bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
On some Peculiarities in the Microscopical Structure of Crystals, applicable to the Determination of the Aqueous or Igneous Origin of Minerals and Rocks
Authors: Sorby H. C. 
Published: October 2009

Abstract

I
n
this paper the author showed, that when artificial crystals are examined with the microscope, it is seen that they have often caught up and enclosed within their solid substance portions of the material surrounding them at the time when they were being formed. Thus, if they are produced by sublimation, small portions of air or vapour are caught up, so as to form apparently empty cavities; or, if they are deposited from solution in water, small quantities of water are enclosed, so as to form
fluid-cavities
. In a similar manner, if crystals are formed from a state of igneous fusion, crystallizing out from a fused-stone solvent, portions of this fused stone become entangled, which, on cooling, remain in a glassy condition, or become stony, so as to produce what may be called
glass-
or
stone-cavities
.

Applying the general principles resulting from his examination of these phenomena to the study of natural crystalline minerals and rocks, the author showed that the fluid-cavities in rock-salt, calcspar, gypsum, and some other minerals usually indicate that these minerals were formed by deposition from solution in water at a temperature not materially different from the ordinary; also that the constituent minerals of mica-schist and the associated rocks contain many fluid-cavities, indicating that they have been metamorphosed by the action of heated water, and not by mere dry heat and partial fusion.

From the study of the stone- and glass-cavities in slags and Iavas, and from the examination of the microscopic characters of quartz-veins and felspar, which contain both fluid- and stone-cavities, the author arrived at the conclusion that granite is not a
simple igneous rock
, like a furnace-slag, or erupted lava, but is rather an
aqueoigneous rock
, produced by the combined influence of liquid water and igneous fusion, under similar physical conditions to those existing far below the surface at the base of modern volcanos.
On the Evolution of Ammonia from Volcanos
Authors: Daubeny Charles G. B. 
Published: October 2009

I
n
the year 1849, Wöhler ascertained that the copper-coloured crystals found so frequently in the ferruginous mass, technically called “bear” or “horse” which accumulates in the hearths of the iron-smelting furnaces, and which Dr. Wollaston a long time before had pronounced to consist of titanium, were in reality composed of the cyanide and nitride of that metal, containing 18 per cent. of nitrogen and 4 per cent of carbon.

It has been since found, that the same nitride is also obtained in the process recommended by Rose for procuring the metal, when chloride of titanium together with sal-ammoniac is heated in a glass flask; in which case metallic scales, which had been formerly regarded as consisting of metallic titanium, but which now turn out to be a compound of it with nitrogen, are left in the vessel after the other matters had sublimed.
The facts just mentioned, however interesting to a chemist, would not be of a nature to bring before this Society, were it not for their bearing upon one part of the Theory of Volcanos, namely on the evolution of ammonia, and the consequent presence of ammoniacal salts amongst the products of their operations.
This, then, is my excuse for proposing to occupy a few minutes of your time on this occasion with some comments upon these facts, and upon the inferences to which they appear to conduct us.
I should, perhaps, in the first instance remind you, that sal-am-moniac, or ammonia combined with muriatic acid, ranks amongst
On the Palæozoic Rocks and Fossils of the State of New York. Part II. The Stratigraphy and Classification of the Series
Authors: Bigsby J. J. 
Published: October 2009

