bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
INTER‐SENSORY PERCEPTUAL SET
Authors: TALLAND GEORGE A. 
Published: April 2011

A set to perceive words representing a given category, more specifically animal names, was induced by visual presentation of some other words drawn from the same class. Measures were taken to prevent vocalization of these visual stimuli. Under these conditions, the facilitatory effect of a set was found to be no less marked than it is when auditory material is used both for establishing and for testing the set. In either instance, the effect of set was demonstrated by comparison with correct report of the same words, when heard scattered among other words, or as a continuous list but without previous indication of their selective composition.The finding is presented in support of a central theory of mental set, for neither events in the receptor or in the effector areas could account for it without some intervening process in the brain.
LABILITY IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
Authors: O'CONNOR N. , DAS J. P. 
Published: April 2011

Paranoid and non‐paranoid schizophrenics and a control group of normal males were matched for age and compared on three measures of lability. Lability was first measured in terms of the ratio of trials to condition and to extinguish or the ratio of trials to extinguish and recondition. Secondly, it was measured in terms of latencies of response before and after extinction, and thirdly in terms of response pressure before and after extinction. The measures of lability were obtained with each of three groups of subjects under two stimulus conditions, one in which the stimulus was a light and another in which it was a spoken word.Considerable differences in ease of extinction were apparent between the two types of signal. With the visual (non‐verbal) signal, extinction was achieved much more readily than with the verbal signal, irrespective of diagnostic group. This result seemed contrary to expectation on the basis of Pavlovian theory. It was incidentally observed that the variability of latency scores was greater in schizophrenics than in normals as expected, but that the variability of pressure scores was less.
DELINQUENCY, MALADJUSTMENT AND UNFAVOURABLE ECOLOGY
Authors: STOTT D. H. 
Published: April 2011

The dichotomy of ‘psychological’ and ‘sociological’ delinquency is criticized. To ascertain to what extent delinquency is purely cultural, the prevalence of psychological factors was investigated in a year‐group of Glasgow boy probationers. The latter were found to be strikingly more prone to behaviour‐disturbance than the non‐delinquent controlsContrary to theories of ‘cultural’ delinquency, the probationers in high‐delinquency areas were just as maladjusted as those in ‘good’ neighbourhoods. But the non‐delinquents were consistently less well adjusted the greater the density of delinquency.It is suggested that delinquency is mainly an aspect of more general behaviour disturbance in the under‐privileged quarters of large cities, and that this in turn is only one of several consequences of unfavourable ecology.
RECOGNITION OF SHAPES BY NORMAL AND SUBNORMAL CHILDREN
Authors: HERMELIN BEATE , O'CONNOR N. 
Published: April 2011

Normal and subnormal children, matched for mental age, were compared on visual and stereognostic shape recognition. While some subjects were required to explore and recognize the items in the same sensory modality, others had to recognize them in the opposite modality from the one in which they were initially presented.No differences between the conditions were observed in normal children. The imbeciles obtained results similar to those of the normals, except with the like modality stereognostic procedure. This resulted in significantly higher recognition scores than were obtained under the other conditions.It is suggested that absence of verbal coding in the cross modality tests, and relatively intact stereognostic discrimination ability in imbeciles may explain the results.
DISORGANIZATION‐ORGANIZATION AND COGNITIVE MOTIVATION*
Authors: BHARUCHA‐REID RODABÉ P. 
Published: April 2011

The Leeper‐Young controversy concerning the organization versus disorganization effects of emotion is examined from three points of view (those of Thompson & Higgins, Bindra and Hebb) and a critical evaluation suggests the necessity of an alternative position. A revision is made possible in terms of experimental evidence related to stress (sensory deprivation), satiation thresholds and the reticular formation. A consideration of these experiments leads to the hypothesis that the resultant disorganized‐organized behaviour is dependent primarily upon the cognitive characteristics and the satiation level rather than on the lack of sensory stimuli. The concept of cognitive motivation is discussed in relation to the above hypothesis.The acceptance of such a concept also leads to an explanation of higher cognitive functioning in lower animals as well as of lack of disorganization in deprived children. A search for culturally built‐in mechanisms which absorb or amplify stress, and further investigations into neurophysiological and chemical factors now seem indicated. It is also pointed out that the satiation threshold is related to stress, psycho‐gerontology (‘natural’ sensory deprivation), the reticular formation, and the short‐term response of ‘quitters' and the brain injured with respect to concept formation.
UNCERTAINTY AND EPISTEMIC CURIOSITY
Authors: BERLYNE D. E. 
Published: April 2011

