bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
B
lake,
W
illiam (1757–1827)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
English poet and artist, who was born in London on November 28, 1757, the third of five surviving children. His father, James, was a hosier. Though William never went to school and labored in poverty most of his life, he became a visionary poet and artist who defied the Enlightenment and anticipated the heights of the Romantic imagination. He died on August 12, 1827.
Blasphemy
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Exodus 20:7 declares: “Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain.” Blasphemy consists, not in employing crude or scatological language — what the French refer to as
gros mots
— but in violating this biblical commandment in a particularly egregious manner.
Body of Christ
Authors: Macy Gary 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The “body of Christ” refers first and most obviously to the body of Jesus that was miraculously raised from the dead and appeared to his followers before ascending into heaven. The risen body of Christ is believed to have been transformed by the experience of the resurrection and is now both immortal and incorruptible. Christians believe that a similar transformation of their bodies will take place when the dead rise again. Traditionally, a body that has undergone resurrection is termed “a glorified body.”
Bollandists
Authors: Hayes Patrick J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Société des Bollandistes, based sporadically in Belgium for over 350 years, is a collective of church historians who have sought to bring the historical–critical method to the study of hagiography. The group is responsible for the 68 folio volumes of the
Acta Sanctorum
, the most complete rendition of the lives of saints from antiquity to the middle ages. Its publication schedule spans three centuries, from the first volumes (saints' feasts for January) in 1643 to the 1940s. The organization's roots are closely associated with members of the Society of Jesus. Fr. Héribert Rosweyde, SJ (d. 1629), was the inspiration for bringing together the best learned hagiographical manuscripts in Belgian libraries and who, after assembling several studies such as the
Vitae Patrum
(1615), endeavored to collect in a multi‐volume work all those
vitae
of the Servants of God before the year 1500. Rosweyde's death necessitated the transfer in 1630 of fellow Jesuit Jean van Bolland (d. 1665), for whom the society takes its name. Before he died, Bolland assigned confreres Godefroid Henskens (Henschen) and Daniel van Papebroech to search for and collect copies of manuscripts in Germany, Italy, and France, and the library soon rivaled those of Rome. Work proceeded haltingly on the
Acta
, particularly because of the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773, which also disbanded portions of the library. Bollandists formally reconstituted in 1837 in Brussels. With financial and material assistance from local abbots and scholars from across Europe, the Bollandists again amassed the most significant library on saints in the world. In the last century, Fr. Hippolyte Delehaye not only contributed extensively to the workings of the society, he broadened the scope of their work from Latin, Greek, and Oriental texts to the Slavic, Nordic, Asian, and African texts. Today Bollandists publish the prestigious journal
Analecta Bollandiana
(begun 1882) that updates the
Acta Sanctorum
and a series of books,
Subsidia Hagiographica
(begun 1886). The Bollandists today are directed from offices located at the College St. Michel in Brussels.
Bonhoeffer,Dietrich (1906–1945)
Authors: Mills D. E. “Gene” 
Published: January 2012

AbstractDietrich Bonhoeffer was born on February 4, 1906 in Breslau, Germany into the family of noted physician and professor Karl Bonhoeffer. Both sides of Dietrich's family were well placed in society, giving him a privileged upbringing. He died in a Nazi prison camp on April 9, 1945. His 39 years earned him the legacy of martyr, theologian, pastor, and critic of both society and the church.
B
otticelli,
S
andro (1444/1445–1510)
Authors: Drake Joshua Farris 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Florentine painter. Botticelli applied to painting the mytho‐poetic visions of Florentine humanism. Contemporary art theorist Leon Battista Alberti admonished painters to “associate with poets … who have many embellishments in common with painters and who have a broad knowledge of many things; whose greatest praise consists in invention.” Botticelli's association with the poets he admired led to artistic inventions that are as poetic as they are profound.
B
ruce,
F
rederick
F
yvie (1910–1990)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Frederick Fyvie Bruce was born the oldest of seven children in Elgin, Scotland, on October 12, 1910, and died on September 11, 1990. As his father was a Plymouth (Open) Brethren evangelist, he maintained membership in that church (although he did not affirm the dispensationalism of the Plymouth Brethren). Theologically, Bruce could be considered a conservative (moderately) and reformed (although not a paedobaptist) evangelical. Not one to waver in reconsidering traditional doctrines, he stressed the hermeneutical priority (first principle) of Galatians 3:28 for interpreting Pauline statements that seem to forbid women from certain ministries. His interpretative methodology was to examine biblical passages without presuppositions. He believed the New Testament interpretation of the Old Testament should be examined exegetically. Bruce insisted that interpretation of individual passages should be understood within the whole of Scripture, and the whole of Scripture should be understood within the interpretation of individual passages.
