bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Subsea Sensors for Non-Intrusive Monitoring of Temperature, Pressure and Asset Integrity
Authors: Thivend Guillaume , Murray Nuala Mary 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
The growth in deep water field developments and the need for increased oil recovery with reduced capital expenditure are pushing the technical boundaries of subsea asset design. One of the challenges facing these new developments is monitoring the structural health of their subsea production asset in an inherently inaccessible location. This is usually done through structural modeling and either spot monitoring campaigns using MEMS accelerometers or through subsea conventional strain gauges. Both technics present weaknesses: MEMS sensors usually require a great deal of data processing to obtain functional strain information at a desired location and strain gauges are complicated to install in a marine environment, many failing during pressure testing or installation. Both are also suseptible to electromagnetic fields which can biais their measurement.
This paper presents details of a new non-intrusive integrity monitoring sensor systems recently deployed in the Gulf of Mexico and West Africa on production lines. Inherently reliable, as presenting no moving parts, these sensors use optical fibers embedded within a composite frame for their measurements. Using field proven subsea fiber optic mapping technology these systems have delivered high frequency un-biaised, on the pipe, strain from which is derived pipe bending and axial loading in addition to temperature and pressure monitoring.
By providing electromagneticly immune, low noise, un-biaised, strain measurements to structural engineers to verify and improve their fatigue behaviour models, the non-intursive integrity monitoring system has proven a reliable alternative to MEMS and strain gauges. Furthermore unlike alternative solutions, this system also monitors pressure, illustrating this technology's capability at providing production and flow assurance data in addition to integrity data making it an ideal tool within a subsea production surveillance strategy.
Leading Edge Subsurface Technologies for AKPO, A Complex Condensate Field
Authors: Bandele Victor Abimbola , Claudel Gilles 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACT
This paper addresses geophysical, geological and reservoir engineering aspects of AKPO, a complex deep-offshore field operated by Total Upstream Nigeria Limited (TUPNI). This world-class field is under development in OML 130 in a region with about 1400m water depth, 135 km off the coast of Nigeria. The objective of the AKPO project is to produce condensate from Miocene turbiditic sandstone reservoirs deposited on a faulted anticline in submarine channels and lobes. The reservoirs are unconsolidated, highly permeable and present a complex and heterogeneous architecture. These ingredients, together with the thermodynamic properties and peculiarities of the reservoir fluids, place AKPO in a league of its own and combine to make challenging and demanding reservoir management. After a start-up on 4 March 2009, the field is in the initial production stage with a number of deviated and horizontal subsea producer and injector wells still planned to be drilled as per Field Development Plan.
With nine months of production history, the challenge for the Operator is to carry on the development of the field in order to sustain the condensate production plateau of 175,000 bbls/d in the success vein of the first 24 wells. The application of leading edge technology comprising seismic, reservoir characterization and numerical simulation through integrated subsurface work by a Nigeria-based multi-cultural core team, produced for AKPO a creative combination to optimize production and secure reserves. This is the best preparation for long-term reservoir management and geological vagaries.
The OML 130 license is operated by TOTAL with 24% interest, on behalf of the Nigerian National Petroleum Company (NNPC - Nigeria), South Atlantic Petroleum Company (SAPETRO - Nigeria), PETROBRAS (Brazil) and China National Offshore Oil Company (CNOOC - China).

