bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Environmental Directing Principles versus Free Trade
Authors: DE SADELEER NICOLAS 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThis chapter considers in great detail the potential importance of directing principles in weighing differing interests. It focuses on the conflict between environmental principles and free trade within the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and the EC. It explains that the said conflict illustrates the role that these principles can play in modifying a debate with major legal as well as societal implications. It stresses the odd twists and tangled hierarchies characteristic of post-modern law which may be encountered in disputes involving trade and the environment. It demonstrates how the polluter-pays, preventive, and precautionary principles help construct and ideal of rationality in a chaotic legal universe.
Following Standards
Authors: Brunsson Nils , Jocobsson Bengt 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses what it means to follow a standard and why individual actors do so. A typical standard consists of a statement about the generally desired qualities of product, an activity, or a document, for example. The standardizer seeks to regulate the design of these objects or processes. Following a standard means establishing some degree of consistency between the standard and what one does. Such a consistency can be achieved in two ways: either by changing practice to fit the standard, or by changing the presentation of practice in accordance with the standard. When practice is changed, the standard is said to be implemented or practised, while the follower performs a translation.
The Pros and Cons of Standardization — An Epilogue
Authors: Brunsson Nils , Jacobsson Bengt 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
There is no lack of standardizers in the world, and there are plenty of people who know what is best for everyone else by invoking their expertise. Some arguments used to support standards are that they represent an effective means of information dissemination, they result in better coordination of activities, lead to simplification, and bring advantages in the form of large-scale production. Many of the objections to standards and standardization are similar to those raised against rules and regulations in general. One criticism is that standards are an unwelcome, unnecessary, and harmful intrusion into a world of free, distinct individuals and organizations who are wise enough to decide for themselves, or into the world of civil society or free markets.
1 Introduction
Authors: WINDOLF PAUL 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Theories explaining the meaning of corporate networks can be divided into two categories: functionalist theories explain networks by way of the economic and social functions they fulfill, while power or control theories view networks as instruments used to monopolize markets or to exclude potential competitors from these markets. Examples of functionalist theories are transaction cost theory, information theories, and resource dependency. This book offers a comprehensive analysis of corporate networks between major firms in the United States and five countries in Europe: Germany, Great Britain, France, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. In this introductory chapter, market regulation in the United States is discussed, along with cartels in Germany, network theories, institutional and cultural contingency, dependent and independent variables of corporate networks, and networks as institutions. The opportunities created by interlocking directorates and capital networks among large firms are also considered.
6 Education and Career of Multiple-Directors
Authors: WINDOLF PAUL 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter looks at the career paths of multiple-directors in Germany and Great Britain: their education, their fields of study, the course of the careers, and the speed with which they climbed the career ladder. It examines whether these big linkers were ‘entrepreneurs’ at any time during their life course, or whether they started their careers right from the beginning as ‘bureaucrats’ in the large corporations. To expand the comparison, data on the professional career of managers in France and the United States are also analyzed, including their recruitment and promotion. It is shown that the central position of individual managers in the elite network can be explained by the following variables: the manager's age, the company's prestige, and the membership in lobby and interest organizations. It is not the individual manager, but the group of interrelated directors, who fulfill the entrepreneurial function within the corporate economy. The concepts of standardization and professionalization and the meaning of elite integration and homogenization are also considered.
7 Corporate Networks in Eastern Germany
Authors: WINDOLF PAUL 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter deals with corporate networks in East Germany. Corporate networks and the reconstitution of traditions are of particular importance for the transformation process in East Germany. The existence of networks offers a substitute to open market competition, transforming the economic conditions into a system of ‘controlled competition’. Experience shows that successful countries have not built their institutions along a neoliberal model of competition but have reconstituted their own respective traditions and integrated new business enterprises into a complex system of networks which provide effective protection to specialized companies. This sort of mutually protective networks is lacking in East Germany; instead, the East German network is dominated by corporations from West Germany. This chapter also looks at growth paradigms, political exchange in social networks, capital networks, and interlocking directorates in East Germany.