B
ulgakov,
S
ergei
N
ikolaevich (1871–1944)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Sergei Bulgakov was the most prominent thinker of the Russian Silver Age that immediately preceded the Revolutions of 1917, and after his emigration to Paris in 1925, he went on to become the most original, and probably the most widely known, Russian philosopher and theologian living in the west. He was born the son of an Orthodox priest, and the heir of distinguished priestly lineages on both maternal and paternal sides of his family. He grew up with a strong attachment to nature, and a spiritual orientation that he described as “a child's Christian ‘pantheism’.” He began seminary training at the age of 13, but within a few years had lost his faith in God, and shifted his allegiance to Marxism and the longing for “an earthly paradise,” yielding, as he later put it, to “the temptation to worship man.” He eventually became an economist holding a prestigious chair in agricultural economics — adapting Marx to the largely agrarian economy of Russia — and a politician who served in the Second Duma, or Russian parliament, of 1906. Along with many of the Russian intelligentsia, Bulgakov — having published in 1900 a major work called
Capitalism and Agriculture
— became disillusioned by the poor fit of Marxist economics to Russian reality, and disenchanted with the political irresponsibility of the left. Together with N. Berdyaev, he edited in 1909 an influential collection of articles called
Vekhi
or
Landmarks: A Collection of Essays on the Russian Intelligentsia
, which sought to articulate a vision for Russia more indigenous than the failed revolutionary politics. Published in 1912,
The
Philosophy of Economy
represents Bulgakov's major work as a philosopher, finalizes his break with Marxist political economy, and establishes the philosophical grounds for his later work as a theologian. Drawing upon both Orthodox mysticism and German Idealism, especially Schelling, he develops a deeply ecological vision of creation as
natura naturans
, as revealing divine energies, as divine wisdom (
Sophia
) at work. Meanwhile, through his experiences of numinous beauty in nature and art, and a mysterious visit to the hermitage of a
staretz
or spiritual elder — all of these (nature, art, and Church) being vital elements of his later concept of Sophia — he recovered his Orthodox faith, being ordained a priest 1918. He was exiled from Russia by the Bolsheviks in 1922, and continued his academic life at St. Sergius Orthodox Theological Institute in Paris, as both Professor of Dogmatic Theology and Founding Dean, until 1944 when, according to those present, he died as a saint.
B
yrd,
W
illiam (1540–1623)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The finest composer in Tudor England, he was the organist and choirmaster at Lincoln Cathedral from 1563 to 1572 and at the Chapel Royal in London, where he worked for the rest of his life. Some of his influence is related to the fact that he had Queen Elizabeth's license to print and sell music along with Thomas Tallis. A devout Roman Catholic, he left his imprint on church music but also excelled in madrigals and other popular forms of music. His large inspired output places him on the same rank as some of the greatest composers, such as Palestrina, Lassus, and Victoria.
Campanile
Authors: Whytock Jack C. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractA campanile is generally a free‐standing bell tower which is adjacent to a church or a cathedral, thereby possessing an ecclesiastical purpose; it is also found on university campuses or in other public locations in its nonecclesiastical form. The campanile originated in Italy where it was built as a bell tower, thus playing a central role in the call to prayer for the daily offices or for worship. However, its origin is probably from the round towers that were built to fulfill military needs as watchtowers or those built along the coast as navigational aids in the 10th century and earlier. The word is from the Italiancampanameaning “bell.” In the plural form it is campanili, although it is seldom used in this form. Towers built on Syrian churches in the 4th century may be related to the Italian campanile. Thus the exact origin of the campanile may come from a variety of backgrounds.
Canonical Criticism
Authors: Hasel Frank M. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractCanonical criticism is a recent hermeneutical approach that has its roots in the school of biblical theology. The best‐known representatives are Brevard Childs and James Sanders. The term “canonical criticism” was first coined by James Sanders and popularized in his bookTorah and Canon(1972) to denote a method of biblical criticism that operates subsequent to form‐ and redaction‐criticism. Canonical criticism is particularly interested in the meaning of texts within their canonical context and takes into consideration the nature of their assigned authority. Today it is used rather ambiguously with reference to a variety of interpretive approaches that share an appreciation of canonical accepted texts as foundational to all biblical exegesis.
Catechism
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The word “catechism” is derived from the Greek word
katechaeo
, meaning “to instruct orally.” In the early church
katechaeo
referred to oral instruction in Christian doctrine by which non‐Christians were prepared for baptism in order to become members of the church. Although there apparently were some handwritten catechetical materials in the early Middle Ages, scholars believe that Martin Luther's
Small Catechism
(1529) was the first catechism to be published. Much of his catechism's content consists of questions and answers. He wrote his catechism to be used primarily by fathers to instruct their children and servants in basic Christian doctrines.