Abstract
In the synoptical view of the strata and fossils of the palæozoic basin of New York, read before the Society Nov. 18, 1857, the author desired to arrange the vast stores of information contained in the Official Reports of the State Geologists of New York in a methodical and accessible form; and in this Second Part of the Memoir he treated succinctly of the stratigraphical arrangements hitherto used, and the classification now adopted by himself. This is but little modified from that proposed by De Verneuil; and is mainly characterized by the union of certain sections of the series into natural groups, and by the establishment of a distinct middle Silurian stage, and an equally distinct middle Devonian stage. The lithological and palmontological characters of the several groups of strata were then treated of in succession; their resemblances and differences, in these respects, being carefully noted. From the consideration of the stratigraphical details contained in this and the preceding paper, Dr. Bigsby deduces two main conclusions; namely, 1. That, from the Potsdam sandstone to the summit of the Carboniferous rocks, these strata were laid down in comparative quiet ; subject to occasional, vertical, variable, secular oscillations, which led to considerable superficial changes. 2. That their elevation, foldings, fractures, and metamorphism were effected after the deposition of the whole; in a single prolonged transaction, and principally in a N.E. and N.W. direction, along the present Appalachian ridges and their continuation from Labrador to near the Gulf of Mexico. The evidences on which these two propositions rest were next detailed; and the views of the Professors Rogers on these points, and the author's objections, were stated in full.
On the Gold-field of Ballaarat, Victoria
Authors: Phillips John 
Published: October 2009

Abstract

A
ll
the Victorian gold-fields are near granite, and some are on it. The granite at Ballaarat is fine and even-grained; and the schists lie against it. Between these rocks the junction is abrupt; there is little or no gneiss, and no porphyritic or other veins were observed. The schists are greenish, and are occasionally chloritic, micaceous, aluminous, and siliceous, and are traversed by quartz-veins, from less than an inch to one foot in thickness. The schists in the upper portion are more quartzose, and contain oxides of iron; lower down they are more aluminous and contain pyrites. Their strike is rather uniform, nearly coinciding with the true meridian, while the deavaee and quartz-veins are not regular in strike.
On the South-easterly Attenuation of the Lower Secondary Formations of England; and the probable Depth of the Coal-measures under Oxfordshire and Northamptonshire
Authors: Hull Edward 
Published: October 2009

From the foregoing considerations the following conclusions may be drawn:—
1st. That during the deposition of the Tipper Palæozoic and Lower Mesozoic Rocks an extensive tract of land existed to the north-west of the British Isles, which afforded the materials of which these rocks are composed; and it is probable that this region embraced the western isles and coast of Scotland.
2nd. That the Lower Permian Rocks were deposited in a channel, of which we can trace approximately the borders to the west and north-east; and that this group attains its maximum development along a band of country stretching west and east, from the southern borders of Salop, across Staffordshire to Warwickshire.
3rd. That at the close of the Permian Period there ensued considerable changes in the distribution of land and sea, involving a large increase in the latter. That a highway was opened between North Wales and Westmoreland, along which the sediment for the formation of the Lower Secondary rocks was transported by an oceanic current and spread over the plains of England, filling up old Palæozoic valleys.
4th. That all the Lower Secondary formations decrease in thickness, and actually die out towards the south-east; that this attenuation is due to the increase of distance from the sources of supply, and the consequent failure of sedimentary materials which have come from land occupying the region of the North Atlantic.
5th. That there probably exists a tract of Coal-measures stretching from the southern borders of the Staffordshire and Warwick-shire Coal-fields
Some Observations on the Flora of the Oolite
Authors: de Zigno Achille 
Published: October 2009

I
n
presenting to the Geological Society of London the Second Part of my ‘Flora of the Oolite,’ I wish to submit to the Society some explanations and some observations on the work I have undertaken.

The comparative study of the numerous materials discovered in the beds subjacent to the Oxfordian group of the Venetian Alps has rendered it necessary to pass in revision all the species belonging to the Oolite that are at present known.
Although I am quite aware of the difficulty of the task which I have imposed on myself, and of the numerous imperfections which must be inevitable in a general work of this nature, in the present state of our information on this subject, still I have not hesitated to undertake it, encouraged as I am by the hope, that in any case it may be of some use to those who would wish to undertake the study of the Flora of the Oolite.
The publication of the generalizations which are usually placed at the beginning of a work has been purposely postponed by me, in order that I might profit by new discoveries, and thus present as complete a view of the subject as possible.
The sketch of these generalizations (from vol. vi. of the ‘Memoirs of the Imperial and Royal Institute of Venice’) which I had the honour of presenting to the Society last year, will undoubtedly be perceptibly modified by the new facts which may hereafter enrich science. I accordingly published in 1856
Further Observations on the Ossiferous Caves near Palermo
Authors: Falconer  
Published: October 2009

