bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
On the responses to environmental stimuli, and the sensory physiology of Millipedes (Diplopoda).
Authors: CLOUDSLEY‐THOMPSON J. L. 
Published: August 2010

SUMMARY.The behaviour and sensory physiology of Paradesmus gracilis (C. L. Koch) and Blaninlus guttulatus (Bose) have been investigated. Both species posses a dermal light sense, and respond to light stimuli by means of a simple orthokinesis. Their temperature reactions fall into three categories: a general orthokinetic metabolic effect upon speed of locomotion, duration of spiral reflex, etc., a preference shown klinokinetically for temperatures about 15°C.; and orthokinetic activity stimulated by sudden drops in temperature. The temperature sense cannot be aseribed to any particular sensillae, but resides in the antennae as well as elsewhere. Positive geotaxis become apparent under the influence of the orthokinesis engendered by desiceation. The Tömösvary organs may be gravity receptors, but if so the stimulation of various proprioceptive organs by the weight of the body acting on limtes is probably also concerned in the reception of the stimulus.No orthokinetic response to humidity comparable with that found in woodlice and wireworms has been observed: the millipedes show maximum locomotory activity at all humidity ranges, but once they have finally come to rest, they do not readily start moving again. Responses to moisture, however, are far more important in their behaviour; they are purely orthokinetic, and probably a general effect of dehydration. Possibly both Tömösvary organs and trichoid sensillae register vibrations: the millipedes respond by curling up (spiral reflex), but very slight vibrations frequently stimulate locomotory activity. Reactions to contact stimuli are of very great significance in the behaviour of millipedes. They are chiefly orthokinetic, and the tactile hairs on the limbs, sides of the body, and particularly on the antennae are the sensory receptors.Millipedes do not respond to odours, but there is an orthokinetic “attraction” to gluclose and sucrose with a threshold about 0·5 gm. litre. There is no attraction to asparagine and strach, but urea repels Blavials. Antennary and gnathochilarial basiconic sensillae are the receptors for contact chemical stimulation. Removal of, or painting over the antennae induces a state of depression which persists until death.The significance of the behaviour and sensory responses of millipedes in relation to their ecology is discussed with particular reference to the importance of Blaniulus as an agricultural pest.
The mummified cats of ancient Egypt.
Authors: MORRISON‐SCOTT T. C. S. 
Published: August 2010

SUMMARY.A series of one hundred and ninety skulls of mummified cats, excavated at Gizeh, and dating from approximately 600‐200 B. C., has formed the basis of an enquiry into the identity of the cats of ancient Egypt. Statistical analysis of the measurements of these skulls, and a critical examination of the available evidence, lead to the view that two forms of cat were mummified. The larger form, which is not so common as a mummy, and which may or may not have been domesticated, represents Felis chaus. The smaller, and by far the commoner, mummies were thought by Ehrenberg (1833) to represent two forms, one larger than the other, and Ehrenberg's view has been adopted by many subsequent authors. But the evidence does not support this view and, apart from the large chaus, the cats mummified by ancient Egyptians appear to represent one form only, the skulls of which agree closely with those of the wild Felis libyca Forster, from which it was probably derived. If this view is correct this form should be known as Felis libyca bubastis Ehrenberg, 1833.From paintings and figures it seems that bubastis, which was certainly domesticated, was a ginger‐coloured cat, with rather long ears and legs, and with a long, ringed tail.
THE LATERAL MUSCULATURE AND THE SWIMMING OF FISH
Authors: NURSALL J. R. 
Published: August 2010