Two experiments were concerned with the effects of uncertainty on epistemic curiosity. Quotations, each coupled with the names of possible authors and with a distribution of fictitious experts' guesses regarding the true author, formed the experimental material. The role of uncertainty was predicted from a theory according to which epistemic curiosity will increase with degree of conceptual conflict.The two experiments showed reported curiosity to increase with two determinants of uncertainty and degree of conflict, namely (1) number of alternative responses and (2) evenness of distribution of response‐strength, respectively. They also revealed ways in which response uncertainties, dependent on distributions of subjects' guesses, differ from the corresponding stimulus uncertainties.
GROUP INFLUENCE ON THE PERCEPTION OF AMBIGUOUS STIMULI
Authors: SEABORNE A. E. M. 
Published: April 2011

An attempt was made to relate the judgements made by subjects in a social pressure situation to the ambiguity of the stimulus being judged. Ambiguity values were assigned to the various stimuli on the basis of responses made by subjects to the stimuli when not exposed to social influence.It was found that conformity was not related to the ambiguity of the stimulus although individual certainty of correctness varied inversely and response time varied directly with ambiguity. It seems possible that this can be accounted for by assuming that the subject's assessment of the difficulty of the judging task was used to rate the value of the group's opinion so that where it seemed that the possibility of arriving at a correct answer was less, the group's influence was less effective.The results indicate that conformity can only be expected to vary directly with ambiguity where the social influence is seen to derive from a source external to the immediate stimulus situation.
AN APPLICATION OF INTER‐PERSON ANALYSIS IN PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT*
Authors: SEMEONOFF BORIS 
Published: April 2011

A simplified form of factor analysis of persons was applied to test performance in a selection procedure associated with different patterns of two‐part self‐description (i.e. as one might be seen by a friend, and as by a critic). Self‐descriptions containing irrelevant or trivial features were shown to carry, on the whole, predominantly unfavourable implications. In most cases, however, minority groups were characterized by fairly consistent favourable patterns of test performance. Classifications based on the distribution of praise and criticism were also shown, in some cases, to be non‐homogeneous, and no single form of imbalance appeared to be uniformly unfavourable. In particular, role‐reversal, as between the ‘friend’ and the ‘critic’, appeared to be a favourable rather than an unfavourable sign.The use of inter‐person analysis resolved certain anomalies which appeared in earlier studies by showing that these resulted from the mistaken assumption that a given self‐description pattern had constant personality correlates.
THE WORD‐IN‐CONTEXT: A NEW TYPE OF VERBAL REASONING TEST
Authors: COOK J. M. , HEIM A. W. , WATTS K. P. 
Published: April 2011

A description is given of a new test of verbal reasoning which is used in a small‐scale experiment. The novelty of the test derives from its ‘real life’ material, its appraisal of induction as well as deduction and its provision for the objective scoring of different degrees of correctness. In addition to the subject's final solution to each problem, the test provides evidence of how this decision is reached.The experimental results suggest (a) that the Word‐in‐context does effect discrimination among intelligent young adults, (b) that the cognitive qualities on which it discriminates are not the usual qualities assessed by cognitive tests, (c) that it is possible to produce an objectively scorable test in which arts students do as well as science students, (d) that what is tested, though strongly verbal in bias, is not vocabulary strength. It is hoped that the test may prove useful for purposes of high‐grade selection, as an indicator of certain aspects of personality and for the study of concept‐formation and other thought processes.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN RATE OF ACQUISITION, NEGATIVE TRANSFER, AND RATE OF RECOVERY IN DIGIT‐SYMBOL SUBSTITUTION
Authors: FEATHER N. T. 
Published: April 2011