8 Privatization and Corporate Networks in Eastern Europe
Authors: WINDOLF PAUL 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter looks at corporate networks and privatization in Poland and Hungary to determine which type of capitalism is developing in Eastern Europe. In particular, the chapter examines whether the emerging structures more closely resemble the model of German corporatism or that of Anglo-Saxon market liberalism. First, the economic elites adopted a new ideology to legitimize the emerging unequal distribution of ownership and control in post-socialist societies. The chapter argues that the work of Hayek and Polanyi has structured a controversy between the proselytes of a liberal market order and those who have criticized the excesses of ‘wild east’ capitalism. Second, the privatization process created a new social structure characterized by an unequal distribution of ownership and control of the former state-owned enterprises. The different privatization methods are analyzed to show how they influenced the distribution of economic power and the process of class formation. Third, most East European countries have enacted a new corporate law that defines the governance structure of the privatized firms. This chapter examines the extent to which these laws restrict property rights and whether employee ownership may be a substitute for codetermination.
9 From Corporatism to Shareholder Value
Authors: WINDOLF PAUL 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The market structures prevailing in Germany, France, or Japan since World War II have developed in one way or another along corporatist or statist lines. In Germany and France, financial laws have been revised and economic institutions have undergone substantial restructuring. Corporatist regulations on the labor and financial markets are being dismantled and replaced by a regime of market regulation. The social sciences have developed a string of theories to explain institutional changes that were observed in the economic system in recent decades, particularly the transition from corporatism to shareholder value capitalism. Among these are the transaction cost theories (lock-in effects) and theories on cultural evolution. These concepts are summarized in the present chapter, and a number of examples are considered to demonstrate the changes which corporate networks, the ownership patterns of large enterprises, and financial markets have undergone in Germany and France over the past decade.
From Guilds to Companies
Authors: Barron Caroline M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter charts the evolution of groups of craftsmen living in the same areas and occasionally co-operating together to achieve short-term objectives into the chartered city companies to be found at the end of the period. The roles played by religious fraternities within the crafts and the charitable activities of the companies are also examined. The ways in which the craft organisations, sometimes seen as hostile to organised civic government, were firmly incorporated within the structures of civic government by 1500, is fully discussed.
Reversal of Status
Authors: NEWBURY COLIN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
From 1858, Company action in Bengal transformed, over the following half century, a maritime agency into a land power on the sub continent. The Presidencies of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay interacted with neighbouring states in ways that resulted in the subordination of their Muslim or Hindu rulers or uneasy co operation. Such relationships were never static, as treaties defining commercial privilege, payment for troops, debt recovery, were made and broken. Assignments of territory by states re-shaped internal boundaries and demarcated territories under Company control and influence. From the mid-18th century, India was imperially partitioned by using clientage to build up a network of Hindu officials and manage land revenue and tribute, and to extend by force and by alliance Company power along the upper Ganges. The symbol of this reversal of roles was the Mughal Emperor's transfer of state finances and external relations to a governor-general of ‘British India’.
Introduction
Authors: NEWBURY COLIN 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This introductory chapter examines the terminology of subordination including ‘paramountcy’, ‘protection’, ‘subsidiary alliance’, ‘indirect rule’, and ‘collaboration’, drawn mainly from British experience in India and Africa. The advantages of adopting a patron-client model derived from anthropological work on clientage in segmentary societies and patrimonial states are contrasted with older terms in imperial history. Semantic debate aside, it became clear by the 1980s that a bridge between administrative history and the dynamics of political clientage was already available in the case of Indian history to explain the transformation of the Indian Mughal empire and its successor states under pressure from Europeans. Indian historiography has moved between two images of empire — British and Indian — towards a greater synthesis with less on justification and administrative categories and more on the exercise of power at lower levels. That example can be applied elsewhere in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific.
Dispute Settlement
Authors: Collins Hugh 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers the problem of dispute settlement as a task for regulating contracts that raises distributive issues. It argues that the dominant goal in regulating contractual disputes should be one of promoting contractual settlements of disputes. This goal diminishes the conventional importance attached to the vindication of contractual rights and access to justice in ordinary courts. Instead, the regulatory objective of settlement suggests that the law should aim to support and steer mechanisms that possess the capacity to produce or facilitate a fair resolution of disputes by agreement.
The ‘Kings’ of Lycia in the Achaemenid Period
Authors: KEEN ANTONY G. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the political structures in Lycia. It shows that the dynamic in Lycia in many ways parallel to that of the ‘non-polis’ communities in Greece. Lycia seems to have been confronting many of the same questions of the relationship between the city and larger regional political bodies. The Lycians certainly arrived at the same solution — the ultimate emergence in the hellenistic period of a representative confederacy — one that persisted into the Roman period, as the best means of reconciling traditional Lycian nationhood with their new identity as citizens of poleis.