C
hambers,
O
swald (1874–1917)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Oswald Chambers was born the son of a Baptist pastor, in Aberdeen, Scotland on July 24, 1874, and died in Egypt on November 15, 1917, after suffering from an emergency appendectomy. Oswald was the fourth and youngest son of nine children born to Clarence and Hannah Chambers. He was converted in his teenage years (1890) through the preaching ministry of Charles Spurgeon. Chambers studied art and archaeology at the University of Edinburgh despite his father's stern objections. He believed in serving God through his use of the arts, and that such expression lightened one's pilgrimage in the world. In addition to being an avid reader of several disciplines, Chambers loved music, and played the organ and piano. The calling to full‐time Christian ministry convinced him to withdraw from studies at the university despite a promising career in the arts. In 1897, he began studying theology at Dunoon Gospel Training College in Scotland; he would later teach art at the college and tutored students in philosophy and psychology. As a theology student, he developed a passion for evangelism and claimed to receive the Pentecostal baptism of the Holy Spirit. During this time, he began speaking at outdoor evangelistic meetings. From 1906 to 1907, he traveled with a Japanese evangelist to the United States and Japan and conducted meetings among Holiness and Methodist denominations. From 1907 to 1910, he maintained an itinerant Bible teaching ministry for the Pentecostal League of Prayer in Ireland and the United Kingdom, which was a component of the transdenominational British Wesleyan‐Holiness movement. In 1910, he married Gertrude (Biddy) Hobbs, a trained court stenographer. Oswald and Biddy had one daughter, Kathleen. In 1911, the Chamberses helped in the founding of the Bible Training College in Clapham, London, and Oswald served as the principal. He lectured at the college until it was closed in 1915 as a result of World War I. In October of that same year, the Chamberses left England for Zeitoun, Egypt, as the YMCA commissioned Oswald. Chambers ministered as chaplain to thousands of soldiers in desert camps from Australia and New Zealand.
C
haucer,
G
eoffrey (c.1343–1400)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Chaucer was a poet, a philosopher, a civil servant, a Member of Parliament, and a diplomat, born in London about 1343 and died in 1400. Some have speculated that he was probably murdered by the same enemies who murdered King Richard II, for the king was Chaucer's patron. He is buried in the poets' corner in London's Westminster Abbey.
C
hesterton,
G
ilbert
K
eith (1874–1936)
Authors: Edwards Jason R. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
G. K. Chesterton was one of the greatest authors and Christian apologists of the 20th century. Throughout his life, he leveled his insightful mind and gifted pen against a host of popular 20th century causes, including socialism, relativism, materialism, skepticism, industrial capitalism, and eugenics. The famed argumentation of Chesterton — the “Prince of Paradox” — resounded with wit that exposed popular falsehoods as clever but ultimately nonsensical. Not limited to attack, Chesterton also remains one of the most eloquent advocates for common sense, beauty, the family, the poor, and Christianity.
Christ in Art
Authors: Quantz Amanda D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

As indicated by John of Damascus (c.676–749) in
On the Divine Images
, the Mystery of the Incarnation is the theological basis for visual representations of Christ. The history of these images provides valuable information about how the gospel message has been celebrated, interpreted, and represented by various societies and cultures. Throughout the church's evolution, each Christian society has emphasized key theological tenets in pictorial form. These issuesare related not only to Christology, but also to the culture, politics, spirituality, and the tastesof the day. Each of these variables has played a role in the overall gestalt of images of Christ throughout the ages. It is important to note that the term “art” which today is typically associated with ideas of novelty or uniqueness, cannot accurately be applied to these early representations of Christ. Rather, “art,” in the modern sense of the term, only began to develop in the 15th century Renaissance, when beauty and ingenuity became essential to the process of representing sacred subjects. This essay concludes with several insights about pictorial developments that arose in that period.
Christian Socialism
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Although Frederick Denison Maurice's father was a Unitarian clergyman, Maurice later joined the Church of England, and in 1834 he became one of its ordained clergy. He was appalled by the widespread poverty, the misery of child labor, and the economic plight of the poor and working class in the 1830s and 40s. Similar to his acquaintance, John Malcolm Ludlow, he believed that socialism would ameliorate England's socio‐economic problems of the economically oppressed. But neither Maurice nor Ludlow wanted socialism, divorced from Christian principles. Socialism, in their opinion, needed the guidance of Christian values. Thus, Maurice coined the term “Christian socialism” in 1848, as he launched the Christian Socialist Movement. He had another close associate in Charles Kingsley, also an avid proponent of Christian socialism. In 1850, a periodical,
The Christian Socialist
, was created with Ludlow as editor.
