bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Tracking, Competence, and Knowledge
Authors: Sosa Ernest 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article notes that in attempting to account for the conditions for knowledge, externalists have proposed that the justification condition be replaced or supplemented by the requirement that a certain modal relation be obtained between a fact and a subject's belief concerning that fact. It assesses attempts to identify such a relation. It focuses on an account labeled “Cartesian-tracking.” This accounts for the relation in the form of two conditionals: If a person S believes a proposition P˃P; and if P˃S believes P. This article suggests that the second conditional should be abandoned as a requirement and that the first one, equipped with its modifications, can offer promising results in connection with skepticism. It argues that if the first conditional is modified and coupled with the requirement that S's belief be “virtuous”, it can illuminate the nature of propositional knowledge.
Scientific Knowledge
Authors: Kitcher Philip 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article offers an approach to scientific knowledge that is more systematic than many current approaches in the epistemology of science. It challenges arguments against the truth of the theoretical claims of science. In addition, it attempts to discover reasons for endorsing the truth of such claims. It tries to apply current “scientific method” to this end, but doubts that any context-independent method gives warrant to the theoretical claims of science. It suggests that the discovery of reasons might succeed if one asks why anyone thinks the theoretical claims one accepts are true and then looks for answers that reconstruct actual belief-generating processes. To this end, this article presents the “homely argument” for scientific truth. It entails that when a field of science is continually applied to yield precise predictions, then it is at least approximately true.
Decision Theory and Epistemology
Authors: Kaplan Mark 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article finds it characteristic of orthodox Bayesians to hold that for each person and each hypothesis it comprehends, there is a precise degree of confidence that person has in the truth of that proposition, and that no person can be counted as rational unless the degree of confidence assignment it thus harbors satisfies the axioms of the probability calculus. In focusing exclusively on degrees of confidence, the Bayesian approach tells nothing about the epistemic status of the doxastic states epistemologists have traditionally been concerned about—categorical beliefs. The purpose of this article is twofold. First, it aims to show that, as powerful as many of such criticisms are against orthodox Bayesianism, there is a credible kind of Bayesianism. Second, it aims to show how this Bayesianism finds a foundation in considerations concerning rational preference.
Introduction
Authors: Bickle John 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This introductory article explains the coverage of the book, which is about the connection between philosophy and neuroscience. It discusses the beginning of the philosophy and neuroscience movement in 1986 which coincided with the publication of Patricia Churchland's Neurophilosophy. The text in this book is designed to make direct appeal to data and evidence from some recognized field of current neuroscience. The topics covered by this volume include functional neuroimaging, neuropsychological assessment, and molecular neuroscience.
Methodology and Reduction in the Behavioral Neurosciences: Object Exploration as a Case Study
Authors: Chemero Anthony , Heyser Charles J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article looks at the research methodologies in behavioral neurosciences focusing on reductionism and object exploration procedures for rodents. It provides a brief description of reduction and reductionism and describes the object exploration methodology as it is used in behavioral neuroscience, behavioral genetics, and psychopharmacology. It discusses three of a series of experiments conducted using the object exploration methodology which showed that the affordances of the to-be-explored objects affect the way rodents explore objects. It concludes that neuroscientists, even those who focus their research on genes or neurotransmitter effects, must attend closely to the details of behavior and that neuroscientists who use the object exploration methodology must adopt an extended cognition approach.
Space, Time, and Objects
Authors: Grush Rick 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article outlines a unified information processing framework whose goal is to explain how the nervous system represents space, time, and objects. It explains the concept of the emulation theory of representation and describes an extension of the emulation framework for temporal representation. It discusses Alexandre Pouget's basis function model of spatial representation and describes how to combine the basis function model of spatial representation with the trajectory emulation model of temporal representation to yield an information processing framework that genuinely represents behavioral spatiotemporal trajectories of behavioral objects.
Neuroanatomy and Cosmology
Authors: Cherniak Christopher 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article aims to examine the possible relation between neuroanatomy and cosmology. It describes brain-wiring optimization and suggests that such extreme neural network organization is a prerequisite for brain functioning, and it states that it is possible that other set of brain-enabling conditions of the universe exist. It also discusses the relation between brain-wiring minimization and optimization landscapes and between brain-wiring optimization and the anthropic principle.
