bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Diffusion of Responsibility
Authors: Guerin Bernard 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Diffusion of responsibility appeared as a term in social psychology papers written in the early 1960s, perhaps first by Wallach, Kogan, and Bem (1964). It refers to the idea that, in some contexts, individuals within a group are less (or report feeling less) responsible for actions that occur than if they had done the same action outside the group by themselves. In broad terms, there are fewer consequences to any one person in a group from what that group does than if an individual person had done the action alone.
Discourse Theory and Peace
Authors: Karlberg Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The term
discourse theory
encompasses a diverse set of insights, assumptions, and concepts that have emerged across a range of disciplines in recent decades. Discourse theory generally derives from the “linguistic turn” in the humanities and social sciences that traces back to the work of influential figures such as Ferdinand de Saussure, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Michel Foucault (Rorty, 1992). Most approaches to discourse theory rest on the underlying premise that language, and language use, do not merely reflect or represent our social and mental realities, but they actually help construct or constitute these realities.
Discrimination
Authors: Duncan Norman 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
There can be no denying that discrimination significantly compromises the well‐being, health, schooling, career, and other life opportunities of various groups of people globally. It also has the potential to significantly undermine social harmony and cohesion. Discrimination is most frequently defined as the verbal and nonverbal social acts and processes that result in adverse or prejudicial consequences for members of certain social groups. Insofar as discrimination is defined here as referring to acts and processes that are social in nature, the forms of discrimination that will constitute the focus of attention in the ensuing pages are those forms of discrimination that are perpetrated by people as members of certain ingroups against other people because of their perceived membership of certain outgroups.
Do No Harm
Authors: Long Jancis 
Published: November 2011

Abstract“Do no harm” is the most famous phrase of the Hippocratic Oath, a statement of medical ethics written by physicians in the school of Hippocrates (the so‐called Father of Medicine) in Greece around 400BCE: “I will use regimens for the benefit of the ill in accordance with my ability and judgment, but from what is to their harm or injustice I will keep them.” The awareness of the ancient oath that healing professions carry responsibilities for competent use of their particular knowledge, that the work itself carries dangers of doing unintentional harm, being unjust, exploiting clients, and conferring special skills that can be used for deliberate cruelty, make its principles relevant to settings where peace psychologists may have key roles. Education, law, government, unions, the military, business administration, and other professional enterprises all consult with psychologists at times on issues of ethics, conflict, and outside pressures to reform. Some employ psychologists for assistance to employees (e.g., the military) or clients (e.g., education) and also turn to them for help when destructive conflicts arise.
Dynamical Systems Theory: Applications to Peace and Conflict
Authors: Vallacher Robin , Coleman Peter T. , Nowak Andrzej 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
All conflicts operate as dynamical systems. In complexity science, a dynamical system is a set of interconnected elements that influence one another over time to promote the emergence of a global state (such as war or peace), which in turn provides common meaning for the elements. In social conflict, the elements are specific thoughts, actions, and feelings relevant to the conflict, and the emergent higher‐order state is a generalized negative (or positive) view of the relationship and a readiness for like action (cf. Coleman, Vallacher, Nowak, & Bui‐Wrzosinska, 2007). Within this perspective, the proximate causes of intractable conflict (e.g., competition over scarce resources, ideological differences, protection of personal or group identity) mask a more fundamental tendency for the parties to the conflict to become locked into a destructive pattern of thought and action that resists change. This basic dynamic — the press for higher‐order coherence — provides a new perspective on conflict resolution: Rather than trying to solve the issues in dispute, peacemakers should focus on how to transform the system from the ensemble of dynamics perpetuating the conflict to a different coherent state that allows for benign (or positive) relations between the parties.
Ecological Model
Authors: Ashy Majed A. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe ecological model, developed by Bronfenbrenner (1979) and later refined by Belsky (1993), is a model that takes into account variables influencing behavior on four levels of analyses. According to Bronfenbrenner, the individual/developmental level includes biological/genetic factors, gender, age, personality, cognition, and emotional characteristics. These variables are embedded within the microsystem level which includes the individual's proximal social environment such as family members. In turn, the microsystem variables are located within the exosystem‐level variables that include experiences within the community. Finally, the exosystem‐level variables function within the macrosystem‐level variables that include broad national and cultural forces. From the ecological model perspective, these variables interact in multidirectional ways to influence human behavior.