Male and female subjects worked at a digit‐symbol substitution test under conditions of massed practice for six trials (acquisition phase). The order of symbols was then completely reversed to effect sudden disruption in performance (negative transfer). Subjects then worked at the test with reversed key for six trials under conditions of massed practice (recovery phase). Predictions about rate of acquisition, degree of disruption, and rate of recovery were based on multiplicative‐drive theory and on Eysenck's theory of extraversion/introversion and the inhibition/excitation balance.Results show that degree of disruption is positively correlated with both rate of acquisition and rate of recovery for males and females. Differences in MPI neuroticism and extraversion scores are not associated with the predicted differences in performance at the task. In discussion it is suggested that attempts to incorporate personality variables into learning theory need to consider different ways in which situations can differ, and other conceptions of the learning process in addition to multiplicative‐drive theory.
ACOUSTIC CONFUSIONS IN IMMEDIATE MEMORY
Authors: CONRAD R. 
Published: April 2011

Sequences of 6 letters of the alphabet were visually presented for immediate recall to 387 subjects. Errors showed a systematic relationship to original stimuli. This is held to meet a requirement of the decay theory of immediate memory.The same letter vocabulary was used in a test in which subjects were required to identify the letters spoken against a white noise background. A highly significant correlation was found between letters which confused in the listening test, and letters which confused in recall.The role of neurological noise in recall is discussed in relation to these results. It is further argued that information theory is inadequate to explain the memory span, since the nature of the stimulus set, which can be defined quantitatively, as well as the information per item, is likely to be a determining factor.
CHANGES IN HEART RATE AND PERFORMANCE AS A RESULT OF LOSS OF SLEEP
Authors: CORCORAN D. W. J. 
Published: April 2011

Two theories of the effects of loss of sleep were compared against existing facts. The hypothesis that sleep deprivation reduces arousal was judged to be more adequate than the theory that arousal is increased by loss of sleep, the former failing only to account for raised physiological indices of arousal in some experiments. These are attributed to experimental conditions which compel the subject to make compensatory efforts to maintain adequate levels of performance. Under such conditions effort, not arousal, is reflected in the indices.An experiment was conducted in which a constant high level of performance was not demanded of the subjects over a 60 hr. period without sleep. Heart rate and performance fell with loss of sleep.
CONSTANT ERRORS IN WEIGHT JUDGEMENTS AS A FUNCTION OF THE SIZE OF THE DIFFERENTIAL THRESHOLD
Authors: ROSS HELEN E. 
Published: April 2011

Constant errors in psychophysical procedures are known to increase in magnitude with the intensity of the standard, and with the temporal or spatial separation of the standard and comparison stimuli. It is often assumed that this is due to increasing ‘adaptation’ of the effective standard. It is argued here that the increase is due to a statistical artifact, since the measures of constant error and of differential threshold normally used are not independent, so that any factor which increases the difficulty of discrimination will increase the magnitude of the constant error.It is shown that for differential thresholds ranging from 1 to 25 g. the absolute size of the constant error increases with the size of the threshold, but the direction of the error is variable and remains unexplained.
SOME STUDIES OF PATTERN PERCEPTION USING A STABILIZED RETINAL IMAGE
Authors: EVANS C. R. 
Published: April 2011

Using a stabilization device capable of covering 30° of the visual field, targets of various shapes were studied extensively. Very large and consistent differences were found between the percentage disappearances of most targets and this was found not to be a function of length of line or boundary. The presence of corners and intersections in a target increased percentage disappearance. Jagged, angular figures disappeared more than rounded, topologically similar ones. When acute angles were present, the disappearance rate was radically raised.About 10% of the time when a target disappeared, it disappeared as a complete unit, though this figure varied somewhat from target to target and was very high in the case of the circle. A mean of about 15% of all disappearances were ‘patterned’ or ‘structured’, and these proportions held true for all subjects tested.
UNCERTAINTY AND TRANSITIONAL PROBABILITY IN THE SPAN OF APPREHENSION
Authors: WARRINGTON ELIZABETH K. , KINSBOURNE M. , JAMES MERLE 
Published: April 2011