Intuitionism Reconsidered
Authors: Cook Roy 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe debate between intuitionists and classical logicians is fought on two fronts. First, there is the battle over subject matter—the disputants disagree regarding which mathematical structures are legitimate domains of inquiry. Second, there is the battle over logic—they disagree over which algebraic structure correctly codifies logical consequence. In this article the emphasis is on the latter issue—it focuses on what the correct (formal) account of correct inference might look like, and, given such an account, how we should understand disagreements regarding the extension of the logical consequence relation. In the next two sections of the article, two typical sorts of arguments for intuitionistic logic are examined. The article then examines exactly what is at stake when one provides a logic as an account of logical consequence.
Naturalism Reconsidered
Authors: Weir Alan 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article focuses on naturalism. It makes one terminological distinction: between methodological naturalism and ontological naturalism. The methodological naturalist assumes there is a fairly definite set of rules, maxims, or prescriptions at work in the “natural” sciences, such as physics, chemistry, and molecular biology, this constituting “scientific method.” There is no algorithm which tells one in all cases how to apply this method; nonetheless, there is a body of workers—the scientific community—who generally agree on whether the method is applied correctly or not. Whatever the method is, exactly—such virtues as simplicity, elegance, familiarity, scope, and fecundity appear in many accounts—it centrally involves an appeal to observation and experiment. Correct applications of the method have enormously increased our knowledge, understanding, and control of the world around us to an extent which would scarcely be imaginable to generations living prior to the age of modern science.
Nominalism
Authors: Chihara Charles 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Undoubtedly, the most enlightening published work dedicated to giving knowledgeable readers an overview of the topic of nominalism in contemporary philosophy of mathematics is A Subject with No Object by John Burgess and Gideon Rosen. This article begins with a brief description of that work, in order to provide readers with a solidly researched account of nominalism with which the article's own account of nominalism can be usefully compared. The first part, then, briefly presents the Burgess–Rosen account. A contrasting account is given in the longer second part.
Predicativity
Authors: Feferman Solomon 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
While the term predicativity suggests that there is a single idea involved, what the history will show is that there are a number of ideas of predicativity which may lead to different logical analyses. This article uncovers these only gradually. A central question is then what, if anything, unifies them. Though early discussions are often muddy on the concepts and their employment, in a number of important respects they set the stage for the further developments, and so this article gives them special attention. Note that, ahistorically, modern logical and set-theoretical notation are used throughout, as long as it does not conflict with original intentions.
Relevance in Reasoning
Authors: Tennant Neil 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article advances an unabashedly partisan view of how best to “relevantize” a logic. The view is laid out as informally as possible, given the technical nature of the subject matter. Here, “relevantizing” is understood as the project of formulating a decent system of logic that does not endorse Lewis's First Paradox: A, ¬A:B. Such a system will be paraconsistent, in that it will allow for distinct inconsistent theories (within a given language). But it will not be dialetheist. That is, it will not allow for true contradictions. Dialetheism does not follow from (though, in order to avoid trivialization, it requires) a refusal to infer whatever one pleases from a contradiction.
No Requirement of Relevance
Authors: Burgess John P. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Classic logic defines entailment to hold between a premise (or set of premises) and a conclusion if and only if their logical form guarantees that either the premise (or at least one element of the set of premises) is false, or the conclusion is true. The definition obliges the logician to recognize certain degenerate entailments. A premise (or set of premises) that is contradictory in the sense that its logical form guarantees that it is false (or that at least one element of the set of is false) entails any conclusion: ex falso quodlibet. And a conclusion that is tautologous in the sense that its logical form guarantees that it is true is entailed by any premise (or set of premises): ex quolibet verum. The commitment of classical logic to these principles has frequently been attacked by indignant critics who denounce the degenerate cases of entailment as “paradoxes.”
Higher‐order Logic Reconsidered
Authors: Jané Ignacio 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article discusses canonical (i.e., full, or standard) second-order consequence and argues against it being a case of logical consequence. The discussion is divided into three parts. The first part comprises the first three sections. After stating the problem in Section 1, Sections 2 and 3 examine the role that the consequence relation is expected to play in axiomatic theories. This leads to put forward two requirements on logical consequence, which are called “formality” and “noninterference.” It is this last requirement that canonical second-order consequence violates, as the article sets out to substantiate. The fourth section argues that canonical second-order logic is inadequate for axiomatizing set theory, on the grounds that it codes a significant amount of set-theoretical content.