GENERAL SETTING
The deep-offshore field developed by Total Upstream Nigeria Ltd is in OML 130 located 135km off the coast in a water depth of 1400m. AKPO is a large anticline structure located in the translational zone of the offshore Niger Delta. The structure is clearly defined as a faulted four-way-dip closure anticline slightly elongated in an EW direction with a vertical structural closure of nearly 500 m at the reservoir levels. The discovery was made in 1999 (Well Akpo-1) and four appraisal wells were drilled in 2000-2002 to confirm the potential of this giant condensate field with 620 MMbbls estimated reserves. The AKPO core consists in two main sectors with central pools (Reservoirs B, D, EF and G) and an eastern pool (Reservoir A). The trapping for the A channels has a stratigraphic component with the shaling out of the reservoirs toward the anticline crest. The western lobe, relatively much smaller in size than the AKPO core areas, was penetrated by seven wells so far but still suffers from large uncertainties. It is not part of the first phase of development.
AKPO Project -- Floating Production & Offloading System (FPSO)
Authors: Bernard Tchigique 
Published: July 2010

ABSTRACT
This paper addresses the main characteristics of the AKPO FPSO. Although the FPSO is similar to other existing ones in terms of size, it is unique, in some particular technical details and principals which have been incorporated in the design, such as:An all electric FPSOAn early ICSS selectionE/I decentralized buildingsA 128 m flare with extensive heat shieldingCareful study of the space needed for Maintenance and handlingFlexibility in accommodation capacity of the living quartersBenefit taken from the tow between Korea and Nigeria
Because of these particular characteristics, it was possible to start-up the AKPO field in a limited time frame (ahead of schedule) and without any major problems.

AKPO DEVELOPMENT
TOTAL, is the Operator on OML 130 with a 24% interest. The partners are Petrobras of Brazil, Sapetro of Nigeria, CNOOC of China and NNPC of Nigeria.
Akpo is a standalone development based on a spread moored Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO) moored in 1314m water depth with a storage capacity of 2 million barrels of condensate. The stabilized condensate is exported via offloading lines and a deep water buoy located 2 km away from the FPSO.
The Akpo development involves five reservoirs, deposited in a complex channels and lobe arrangement, situated at depth ranging from 2950mSS to 3750mSS. The reservoir fluid is a critical fluid, which implies that the fluid type is dependent on pressure, temperature and depth. The liquid produced is light oil/condensate (42° to 53° API), with a high gas-liquid ratio (GLR = 1600 to 7300 scf/bbl). Pressure maintenance in the reservoirs is necessary, with water injection in 4 of the reservoirs and gas injection in one.
The development includes 44 subsea wells (22 production, 20 water injection and 2 gas injection) drilled in clustered subsea architecture. For the initial production start-up, around half of these wells are required to be online for production and reservoir pressure maintenance purposes.
Offshore Diamond Mining in the Early Days
Authors: Swoboda John J. , Swoboda Jay 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
In 1961, there was a handful of visionary pioneers who knew very little about mining but were willing to gamble their ideas, tenacity, determination, future and fortune against the most inhospitable waters off the West Coast of South Africa. Their reward, if the gamble paid off, was a new method of harvesting diamonds from the ocean floor. This venture was a tremendous undertaking because there was no previous history of success and the extremely dangerous environment in which it was undertaken.
Dredging up sand and gravel from the seafloor had been successful in moderate seas. However, this effort would have to succeed in the shallow surf zone along one of the most dangerous coastlines in the world; even its name was foreboding - the Skeleton Coast. These men and their equipment would be subject to heavy swells averaging 20-30 feet with gale force winds. The shore offered little respite, nothing but desert in all directions. These forces of nature challenged these pioneers and on several occasions subjected their ideas, methods and equipment to devastating results. But this band of hearty Texans, Afrikaans and others took all nature threw at them and persevered. From 1961 to 1965 they developed the technology and techniques and proved to the world that offshore diamond mining was commercially viable.
Equipment and methods were improved and altered based on the successes and problems that arose. Nothing stood still. When the shipyard couldn't build the next vessel in time, they started their own company to do it. When the diamond cartel offered to market their diamonds at a reduced rate they created a new mystique and market. When the vessels drug anchors, foundered or had other difficulties, the crews did whatever it took to get them back in service.
Mining diamonds offshore has grown from finding a handful of stones in 1961 to current production of over a million carats per year from the sea. The challenge for today's leaders is to rekindle and develop that pioneering and entrepreneurial spirit, drive and attitude - that same spirit that changed the world of diamond mining 50 years ago.
Performance Benefits of the MinDOC Hull at the Mirage Field in a Post-Katrina/Rita Environment
Authors: Herman Dan , Garrett David L. , Shivers Robert M. , Veselis Todd 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
The MinDoc3 platform, a dry tree capable, spread-moored deep draft floater featuring three columns braced together, was selected for Mirage field development because of flexibility, functionality and ability to fabricate in the US Gulf Coast. This paper presents the MinDOC's global performance and discusses impacts from hull form, mooring design and riser interaction and makes comparisons to previous design standards. The Mirage Field is located in Mississippi Canyon 941/942 in 4000 ft WD. The weather criteria includes the impact of hurricanes Katrina/Rita, and allows for maximum wave heights and robust mooring considerations.
The MinDOC's global performance has been modeled experimentally and numerically with good correlation. VIM behavior was determined experimentally, and suppression is achieved by only straking the interior portion of the upper columns, which simplifies horizontal construction.
The MinDOC was chosen for its payload, robustness and low motions. The mooring system is a relatively typical 3x4 semi-taught chain-polyester-chain system with a radius of approximately 6700 ft. The MinDOC hull form global motions are sufficiently low to permit the use of Top-Tensioned risers and Dry Trees. The low motions reduce riser stroke, which also reduced tensioner stiffness, and reduce the coupling impacts on the global motions. The low motions were achieved by a conscious effort to concurrently design the hull, risers, tensioners and mooring systems.

