bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Steam Simulation for Secondary Recovery
Authors: Owens W.D. , Suter Vane E. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
This paper describes the steam stimulation process, and discusses where itis applicable, and why it succeeds and fails. Field data for three separateprojects in California are presented. Oil recovery from a single cycle ofinjection and production is discussed and a theoretical method of calculatingoil recovery is shown with an example. The major components of steamstimulation costs are listed. A generalized correlation of reservoir oilviscosity versus temperature is presented in a form convenient for use in steamstimulation work.

Introduction
Steam stimulation has caught the fancy of the petroleum industry. The ideais not new, because the effect of temperature on crude oil viscosity has beenknown since the days of Colonel Drake. Early-day patents concerned theinjection of steam to reduce viscosity and clean up paraffin deposits aroundthe wellbore.
There has been a cloak of secrecy surrounding steam stimulation activities, motivated by the hope of acquiring producing properties susceptible to thesteam stimulation technique. Many of the reasons for secrecy are now gone. As amatter of fact, many of the sellers have a fear of missing out on something andare asking prices that may be over and above the actual worth of theproperty.
It is important that the oil industry break through the darkness andmysticism surrounding steam stimulation. This paper is presented as an encouragement to others to publish and exchange information, and to put steamstimulation in its rightful place as a valuable means of improving the recoveryand profitability of our more viscous oils.

What Is Steam Stimulation?
Steam stimulation is the addition of thermal energy to a reservoir by steam injection. The same well is used for injection and production. The primary object of the steam injection is to get heat to the bottom of the hole andlower oil viscosity. The rock at the bottom of the well acts as a heatexchanger and permits storage of heat from the injection cycle, to be usedeffectively as the oil is produced back into the well.
The Pipeline Transportation of Heavy Oils
Authors: Moreau B.L. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
Heavy oils tend to be highly viscous. The excessive pressure gradientscaused by high viscosity have discouraged the development of heavy oilpipelines in Western Canada. This paper reviews briefly and comments on some ofthe methods used to overcome this difficulty.
The crude may be heated to reduce viscosity. This method is well known, andtemperature profiles along a hot oil pipeline may be calculated by an equation given in the paper. There is some difficulty, however, in accurately predictingheat transfer rates because of unknowns in soil temperature andconductivity.
Blending the viscous crude with a diluent to reduce its viscosity isprobably the simplest method of obtaining pipeline access to interprovincialmarkets. If a light diluent such as natural gasoline is used, even small percentages greatly reduce the viscosity. Although there are methods ofestimating the viscosity of a blend from a knowledge of the viscosity of the components, laboratory tests on the actual blends to be transported margin moredependable information.
The addition of water to viscous oil lines is known to reduce pressuregradients, and research on this matter has been conducted by several people, including the Alberta Research Council. This method, however, may have certain operating difficulties and more work on the matter, would he helpful.
The designer of heavy oil pipelines is advised to give careful consideration to all the alternatives and make detailed studies before deciding on the methodto be used.
The paper outlines briefly some of the design features of Husky Pipeline Ltd.'s Lloydminster to Hardisty system, which went into operation late in 1963.This 6 5/8-in. pipeline, 72 miles long, utilizes three pumping stations tohandle a blend of Lloydminster crude and natural gasoline. The pumpage isheated to 130°F at each station. A fourth pumping station at the outlet end(Hardisty) allows pumping in either direction; the reversal is used to batchthe diluent north to the crude source, where it is blended with the Lloydminster crude. The blend pumping rate is 15,000 bbls/day.
Optimizing Profitability of a Dual-Zone Alberta Gas Field
Authors: Nicholls R.G. , Kloepver C.V. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
A comprehensive data-gathering program conducted concurrently with reservoirdelineation at East Crossfield resulted in the early definition of the physicalproperties of this dual-zone gas field. Based upon this data, it was possibleto ascertain the exploitation alternates (field development, gatheringrequirements, process facilities, etc.) available to the owners. Once thesealternates were defined and evaluated, it was possible to concentrate effortsto cause implementation of those factors which would contribute to therealization of maximum recovery and optimized profits. Gas sales from East Crossfield commenced only four and one-half years after discovery. The successof the engineering effort is reflected in the enlightened provisions of theunitization and gas purchase agreements, and in the unique exploitation planadopted. The economic gain to be achieved for this project demonstrates thevalue of this approach to oil and gas field management.

