robison Eldon J. , Mullett Craig 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This paper covers the development of the regulatory review, after the Macandoevent, for a speculatively built semisubmersible (a floating production unit[FPU]) - for operations in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico (GOM). The paper alsoaddresses the use of a classification agency to document the design andfabrication review of a unit constructed without a designated location, andfollowing identification of the designated location (Who Dat field in theMississippi Canyon block), the use of the agency to provide review reports tothe U.S. government. Additionally addressed is the use of the classificationagency to interface between the United States Coast Guard (USCG) and the Bureauof Ocean Energy Management Resources and Enforcement (BOEMRE) requirement withthe operator, LLOG Exploration.
The paper also documents the changes and challenges dealing with developing andchanging regulations as the first unit to receive a full regulatory reviewfollowing the Macondo event. The changes in USCG and ABS's interpretation ofexisting rules and guidelines and changes to certain documentation requiredadditional work based on experience and review of similar projects.

Introduction
In 2006, Exmar Offshore Group decided to build a FPS for the GOM onspeculation. This unit was designed and built to meet the generic requirementsof a majority of fields and operations with extra allowance for weights andspace for field-specific requirements. Due to financing requirements, the unitwas to be flagged. Since Exmar is considered a foreign company in accordancewith USCG documentation, the unit was flagged under the requirements ofLiberia. Liberia was selected as they had regulatory requirements for floatingproduction installation (FPI).
The unit was built in two sections: the hull in Korea and the topsides in theU.S. After considering all classification agencies, Exmar decided to classifythe hull and marine systems under the guidelines of the American Bureau ofShipping (ABS). ABS was contracted to provide the design approval andfabrication of the unit to their floating offshore installation (FOI) classnotation and to the requirements of Liberia to meet the IMO MODU Code 2001 asit would apply to the unit as a FPU.
After meeting with both ABS and MMS (now the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management[BOEM] and the Bureau of Safer Environment Enforcement [BSEE]), it was clearthat Exmar would not have a clear method of obtaining either agencies' approvalwithout a dedicated location on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). Thispaper details the method Exmar used to document and obtain final approval on aunit that was already constructed before beginning the USCG and MMS (BOEMRE)approvals and the process that was developed to ensure compliance with therevised review processes by USCG and BOEMRE during this period.
The Challenges and Opportunities of FPSO Relocations
Authors: George Babu , Le Cotty Antoine , Newport Andrew 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The first FPSO relocation project was completed 18 years ago (SBM's FPSO II), and since that time there has been a steady rise in the number and complexityof relocation projects being executed. Existing FPSO's are now being relocatedto fields with heavier oil, higher CO2 and H2S content, and increased waterdepths. More than 20 existing FPSO's are expected to become candidates forrelocation over the next 5 years, increasing the importance of this type ofproject to the industry.
This paper will examine the key technical issues to be considered in relocatingan FPSO, drawing particularly on the experience of two recent SBM Offshoreprojects in Brazil - the relocation of the FPSO Capixaba to the Cachalotefield, and the relocation of the FPSO Espadarte to the Baleia Azul field.
The paper will address the implications and applicability of changes in Rulesand Standards, possible approaches to the survey and assessment of assetintegrity prior to relocation (hull, topside and mooring), and the scope ofdesign modifications that may result from changes in reservoir data. The keysuccess factors in the project management and execution of relocation projectscompared to a traditional FPSO conversion will also be discussed.
The paper aims to give feedback on issues and solutions, and to identify thekey factors that need to be addressed for the successful relocation ofFPSO's.

Introduction
Since the early days of the FPSO industry, the possibility to relocate a unitafter its initial contract has been regarded as one of the advantages of thistype of production system. The industry's second ever FPSO, SBM's FPSO II, wasthe first unit to be relocated after an initial 11 year deployment, and thisFPSO was subsequently relocated a further two times.
The possibility to relocate an FPSO allows operators and contractors to assumea residual value for the unit at the end of the initial deployment, avoidingthe need to amortize the full cost of the unit over the initial lease period. This characteristic allows FPSO's to be offered at competitive rates forrelatively short lease periods, providing a viable solution for marginal fieldsand early production systems.
Exploiting the flexibility of FPSO's, the industry has seen a number of unitsbeing relocated after completion of their initial contract. The complexity ofthese relocations has varied depending on such factors as the flexibility ofthe initial design, the production requirements and metocean conditions at thenew field, and changes in regulatory requirements between the twodeployments.
Over the last 3 years, the industry has seen 7 FPSOs relocation projects, including SBM's Capixaba and Espadarte FPSOs, and the continuing growth of theindustry suggests that the trend for relocations will continue. The presentworld fleet of FPSO's comprises approximately 150 units [ref 1[, of which over20 are possible candidates for relocation during the next 5 years.
Experimental Study of High-Viscosity Oil/Water/Gas Three-Phase Flow in Horizontal and Upward Vertical Pipes
Authors: Wang Shufan , Zhang Hong-quan , Sarica Cem , Pereyra Eduardo Javier 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The objective of this project is to measure and observe high-viscosityoil/water/gas three-phase flows in horizontal and upward vertical pipes, andcompare the experimental results with existing models to identify the gaps. Inthis study, oil with viscosities between 0.15 and 0.57 Pa•s (150 and 570 cP)corresponding to temperatures from 37.8 to 15.6 °C (100 to 60 °F), filtered tapwater and natural gas at 2.59 MPa (375 psig) pressure are used as the threephases. Superficial oil and water velocities range from 0.1 to 1.0 m/s andsuperficial gas velocity varies from 1.0 to 5.0 m/s. The internal diameter ofthe pipe is 5.25-cm (2.067 in). The experimental measurements include pressuregradient and liquid holdup. The flow pattern and slug characteristics areobserved and the images are recorded with a high speed video camera systemthrough a high pressure sapphire window. The experimental results are comparedwith the predictions of Zhang and Sarica (2006) unified model, and thediscrepancies are identified.