Nontheistic Conceptions of the Divine
Authors: Griffiths Paul J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Nontheistic conceptions of the divine could be classified and discussed in many ways. One approach would be to construct a typology of possible nontheistic understandings, but this would be tedious and not terribly useful. A second approach—the one followed here—would collect some representative instances of nontheistic understandings of the divine and would comment on the concepts and argumentative strategies that inform them. Because most theistic understandings of the divine will be related in one way or another to Judaism, Christianity, or Islam, it will be easiest and most useful for purposes of contrast to take the examples from traditions of thought and practice largely or completely uninfluenced by the concepts familiar to these Abrahamic religions.
Religious Epistemology
Authors: Wolterstorff Nicholas 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Adherence to a religion, and participation therein, typically incorporate such actions as worship, prayer, meditation, self-discipline, commemorating certain persons and events, treating certain writings as canonical, allowing one's beliefs and actions to be formed by one's own and others' interpretation of those writings, acting in certain characteristic ways in society, and associating with one's fellow adherents for all the above activities. Typically they also incorporate a variety of propositional attitudes: hoping that certain events will take place, trusting that certain events will take place, regretting that certain events did take place, believing that certain things are true about God, about the cosmos, about the natural world, about human beings—their misery and glory, their history, their institutions. Wittgenstein's phrase “form of life” is appropriate: adherence to and participation in a religion is a form of life.
God, Science, and Naturalism
Authors: Draper Paul R. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
How is science related to theology or, more broadly, to religion? According to one view, religion has made war on science by trying to stop or limit or control scientific progress. Further, this war is inevitable, both because the questions addressed by science and religion overlap and because scientific and religious modes of thought stand in fundamental opposition to each other. Scientists are disinterested investigators who make objective and demonstrable claims based on known facts; theologians are biased apologists who make subjective and speculative claims based on unsupported opinion. The warfare view is seriously flawed, both philosophically and historically. All sorts of biases influence scientific research; scientific inferences are obviously not demonstrative; and what scientists take to be the “facts” often depends in part on the theories they hold.
Faith and Revelation
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The concepts of faith and revelation, though logically distinct, are related in a variety of ways. All of the great theistic religions, especially the Abrahamic faiths of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, have traditionally taught that God can be known only through revelation. Because God is conceived by these traditions to be all-powerful and all-knowing, it is impossible for anyone to gain knowledge of God unless God is willing for this to occur. In some sense, all knowledge of God is made possible by God's decision to allow himself to become known. Reflection on God's revelation in these traditions has generally distinguished between God's general revelation and what are termed special revelations.
Death and the Afterlife
Authors: Baker Lynne Rudder 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Death comes to all creatures, but human beings are unique in realizing that they will die. Hence, they are unique in being able to consider the possibility of life after death. Ideas of an afterlife of one sort or another have been promulgated by all manner of cultures and religions. For ancient peoples, the afterlife was a realm of vastly diminished existence populated by shades, ghostly counterparts of bodies. Ancient Indians and Egyptians before 2000 bce postulated a judgment after death. There are many conceptions of an afterlife. To say that there is an afterlife (of any kind) is to say that biological death is not the permanent end of a human being's existence: At least some people continue to exist and to have experiences after death. The idea of reincarnation is shared by a number of religions, including Hindu, Jaina, and Buddhist.
Feminism and Analytic Philosophy of Religion
Authors: Coakley Sarah 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The relation between analytic philosophy of religion and feminist thought has to date been a strained one. To the extent that most analytic philosophers of religion have attended to feminist theory or feminist theology at all, their acknowledgment has generally gone no further than a belated concession to the use of gender-inclusive language. More substantial issues raised by feminist philosophy or theology have in large part been ignored in the standard literature. Although there have been certain notable exceptions to this “rule,” it is undeniable that analytic philosophy of religion remains predominantly “gender blind” in its thinking, and thus, no doubt unsurprisingly, when feminist thinkers have troubled to comment on the discipline, their criticisms have tended to be severe. This article primarily aims to probe the reasons for the mutual incomprehension between the disciplines of analytic philosophy of religion and feminist thought, and to chart—and assess—the feminist criticisms leveled against analytic philosophy of religion for what is claimed to be its covert “masculinist” bias.