SUMMARYThe lateral musculature of the fish‐like chordates has been examined in an effort to find reasons for the peculiar pattern of the myomeres. There are three distinct types of myomeres: amphioxine, cyclostomine and piscine. All have in common the function of bending their possessors' bodies from side to side to provide locomotor force. In all cases pull is applied obliquely to the long axis of the body. The myomeres pull at once latero‐craniad and laterocaudad to bend the body from its position of equilibrium, or rest, into concavity. If continued, this movement would lead to a condition of instability, in which the vectors of the forces applied would pass across the axis of bending and the body would be distorted. However, the length of the body and its resistance to compression prevents this. Also, during locomotion, restorative forces are developed on the convex side of the body to supplant the original bending movement and the body passes through the equilibrium position to become concave on the opposite side. These reactions follow one another through myomere after myomere from head to tail along the body of the animal; the result is lateral waves passing rapidly down the body, the reaction of which with the water provides locomotion. Each myomere covers several vertebral segments and succeeding myomeres overlap. This allows the bending to progress smoothly along the body as each myomere affects not only its own section of the body but also those of its neighbours.The myomeres gain attachment to vertebral centra, neural and haemal spines (or ribs) and the connective tissue septa between these structures. Secondary attachments by means of longitudinal ligaments, formed by the apposition of deep myosepta, often occur, especially among the Chondrichthyes.The mechanical advantage of a segment of the lateral musculature is very small, but it approaches unity among the tunas, In these fish the muscle is concentrated in the body region, while the caudal peduncle supports long tendons running to the caudal fin.Intermuscular bones appear in the myosepta of many species of fish. These appear to have been developed in response to stresses and strains set up by the musculature.
THE ORIGIN OF NEST‐CEMENT IN EDIBLE‐NEST SWIFTLETS (COLLOCALIA SPP.)
Authors: MARSHALL A. J. , FOLLEY S. J. 
Published: August 2010

SUMMARY

A re‐examination of the alimentary tract of two species of Asiatic swiftlets (Collocalia) appears to confirm Bernstein's (1859) hypothesis that nest‐cement is produced by salivary glands. There is no sign of a crop‐gland such as occurs in pigeons and doves.
The salivary glands of Collocalia are relatively enormous in comparison with those of the unrelated Swallow Hirundo which has apparently similar aerial‐feeding habits yet does not cement its nest. On the other hand, the oesophageal and gastric mucosa in both genera are much the same.
A strikingly differential degree of salivary gland development is demonstrated in two species of Collocalia (taken on the same day at the same cavern) which are said to have different breeding dates. No such difference was detected in the oesophageal and gastric epithelium of the same examples. The probability of a hormonal control of the seasonal development of the salivary glands of Collocalia is briefly discussed.
SURVIVAL CURVES OF MAMMALS IN CAPTIVITY
Authors: COMFORT A. 
Published: August 2010

SUMMARY

Life tables and survival curves were constructed for eight species of mammal from data in the records of the Zoological Society of London.
Upon arithmetic coordinates, all the survival curves were approximately straight lines over the period of adult life.
The survival curves of two species of sheep, and of hybrid wolves, were nearly identical. That of wild goats was similar in form but significantly longer in duration.
The data are compared with figures for wild and domestic populations of similar animals. The survival curve of wolves was approximately similar to that of wolfhounds. The maximum longevities of domestic, wild, and zoological garden sheep were similar, but the median age reached by zoological garden sheep was lower, and the early adult mortality higher, than in wild sheep subject to predation. There was no significantly greater loss of lambs in zoological garden sheep compared with agricultural flocks.
The relationship between survival curves obtained under these conditions and curves for wild and for fully domestic animals is discussed.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE TAXONOMIST'S JUDGMENT OF AFFINITY
Authors: Cain A. J. , Harrison G. A. 
Published: August 2010

SUMMARY

The basic idea of affinity as overall similarity, which is logically and historically prior to that of evolutionary affinity, is described. It is in constant use in taxonomy
After an analysis of the ideas of different forms, the general plan of construction of an organism, similarity in general plan, and the single character, a procedure is worked out which makes precise the judgment of affinity, and enables us to obtain a numerical value for the mean character difference between any two forms
As a result, it is shown that the family tree diagram can be used only for the evolutionary topology of a group, not for showing amount of evolutionary difference
A measure of the relevance of a taxonomic comparison is described
The possibility of giving a quantitative basis to the taxonomic hierarchy is pointed out
VARIATION IN THE MAXILLARY NERVE OF CERTAIN MAMMALS
Authors: Ashton E. H. , Oxnard C. E. 
Published: August 2010