Abstract

D
r
. F
alconer
first described the physical geography of that portion of the north coast of Sicily in which the ossiferous
caves abound, namely between Termini on the east and Trapani on the west. The geological structure of the tract had been ably investigated and
mapped by Hoffmann. A great mass of Hippurite-limestone stretches from Termini to the eastern side of the Bay of Castellamare, which on the
side towards Termini forms rugged precipitous or scarped cliffs skirting the sea-shore. From Cape Zaffarana to Capo di Gallo, a distance of
about twenty miles, the coast-line is deeply indented by the Bay of Palermo; west of Capo di Gallo there is a smaller indentation, backed by
Carini; and still further to the west there is the deep Gulf of Castellamare. At the bottom of these indentations the mountains of
Hippurite-limestone recede from the coast, forming inland precipitous cliffs or rugged slopes, from the base of which stretch slightly inclined flats of marine Pliocene deposits, which disappear under the sea. These latter form nearly horizontal strata of a calcareo-argillaceous sandy breccia, full of marine shells and fragments of corals, &c. Philippi identified 209 species of Mollusca from this deposit in the neighbourhood of Palermo, the great majority being of living species. The ossiferous caves had been known from remote antiquity, and notices of them occur in Valguarnera, II Mongitore and other Sicilian historians. The botanist Cupani had figured and identified some of the bones. The author’s investigations had been directed to the caverns near Palermo and Carini. At Palermo the littoral pliocene plain, celebrated for its richness as the “Concha d’Oro,” or shell of gold, is from a mile to one and one-half mile broad, and where it abuts against the Hippurite-rocks is from 180 to 200 feet above the level of the sea. The ancient Pliocene sea-margin is very distinctly seen at this elevation all round the bay, and the ossiferous caverns chiefly occur at from 30 to 50 feet above this level. Some of them, such as the “Grotta di Belliemi,” are at a higher level. The caves are studded all round the bay. The Hippurite-limestone hills skirting the coast are here from 1200 to 1800 feet above the sea; some of the heights more inland, such as Monte Griffone and Monte Cuccio, attain a height of upwards of 3000 feet.
On the Passage-beds from the Upper Silurian Rocks into the Lower Old Red Sandstone, at Ledbury, Herefordshire
Authors: Symonds W. S. 
Published: October 2009

T
he
transition, or passage-rocks, which connect the Upper Silurian deposits with the basement-beds of the Old Red Sandstone epoch, are most interesting to the geologist; and as a very remarkable section of these rocks is now visible on the line of railway near Ledbury, in Herefordshire, a few notes with a sketch and section may be acceptable.

In my communication on “The Old Red Sandstone of Herefordshire,” published in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal (April 1, 1859, p. 232), I expressed my opinion that the Ludlow sections on the horizon of the passage-beds above the Downton Sandstone are broken by faults, and that the true succession is therefore destroyed. I had come to this determination long before the beds now developed in the railroad-cutting at Ledbury were exposed to view; and, having again lately visited Ludlow, and compared the passage-rocks of that district with those of Ledbury, I am convinced that nowhere perhaps in the world is there such an exhibition of passage-beds presented to the eye of the geologist as at the Ledbury tunnel, on the Worcester and Hereford Railway. Fortunately most of the passage-beds are laid open to the sunlight, and the important points exposed.
When engaged upon the section, I was accompanied by my friends Mr. Edmond Richards, and the Messrs. Ballard, the Engineers on the Worcester and Hereford Railway, to whom I return my best thanks for their hearty and efficient cooperation.
The strata dip at an angle of 71° north-by-west. The accompanying sketch (see fig.
On the so-called Mud-volcanos of Turbaco, near Carthagena
Authors: Bernal F. 
Published: October 2009