Emotional Orientation, Collective
Authors: Halperin Eran , Bar‐Tal Daniel 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In recent decades social psychologies — as well as other disciplines such as political science and sociology — have shifted their focus from pure cognitive research to a more integrative perspective, which combines aspects of cognition and emotion. This development took place as a result of recognition that emotions constitute a central element of the human repertoire and the study of their functioning is a prerequisite for the understanding of individual and collective behaviors. Furthermore, scholars who study international relations and ethnic conflicts have long recognized the central role played by emotions in conflict eruption, escalation, de‐escalation, resolution, and reconciliation, though empirical work on emotional effects was relatively rare until the last two decades. Although short‐term, personal experiences of emotions can be highly influential in intergroup conflicts, of special interest is the role of long‐term, collective emotional phenomena in these conflicts. More specifically, they are best represented in the nature and the functioning of collective emotional orientation in intergroup conflicts (Bar‐Tal, 2001; Bar‐Tal, Halperin, & de‐Rivera, 2007).
Empathy
Authors: Wagner Richard V. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Empathy is a core concept in the peace psychological analysis of conflict, and in prescriptions for the resolution of conflict. History suggests that foreign policymakers ignore the importance of empathy at their peril. Robert McNamara considered
realistic
empathy to be “Lesson No. 1” from his experience as US secretary of state in the 1960s (Blight & Lang, 2004). In the documentary
The Fog of War,
McNamara acknowledges that his failure to understand the perspective of the North Vietnamese led him to the erroneous conclusion that US military strength could so devastate North Vietnam that the government would capitulate and the United States would prevail. He failed to recognize the Vietnamese perspective, namely, that the United States was just another foreign power determined to dominate Vietnam; the Vietnamese had successfully ousted the previous colonizers — the French — and were confident they would outlast any US presence in their country. McNamara's inability to “put himself in the Vietnamese shoes” resulted in policies that led ultimately to US withdrawal a decade later.
Empathy, Ethnocultural
Authors: Suffla Shahnaaz , Kimmel Paul 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Although defined and operationalized in a multitude of ways in the psychological literature, most researchers, theorists, and practitioners agree that empathy is a primary means of facilitating interpersonal understanding, and therefore critical to all human relationships. Within a given culture, empathy is frequently examined in terms of its cognitive/intellectual and affective/emotional components. However, a growing critique of the assumptions embedded in these traditional conceptualizations of empathy has underscored the need for intercultural research, theorizing, and practice that is responsive to the wider context of human experience. Much of this critique calls for an expanded orientation that recognizes the importance of culture as a frame of reference through which individuals encounter the world, themselves, and each other. Attention to this wider context in psychology has grown with increasing ethnic and cultural diversification of populations within and across countries and concerns about violent conflicts among these populations. This essay focuses on empathy between individuals from different cultures and ethnicities, referred to here as ethnocultural empathy.
Empathy in the Process of Forgiveness
Authors: Wertheim Eleanor H. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
An emerging topic in peace psychology over the past two decades has been that of forgiveness and the processes that lead to forgiving another party after a hurtful offense. Forgiveness becomes relevant when one party (person or group) perceives another as having perpetrated a hurtful offense, wrong action, or “transgression.” Forgiveness can be seen as a process of setting aside negative emotions, thoughts and behaviors, or motivations of avoidance or revenge towards a transgressor, and transforming them into more positive emotions, thoughts, motivations, and possibly behaviors.
Ethnocentrism
Authors: Kessler Thomas , Fritsche Immo 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

William Graham Sumner (1840–1910) was the first to describe and conceptualize ethnocentrism in his 1906 book,
Folkways: A Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores, and Morals
. Ethnocentrism has been frequently used as a concept to explain ingroup favoritism, prejudice, and intergroup conflict in various disciplines including psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, and evolutionary biology.
Evolutionary Psychology
Authors: Paquette Daniel 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Evolutionary psychology focuses specifically on the evolution of the human mind. It has adopted as its own the basic theories of sociobiology, which itself is the product of the integration of ethology, ecology (population dynamics), and neo‐Darwinism. Ethology is the descriptive, causal, and comparative study of the behavior of animals (including humans) in their natural environment. Like psychology, ethology focuses as much on the external causes (trigger stimuli) as on the internal causes (nervous and endocrine mechanisms) of behavior, as well as on postconception development (ontogenesis). However, it analyzes animal and human behavior essentially from an evolutionary perspective. Ethology is thus also and primarily interested in so‐called distal or ultimate causes – that is to say, the evolution of behaviors in species over generations (phylogeny), and the biological functions of behaviors (i.e., their adaptive or survival value to individuals). Like organs, behavior is a means of adaptation to the environment and evolves primarily through the mechanism of natural selection (Darwin, 1859). Natural selection is the mechanism by which those individuals who have adapted least to the conditions of their environment (due to hereditary characteristics they may in turn pass on to their descendents) reproduce less than better adapted individuals. Over generations (i.e., thousands of years), differential reproduction and mortality ensure that certain characteristics become more widespread than others in a population. The discovery of the laws of heredity (Mendel) and molecular biology in the 20th century clarified the role of natural selection without fundamentally questioning it. Similarly, the work of certain anthropologists, psychologists, and biologists concerning the concept of cultural selection (culturally transmissible traits also offering reproductive advantages) has also contributed to our thinking about the mechanisms of human evolution.