Introduction
Heavy oil, extra heavy oil together with bitumen constitutes about 70% of theworld's total oil reserve. They are discovered and produced all around theworld and have become one of the most important future hydrocarbon resourceswith ever increasing world energy demand and depletion of conventional oils. However, the high viscosity of heavy oils poses many challenges for itsproduction and transportation.
Three-phase flow of oil, water and gas is of particular importance for the oilindustry. It frequently occurs in wells, risers and flowlines before reachingthe downstream processing facilities. The water can be introduced either due tothe connate water condensation or water steam injection for enhanced oilrecovery at the later stage of production. Understanding of the three-phaseflow phenomena is necessary in order to better design the production andtransportation systems. Most of the previous experimental researches, model andcorrelation developments were conducted using low-viscosity conventional oilsor other liquids. Açikgöz et al. (1992) carried out the first experimentalinvestigation of three-phase flow patterns in horizontal pipes. Pan et al.(1995) performed similar horizontal experiments. The tests were conducted at 5bar pressure and in a 38.0-m long horizontal, 7.62-cm ID pipe. Woods et al.(1998) reported oil/water/air upward vertical flow in a 2.52-cm ID Perspex pipewith a 1.8-m test section. Nine flow patterns were identified based onvisual/video observations and pressure techniques. Langsholt et al. (2001)studied oil/water/gas flows in steeply inclined pipes. Hewitt (2005) studiedthree-phase oil/water/air flows in a 38.0-m long, 7.62-cm ID stainless steelpipes. Keskin et al. (2007) proposed a two step classification method foroil/water/gas three-phase flow patterns. 12 flow patterns were identified forhorizontal and slightly inclined flows.
Renewables, Ready or Not?
Authors: Noel Cornelia , Davis Ron 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Today the development of subsea fields or satellites and the remoteness of thelocation not only require subsea processing but have also has implications forthe provision of power. The norm for offshore power generation is the use offossil fuel. However, the uncertainty surrounding a global climate policy at atime when the projection is for an exponential increase in offshore powerdemand is a cause for pause to look at renewable power solutions. Types ofrenewable power solutions that have application to the offshore oil and gasindustry include: solar, wind, and ocean energy (various).
This paper provides a rank/value for offshore power generated with bothrenewable- and conventional- energy sources relative to four (4) projectscenarios: Status Quo, Supply-to-the-Rescue, The Green Agenda, and DoubleJeopardy. The work to select a power solution began by identifying a key focusquestion about the future that the scenarios would address: How will the demandfor offshore (subsea) power and the potential externalities that may resultshape the power generation options over the next decade? The paper also pointsto resources that can shed light on the latest technological advances andfuture trends for renewable energy sources. The hope of the author is that thepaper will prove to be a useful reference for R&D specialists and projectengineers who are often asked to respond to the question: Renewables - Ready orNot?

Introduction
The project goal was to identify the best fit power delivery solution forhydrocarbon assets located remotely and/or in deepwater. For the purpose ofthis paper we would consider the power delivery implications for hydrocarbonassets located offshore North West Australia. The search for a feasible powerdelivery concept must be wide and deep enough to neither overlook promisingdevelopments in the Renewable Energy Market nor misjudge the overall impact ofproject externalities.
The high-level workflow to arrive at a comprehensive solution is illustrated inFigure 1. Typical for the oil and gas space is a staged gate approach to arriveat a chosen system concept. These stages can be generically labeled as Phase 1,2, 3, etc. or given qualifying names like Identify, Assess, Select, Define, etc. The tasks attached to each stage as illustrated in figure 1 isself-explanatory. What is needed is greater clarity on terminology that may notbe broadly applied in the industry:" Givens" are facts, assumptions, and decisions already made and taken as agiven for this project.A " solution space" is a matrix showing all possible combination of theproject scenarios and system concepts. A subset of these will constitute thefeasible configurations for in-depth system modeling and analysis.
Effects of Thermal Cycling on Offshore Pipeline Repair Tool Seal Systems
Authors: Ayers Ray R. , Miller Jack E. , Gage Eric , Hebert Justin , Wilson Ian 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This paper summarizes results from both coupon testing and full-scale testingdirected at developing sealing systems to retrofit in traditional pipelinerepair connectors and clamps so that they can undergo cycles of thermal heatingand cooling without leakage. Significant findings from this effort are thatelastomers extrude from seal cavities due to high thermally-induced swellingpressures exhibited by most elastomers, and that packer seals leak due to theloss of seal material. Coupon tests were conducted using elastomer discs tosimulate the mechanics of full-scale packer seals of various grades used inpipeline repair tools. Finally, the project demonstrated effective sealingwithout high pressures and extrusion by using PTFE tape-wrapped die-castgraphite wedges to successfully seal against leaking and seeping of water andgas in annulus testing.

