bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pressure
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses pressure. One of the most fundamental variables in the study of gases is pressure. The pressure p due to a gas (or in fact any fluid) is defined as the ratio of the perpendicular contact force to the area of contact. The unit is therefore that of force (N) divided by that of area (m2) and is called the pascal (Pa = Nm-2). The direction in which pressure acts is always at right angles to the surface upon which it is acting. Molecular distributions, the ideal gas law, and Dalton's law are discussed.
Molecular effusion
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the effusion of gases through small holes and the concept of flux. Effusion is the process by which a gas escapes from a very small hole. The empirical relation known as Graham's law of effusion states that the rate of effusion is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of the effusing molecule. The concept of flux is a very important one in thermal physics. It quantifies the flow of particles or the flow of energy or even the flow of momentum.
The thermal diffusion equation
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter looks at solving problems involving the thermal conductivity of matter using a technique developed by mathematicians in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The key equation describes thermal diffusion, i.e., how heat appears to 'diffuse' from one place to the other, and much of the chapter presents techniques for solving this equation. The thermal diffusion equation for a sphere, Newton's law of cooling, the Prandtl number, sources of heat, and particle diffusion are discussed.
Isothermal and adiabatic processes
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter applies the results of the previous chapter to illustrate some properties concerning isothermal and adiabatic expansions of gases. These results will assume that the expansions are reversible, and so the first part of the chapter explores the key concept of reversibility. This will be important for the discussion of entropy in subsequent chapters.
Heat engines and the second law
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter introduces the second law of thermodynamics, which is illustrated with an application to the theory of 'heat engines' - machines that produce work from a temperature difference between two reservoirs. The chapter begins by stating two alternative forms of the second law of thermodynamics and then discusses how these statements impact on the efficiency of heat engines.
Statistical mechanics of an ideal gas
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The partition function is a sum over all the states of a system of the relevant Boltzmann factors. Constructing the partition function is the first step to deriving all the thermodynamic properties of a system. A very important example of this technique is the ideal gas. This chapter calculates the partition function for an ideal gas and uses this to define the quantum concentration. It shows how the indistinguishability of molecules affects the statistical properties and has thermodynamic consequences.
Phonons
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
In a solid, energy can be stored in vibrations of the atoms which are arranged in a lattice. In the same way that photons are quantized electromagnetic waves that describe the elementary excitations of the electromagnetic field, phonons are the quantized lattice waves that describe the elementary excitations of vibrations of the lattice. This chapter discusses the analogous behaviour of lattice vibrations, quantized as phonons. It introduces the Einstein model and Debye model of the thermal properties of solids.
From Trouble to Trauma: The Need for Public–Private Health Partnerships
Authors: Barton Laurence 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the importance of public—private partnerships in the area of public health. Topics covered include corporate planning for medical emergencies, the lessons learned by one multinational company about crisis management, and corporate planning and SARS. It presents questions intended to encourage robust dialogue between public health officials and their corporate counterparts in the environmental, health, and safety/security arenas.
Risk Communication in the British Pertussis and MMR Vaccine Controversies
Authors: Casiday Rachel 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter examines and compares two vaccination controversies from recent decades: the safety of whole-cell pertussis vaccine in the 1970s and 1980s, and the more recent controversy about the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine from 1997 onwards. Both of these controversies emerged in Britain with the publication of case reports of alleged paediatric neurological damage following immunization. Both were propelled by parental advocacy groups and legal actions on behalf of the affected children. And both resulted in diminished confidence in the vaccine in question and, more generally, in the state-sponsored public health system. This final aspect prompted widespread public health concern in both cases about under-immunization in the population, and about ways to improve risk communication and public confidence. A critical evaluation of the points of convergence and divergence between these two controversies is necessary to improve our understanding of why controversies about particular vaccines emerge, even when the bulk of scientific evidence points to their safety and utility, and will help develop effective risk communication strategies for the vaccine controversies that will surely arise in the future.
A Precautionary Tale—The Role of the Precautionary Principle in Policy-Making for Public Health
Authors: Fischbacher-Smith Denis , Calman Kenneth 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter examines some of the issues arising from the relationship between fear and perceptions of risk, and the implications that the precautionary principle might have in shaping the conflict that ensues in risk debates. It also explores the nature of the precautionary approach in practical terms and the nature of uncertainty as a core element in the process of public health risk management.