Span of apprehension was measured for stimulus ensembles of various sizes, using letters, digits and an arbitrarily selected set of simple lines. Span was significantly decreased when letters and digits were presented as mixed sequences, in proportion to the number of letter‐digit juxtapositions. Span also varied with the serial position at which a single juxtaposition occurred, being greatest where this was near the mid‐point. These results were thought to arise from the higher transitional probabilities between items of the same class than of different classes, and the greater ease in grouping such items. No effect of stimulus uncertainty was found. Random letter span was significantly less than digit span, but span for sequences reflecting letter frequencies in the language did not differ significantly from digit span (at 100 msec exposure duration).The unfamiliar line material yielded relatively lower spans, varying inversely with ensemble size (two, four and eight choice). This was determined not by overall stimulus uncertainty but by the degree of heterogeneity of the individual stimulus arrays. The relatively less heterogeneous stimulus assays were thought to lend themselves more readily to verbal recoding. With very familiar material transitional probability, in relation to previous experience of the language, determines span. With the less familiar material not subject to such response bias, it was the recodability of the individual display which determined the span. With only a single exception, comparable results were obtained at moderately and at very brief exposure durations.
THE RELATION BETWEEN BREADTH OF CATEGORY AND DECISION TIME
Authors: TAJFEL HENRI , BRUNER JEROME S. 
Published: April 2011

Twenty‐four subjects were presented with a series of stimuli, all of equal length (5 in.), and asked to classify each as being or not being 5 in. long. The subjects were then divided into three groups (broad, middle and narrow categorizers) according to the number of including and excluding responses that they gave.It was found that: (a) the decision times of both extreme groups were considerably shorter than those of the middle group; (b) there was a tendency for the extreme groups to have shorter decision times for their preferred type of response; but this tendency did not reach statistical significance.
RIGIDITY, DRIVE AND CONDITIONING IN NEUROTICS*
Authors: PAYNE R. W. , NETLEY C. T. , SLOANE R. B. 
Published: April 2011

Four of Brengelmann's questionnaire measures of rigidity, Brengelmann's Drive Scale, the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, the Maudsley Personality Inventory and the Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale, were given to thirty neurotic and thirty normal female subjects. In the first of two conditioning experiments, the eyeblink response was conditioned to a tone, an air puff being the UCS. In the second, the finger flexion reaction to an unavoidable electric shock was conditioned to a tone. GSR and heart‐rate responses were measured simultaneously.Brengelmann's previous findings that the rigidity questionnaire scores were significantly correlated with drive, anxiety and neuroticism questionnaire measure were confirmed. However, the predicted relations between rigidity and four of Malmo's physiological measures of drive (arousal) were not found. Although conditioning was clearly obtained, Brengelmann and Field's finding that eyeblink conditionability and questionnaire rigidity are related was not verified, nor did the conditioned finger response correlate with these rigidity measures. The data suggested that, for the GSR and heart‐rate responses, only ‘pseudo‐conditioning’ was obtained. The possible implications of this last finding are discussed.
EFFECTS OF A NOVEL SITUATION AND OF ANXIETY ON TWO GROUPS OF DEPENDENCY BEHAVIOURS
Authors: ROSENTHAL MIRIAM K. 
Published: April 2011

