bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
David H. Hubel
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
David H. Hubel was born in Windsor, Ontario, Canada, to American parents in 1926. In 1929, his family transferred to Montreal where he was brought up and educated and continued to live until the age of 28. He attended Strathona Academy until his graduation in 1943. Given that he ended up as a biologist, it was ironic that he had almost no formal instruction in biology in grade school, high school, or college. He studied mathematics and physics at McGill University, and later entered medical school there. After graduating from medical school, he did a rotating internship at Montreal General Hospital. He was married in June 1953 to Ruth. In 1954, he moved to the United States to work at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and later served at Walter Reed Hospital. In 1958, he went back To Baltimore and began his collaborations with Torsten Wiesel.
Torsten N. Wiesel
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Torsten Wiesel was born in 1924 in Uppsala, Sweden, the youngest of five children. In 1947, he began his scientific career in Carl Gustaf Bernhard's laboratory at the Karolinska Institute, where he received his medical degree in 1954. In 1955 he moved to the United States to work at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine under Stephen Kuffler. In 1958, he met David Hubel, beginning a collaboration that would last over twenty years. In 1959, Wiesel and Hubel moved to Harvard University. He became an instructor in pharmacology at Harvard Medical School, beginning a 24-year career with the university. He became professor in the new department of neurobiology in 1968 and its chair in 1973. In 1983, Wiesel joined the faculty of Rockefeller University as head of the Laboratory of Neurobiology. He was president of the university from 1991 to 1998.
The Group at Hopkins
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The importance in science of mentors or role models can hardly be exaggerated. For Hubel and Wiesel, Steve Kuffler played a crucial role in terms of day-to-day importance, and this role was sustained over thirty years. The Hopkins group was broad. Hubel, Wiesel, and Kuffler represented central nervous physiology. Ed Furshpan, David Potter, and Kuffler represented synaptic physiology, and Ed Kravitz represented neurochemistry. Johns Hopkins was informal and friendly, contrasting strongly with the rather pompous prevailing atmosphere at Harvard. This may have been because the medical school and hospital were close to each other, geographically and spiritually, at Hopkins.
Our First Paper, on Cat Cortex, 1959
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents David and Torsten's first paper on the cat cortex in 1959. Their investigation, made with acute preparations, includes a study of receptive fields of cells in the cat's striate cortex. Receptive fields of the cells considered in the paper were divided into separate excitatory and inhibitory areas. In this respect, they resembled retinal ganglio-cell receptive fields. An attempt was made to correlate responses to moving stimuli with receptive field arrangements. Some cells could be activated from either eye, and in these, binocular interaction was studied. In a binocular unit, excitatory and inhibitory regions of the two receptive fields interacted, and summation and mutual antagonism could be shown just as within a single receptive field.
Recordings from Fibers in the Monkey Optic Nerve
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a paper entitled “Receptive Fields of Optic Nerve Fibres in the Spider Monkey”. The retina of the monkey is of interest, since in most species, it is deeply pigmented, has a well defined fovea, and appears much closer to the human retina than that of a cat. The paper describes the receptive fields of single optic nerve fibers in the spider monkey. With the monkey's ability to discriminate colors, some observations were also made on ganglion cell responses to monochromatic stimuli. It was clear that in the monkey, as in the cat, the receptive fields of retinal ganglion cells were of two main types, one with an “on” center and an “off” periphery, the other with an “off” center and an “on” periphery.
Recording from Cells in the Cat Lateral Geniculate
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a paper entitled “Integrative Action in the Cat's Lateral Geniculate Body”. This paper represented a rare opportunity to study directly the difference between the information entering a structure and the information leaving it. In the study, receptive fields in the optic tract and the lateral geniculate body were compared. Cells with receptive fields within or near the area centralis tended to have smaller field centers and stronger suppression by the receptive field periphery than cells with their fields in more peripheral regions of the retina. Clustered firing in the form of brief bursts of spikes at high frequency was observed under thiopental anesthesia. From simultaneous records, it appeared that a single impulse in an optic-tract fiber could give rise to a cluster of impulses in a geniculate cell.
Our Major Paper on Cat Striate Cortex, 1962
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents the 1962 paper entitled “Receptive Fields, Binocular Interaction, and Functional Architecture in the Cat's Visual Cortex”. This paper was a continuation of the 1959 paper dealing with “simple cells”. In the previous paper, receptive fields of single cortical cells were described by observing responses to spots of light shone on one or both retinas. In this paper, this method was used to examine receptive fields of a more complex type and to make additional observations on binocular interaction. A different method was followed to study the functional architecture of the visual cortex.