SUMMARY

A study has been made of the maxillary nerve in eighty‐three specimens of nineteen species of placental mammals. The series included representatives of six mammalian orders.
In this material, the maxillary trunk first gives off the zygomatic nerve and then passes forwards on the orbital floor. It gives origin to the posterior and anterior superior dental nerves, and splits at a variable point into nasal and labial divisions. The nasal division supplies the surface of the snout, the rhinarium and the vestibule of the nose, frequently giving twigs to the uppermost members of the group of mysticial vibrissae. The labial division is distributed to the remainder of the mysticial vibrissae, and to the skin of the cheek and upper lip.
If the rhinarium or the uppermost mysticial vibrissae are prominent, the nasal division is correspondingly big.
If the lower members of the group of mysticial vibrissae are well developed, it is the labial division that is relatively enlarged.
The relative sizes of the facial branches of the infraorbital nerve are also affected by the development of specialized facial features—e.g. in the pig the vast majority of nerve fibres are distributed to the disc‐like ending of the snout.
Certain structures presumably derived from the frontonasal process receive their nerve supply from the nasal division, while those derived from the maxillary processes are normally supplied by fibres from the labial division. In the ungulates, however, the nerve supply to the mobile upper lip is derived from branches of the nasal division.
The structure of defence glands in some Tenebrionidae and Nilionidae (Coleoptera)
Authors: KENDALL D. A. 
Published: August 2010

SYNOPSISAn account is given of the structure of the defence glands in a number of Tenebrionidae and two Nilionidae. The origin of defence glands from other integumentary structures, and some of the phylogenetic implications of the gland structure, are discussed.
Seasonal changes in fat content, form, state of gonads and length of adult life in the sycamore aphid, Drepanosiphum platanoides (Schr.)
Authors: DIXON A. F. G. 
Published: August 2010

SUMMARY

Even when reared under similar conditions of crowding and nutrition, first and second generation adult sycamore aphids differ in their morphology and physiology. Second generation adults have a smaller abdomen, a longer gut, greater fat reserves, less developed gonads, a longer reproductive diapause and live longer than first generation aphids.
Second generation nymphs reared in isolation develop into adults which have less well‐developed gonads but a reproductive delay similar to that of first generation adults.
Crowding of second generation adults prolongs the reproductive diapause.
The biology of Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae (Neuroptera), with reference to their usage as biocontrol agents: a review
Authors: NEW T. R. 
Published: August 2010

SUMMARY

Many regions have well‐developed faunas of Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae, many of which are potential control agents, but only a few widely distributed species have been seriously considered as such.
Most of the biological information available concerns Chrysopa species in north temperate areas. C.carnea Stephens, in particular, has been utilised in many pest control programmes. Prepupal or adult diapause constitutes a well‐defined stage in the life cycles of many temperate species.
Larval searching behaviour is efficient, and larvae of most species studied can utilise a wide range of prey organisms or sugar‐based foods. The quality of the larval food can affect reproduction of the ensuing adults. Cannibalism is frequent, and may serve as the main food supply when other sources are scarce. Artificial diets for mass rearing are outlined.
Adult Hemerobiidae are predators. Adult Chrysopidae are either predators or honey‐dew feeders, the latter possessing symbiotic yeasts which aid amino acid synthesis. Sprays based on sugar and yeast hydrolysates can be applied in the field as (i) attractants and (ii) alternative or additional food.
A wide range of predators and hymenopterous parasites attack all stages. Many widespread and non‐specific parasites may attack lacewings introduced from other areas.
Potential use of Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae in integrated control is enhanced by their tolerance to some insecticides.
Lacewings are potential control agents of pests in greenhouse, field crops, and orchards. Native species should be augmented rather than others introduced. It would probably be wise to encourage only one or few lacewing species against any given pest.
Biosystematics of the straw itch mite with special reference to nomenclature and dermatology
Authors: MOSER J. C. 
Published: August 2010