The habituation of two groups of dependency behaviours in a novel situation was investigated under two levels of anxiety provocation. The two groups of dependency behaviours were ‘attention seeking’ and ‘proximity seeking’. Sixty‐four girls aged 3–5 were assigned to two experimental conditions: high and low anxiety. Each child was seen twice and each session lasted 30 min. Frequency of dependency behaviour was recorded by an observer according to previously defined behaviour categories.The principal findings were: (1) under high anxiety conditions frequency of attention seeking decreases with time (habituation of curiosity) and frequency of proximity seeking increases when there is a gradual increase in number of fear‐provoking elements; (2) under low anxiety conditions frequency of attention seeking decreases with time while only a negligible decrease of proximity seeking takes place; (3) long‐term habituation, over 3 or 4 weeks, does not occur for either kind of behaviour; (4) an unexpected interaction indicated that attention seeking decreases significantly faster under conditions of low anxiety than under conditions of high and sustained anxiety, although no main effect of anxiety on attention seeking was found. The results are interpreted in terms of elements in the situation provoking curiosity or anxiety.
ON THE RELATIVE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT SOURCES OF VARIATION IN DICHOTIC LISTENING PERFORMANCE
Authors: INGLIS JAMES 
Published: April 2011

Among the many possible sources of variation in dichotic listening performance, two in particular have been accorded considerable theoretical importance. The influence of order effect has usually been regarded as an index of the functioning of some short‐term storage process. The influence of ear asymmetry has commonly been taken to reflect perceptual functioning.Most published studies have examined only one or other of these influences, so that they have even come to be viewed as alternative ‘explanations’ of differential accuracy in dichotic listening performance. It is contended here that these alternatives are not in fact mutually exclusive, but merely define different sources of variation in the phenomena studied. A number of different comparisons must be made before the relative importance of each of these sources of variance in dichotic listening performance can be determined.
SHORT‐TERM MEMORY IN THE DEAF: A TEST FOR SPEECH CODING
Authors: CONRAD R. 
Published: April 2011

A study was carried out to examine the feasibility of identifying by a short test whether or not any particular profoundly deaf school child uses a speech code in short‐term memory for verbal material. Consonant sequences were visually presented, drawn alternately from a set of letters which had high acoustic/articulatory similarity (AS), and from another of low similarity on this dimension, but with high shape similarity (VS). Relative recall performance from the two vocabularies is taken to represent the extent to which speech coding is used.Almost all control hearing subjects recalled more from the VS set; almost all deaf subjects recalled more from the AS set. The test thus provides a quick method of assessing the level of oral memorizing in one situation which has pedagogic relevance. Some validity is provided by the further fact that deaf subjects selected for oral facility yielded scores which were significantly different from those of deaf subjects not so selected — and different in the direction of hearing subjects. Just the same, the most oral deaf, as a group, approached nowhere near the level of speech coding used by the hearing subjects.Caution is suggested when comparing memory span of deaf and hearing subjects using verbal material, since it can be shown that with some consonant vocabularies, the deaf may show larger spans than the hearing.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL AND KINAESTHETIC JUDGEMENTS OF DISTANCE
Authors: MILLAR SUSANNA 
Published: April 2011

Three groups, each of 36 children, aged 4, 6 and 8 years, performed visual and kinaesthetic intra‐ and cross‐modal matching tasks in three experimental conditions of simultaneous or successive visual inputs in an age x conditions x modality design. Stimuli were lengths with specific relations to a total distance.No effect of simultaneous versus successive experimental conditions was found. Age, modality and the interaction between age and modality were significant effects. For 8‐ and 6‐year‐olds highest errors were on the kinaesthetic–visual (K–V) task; for 4‐year‐olds visual–kinaesthetic (V–K) and intra‐kinaesthetic (K–K) errors were significantly higher than all others. To test if differences in error patterns could be explained by poor movement control by 4‐year‐olds, data for subjects selected on intra‐kinaesthetic performance were subjected to a second analysis.An age x modality analysis on subjects selected on K–K showed that age, modality and the interaction between age and modality were again significant effects. K–K errors for the 4‐year group were now significantly lower than V–K errors, and not different from K–V. V–K errors had not been affected by the selection on K–K and were significantly higher than V–V, and than K–V errors. The cross‐modal asymmetry (V–K > K–V errors) was thus not due to kinaesthetic response errors. K–V was only slightly and not significantly higher than V–V at the 4‐year level. This error pattern contrasted with those found for 6‐ and 8‐year‐olds where K–V, not V–K errors, were highest and significantly different from V–V errors. The implications of the results for theories of cross‐modal performance are discussed, and an explanation is suggested.