Introduction
In September of 1960, the East Crossfield Mississippian and Devonian gasreservoirs were discovered with the successful completion of a well, Pan Am Fargo G-1 Cross, located in Lsd. 16-14-28-1 W5M. Since that time, a total ofeleven wells have been drilled in the field, of which four are dual-zoneproducers and six are productive from only one zone. In total, there are sevenpotentially productive Elkton wells and seven potentially productive D-l wells.The one non-productive well, Pan Am Fargo Q-l, is being used for the disposalof produced water. For a general orientation of the East Crossfield area, referto Figure 1.
Throughout the period of development drilling, an engineered approach todata gathering was practised and, by late 1962, the field properties weresufficiently well defined to warrant the commencement of negotiations for gascontracts and for the formation of a Unit. Those properties established werebottom hole pressure, AOF and deliverability characteristics, hydrocarbonproperties, flash behaviour, etc. The gas contracts, which were executed bymid-1963, provided for a gas sales delivery date of November 1, 1964. Followingthis, there was a short delay in the project development occasioned by thedelay in obtaining the necessary governmental gas export approvals. Coincidentwith obtaining this approval, the plant construction contract was awarded.Unitization became effective on March 1, 1964, and gas sales commenced aboutone year later, on February 14, 1965, only four and one-half years after thefirst discovery well was completed. It is the purpose of this paper to reviewthe positive actions taken by the owners of this field which will result in anoptimized project profitability.
Applications of the Delta II Dynamometer Technique
Authors: Eickmeier J.R. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
The Delta II Dynamometer Technique provides a diagnostic method of evaluating downhole pumping performance. Surface dynamo meter cards are analyzed by computer to determine load displacement conditions at the pump and at intermediate points in the sucker rod string. The pump dynagraph card generated by the computer program permits a complete analysis of downhole pumping conditions. Pump intake pressures can be calculated from the pump dynagraph cards. A study of pump intake pressures at varying production rates and/or at different cumulative production provides essential information on well performance. Load conditions occurring at the top of each rod string taper can be examined to determine maximum rod stresses and stress ranges. Rod strings can be altered to obtain balanced rod string loading where it is evident that designs are not satisfactory.

Introduction
The Delta II Dynamometer is being used in production operations in the U.S.A. and Canada. Shell Canada first utilized the instrument in October, 1963.Since that time, approximately 800 cards have been obtained from more than 300 pumping wells in Western Canada and the instrument has become indispensable toproduction operation. The Delta II Dynamometer Technique provides a diagnostic method of evaluating downhole pumping performance. With conventionally obtained dynamometer cards, only a qualitative and somewhat dubious interpretation of pumping conditions can be inferred from visual inspection of the surface cards.With the Delta II Dynamometer Technique, however, the pump dynagraph card is calculated by computer analysis of the surface dynamometer card. The pumpdynagraph card accurately describes the downhole pumping conditions.Intermediate sucker rod stresses are also generated by the program. In essence, through the use of a mathematical solution of the sucker rod pumping system, the measured surface loads are "decoded" to determine the downhole loads.
Determination of Natural Gas Recovery Factors
Authors: Stoian E. , Telford A.S. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
Theoretical and statistical methods of determining recovery factors ofsolution, associated and non-associated natural gas, including gas condensate, are presented as a set of practical tools.
The effects of recovery mechanisms and pool and gas-well performance on gasrecovery are examined for conditions applying to constant volume, water drive, gravity segregation and secondary recovery. Ways of recognizing such cases areindicated.
The supporting techniques comprise material balance calculations, performance predictions and statistical analyses of depleted pool and predictedrecovery data. In material balance calculations, the gas recovery is consideredin terms of either:initial gas in place multiplied by a recovery factor orinitial gas in place less the gas remaining at abandonment.
Performance predictions are based on geological, engineering and economic factors. The background study dealt with explicit correlations between:recovery factor, abandonment pressure or related expressions and pool depth, pay thickness, initial reservoir pressure, flow capacity and size of gas accumulation; andequivalent residual gas saturation and formation water saturation, porosity, permeability and specific surface area.
The format for several correlationspresented is predetermined by theoretical considerations. Existing short-cutmethods are also evaluated. Easy-to-use approximations readily yield reliableestimations despite their simplicity and can be of considerable significance;however, the practicing engineer is urged to recognize and understand their limitations.
An extensive review of methods of determining recovery and an analysis ofmany evaluations by industry form the foundation for the recommended guidelinesto serve the engineer. The methods of determining recovery factors areconsidered according to their practicality; i.e. the availability ofdata and the complexity of implementation. Useful relationships are classified, important steps of the proposed procedures are outlined and severalapplications are illustrated.
Interpretation, Averaging and Use of the Basic Geological-Engineering Data
Authors: Havlena D. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to emphasize that the taking, assembling andaveraging of the basic data for further use in an analysis of a reservoirrequires a profound knowledge of many of the specialized disciplines of moderngeology and petroleum engineering. The various aspects of " Static Data," aspresented in this paper, analyze that problem and specifically discuss the following major subheadings:Porosity,Permeability,Facies Mapping,Connate Water,Relative Permeabilities and Capillary Pressures, andMethod of Least Squares.
This paper is essentially a generaland philosophical discussion on the necessity for obtaining data quality and ofthe need for an integrated approach to be applied in a detailed analysis of anyreservoir.