The Pre-polis Polis
Authors: FORREST †W. G 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers what was going on in ancient Greece three hundred years before there was any democracy. It shows that just as you could succeed without monarchy, so you could get on without groups of basileia congregating at out-of-the-way cult places. The model of the polis did not always win the tug-of-war — the continuing role of ethnē in many parts of Greece is tribute to the continuing attractions of keeping in with your neighbours, but the pre-polis polis had had its day.
Land-use, Ethnicity, and Federalism in West Crete
Authors: SEKUNDA N. V. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Two groups of evidence survive concerning federalism in west Crete: first, a number of references to the ‘Polichnitai’; second is evidence concerning a League of the Oreioi, the inhabitants of the White Mountains in south-west Crete. This chapter attempts to identify the centripetal and centrifugal forces leading to the establishment and collapse of these alliance systems.
The Introduction of the Excise
Authors: ASHWORTH WILLIAM J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the introduction and implementation of the excise tax. The excise duties were formally announced to the Long Parliament on 16 May 1643. An ordinance was subsequently passed on 22 July stipulating that duties were to be renewed on a monthly basis. Treasurers in London had to provide warrants for the allocation of excise revenue, while parliament had auditors to keep track of and retain control of the flow of funds.
Pilfering, Customs Fees, and Remuneration
Authors: ASHWORTH WILLIAM J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of pilfering and perquisites, which were part of an alternative economy that was vast and absorbed much of the working poor. This common economy created prospects for linking hatred of the state and radical politics, but it also offered the opportunities poor man or woman agency as he or she sought chances to line their pockets. The chapter then discusses custom fees and remuneration.
Smuggling
Authors: ASHWORTH WILLIAM J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the problem of smuggling. The authorities recognized that punishment and the use of arms needed to be accompanied by a more constructive policy. Not only were new and old domestic Industries protected, but they also had to be as good as foreign equivalents to help stem smuggling. Excise stipulations were an important tool in nurturing quality improvements within Britain's backward industries.
The Limits of Taxation and the Politics of Representation
Authors: ASHWORTH WILLIAM J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the protests unleashed by the decision of the Earl of Bute, and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir Francis Dashwood, to seek revenue via an Act designed to raise the excise duty payable upon cider and perry. It then discusses tax and the Colonies, focusing on the issue of ‘no taxation without representation’.
The Domestic-Political Dimension in Britain
Authors: IMLAY TALBOT C. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter argues that Winston Churchill' coalition government represented the culmination of a process, begun before the war, in which the Labour Party and growing number of Conservatives and Liberals converged on a common response to the prospect and eventual reality of war. Unlike the previous government which clung to a more limited view of Britain's effort, its opponents espoused the need for total war against Germany. In stark contrast to the French case, this conception of total was became the basis of a stable, cross-party parliamentary majority.
Introduction
Authors: Heckscher Charles , Maccoby Michael , Ramirez Rafael , Tixier Pierre-Eric 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This introductory chapter discusses the use of consulting experience as data for analysis and the method of systematic reflection on experience. It then sketches the core lessons of the authors' consulting experiences: firstly, the value of a ‘full engagement’ approach to relational intervention; and secondly, the need for development of ‘post-industrial relations’.
A “Full Engagement” Approach to Intervention
Authors: Heckscher Charles , Maccoby Michael , Ramirez Rafael , Tixier Pierre-Eric 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This is the first of three chapters on intervention methods. It gives an overview of the ‘full engagement’ approach that operates simultaneously at the strategic, operational, and relational levels. This approach addresses not only rational dimensions, but also the non-rational, ‘sociodynamic’ aspects of relations. It is complex and long at best, but necessary for system transformations of the type analyzed in this book.
Assessing the Interventions: Achievements and Limitations
Authors: Heckscher Charles , Maccoby Michael , Ramirez Rafael , Tixier Pierre-Eric 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter attempts an honest overall assessment of the outcomes of these long transformative processes. It concludes that much progress was made in overcoming adversarial histories, increasing involvement, and navigating some major business discontinuities. But there are also rather clear limits beyond which the dialogic ‘full engagement’ process has not yet been able to go; it has been blocked by the legal and institutional framework of existing stakeholder relations. The full move to a knowledge-solutions economy ultimately proved too large for any of these interventions to navigate peacefully.