Communicating Risk Across Publics and Between Organizations: The Case of Childhood Accidents
Authors: Fischbacher-Smith Moira 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins by considering the nature of the public at whom health promotion is targeted, and illustrates the issues in relation to one particular area of risk: unintentional injuries. It then discusses the nature of this particular risk, the problem of communication with the target groups, and highlights the particular challenges faced by healthcare, social care, and voluntary organizations in creating interagency (or joined up) communication strategies.
Geographical Information Systems as a Means for Communicating About Public Health
Authors: Dunn Christine E. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractRecent years have witnessed an upsurge in interest in techniques for analysing spatially referenced data; not least in this expansion has been the development of geographical information systems (GIS). Some of the power of the technology of GIS lies in its ability to combine disparate types and sources of data, thereby allowing the user to explore and evaluate potential relationships between health outcomes and environmental risk factors. This chapter uses selective examples to illustrate the role which GIS can play in understanding and communicating about public health risks. It considers some of the specific opportunities which a GIS-based approach offers but it also addresses some of the inherent assumptions and limitations of spatial representations of risks to health. The chapter begins by outlining the meaning of the term ‘GIS’, before going on to discuss issues of data quality and the challenges of representing population risk exposure. A range of case studies is drawn upon in order to illustrate some of the capabilities of GIS for identifying and illustrating spatial patterns of risks to health, in ways that can inform experts charged with communication of public health risks. The discussion then goes on to outline ‘alternative’ forms of GIS that enable wider user-participation and which may be more directly applied to communication of risk to the public.
Exploring and Communicating Risk: Scenario-Based Workshops
Authors: French Simon , Maule John 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThe first edition of this book reported the authors' work in the Department of Health on developing a series of research-led training seminars for senior health services personnel to improve their processes of risk communication. This chapter reflects on what was learnt from these events, including how to design workshops and develop scenarios. The primary objectives of the chapter are: to outline the underlying philosophy underpinning the understanding of risk communication and how that feeds into the design of training seminars; to use recent experience of running risk communication events to reflect on the changes necessary to the seminars in terms of content, focus, underlying philosophy, and techniques covered; and to identify some more recent developments in the literature on risk perception and communication, considering the implications of these in the context of the training seminar content.
Plenitude of Power: Absolutism in the Middle Ages
Authors: Black Jane 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The history and meaning of papal and secular plenitude of power are explained. Jacques de Revigny taught that rights guaranteed merely in civil law could be ignored without cause, and that even when a ruler infringed fundamental rights he did not have to spell out his justification. His approach was introduced into Italy by Cino da Pistoia. Baldo degli Ubaldi's concept of plenitude of power and its overwhelming force is described. Baldo's disapproval of the misuse of plenitude of power set a trend for the next generation of lawyers. Attitudes changed in the fifteenth century, jurists insisting that before rights could be infringed, the justification had to be genuine.
Lawyers and the Absolute Powers of the Duke
Authors: Black Jane 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Chapter Four turns to the solutions offered by lawyers to the problem of absolute power in Milan. Paolo da Castro considered Visconti's claims solidly based on Giangaleazzo's investiture of 1396. But with the denial of imperial recognition to Francesco Sforza, a new ideology had to be fashioned. Radical solutions were put forward by Andrea Barbazza, Alexander Tartagni, and Francesco Corte il vecchio declaring that the duchy of Milan was an independent entity and the duke a sovereign ruler. Ludovico il Moro's imperial diploma, finally granted in 1494, proved a mixed blessing, undermining the newly established notion of Milanese independence. A legitimate foundation for plenitude of power in Milan was achieved by melding earlier theories to create the idea that the rulers of Milan had an intrinsic and independent right to their powers.