Recordings in Monkey Striate Cortex, 1968
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a 1968 paper entitled “Receptive Fields and Functional Architecture of Monkey Striate Cortex”. This paper represented a first attempt to survey physiologically the monkey striate cortex. It was discovered that there was a tendency for cells to be grouped according to symmetry of responses to movement. A horizontal organization corresponding to the cortical layering can also be discerned. The cortex was seen as a system organized vertically and horizontally in entirely different ways. In the vertical system, stimulus dimensions such as retinal position, line orientation, and ocular dominance, were mapped in sets of superimposed but independent mosaics. The horizontal system segregated cells in layers by hierarchical orders, the lowest orders located in and near layer IV, the higher orders in the upper and lower layers.
Ocular Dominance Columns Revealed by Autoradiography
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a paper entitled “Autoradiographic demonstration of ocular dominance columns in the monkey striate cortex by means of transneuronal transport”. In the macaque monkey, the geniculostriate pathway terminates in a very dense, highly localized manner, mainly in layer IV C. Projections from the two eyes end in a characteristic alternating stripe-like pattern of ocular dominance columns. If radioactive substances were transported transneuronally, injection of labeled material into one eye followed by autoradiography of the cortex might reveal the entire system of ocular dominance columns. This study confirmed Grafstein's original findings of transneuronal transport in the mammalian visual system and provided an additional independent demonstration of the ocular dominance columns in the striate cortex.
Regular Sequences of Orientation Shifts in Monkeys
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a paper entitled “Sequence Regularity and Geometry of Orientation Columns in Monkey Striate Cortex”. This paper is concerned with the geometry of orientation columns, establishing that they are slabs perpendicular to the cortical surface, discussing whether the slabs are discrete or continuous, and the question of the orderliness of the sequences.
Cortical Modules and Magnification in Monkeys
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a paper entitled “Uniformity of Monkey Striate Cortex: A Parallel Relationship between Field, Size, Scatter, and Magnification Factor”. This paper addresses the question of what determines the three-dimensional shape of any cortical area, and how any one area of the cortex can be so uniform anatomically despite certain marked variations in function as the surface is traversed. In the case of area 17, there are variations especially in field size and magnification. The paper is also concerned with the relationship between orientation columns, ocular dominance columns, the topographic mapping of visual fields onto the cortex, and receptive-field size and scatter. It shows that the cortex seems remarkably uniform physiologically, just as it is anatomically.
Second Group of Deprivation Papers
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a second group of deprivation papers entitled “Comparison of the Effects of Unilateral and Bilateral Eye Closure on Cortical Unit Responses in Kittens”, “Binocular Interaction in Striate Cortex of Kittens Reared with Artificial Squint”, “Extent of Recovery from the Effects of Visual Deprivation in Kittens”, and “The Period of Susceptibility to the Physiological Effects of Unilateral Eye Closure in Kittens”. The first three papers deal with the effects of binocular eye closure, artificial strabismus, and the recovery induced by eye reopening. The fourth paper examines the time course of the critical period.
Plasticity and Development of Monkey Ocular Dominance Columns
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents two lengthy papers entitled “Plasticity of Ocular Dominance Columns in Monkey Striate Cortex”, and “The Development of Ocular Dominance Columns in Normal and Visually Deprived Monkeys”. The chief finding of the first paper tackles the effects of early eye removal or monocular lid closure on the ocular dominance stripes in layer IVC. Deprivation in the first few weeks of life resulted in a change in the relative sizes of the two sets of stripes, with a shrinkage of stripes receiving input from the deprived eye and a corresponding expansion of those with input from the normal eye. The main purpose of the second paper was to examine the normal postnatal development of ocular dominance columns in the striate cortex of the macaque monkey and to determine how this developmental process was influenced by the monocular lid-suture.
Ferrier Lecture, 1977
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a Ferrier Lecture entitled “Functional Architecture of Macaque Monkey Visual Cortex”. The lecture considers a view of the cortex as containing a thousand sand machines of similar structure. Each machine contains two types of hypercolumns, whose functions are dovetailed with each other and with the topographical map. This dicing up into subdivisions is the way the cortex handles or represents orientation and ocular dominance besides the two obvious visual-field positional variables. An interesting aspect is the very orderliness of the architecture.