Introduction
Authors: Holford-Strevens Leofranc 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This introductory chapter sketches the cultural background against which Gellius wrote. The character of the second century is considered, and in particular that of its literature, both Greek and Latin. Whereas in Greek the return to the glorious Athenian past had encouraged declaimers of the Second Sophistic to attempt composition in classical Attic, in Latin, rejection of Julio-Claudian modernism and Flavian neoclassicism brought about not the wholesale imitation of Republican Latin implied by the term ‘archaism’, but a mannerism of style that concentrated on finding the most striking individual words, often indeed taken from writers of the Republican period. These writers were coming back into fashion to replace the Silver Latin authors who had fallen from favour, a development that was fostered but not created by the personal tastes of the Emperor Hadrian.
5 Teachers
Authors: Holford-Strevens Leofranc 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers Gellius's portraits of four teachers: Sulpicius Apollinaris in grammar, Antonius Julianus and Titus Castricius in rhetoric, and Lucius Calvenus Taurus in philosophy. Apollinaris is presented as a man of superior learning (though Gellius sometimes disagrees with him) and gentle in reproof. Julianus and Castricius are both masters in their discipline, but Julianus's geniality, which makes him a welcome guest at a pupil's birthday party, stands in contrast to Castricius's sternness, which finds fault even with admired authors. Taurus dislikes pupils whose interest lies in rhetoric rather than philosophy or who presume to dictate the syllabus, but overcame his initial suspicions of Gellius to make him an intimate despite his lack of philosophical penetration.
10 The Latin Language
Authors: Holford-Strevens Leofranc 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Gellius despises run-of-the-mill professional grammarians for their ignorance both of other disciplines and of Republican Latin, which furnished exceptions to their arbitrary rules. This attitude should not be called a championing of anomaly against analogy, since anomaly had dissolved into the competing principles, of which the most important in Gellius's eyes is the authority of approved writers; arguments from ratio (analogy or etymology) are acceptable provided they support it. Nevertheless, he is aware that language changes over time, especially pronunciation. His discussions of etymology are very sensible by ancient standards; he is also aware that euphony plays an important part in writers' choices. His ventures into textual criticism show an appreciation of the lectio difficilior, but the readings he produces from supposedly authentic manuscripts must be judged on their merits.
16 Other Values and Interests, Weak Spots, and Blind Spots
Authors: Holford-Strevens Leofranc 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Gellius is tolerant in matters of sexual conduct, not being disturbed even by pederasty with ingenui, but his attitude to women reflects the rigorous sexism of Cato the Elder. He seems to show more sympathy for Hadrian than for his successors, has a taste (at a safe distance) for the severity of ancient punishments and the office of censor, and takes an unexplained interest in embassies. He is sometimes inaccurate in his recollection of names; Egyptians apart, he takes little notice of barbarians save as enemies or foils; he has only a restricted interest in the visual arts, mathematics, music, and natural sciences.
Human Rights: The Shifting Boundaries
Authors: CAMPBELL TOM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter investigates the best means of protecting and promoting human rights. It identifies which human rights are being discussed. It examines the reason for choosing these human rights rather than other possible rights as human rights. It provides a definition of human rights. It considers some ways in which to constrict and contain the boundaries of human rights and mentions its expansionism. It determines the roles that human rights are to have in the decision-making processes and what their form and content should be.
Human Rights Concepts in Australian Political Debate
Authors: NOLAN MARK A. , OAKES PENELOPE J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins by describing human rights use as a psychological response to injustice and is then followed by a discussion of the empirical findings. It presents empirical findings that suggest Australians assert human rights as one of a number of possible political responses to felt harm and perceived injustice. It also talks about the responses of the Australians to the existence of a mandatory sentencing scheme, and the exclusion of lesbians and single women from using assisted reproductive technology. It notes that despite the absence of an Australian bill of rights, respondents were motivated to use human rights arguments to press social justice claims. It explains that this willingness to use rights concepts challenges people to consider how to best provide mechanisms of human rights protection that remain relevant to the needs of aggrieved persons.
Rights, Rules, and Democracy
Authors: KAY RICHARD S. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on competing characterizations of the nature of constitutional judicial review. It argues that the source of much scepticism of constitutional rights lies in the success of the legal realist critique of adjudication, which has made it impossible to describe the role of judges as simply applying rules made by constitution-makers. It reasserts the idea that, in enforcing rights, courts can possibly be taken to be enforcing rules (rather than exercising quasi-legislative judgment).