Introduction and Objectives
The correct taking, interpretation and usage of reservoir data are among themost important tasks of the petroleum engineer, and particularly of thereservoir engineer and geologist. On the quality, and to a much lesser degreeon the quantity, of this information depends the success as well as theaccuracy of all the subsequent geological and engineering studies and finallyof the economic evaluations. Despite this paramount importance, very little isfound on this subject either in petroleum literature or in universitycurricula. There are exceptions - e.g., the normal types of pressure build-upcurves and the determination of the areal and volumetric average pressures, without explaining when to use which and why. At the present stage of knowledgeof the science of reservoir physics, it appears that the analytical methods ofsolution (equations) are normally, from a mathematical and physical standpoint, much more exact than the basic data and particularly the averages which are fedinto them. In layman's terms, the reservoir analyst often performs an exactmultiplication of doubtfully reliable numbers. This lack of interest in theaccuracy and representativeness of the basic data and in the methods ofaveraging them is usually explained by the simplicity of this problem, whichcan be solved by " common engineering sense;" this explanation is correct if itis backed by a thorough and uniform theoretical, as well as practical, understanding of this complex problem.
Visual Path Analysis A Qualitative Technique for Operations Planning
Authors: Schoemaker Richard P. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
Advanced planning techniques have been proven as a very effective andinexpensive means to maximize the use of manpower and resources. An importantcontribution toward improved planning has been made by the technique known as Critical Path Analysis. However, the effective use of this quantitativetechnique is severely limited in many sectors of operation in the oil industry, due to the great element of uncertainty. Nevertheless, the quality ofperformance in these sectors of operation would benefit greatly from aconsistent and systematic logic in planning. In the absence of a meaningfultime-dollar definition of all elements of a project, or operation, the planningeffort should be directed toward the qualitative definition of the projectstructure.
A qualitative technique for operations planning is formalized in this paperand has been used with good results in a great variety of projects. The essenceof this technique is to stimulate organized thinking and to portray theorganized thought in a diagram for further examination, communication andexecution. The diagram shows the entire structure of the project, orplan of action, in its main divisions, subsidiary components, as well as areasof uncertainty, requiring further definition.
The technique is called Visual Path Analysis, because the diagram portraysthe path of the train of thought in exercising qualitative judgment andanalyzing the project logic. The technique can be used for the planningof a simple operation, or a highly complex project, as well as for planning inthe face of uncertainty. The method provides an effective medium for rapidcommunication of ideas to associates, supervisors and management. The diagramis useful for information retrieval and for preserving the continuity ofplanning and work in progress when a key individual is transferred to otherduties, or leaves the organization.
The technique is relatively uncomplicated, but, because of its simplicityand the absence of rigid rules, requires practice and some natural aptitude toachieve effective diagramming.
Sour Gas Compression at the Whitecourt Plant
Authors: Baraniuk E.M. 
Published: March 2010

ABSTRACT
The West Whitecourt Plant uses 12,500 Bhp for the compression of sournatural gases containing 25 to 50 percent H,S. Compression ratios range from 2.4 to 4.6, suction pressures from 400 to 1,800 psig, and discharge pressuresfrom 1,800 to 4,000 psig. This sour gas has been successfully handled for thepast five years. Numerous problems related to valves, piston rings, rodpacking, piston rods, cylinders and the selection of lubricants have beenencountered and solved. The solutions to these problems were dependent upongood material selection in the case of packing and rings, and special metallurgical requirements for pistons, piston rods and valves. Special operating techniques and good preventive maintenance practices, incorporating proper material selection, lubrication and metallurgical requirements, haveresulted in a high degree of compressor dependability.