Forgiveness, Intergroup
Authors: Swart Hermann , Hewstone Miles 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Memories of past events and conflicts often remain inextricably woven into the fabric of the present in the lives of both victims and perpetrators living in post‐conflict societies. Interpersonal forgiveness is important in the process of repairing the relationship between individuals previously in conflict. An act of interpersonal forgiveness allows the victim to let go of their feelings of anger and hurt felt towards the perpetrator and, in essence, cancels the “debt” owed on the part of the perpetrator. The victim thereby gives up their right to revenge, which allows the victim and the perpetrator to work towards repairing their relationship.
Forgiveness, Interpersonal
Authors: Paloutzian Raymond F. , Kalayjian Ani 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The twentieth century saw no fewer than 80 million people killed due to war, genocide, massacre, and other acts of violence. The twenty‐first century began with global jihad and more of the same destructive behaviors. When will it end? Forgiveness and reconciliation may be among the most difficult behaviors required of people, but an increasing number of scholars, practitioners, and leaders are beginning to think that without forgiveness and reconciliation the future of humans looks bleak. The complexities involved in bringing vast numbers of people and governments to adopt and practice forgiveness and reconciliation as priorities over grudge‐holding and reprisal are daunting. The challenge is to demonstrate to people and governments that forgiveness, reconciliation, and peace are of value and in their self‐interest. The vision of peace is big; steps small and large must be taken. Tutu (1999) bluntly stated in the title to one of his books:
No future without forgiveness
.
Gangs and Political Violence, Children and Youth Involvement in
Authors: Kostelny Kathleen 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Worldwide, young people are impacted by both gang and political violence. Although gang violence and political violence have different origins and are typically analyzed separately, this article focuses on their similarities and areas of overlap in order to emphasize the similarity of impact on young people's lives and the forces which build cultures of violence. Whether in zones affected by gang violence or political violence, children and youth are witnesses and victims. They are also prominent actors. In order to build cultures of peace, children and youth must be given alternative nonviolent options and socialized for peace.
Gender and Terrorism
Authors: Najam Najma 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
It is well documented that the world's active combat forces have been almost all male. With the exception of the legends of Amazons, there have been no known formal female fighting forces. History does record women such as Joan of Arc (France), Jhansi ki Rani, Razia Sultana (Indian subcontinent), and more recently Phoolan Devi (India) who led fighting forces comprised of men, but these are a rare occurrence. Similarly, in the last few decades, more men than women have been involved and are visible in acts of terrorism, including suicide attacks across Afghanistan, Kashmir, Sri Lanka, Bosnia, Palestine, Turkey, Chechnya, and elsewhere (barring Russia, where women have been active and quite visible).
Gender‐Based Violence
Authors: Simic Olivera 
Published: November 2011

AbstractFor a long time, gender‐based violence (GBV) has been viewed as a private or family matter. Over the last two decades there has been a shift in thinking about GBV, and it is now viewed as a societal problem, primarily as a human rights violation and public health problem. Although GBV is often interchangeably used with “sexual violence” and “violence against women,” it is useful to distinguish GBV from other forms of violence. GBV is a deliberately broad term in order to recognize the gendered elements in nearly all forms of violence against women and girls, whether it is perpetrated through sexual violence or through other means.
Girls in Armed Groups
Authors: McKay Susan 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Throughout the world, girls — internationally defined as females up to 18 years of age — participate in armed opposition groups. Their presence in these groups, usually covert, has become widely recognized during the past decade and investigated by scholars and nongovernmental groups such as Save the Children, World Vision, and ChildFund (Denov, 2008, 2010; McKay 2005, 2006; McKay & Mazurana, 2004; Wessells, 2006). Although we have had reports since 1990 of girls' participation in armed forces (government militaries) and armed opposition groups in more than 55 countries (McKay & Mazurana, 2004), they remain overlooked. Because so many armed opposition groups in sub‐Saharan African conflicts depend upon girls to build and maintain the infrastructure of military groups through their productive and reproductive work, this discussion focuses upon this geographic region. However, throughout the world, girls carry out similar support functions.