Nobel Lecture, David H. Hubel Nobel Lecture, Torsten N. Wiesel
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents two Nobel lectures: David Hubel's “Evolution of Ideas on the Primary Visual Cortex, 1955–1978: A Biased Historical Acoount” and Torsten Wiesel's “The Postnatal Development of the Visual Cortex and the Influence of the Environment”. Hubel's lecture traces the development of his ideas and his career from 1955 to 1978. Torsten's lecture presents the current understanding of the developments of the monkey visual cortex and the role of the visual experience in influencing neural connections. It emphasizes the work carried out in their laboratory.
Epilogue: Summing Up
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The most remarkable thing about the collaboration between Hubel and Wiesel is the fact that that it continued for 25 years. It had the special quality that it was between equals, in age and in seniority. They regarded their work as mainly exploratory, although some experiments were done to answer specific questions. Above all, they tried to make their papers easier to read. Today, they have some concerns about the state of their field. These include the fading of neuroanatomy, the growing competition in visual-cortex physiology, and the increasing popularity of theory, sometimes called computation. As time went on, the main force contributing to their separation in 1980 was increasing pressure to do administration and teaching that they could not entirely avoid. This chapter ends with words of thanks to the societies that supported them.
Theory, Practice, and History: Rudiments
Authors: JOHNSTON DAVID 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Trusts did not exist within the civil systems that are derived from Roman law, and even in Roman law itself. Trusts are in fact acknowledged as one of the major contributions of the legal systems that comprise common law. It is important to note that the term ‘trust’ is the most appropriate translation of the Latin fideicommissum. Both the fideicommissum outside the formulary system of Rome that is attributed a new official procedure and the trust in equity evident outside common law have been able to establish and develop independent jurisdictions. Also, both institutions share the same nature wherein property is given to one person for another person's benefit. Although fideicommissum and ‘trust’ are of different origins, certain parallels would reveal that they are related in function. While there are few studies that draw attention to how trusts are incorporated in Roman law, this book examines the internal structure and functions of trust in Roman law.
Action and Reaction: From Republic to Empire
Authors: JOHNSTON DAVID 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Like the case of foreigners who are not allowed to take advantage of the various institutions of civil law, certain restrictions set within the Roman law limited those who were able to gain benefits by means of inheritances and legacies. In such situations, the gains derived from trusts become evident. Because trusts were not considered to be included in the already established legal order, such would allow a wider range of beneficiaries. Trusts were not acknowledged by civil law's traditional scheme, thus legal obligations are not created. The effectiveness of such setups relied greatly on the trustee's fides, thus the chosen trustee should not be without values of morality and honesty. Although there were developments between the late Republic and the Justinian period, trusts were perceived to be useful when entrusting something to a person who was not qualified under civil law. This chapter identifies the advantages of trusts to those covered by civil-law disabilities and how such developed throughout the first century.
Conspiracy of Silence: Secret Trusts
Authors: JOHNSTON DAVID 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The tacit fideicommissum or the secret trust served as one of the initial hints that a new legal institution was being established during the time of Trajan. For those who were disabled by the law of succession, the tacit fideicommisum served as a useful instrument for secretly leaving property. While the previous chapter examined people who could not hold property under Roman law and how trusts enabled such people with benefits, this chapter focuses more on the legislative restrictions imposed by Vespasian and Augustus in the late Empire. Although limits on testamentary capacity may have already been commonplace, Augustus provided such with a different purpose as they were introduced to fulfill certain social engineering purposes. This chapter illustrates how the childless, the unmarried, the orbi and the caelibes benefited from trusts after Vespasian introduced the SC Pegasianum.
The Dead Hand: Perpetuities and Settlements
Authors: JOHNSTON DAVID 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
While one of the greatest limitations in legacies involved how a testator could only pass on certain properties to their heirs, trusts enabled a testator's will or intestacy to validly charge property on any beneficiary. While the implications of such arrangements involved how the said beneficiaries were also allowed to make further trusts, this paved the way for perpetuities to occur through fideicommissary substitution. This chapter attempts to look into instances within classical Roman law that exhibit perpetual family settlements up to the mid-third century. Also, the chapter examines dispositions wherein properties are being settled within the family name. After providing a comparison between the various features of tomb settlements and private-law dispositions, the chapter lastly identifies points in history that conditioned which settlement types would be implemented across Roman society and how they developed up to the Justinian period.