SUMMARY

Cross‐mating of various populations of Pyemotes obtained from laboratory insect cultures demonstrated that the straw itch mite is a single, widely dispersed species, different from P.ventricosus, which was probably associated with the furniture beetle.
P.ventricosus should not be the approved scientific name for the straw itch mite. The correct name for the straw itch mite is Pyemotes tritici.
Various Pyemotes species differ in preferred habitats, hosts, and toxicity to man. Whereas P.tritici commonly attacks grain insects and is highly toxic to man, other species attack wood boring insects and may cause little or no irritation. P.scolyti and P.parviscolyti, which attack bark beetles, cause no observable symptoms.
It is suggested that before Pyemotes are used as biological control agents against bark beetles, it is important to identify the species correctly.
Study of two forms of the adult Stenocranus minutus
Authors: MAY YIN YIN 
Published: August 2010

SUMMARYIn studies onStenocranus minutus, two winged forms of adults have been observed, macropterous and sub‐macropterous. Macropterous individuals, with extra‐long wings, have not been previously observed or described. Probably only the macropterous form disperses by flight.The two forms differ in their wing lengths, intensity and extent of pigmentation.The rate of maturation differs in the two forms. In macropters, maturation is delayed; the period of oviposition is shorter and they are less fecund.Macropters do not live as long as sub‐macropters.The macropters weigh less than the sub‐macropters.Under laboratory conditions, both forms can hop but the macropterous forms fly for a longer time than the sub‐macropters.At 25°C, more macropterous forms were produced on wiltingDactylisthan on green, succulentDactylis.Dispersal of field population was inferred from changes in proportions of the two forms and by simultaneous occurrence of macropters in aerial suction traps.The macropterous forms ofS.minutusmigrate a few weeks after emergence while still immature and migration coincides with drying up of host plant,Dactylis glomerataL.Relatively high temperature, low wind speeds and a small number of hours of sunlight seem to favour dispersal by flight inS.minutus.
39. The Colonization of the Sea by Insects: with an Account of the Habits of Pontomyia, the only known Submarine Insect
Authors: Buxton P. A. 
Published: August 2010

Summary.The habits and occurrence of a new submarine Chironomid midge (Pontomyia nutans Edwards, described in the previous paper) which was found by the author in Samoa, are described. It is pointed out that no other insect is known which is submarine in all stages; the reason for this is obscure, in view of the great adaptability of insects to the varying conditions which prevail in fresh water. For instance, insects which live in lakes and streams are able to withstand waves and currents: larvæ of Diptera, and of one Trichopteron, can live in water as salt as or salter than the sea; among the Chironomidæ, many have marine larvæ, but in all except Pontomyia the adult is aerial. In estuaries, and in such seas as the Baltic and the Caspian, the boundary between fresh and salt water is gradual. In spite of this, insects have failed to colonize the sea; possibly they can overcome any one of the barriers which exist between fresh and salt water, but not a combination of the barriers.
8. Notes on some early Blastocysts of the South American Bat Molossus
Authors: Sansom G. S. 
Published: August 2010

Summary.The early development of Molossus agrees fairly closely with that of the other Micro‐Cheiroptera, as described by Keibel, da Costa, and Levi.The orientation of the blastocyst at right angles to the mesometrial axis is noteworthy; it occurs in all the six early states, but is not preserved in the last, considerably later blastocyst, where the embryonal disc is directed more towards the antimesometrial side. In Pl. II. fig. 7 an arrow indicates the direction of the mesometrium, and it will be seen that the greater part of the ectodermal plate lies in a plane at about 40d̀ to the mesometrial axis.The primitive amniotic cavity arises as a cloft or clefts in the amnioectodermal mass, and its formation is apparently initiated by the rearrangement of the cells. The roof of this cavity thins out and ultimately disappears, with the result that a cavity is formed bounded on the one side by the shielf ectoderm and on the other by the thin layer of covering trophoblast. According to Levi, the definitive amniotic cavity is formed by the ingrowth of ectoderm, from the margins of the ectodermal shield, in contact with the covering trophoblast. There are indications in Ol. II. fig. 8 that this process has already started.The slight activity of the eyto‐trophoblast and the apparent absence of syneytio‐trophoblast, even in the latest stage herein described, are noteworthy. The trophoblast in these early stages appears to be devoid of phagocytic or eytolytic properties.
The Oxygen Consumption of Newly‐hatched Larvae of Ascaris suum.
Authors: Fenwick D. W. 
Published: August 2010

Summary.