Background
Stress Engineering Services, Inc. was initially contracted by Woodside EnergyLtd. to develop a seal system design to retrofit into a conventionally-sealed20-inch double-ended repair connector grips and seals and a 20-inch structuralrepair clamp. The initial project addressed specific requirements of Woodsideto determine whether commercially available deepwater pipeline repair tools canmaintain full operating pressure and survive multiple thermal cycles from coldsubsea ambient temperatures to hot insulated flowline operating temperatures. The low temperature target was 5°C (41°F) and operating temperature was 95°C(203°F). The key concern was whether standard VitonTM (or FKM) elastomer packerseals used in these repair tools will seal properly after experiencing multiplethermal cycles. DuPont cites the high-temperature capability of VitonTM as upto 200°C (400°F), so the traditional view in the industry is that thermalcycling is not a concern for such elastomers.
A qualification test was undertaken to verify seal performance of a diverlessclamp and a double-ended connector ehich grips and seals, all in one pipeassembly. During the first test sequence, both tools held full differential atlow temperature, ambient temperature, and high temperature. However, both toolslost their pressure seals as they were being cooled down after the first holdperiod at high temperature.
Post-test disassembly and inspection revealed that the seals had sufferedsignificant material damage. Exposure to high temperatures had degraded theperformance of the elastomers. This break-down, coupled with the tools' fixedgeometry seal glands, resulted in extrusion of the rubber material through evenvery small gaps in the tools and between the tools and the pipe sample. Theinternal pressure of the rubber elements was greatly increased via thermalexpansion, leading (as confirmed later) to pipe yielding, which provided pathsfor elastomer extrusion from the packer seal cavity (Figure 1).
Pazflor, A Major Step for Angola
Authors: Martins Gaspar 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Pazflor project provides an opportunity to introduce major technologyinnovations in the Angolan oil industry and to pursue the development of thecountry's economic and industrial fabric.
With PAZFLOR a new giant has been added to the portfolio of Angolan offshoreproducing facilities. When it reaches its plateau, 220 000 bbl/j will be addedto the production of the country. This will participate to a large extent inthe expected increase of Angolan production from 1.7 M bbl/d in 2011 to morethan 2 M bbl/d in 2012. Beyond this daily production increase, PAZFLOR is alsothe mean of access to about 600 million additional barrels that Angola needs tomeet its development ambitions. The position of Angola among oil producingcountries will thus be strengthened.
Ten years after Girassol, the first deep offshore development in the countryand on the same golden block 17, PAZFLOR presents one more huge technologicalworld first with its three large scale oil subsea separation and pumping unitsinstalled at 800m WD, and its facilities capable to process 2 types of oil verydifferent in nature, its world's largest FPSO ever built and its 600 km2 subseaproduction network.
Such an achievement has been made possible thanks to a strong cooperationbetween Sonangol and Total. It validates the strategy chosen by Angola so farto develop its reserves and proves, again, the ability of SONANGOL in workingwith major oil companies like TOTAL to build on each party's knowhow andcompetences. This experience and resulting international visibility reinforcethe confidence worldwide in SONANGOL's capabilities in oil fielddevelopment.
It also brings Angola to the front, as a country where huge technologicalproject representing significant and risky financial investment can beactually, safely and promptly developed making the place appealing forinvestors.
PAZFLOR is also a new benchmark in the maximization of using local industries, yards and talents, a priority for the country which intends to take advantageof its natural resources to favor the development of the economic andindustrial fabric.
In this respect, as a consequence of the local content requirements imposed tothe Contractors, three yards (SONAMET, SONILS, PAENAL), one spool base (DANDE)and an umbilical factory in Lobito participated in the project and had theopportunity to extend their production capabilities, to procure employment to alarge number of workers and to improve their knowhow. For instance, Angoflexspool base in Dande was significantly up graded and FKIA stroke a new challengeby assembling PAZFLOR Xmas trees on SONILS' base.
Also, the 4 million man-hours of Angolan content and the day to day operationof FPSO, obviously called for some highly qualified personnel.