Words, Deeds, and Doubts: Interpretation
Authors: JOHNSTON DAVID 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Various textbooks have revealed that, in contrast to the institutions of Roman civil law, trusts were not subjected to the limitation brought about by the observance of strict form. While legacies had to be expressed in set words, trusts were not required to be of any specific form since they could be articulated or written in any language, or even conveyed through the use of gestures. However, looking into historical accounts reveals that it would seem difficult if not impossible to have trusts immediately accepted through any form. The chapter attempts to investigate more reliable sources to see whether this setup is more differentiated than it is conventionally portrayed. Also, the chapter discusses how trusts may be integrated and understood within the context of the aggregate Roman legal interpretation.
Rights, Procedures, and Costs
Authors: Galligan D. J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter explores some of the more important issues relating to procedural rights. It begins with a brief introduction to rights generally, and to procedural rights in particular. It then moves on to a more detailed analysis of first-order rights in administrative processes, with particular reference to discretionary contexts. It also examines the issue of mistakes; mistakes, that is, arising either from imperfect procedures or from inadequate procedures, the former being inherent in some forms of process, and the latter usually being attributable to insufficient resources. Finally, it provides an outline of various kinds of costs which influence the design of procedures, followed by a brief account of how competing considerations can be dealt with.
Forms of Process I
Authors: Galligan D. J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines forms of process based on the application of authoritative standards. The main issue is to develop a notion of administrative adjudication within which certain principles of fair treatment are applied and respected. In the course of doing so, a distinction is drawn between an adjudicative mode where fair treatment of the individual party is the foremost concern, and a bureaucratic mode which stresses expedition and regularity. In this chapter, the link between adjudication and fair treatment is examined at length. The limitations of adjudication as a means of ensuring fair treatment are identified and suggestions are made as to how failure may be achieved through alternative procedures.
Recourse: Appeals, Reviews, and Other Forms
Authors: Galligan D. J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines how recourse relates to procedural fairness. The right to have a decision reviewed, or to appeal from it to a court is important. Extensive resources are expended in providing recourse in one form or another, yet it is not always obvious why a society should do so, or why we should think a right to recourse touches on something fundamental. The answer is simple: recourse from a decision or action by one authority to another is an element of procedural fairness and in turn of fair treatment. In general, the opportunity to have a decision or action re-examined by some form of appeal or review is a central part of procedural fairness.
Principles and Doctrines: Standards, Reasons, and Bias
Authors: Galligan D. J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines several aspects of procedural fairness that are of particular interest, and which are the basis for a number of legal principles and doctrines. It considers the setting of standards, the giving of reasons, and the idea of impartiality on the part of the officials. The one common factor is that all involve standards of fair treatment and raise issues of procedural fairness.
Law, Politics, and Local Democracy
Authors: Leigh Ian 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
More than any other area of the British constitution, local government has undergone constant change over the past two decades. The Conservative legislation introducing compulsory competitive tendering, replacing rates with first the community charge and then the council tax, the structural reorganization of local councils (with the creation of unitary authorities), and the increasing emphasis on rights for users of local services have left an enduring legacy. The actions of some local authorities on the municipal left and the New Right have tested the legal limits of local democracy to the full. The new Labour government has initiated further changes with the ‘best value’ regime, the reform of executive structures, and by introducing elected mayors and cabinets in local authorities, and new powers for councils to become ‘community leaders’, working in partnership with other public, private, and voluntary bodies within their areas. Moreover, other aspects of the constitutional reform programme, especially devolution, have substantial implications for local government. This book assesses these and other developments in terms of the underlying questions they raise about the nature of local democracy and its legal recognition. The book considers the competing and legally interlocking claims of local representative democracy, financial accountability, and consumerism, and their implications for the governing structures of local authorities and for local electors, councillors, taxpayers, the users of local services, and council employees. Finally, it asks whether the legal shape and powers of local government fit it for the changing role it is now asked to play.
Local Democracy in Its Constitutional Setting
Authors: Leigh Ian 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter attempts to identify the main sense in which councils are local democratic institutions and to assess their place in the broader constitutional order, especially in relation to regional and devolved authorities. It begins by showing how the reasons which have been offered as justifications for local democracy constrain the form chosen, how it is arranged, and the functions granted to local authorities. It then discusses the case for constitutional recognition of local government. It notes that the key virtue of constitutional protection for local government would be the enshrinement of pluralism within the state.