INTRODUCTION
THE WEST WHITECOURT PLANT COMPRESSOR STATION is located in the Windfall gasfield, 26 miles west of the town of Whitecourt, Alberta. The compressor stationand gas processing plant are operated by Pan American Petroleum Corporation onbehalf of itself, Hudson's Bay Oil and Gas Company Limited and Canadian Fina Oil Limited. The compressor plant is primarily employed to inject sour gas fromthe Pine TO AMINE UNIT SALES Creek and Beaver Creek gas fields into the Windfall reservoir for cycling and pressure maintenance. De- hydrated gas from the Pine Creek and the Beaver Creek fields., located 25 miles southeast of the West Whitecourt plant, is transported through a 14-in., 25-mile pipeline. Injection commenced in April, 1962, and will continue until approximately 1975. The compressors will then be utilized as boosters during blowdown of the Windfall reservoir.
Combination Drive Predictions by the Muskat and Differential Tracy Material Balances Using Various Empirical Relations and Theoretical Saturation Equations
Authors: Sandrea R. , Nielsen R.F. 
Published: March 2010

ABSTRACT
Combination drive predictions by material balances require a water invasionlaw, some assumption regarding pressure decline or production rates, and asaturation equation for that part of the original reservoir which governsgas-oil ratios (unless the latter are assumed at fixed values), in addition tothe material balance. One form of the latter is the Muskat equation, which contains pressure derivatives of the volumetric fluid properties and water encroachment, the two main variables being pressure and average saturation overthe original oil zone. Another is the Tracy equation, which containspressure-dependent groups. A differential form of this equation is presented which contains pressure derivatives of the groups, and production and waterinvasion rates, with pressure and time the two main variables. Saturation equations are discussed with regard to the assumptions, particularly that ofrelease of gas in the invaded zone, this being in accordance with the material balance. The use of simple empirical equations for the various quantities issuggested. These must be of a form which give usable values for the pressureand time derivatives where required. Calculated water invasions are comparedfor various theoretical and empirical invasion formulae, with linear andexponential pressure declines. Predictions of a depletion drive by the Muskatand differential Tracy equations are compared, using various empirical relations for the required quantities. Combination performance curves are calculated by the Muskat equation for various ratios of aquifer constant topressure decline constant, both laws assumed exponential. Similar curves are calculated by the differential Tracy equation, with hyperbolic forms for waterinvasion and production rates, taking various sets of values for the constants in these forms. The calculations are programmed for a three-point Runge-Kuttamethod, taking production increments rather than pressure d4eerements where pressure stabilization or in- crease might occur. The use of such methods to optimize a production schedule is suggested.
Effect of Liquid Saturation On Turbulence Factors For Gas-Liquid Systems
Authors: Wong S.W. 
Published: March 2010

Abstract
The effect of a mobile-liquid saturation on turbulence factors for gas-liquid systems was studied by measuring the turbulence factors for a two-phase f10w system using nitrogen-water and limestone cores. The steady-state, two-phase flow tests were conducted at pressure drops of 200 and 400 psi, both at a back pressure of 400 psig.
It was observed that increasing the liquid saturation from 40 to 70 pH cent pore volume could result in as much as an eight-fold increase in turbulence factor. The increase in turbulence factor, together with the decrease in effective gas permeability around the well bore, could result in a substantial reduction in gas-n-ell productivity. It was also determined that the turbulence factors for a two-phase flow system can be approximated by using a turbulence factor – permeability correlation obtained with dry cores, provided that the correlation is established experimentally for the rock type in question.

INTRODUCTION
GAS FLOW IN THE REGION OF THE WELL BORE is generally in the turbulent-flow regime, The pressure drop resulting from turbulent flow is greater than that predicted by the Darcy equation. Forchheimer(1) was first to add an additional term to the Darcy equation to account for this increased pressure drop, and his equation is as follows:

Equation in full paper
For an isothermal system, assuming that the gas viscosity and the compressibility factor are independent of pressure for small pressure changes, a plot of the left-hand side of Equation (2) versus W/Aµ results in a straight line. The slope and intercept of the straight line give the turbulence factor and the reciprocal of the gas permeability, respectively.
The turbulence effect in a gas well is usually determined by well tests; however, the effect can also be evaluated if the turbulence factors βis known. The only published data on turbulence factors are those of Janicek and Katz(2), who correlated the turbulence factors with rock permeability using porosity as a parameter. The applicability of the Janicek-Katz correlation to limestone cores has been evaluated by Gewers and Nichol(3), who found that the measured turbulence factors were an order of magnitude higher than those given by the Janicek-Katz correlation. As shown by Gewers and Nichol, productivity estimates based on the Janicek-Katz correlation would be optimistic by a factor of two. They also measured the gas turbulence factors for the same cores with immobile liquid satu-rations up to 30 per cent pore volume. The results indicated that the gas turbulence factors decreased to a minimum at a liquid saturation of about 10 per cent pore volume and then increased over the saturation range between 10 and 30 per cent pore volume. The present study is an extension of the work by Gewers and Nichol to include measurement of gas turbulence factors at higher liquid saturations and under two-phase flow conditions. Such information would be useful in making performance estimates for gas condensate reservoirs where there is a possible liquid buildup around the well bore.