Introduction
MinDOC hull design was initiated in late 2006 with design and fabrication commencing nearly in parallel. The initial design site is for the Mirage field, located in Mississippi Canyon in Blocks 941/942. The location is near the edge of the shelf and the mooring system water depth varies from 3,822 ft in the north, to 4,288 ft in the south.
The mooring pattern consists of 12 lines arranged in three bundles spaced 120° with each bundle having four lines grouped in two pairs. The platform bow orientation is 156 degrees. The leg numbering starts with the SE most line, counting clockwise around. Each mooring leg is chain-polyester-chain and consists of 5" R4 studless top chain, 9.75" Polyester and 5" R4 studless bottom chains. The nominal radius is approximately 6700 ft from the fairlead to the anchor chain touchdown. The total nominal length of each line is 7,500 ft. (Figure 1).
Considerations For Standalone Development of Small Deepwater Fields
Authors: Shivers Robert M. , Frazer Ross 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
This paper describes development planning for the Mirage & Telemark Fields located in 4000 - 4500 ft WD in the Gulf of Mexico. These fields are relatively small, short lived oil fields with multiple pay zones. Factors driving development planning include:Lack of accessible nearby infrastructureMultiple pay horizons & short field lifeLimited availability of MODU's for pre-drillingPotential satellite tiebacks in the vicinityParallel vs. sequential development of the nearby Telemark FieldFunctionality & Residual value in floating infrastructure
These fields have 2 - 4 pay zones in each well, so a dry tree concept was preferred. Because the floating platform design life is over 20 years vs. estimated field life of only 5 - 7 years, the development facilities need to be designed for convenient relocation to other deepwater fields in order to maximize residual value.
The MinDOC3 (Minimum Deepwater Operating Concept) hull was selected for field development because of flexibility, functionality and ability to fabricate in the US Gulf Coast. Hull construction required installation of the first graving dock for offshore construction in the US Gulf Coast.