Christian–Jewish Relations
Authors: Groppe Elizabeth T. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Christian polemic against Judaism that scars the history of western civilization runs so deep that it is hard to imagine that the people known as the first “Christians” knew themselves only as Jews. The disciples of Jesus Christ were, in fact, one of many different groups within 1st century Judaism. The success of Paul's mission to the Gentiles, the dispensation from circumcision and observance of dietary law accorded Gentile converts, the destruction of the Temple and the fall of Jerusalem to the Romans in 70ce, and the failure of the Bar Kochba revolt in 135ceall contributed to the development of Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism as two distinct communities emergent from the complex matrix of 1st century Palestinian Judaism. The dominant approach in contemporary scholarship posits a dual “parting of the ways” of Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism, but no single interpretive paradigm can account for all the complexities of the actual historical record, and the parting took place at different times in different locales, and boundaries were sometimes quite ambiguous.
Church of the
N
azarene
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Church of the Nazarene is an offshoot of the Holiness Movement generated by Wesleyan Methodism. It was born through a merger of three independent Holiness groups: the Association of Pentecostal Churches of North America, the Church of the Nazarene, and the Holiness Church of Christ, in 1908 as the Pentecostal Church of the Nazarene. It gave up the name Pentecostal following the birth of Pentecostalism after Azusa Street and adopted the name of the Church of the Nazarene in 1919. Principal leaders in the early church were Phineas Bresee, William Howard Hoople, H. F. Reynolds, and C. B. Jernigan. The church is theologically and historically Methodist as modified by the Holiness movements of the 19th century and its early leaders were Methodist ministers. Its
Manual
is an adaptation of the Methodist Discipline. Its 15 articles summarize the essential teachings of the church. Church historians call it the right wing of the Holiness Movement because it did not abandon rituals entirely.
Church, the
Authors: Lay Robert F. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

This article describes the Christian church, both the concept and the institution, as distinct from other phenomena such as the Kingdom of God and Christendom. In the spiritual realm, the Kingdom of God refers to the universal reality of God's sovereign rule. In the temporal realm Christendom refers to the society (medieval, western society) that sprang from the church and, in turn, is the context of the church's life and its mission base. The church is the fellowship of those who worship the triune God, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (John 3:16; 1 Thes.1:1), and who, having received the forgiveness of their sins, are saved through the grace of Christ (Acts 15:11). As a church is comprised of members, and they
are
the church, so every local association of Christ‐followers is a member of the church universal, existing throughout time and place since its founding in the mid 30s of the lst century of the Christian era. Thus
church
refers both to the universal reality and to particular local and historical examples. While other ways of identifying the church — for example as the
visible
and
invisible
church — are described below, exploring the church's fundamental nature as both universaland particular requires an understanding of the biblical‐theological ideal, followed by an examination of historical examples.
Clapham Sect
Authors: Baker Dwight P. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Clapham Sect (active 1780s through 1830s) was comprised of a group of British evangelical social and political activists and philanthropists whose founding generation included William Wilberforce, Charles Grant, Granville Sharp, Zachary Macaulay, James Stephen, and Hannah More. The group received its name, retrospectively, from the village south of the Thames where many early members lived and where regular meetings of the group took place.
Colombian Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Colombia was known as New Granada in colonial times. The first Catholic diocese was established in 1534 and the first seminary in 1582. Encomiendas were set up to administer Indian settlements but missionaries often found themselves in conflict with the system because of its inhumane treatment of Indians. The church faced a severe shortage of priests and a loss of influence after the declaration of independence in 1819. Six episcopal sees were vacant during this period. The government assumed the right of patronage that had been reserved for the Spanish throne and the following decade was marked by a severe persecution of the church. In 1853 church and state were separated and civil marriage and divorce were introduced. In 1861 all church property was expropriated and church officials were exiled. The church was stripped of its juridical personality by the new Constitution of 1863. A rapprochement was begun in 1878 and completed in 1887. The Constitution of 1886 established Catholicism as the official religion of the Colombian people.
C
olumba, Saint (c.521–597)
Authors: Boyd Matthieu 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Irish version of the name is
Colum Cille
“Dove of the Church” (
Calum Cille
in Scottish Gaelic). Columba founded the abbey of Iona (an island off the western shore of present‐day Scotland) in 563. This became the head of an important monastic federation with an influential presence in Northumbria (e.g. at Lindisfarne) as well as in Ireland (at Derry, Durrow, Kells, etc.) and in what is now Scotland.
Contemplative Life
Authors: Coulter Dale M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The call to a life of contemplation arose from the desire to withdraw from society and its demands in order to pray, reflect, and intensify the individual's pursuit of God. Almost from the outset, this life became commensurate with leaving the daily activities, e.g. household duties, that prevent the individual from focusing exclusively on deepening religious commitment. With the removal of societal demands, the individual could engage in a life of leisure in the sense of a life devoted to the mind and spiritual development. As such, the contemplative life combined spiritual pursuits with the ancient idea of retreats for philosophical reflection.