Alternative Spiritualities, New Religions, and The Reenchantment of the West
Authors: Partridge Christopher 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article asks if the West is witnessing a thoroughgoing erosion of belief in the supernatural. Is the loss of faith in otherworldly forces a linear, one-way, inevitable decline, or are there reasons to believe in the reemergence of religion in the West? On the other hand, if there is evidence indicating that the West is witnessing a gradual “sacralization,” should we abandon notions of “secularization?” Or are we in the midst of a much more complex process in which accurate analysis demands that we take account of both secularization and sacralization, disenchantment and reenchantment? It is argued that while disenchantment is ubiquitously apparent in the West, the forces of secularization have never quite been able to stifle the shoots of religion. Although traditional forms of institutional religion have been seriously damaged and do not seem to be able to arrest the process of erosion, cracks are appearing in the disenchanted landscape and new forms of significant spiritual life are emerging.
Conversion and “Brainwashing” in New Religious Movements
Authors: Anthony Dick , Robbins Thomas 
Published: September 2009

AbstractA substantial amount of research has transpired regarding patterns of conversion to “alternative religions” or new religious movements (NRMs). A disproportionate amount of this research and related theorizing has concerned the assertion that recruitment to certain “cults” has been essentially involuntary in the sense that powerful techniques of “brainwashing,” “mind control,” or “coercive persuasion” have rendered the processes of conversion and commitment psychologically coercive and nonconsensual, notwithstanding its formally voluntary status. Although various forms of the mind control thesis have been supported by self-proclaimed “cult experts,” most scholars who have actually done research on the topic view their results as contradicting the thesis. This article focuses on the issue of involuntary conversion of the “brainwashing thesis.” It summarizes research on the topic and presents a theoretical critique that will identify its cultural significance.
Children in New Religious Movements
Authors: Hardman Charlotte E. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article outlines the main issues and debates surrounding “kids in cults”. It demonstrates how the vast majority of the literature upon which most people's understanding of children in new religious movements (NRMs) has been constructed remains focused on three key themes, which have preoccupied the public and academics alike. The first part of the article puts the understanding of children in NRMs in perspective, pointing out the historical and cross-cultural relativity of the concept of the child. The second part looks at the research and media interest in children in NRMs, which have concentrated on child abuse, including mental and sexual abuse and neglect; child socialization and education; child custody cases and “the best interests of the child.” It outlines the key arguments in each of these three areas. In conclusion, the article argues that, the focus on the scandals involving children in NRMs draws attention away from developing wider research on the ways in which children develop spiritually, how they gain meaning and order from the religious and cultural patterns in which they live, and what they think about religion and spirituality, whether growing up in new religious movements or the mainstream.
Historical Institutionalism and the Study of Law
Authors: Smith Rogers 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
In 1984, James March and Johan Olsen published a landmark article, “The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life,” which saw in political science “a resurgence of concern with institutions.” March and Olsen did not cite any works focused on law, but they suggested the relevance of new institutionalist approaches to legal scholarship by arguing that “Constitutions, laws, contracts, and customary rules of politics...develop within the context of political institutions.” They also stressed the significance of “normative structures” defining “duties, obligations, roles and rules,” and how “consistency and inconsistency in beliefs affect...political meaning” and the creation of “social order.” Subsequently, they endorsed jurisprudential views holding that judges, like other institutional actors, actively gave “meaning to the values they espouse” in politically consequential ways. This article discusses the emergence of historical institutionalism, historical institutionalism as a theoretical perspective, and the current state of future prospects for historical institutionalism and public law.
Establishing and Maintaining Judicial Independence
Authors: Vanberg Georg 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The ideal of judicial independence expresses the aspiration that judicial decisions should not be influenced in an inappropriate manner by considerations judged to be normatively irrelevant. Typically, judicial independence in this sense is associated with independence from the political interests of current office holders. Judges are independent when threats of sanctions or promises of rewards by public officials in return for favorable decisions do not have inappropriate sway over their decisions. An independent judiciary is created and maintained primarily because it serves the interests of those in a position to undermine it. This article considers how judicial independence can be established and maintained. It discusses the connection between judicial accountability and independence, and the role that accountability may play in preserving independence. The article also examines separation of powers and how it can guarantee judicial independence, and issues of credibility and reciprocity.