Introduction
The Deepwater Gulf of Mexico, like most oil & gas provinces, is characterized by early development of relatively few very large fields which provide a cornerstone for primary infrastructure development, but with many smaller fields left behind for later development. A recent report issued by the Minerals Management Service showed that through 2008, only 9 proven deepwater fields had reserves &gt;250 MMBOE, but 150 fields had reserves &lt;50 MMBOE.1
ATP Oil & Gas focuses on acquisition and development of discovered, deepwater fields and typically, these are smaller fields (&lt;50 MMBOE) which are nearing the end of their primary lease term. Leasehold preservation in these circumstances often requires rapid submission of a field development plan, leaving little time for extensive appraisal drilling or concept evaluation. Short term field development planning is further complicated by the fact that these fields usually are not large enough to justify extensive appraisal drilling and well testing. Long term development planning must allow for cost effective platform relocation and reuse because of the short field lives (3 - 7 years) compared to the life of the floating platform (20+ years). Therefore, floating infrastructure investment must provide flexibility and functionality for future fields in different water depths and with different combinations of dry vs. wet trees.
Qualification and Use of IR-Cured XLPE for Flexible Pipes
Authors: Procida Inger-Margrete , Nielsen Niels-J. Rishoj 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
Unbonded flexible pipes constitute key components in floating production systems for the offshore oil and gas industry and it is important to continuously improve the performance of these pipes to meet the demands of production regularity under increasingly severe operational conditions.
The polymeric pressure sheath is a critical component in flexible pipes as the function of the layer is to make the pipe leak proof. Therefore, it is important to carry out material research to enhance the performance of this layer thus further securing the long term integrity of the pipe. A new method to cross-link HDPE pressure sheath in flexible pipes using Peroxide in combination with infrared radiation (IR) has been developed. This method is unique in the sense that it is an inline process where extrusion and cross-linking is done in one step. The IR-cured XLPE technology will be described in this paper with emphasis on presentation of detailed results from the comprehensive qualification programme which has been carried out according to API Spec 17J / ISO 13628-2 [1]. Also, actual field applications of these pipes will be presented including ID15?? flowlines.
The newly developed IR cross-linking method significantly expands the application envelope of the conventional XLPE flexible pipes, for example with respect to increase of allowable bore pressure and temperature, and the manufacture of large size pipes up to ID16?? or more with uniform cross-linking of the entire thick-walled pressure sheath. Further novel applications which this technology enables include the manufacture of cross-linked intermediate and outer sheath layers. The paper will present comprehensive qualification test results from both material and mid-scale pipe testing which document that the new IR cross-linking technology is superior to the conventional cross-linking technology previously used for flexible pipes. In particular, it is shown that the new XLPE material can sustain considerably higher pressure and temperature loads compared to existing industry standards, for example as specified in API RP 17B / ISO 13628-11 [2].

Introduction
Flexible pipes are complex multi-layered structures built from a number of helically wound metallic wires or strips combined with concentric layers of polymers, textiles, fabric tapes and lubricants. The number, type and sequence of the component layer depend on the specific design requirements. Figure 1 shows a typical unbonded flexible pipe build-up, which according to API RP 17B / ISO 13628-11 [2] is categorized as a Family 3 pipe structure, with carcass (inner-most layer), internal pressure sheath, pressure and tensile armour layers, and outer sheath.
Carbon Capture and Sequestration: Overview and Offshore Aspects
Authors: Liner Christopher , McCurdy Paul J.A. , Noyes Kyle Carter 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
Although this talk is about carbon dioxide (CO2), our starting point is energy. From the EIA Annual Energy Outlook (EIA, 2009) we find petroleum liquids, coal, and natural gas dominate the United States (US) energy mix. This energy picture is mirrored around the world. Most projections are that the energy load is going to increase in lock step with the current 1.2% world population growth.
Jeffrey Stewart of Lawrence Livermore National Lab (LLNL) has been publishing diagrams illustrating this energy mix (Figure 1). If you are not used to looking at Stewart diagrams, they appear rather chaotic. But they are full of information about US and world energy use. For the US in 2002, the Stewart diagram shows net energy use of 97 quads (a quad is 1015 BTU). It breaks down such interesting details as domestic and import oil input and oil usage divided between transportation (65%), industrial (10%), and residential (5%) fuels, as well as non-fuel use (13%). For each category of energy use, there is a certain amount of energy loss: usable energy and unused energy lost in the form of heat. We see that none of these energy applications is alarmingly efficient, but oil in transportation use is alarmingly inefficient with 80% of the energy lost.
Perdido Development Extending the Functionality of a Single Lift Topsides
Authors: Shallenberger Kurt , Smith Keith 
Published: July 2010