Abstract

T
urbaco
is a village, about fifteen miles from Carthagena, at an elevation of about 980 feet above the sea. At a distance of about three miles from the village, and at a rather higher elevation, in the midst of a forest, are some twenty or thirty conical hillocks, about 8 or 10 feet high, each with its little crater or orifice, about 2 feet in diameter. These are filled with a muddy water; and every two or three minutes a slight noise is heard, a bubbling-up of air or gas takes place, the muddy fluid runs over, and forms into cakes of blue clay. The water is quite cool, nor is there any present or anterior marks or vestiges of the action of fire or heat†.
On some Bronze Relics found in an Auriferous Sand in Siberia
Authors: Atkinson T. W. 
Published: October 2009

T
he
accompanying fragments of worked metal were discovered in Siberia, at a gold-mine on the River Shargan, in about lat. 59° 30′ N. and long. 96° 10′ E. They were found at a depth of 14 feet 8 inches beneath the surface, near the middle of a bed of gold-bearing sand‡, which was 20 inches thick, and composed of yellow sand, pebbles, small fragments of quartz, with other pulverized or decomposed rocks. Imbedded in it were pieces of gold, varying in size from small grains to nuggets of one to four pounds in weight. This deposit rested on a bed of rock.

Immediately above the sand there was a stratum, 5 feet in thickness, consisting of coarse gravel, dark-coloured sand, and some earthy matter, containing pieces (but not of large size) of quartz, granite, and porphyritic rocks. Overlying this, there was another stratum, 6 feet in thickness, composed of yellow sand and rough pebbles, in which were imbedded blocks of granite, porphyry, and jasper. Some of these were large, and their angles were worn away by attrition. Over this was a bed of dark-coloured sand, about 10 inches thick; and above that, 2 feet of good vegetable mould, formed by the decayed trunks of trees and herbage.
There were no fissures in the strata through which these bronze relics could have fallen, nor did they appear to have ever been disturbed by man since the gold was deposited.
The relics were found in the presence of one of the officers
On the Volcanic Country of Auckland, New Zealand
Authors: Heaphy Charles 
Published: October 2009

B
y
the map of New Zealand it will be seen that in the 36th degree of south latitude the Northern Island of New Zealand is so much narrowed as to form an isthmus of about six miles in width from east to west, connecting the broader and higher land on either side.

This isthmus, like the land immediately to the north and south of it, has an undulating surface, rising in some places to hills of about 600 or 7OO feet above the sea. The cliffs which bound its eastern side show beds of soft sandstone, indurated clay, and mud-rock, with layers of volcanic ashes, and, occasionally, seams of lignite and coal. The whole seems to belong to the Tertiary formation, and probably to the Eocene period. Organic remains are rarely met with. But at one locality, between Kohuroa and Omaha,
Terebratulœ
. (of which specimens are forwarded to the Society) occur at the junction of the volcanic ashes and clay-beds above-mentioned.

The higher land to the south of the isthmus—beginning on the eastern coast—consists of, first, clay-slate, then rocks of the Cretaceous formations, and lastly, a magnetic sandstone-rock, mixed with a black conglomerate. This series rises into hills of 800 of 1000 feet above the sea.
To the northward of the isthmus the Tertiary is bounded on the eastern slope by a black trap-rock of a very close texture, next by a black boulder-rock, and finally, on the west coast, by a trachytic breccia, rising into peaks and ridges of
On the Association of the Lower Members of the Old Red Sandstone and the Metamorphic Rocks on the Southern Margin of the Grampians
Authors: Harkness R. 
Published: October 2009

Abstract

T
he
area to which this paper referred is the tract lying between Stonehaven and Strathearn, including the south-eastern flanks of the Grampians for about two-thirds of their course. Metamorphic rocks, trap-rocks, the Lower and Middle members of the Old Red series (the former being sandstone, and the latter conglomerate), are the constituent rock-masses of the district, and give it its peculiar physical features. The mode in which these rocks are associated is well exhibited in the section on the coast (at Stonehaven), and in the several sections in the interior where streams lay bare the rocks. Sections at Stonehaven, Glenburnie, Strathfinlass, North Esk, West Water of Lethnot, Cruick Water, South Esk and Prosen, Blairgowrie, Dunkeld, Strathearn, and Glenartney, were described in detail.