Plenitude of Power in Practice: Preserving Justice while Infringing Rights
Authors: Black Jane 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
How the rulers of Milan contrived to disregard laws and rights while still maintaining a reputation for justice is addressed here. The Visconti reputation for justice is explored. The practical usage of absolute power is described: it was employed to undermine individual rights in defending the regime from opposition; it was invoked to issue pardons, to overrule court judgments, to make good legal defects in a decree or concession, and to repeal existing laws. Skilfully composed preambles could make the overruling of laws and rights appear as a higher form of justice. The fifteenth century saw the use of the phrase plenitude of absolute power, which also acquired its own conventions. The requirement to articulate a just cause provided an opportunity for the government to parade its championship of justice, even as basic rights were being infringed.
Lawyers and the Repudiation of Ducal Absolutism
Authors: Black Jane 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Chapter Six traces the growing antipathy in legal circles to the use of absolute power. Cristoforo Castiglioni and Raffaele Fulgosio endeavoured to distance both themselves and the regime from plenitude of power, blaming its misuse on unscrupulous petitioners. Bartolommeo Sozzini called it plenitudo tempestatis (plenitude of turmoil). For Francesco Corte, plenitude of power was bound to be associated with injustice, otherwise it would not be needed. Giasone del Maino at first shared the general disapproval of plenitude of power, but, as a close supporter of the Sforza, he was prepared to uphold their authority. The most outstanding legal minds working in the duchy in the early sixteenth century, Giovanni Nevizzano, Aimone Cravetta, and Andrea Alciato, were determined to discredit absolute power altogether.
The International Climate Change Legal and Institutional Framework: An Overview
Authors: Freestone David 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter provides an introduction to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) system and the key institutions as well as to the processes leading up to, and from, the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol. It introduces some of the key concepts that will be further developed in later chapters. With the release of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report it is clear that radical action needs to be taken to avoid dangerous climate change. The Stern Review forcefully reminds us that early, radical action in reducing emissions of greenhouse gases is also the most economically sensible approach.
The CDM Project Cycle and the Role of the UNFCCC Secretariat
Authors: Maria Netto , Kai-Uwe Barani Schmidt 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) provides for three ‘market-oriented mechanisms’: joint implementation (JI); emissions trading (ET); and the clean development mechanism (CDM). The main purpose of the three mechanisms is to maximize the cost-effectiveness of climate change mitigation by providing an opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions inexpensively abroad, rather than at home. This chapter provides an overview of the CDM actors and the steps in the CDM project cycle with an analysis of the role of the Secretariat in supporting these stages.
Trying to Catch up with the Executive Board: Regulatory Decision-Making and its Impact on CDM Performance
Authors: Matthias Krey , Heike Santen 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter highlights some of the main reasons for uncertainty regarding the Clean Development Mechanism's (CDM) project performance, to assess the complaints brought forward, and to summarize briefly the proposals for reform that have been made up till late 2008. It also discusses whether the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (COP/MOP) has lived up to the expectations of the private sector stakeholders in CDM projects and what still remains to be done. The first section describes the overarching principles of CDM rule-making and how it impacts on CDM project development. The second section focuses on the situation in which project developers as well as Certified Emission Reduction (CER) buyers find themselves when they need to predict if, when, and how many CERs a project will deliver in the future. The third section describes typical reasons for the uncertainty that surrounds the CDM potential of a proposed greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation project at an early stage of project development, e.g. at Project Identification Note Stage (PIN). The fourth section exemplifies the challenges of determining the CDM potential of a project that has been submitted for validation with a corresponding Project Design Document (PDD). The fifth section looks at reasons for the uncertainty surrounding the issuance of CERs after there has been CDM registration of a project. Finally, overviews on proposals for reform and the decisions made by the COP/MOP in December 2008 designed to improve CDM performance are provided.
Emissions Trading before the European Court of Justice: Market Making in Luxembourg
Authors: Ghaleigh Navraj Singh 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on challenges to the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) brought before the European Court of Justice (ECJ) and the Court of First Instance (CFI) — the ‘Community Courts’. It commences with a brief account of the prehistory of the EU ETS (Section 2), followed by its legal form and operation (Section 3), before addressing the Courts case law concerning Directive 2003/87/EC (Section 4).