Abstract
The Perdido Regional Host is a Wet Tree Direct Vertical Access (DVA) Spar Facility in the Gulf of Mexico located approximately 200 miles south of Freeport, Texas. Production from subsea wells flows to Caisson Separators at the seafloor. Pumped oil and free flowing gas travel up risers into the center well of the host facility. Shell, Chevron and BP are joint venture partners with Shell as the Operator.
The Perdido Topsides was designed to deliver high producing and drilling functionality while capturing the benefits of a single offshore lift module concept. The benefits of a single module are reduced design interfaces, less steel, pipe & cable, and reduced offshore integration cost and duration. Reduced offshore integration reduces safety risk.
Final functionality was 100MBOPD, 200mmcfd gas, 80 MBWPD waterflood, Minimum Area Self Erecting (MASE) Drilling Rig and 150 person Quarters. This paper will communicate the efforts required to successfully meet this goal over the duration of development.

System Selection
In System Selection, subsurface and water depth requirements drove the solution of a Wet Tree DVA Spar with Artificial lift. In the evaluation of Topsides concepts, Spar Deck benchmarking identified two kinds of facilities (see Figures 1 & 2):Single piece modules - medium throughputs, small rigs and medium staff countsMulti modules were required for larger throughputs, rigs and staff counts
This step change opportunity initiated an effort to evaluate the feasibility to extend the single piece concept to the functionality required for Perdido.
The technical benchmarking compared dry fabricated weight to functionality, which is independent of market, skewed cost indices. We had found previous functionality metrics such as Barrels of Oil Equivalents (BOE) Throughput as misleading, because it did not take into account the impacts of waterflood, subsea artificial lift power, relative compression requirements or export pipeline pump horsepower. After much trial and error, we chose to use " Total Installed Power?? which included all fired drivers for Power Generation, Compression and Waterflood. This metric captured the impacts previously missing above and showed distinction in the break-over from single lift to multi-module (see Figure 3).
Early weight studies placed Perdido's functionality requirements clearly into the multi-module category. Technical benchmarking efforts indicated BP's Horn Mountain design as having the best functionality to weight performance of the Spar Topsides to date. With the assistance of our joint venture partners (BP & Chevron) and Alliance Engineering we evaluated the Horn Mountain design and operating performance. We then created a lightweight Perdido concept with Alliance Engineering that would fall below the maximum lift configuration of Heerema's Thialf Vessel. This was followed by performing extensive reviews challenging the scope and the risking of weight growth exposure.
Polymer‐Templated Hydrothermal Growth of Vertically Aligned Single‐Crystal ZnO Nanorods and Morphological Transformations Using Structural Polarity
Authors: Kim Ki Seok , Jeong Hyun , Jeong Mun Seok , Jung Gun Young 
Published: July 2010

AbstractPosition‐configurable, vertical, single‐crystalline ZnO nanorod arrays are fabricated via a polymer‐templated hydrothermal growth method at a low temperature of 93 °C. A sol‐gel processed dense c‐oriented ZnO seed layer film is employed to grow nanorods along the c‐axis direction [0001] regardless of any substrate crystal mismatches. Here, one‐beam laser‐interference lithography is utilized to fabricate nanoscale holes over an entire 2‐in. wafer during the preparation of the polymer template. As such, vertically aligned ZnO nanorods can be grown from the seed layer exposed at the bottom of each hole. Furthermore, morphological transformations of the ZnO nanorods into pencil‐like, needle‐like, tubular, tree‐like, and spherical shapes are obtained by controlling the growth conditions and utilizing the structural polarity of the ZnO nanorods.