Four series of experiments were carried out to determine the oxygen consumption of newly‐hatched larvae of Ascaris suum, using a Barcroft Differential Respirometer.
It was found that the consumption curve was divisible into three regions:–

A preliminary phase, during which there was a low rate of oxygen consumption, probably due to the fact that the larvae had not settled down to their new conditions of life.
An intermediate period, during which the rate of oxygen consumption was very high owing, it is believed, to the larvae making good an oxygen debt incurred during their previous conditions of life inside the egg‐shell due, probably, to the low permeability of the egg‐cases.
A final state of constant low oxygen consumption entered into after the larvae have satisfied their oxygen debt and have settled down to their new‐aerobic conditions of life.

The actual rate of oxygen consumption during the two later phases was measured and found to be ‐0093 c.c./hr./1000 larvae for the intermediate period and ‐000928 c.c./hr./1000 larvae for the final rate, i. e., during the intermediate phase the rate of oxygen consumption was ten times the normal rate.
It is suggested that the larvae can use oxygen if present, but that they can live anaerobically in its absence and build up an oxygen debt during an anaerobic life.
THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE CLOACA OF THE COMMON FROG: 4. On the Structure and Function of the Cloaca of the Common Frog(Rana t. temporaries).
Authors: Kerr T. 
Published: August 2010

Summary.The frog cloaca is a short simple tube receiving at its inner end the genital and urinary ducts, the rectum, and the allantoic bladder. The female cloaca diners from the male only in the addition of the Mullerian ducts. The ducts open on a ridge of vacuolated tissue marking the boundary of cloaca and rectum. It functions as part of a recto‐cloacal valve and brings the urinary openings close to the opening of the bladder. The lining epithelium of the cloaca is derived half from ectoderm and half from endoderm; the former in its stratification and glands resembles the skin, the latter is composed of tall glandular cells with some resemblance to those of the rectum. The general structure of the organ is similar throughout; the epithelium is backed by a layer of loose connective tissue containing lymph spaces; this in turn is enclosed by a layer of first circular and then longitudinal muscles embedded in dense connective tissue, to the outside of which are attached the extrinsic muscles of the cloaca.A sequence of changes occurs in the endodermal epithelium and the connective tissue beneath it which can be correlated with stages in the sexual cycle. Following the breeding season there is a collapse of the individual epithelial cells and of the folds, the latter apparently due to a reduction in the lymph spaces of the loose connective tissue; during the late summer and autumn the cells and folds are gradually built up to an intermediate condition which persists over the winter, reaching a final enlargement as the breeding season approaches. It is suggested that the function of this tissue is to flush out and lubricate the cloaca, particularly for the passage of eggs and sperm. Injection of growth‐stimulating extract of the anterior pituitary brings about an acceleration of the building‐up process, slight in June but marked in October, and injection of gonad‐stimulating extract appears to produce a tendency towards the post‐breeding condition, so it is suggested that this part of the cloaca is functionally part of the genital duct system, which is, according to Spaul and Gladwell, under pituitary control. These and other injections produce in the ectodermal part of the cloaca only the effects that they produce upon the skin itself.
The Relative Frequency of Beak‐marks on Butterflies of Different/ Edibility to Birds.
Authors: Carpenter, D.M. G. D. Hale 
Published: August 2010

Summary.Evidence of attacks upon butterflies by birds is provided by the imprint of the beak upon the wings. Comparison is made between the frequency of such beak‐marks in butterflies which have the characters of relatively distasteful species and in others not so characterized. Over 14,000 specimens belonging to three different groups were examined for the purpose, and the difference in frequency of beak‐marks was found to be immensely significant statistically. The marks are ten times more frequent in the more “distasteful” species. In addition, 567 models and 341 mimics, forming several African mimicry associations, showed that there is a significant difference between them in frequency of beak‐marks in favour of the models. These facts are interpreted as evidence of the greater destruction of species not furnished with aposematic characters, which, when attacked, do not escape like the tougher, more distasteful species.