Emissions Trading in the US: Legal Issues
Authors: LaMotte K Russell , Williamson David M (Max) , Hopkins Lauren A 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter offers a guide to the key legal issues presented by national and sub-national greenhouse gas (GHG) regulatory initiatives in the United States. Section 2 provides an overview of sub-national trading schemes at the regional and state level, where mandatory regulations creating carbon trading regimes are most advanced in the United States. Section 3 surveys a number of legal issues that will play an essential role in the design and implementation of any cap-and-trade scheme in the United States, whether at the national or sub-national level. Section 4 addresses a series of constitutional challenges specific to state or regional programs that may limit the scope and perhaps the viability of these non-federal programs. Section 5 highlights a number of prospective legal issues that are likely to arise in designing a new federal climate change statute, such as the relationship between an emissions trading market and existing US environmental laws and trade policy. It also identifies the legal issues that may arise in the event that there is no new climate change-specific federal statute adopted, in which case the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) may instead seek to generate a market for emissions trading through regulations adopted under the existing Clean Air Act.
Offsets in the Emerging US Cap-and-Trade Programmes
Authors: Danish Kyle W 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
As the United States moves forward from voluntary efforts to the establishment of mandatory cap-and-trade programmes for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, offsets have become a central issue of policy. Offsets can help minimize the total costs associated with GHG regulation; offsets can also provide other benefits, such as economic development and reduced pollution. However, incorporation of offsets into a cap-and-trade programme requires careful attention to policy design. This chapter begins with a brief background on offsets, including a discussion of their value within a cap-and-trade programme, the use of offsets in various policy contexts, and different types of offset projects. It then discusses the most important design issues for an offset project programme: additionality of GHG emission reductions made, quantitative limits on offsets, addressing the risk of reversal of sequestered emissions, providing credit for early action offset projects, incorporating international offset projects, and projects aiming to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. Each section highlights how leading proposals for US federal cap-and-trade legislation have addressed these issues. The final section discusses the use of offsets in state and regional cap-and-trade programmes.
Carbon Law and Practice in China
Authors: Tung Christopher 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
China has had considerable success in establishing policy and legal bases for climate change action. A robust industry has grown up in support of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects despite policy hurdles on ownership, pricing, and foreign investment, as well as post-2012 uncertainties. This chapter examines China's sustainable development and climate change policies and laws and their effectiveness in implementing China's international obligations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol. It considers selected carbon law and practice issues in China to date. It also looks at how China will respond to the challenges and contribute to the development of effective climate change solutions after 2012.
The Role of Project-Based Mechanisms in the Future Carbon Market
Authors: Cozijnsen Jos , Coren Michael J 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter addresses the following question: ‘Can offset mechanisms help promote a low-carbon economy at a reasonable cost?’ The answer to this question is, yes. They are not the entirety of the solution — regulation and economy-wide incentives are needed — but as an addition to cap-and-trade, an essential component. Reforms will go a long way toward making offset mechanisms an integral and effective part of the global climate architecture. The first section of this chapter covers existing cap-and-trade systems and progress toward a global system. The second section identifies the building blocks needed to design an effective globally linked emissions trading system. Finally, a vision for a post-2012 climate treaty incorporating project mechanisms is outlined and the policies needed to increase global emission reductions and achieve the target of limiting temperature increase to 2°C are discussed.
Carbon‐Energy Taxation, Revenue Recycling, and Competitiveness
Authors: Andersen Mikael Skou 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter reviews the theoretical debate on the properties of environmental tax reforms and implications for competitiveness. Starting from the Porter hypothesis, a claim was made for improvements in competitiveness from shifting taxation from good to bad – from labour to pollution. The chapter argues with reference to Leibenstein (1966) that the benefits of tax‐shifting need to be appreciated not only from the perspective of allocative efficiency, but also from associated improvements in incentive efficiency. The review is followed by a closer inspection of the concept of competitiveness, whereby both its broader connotations as well as some official definitions are considered. The purpose is to present a clarification of the conceptual and methodological basis for the assessment of competitiveness impacts for energy‐intensive industries and European economies undertaken in this book. In the final section, the chapter presents the research methodology underlying the book as a whole and provides a brief introduction to individual chapters. The need for a complementary research design combining a top‐down macroeconomic with bottom‐up sectoral approaches is argued.