Against the north-westerly dipping metamorphic schists (which sometimes include conformable limestones) come purple flagstones, but usually separated from them by trap-rocks, having the same strike. These flagstones pitch to the south-east, but retain a high angle away from the schists, and, in many places, are intercalated with beds of trap. The lower purple flagstones are unfossiliferous; but higher up tracks of Crustaceans (
Protichnites
) have been discovered by the Rev. H. Mitchell. The grey fossiliferous flagstones of Forfarshire succeed, still with a steep dip. Conglomerates succeed, in beds having a less inclination, gradually becoming more and more horizontal as they reach the low country.

The axis of the elevation of the Grampians thus appears to be along their southern margin, and to be marked by the trap-rocks separating the metamorphic schists and the purple flagstones of the Old Red series, and giving the latter their general south-easterly dip. As the metamorphic rocks of the Grampians have not yielded any fossils, their relation to the other old rocks of Scotland is difficult to determine.
On the Drift and Rolled Gravel of the North of Scotland
Authors: Jamieson T. F. 
Published: October 2009

§ 1. I
n
a former communication* I gave an account of some features of the Pleistocene deposits along the coast of Aberdeenshire, showing that in certain localities remains of marine animals occur of a character similar to those met with in the later tertiary beds of the Clyde district, and, like them, indicating the presence of a colder sea. The following pages are devoted chiefly to the Drift of the interior of the country and of the higher grounds, more especially as regards that part of Scotland lying between the Moray Firth and the Firth of Tay.

In the lower parts of this district we find the drift-beds and brick-clays covered by a widespread accumulation of water-rolled gravel, often of great thickness and destitute of fossils. It is poured out in greatest profusion towards the mouths of valleys, and pervades all the river-basins I have examined, decreasing in extent as we ascend their course.
It is not, however, confined to the neighbourhood of those streams, but also covers many tracts where no river appears to have existed.
All along the valley of the Dee, from the seaport of Aberdeen to Braemar, which is situated nearly sixty miles into the interior, this upper rolled gravel is everywhere to be found diminishing, however, greatly in quantity towards the head of the valley.
At Aberdeen it forms large swelling mounds and little hills, on which a great part of the city and its suburbs is buit. In many places it is spread out
On a Well-Section near Gosport
Authors: Pilbrow James 
Published: October 2009

T
he
following is a section of the deep well and boring recently made under my direction (1858) for the Gosport Water-works Company, at Bury Cross, about one mile and a quarter west of the town. It is, I believe, the most carefully observed, as well as one of the deepest wells executed in that district, where the strata vary so much that the same stratum will scarcely be found with like characters at two places, though only a few hundred yards apart; and frequently the omission altogether of one or other of the strata shows that very considerable disturbing causes must have been in operation either at the period of the formation of these deposits or subsequently.

In the upper and middle portions of the stratum of sand noted in the section at from 33 feet 1 inch to 67 feet 3 inches, the fine series of perfect fossils occurred, of which a note is appended. Others occurred in the lower portion of this bed; and where it merged into the green sand below, which was dry and hard, the specimens became much fractured and very rotten.
Fossils were not again met with until the depth of 84 feet was reached, and from that to 95 feet. These were similar to the foregoing, but mostly fragmentary and mixed in masses with the sand. At from 95 feet to 104 feet, a few other fossil shells were also found.
The yield of water from this well is very copious, supposed to