Groupthink
Authors: Mayton Daniel M. , Zachary Brink M. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractSometimes groups make good decisions. Sometimes their decisions are disastrous. While reading about the poor decision‐making that led to the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, Irving Janis (1982) began to develop the concept of groupthink. Asking how could so many smart people make stupid decisions when placed in groups, Janis analyzed policymakers and their processes of decision‐making in many different instances. He proposed the Orwellian‐like term groupthink in 1972 to describe a particular ailment of policymaking groups. Janis defined groupthink as “a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive ingroup, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action” (p. 9). Groupthink is further characterized by “a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment that results from ingroup pressures” (p. 9).
Hetero‐Referentiality and Divided Societies
Authors: Sen Ragini 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
It has been observed that events, as represented in groups, form a narrative network that informs the actions, cognitions, and affects of their holders. Antagonistic groups, politically inspired events, and the derivative interpretations following from their narratives, generally help create hetero‐referential situations. Each group's representation is validated by, and indeed depends on, the respective antagonistic representation of the other group.
Human Needs Theory, Conflict, and Peace
Authors: Danesh H. B. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Although the concepts of human needs, conflict, and peace are interrelated and affect all aspects of human life, academics and practitioners have usually addressed them in a rather fragmented manner. Human needs theories propose that all humans have certain basic universal needs and that when these are not met conflict is likely to occur. Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs beginning with the need for food, water, and shelter followed by the need for safety and security, then belonging or love, self‐esteem and, finally, personal fulfillment and self‐actualization. Later in his life Maslow (1973) proposed self‐transcendence as a need above self‐actualization in the hierarchy of needs.
Human Rights and Human Rights Violations, Psychological Aspects of
Authors: Stellmacher Jost , Sommer Gert 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) adopted on December 10, 1948 by the General Assembly of the United Nations is the major reference document for international human rights. The UDHR and the subsequent International Covenants on Human Rights of 1966 (on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights and on Civil and Political Rights) represent the International Bill of Human Rights. In these documents, two generations or dimensions of human rights have been distinguished. The first dimension consists of civil and political human rights, for example the prohibition of discrimination, the right to life, the prohibition of torture or inhuman treatment, the right to freedom of thought, of opinion and expression, the right to seek asylum. The second dimension is made up of economic, social, and cultural human rights, for example the right to work, protection against unemployment, the right to equal pay for equal work, the right to remuneration ensuring an existence worthy of human dignity, the right to a standard of living adequate for one's health and well‐being, including food, housing, and medical care, and the right to education. In addition, a third generation of human rights has been discussed in the United Nations but not yet adopted. It includes mainly the right of peoples to peace, the right to development, and the right to a healthy environment.
Humanitarian Military Intervention, Support for
Authors: McFarland Sam G. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
When world leaders gathered for the United Nations World Summit in September 2005 they adopted a new policy called “responsibility to protect.” This policy committed the UN to protecting populations that are threatened with genocide, crimes against humanity, and ethnic cleansing when their national government cannot or will not do so. In dire situations, and when lesser methods cannot succeed, the responsibility to protect obligates the UN or a designated regional group (e.g., NATO, the African Union) to enter a country with military force to protect people from these horrible crimes.
Humanitarian Workers, Managing Stress in
Authors: Allan Amanda , Haslam Nick 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Humanitarian workers are people who work in theaters of humanitarian crisis that may have been instigated by natural environmental disasters, famine, conflict, or epidemics. These events invariably threaten the homes, livelihoods, safety, security, health, well‐being, and fabric of the community of large groups of people. The role of a humanitarian worker is to alleviate suffering and to save lives.
Ideology
Authors: Jost John T. , Andrews Rick 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The term ideology refers to a network or system of interrelated beliefs, values, and opinions held by an individual or a group; they are typically (but by no means always) of a political nature. Generally, an ideology contains assumptions about how the social and political world
is
and how it
ought
to be. “Ideology” has come to be used in both a value‐neutral sense, referring to virtually any symbolic or abstract meaning system, and also in a more critical sense to refer to a system of beliefs or ideas that are systematically distorted, so as to conceal or misrepresent certain social interests or realities.
Interfaith Dialogue
Authors: Noor Noraini M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Interfaith dialogue as a contemporary movement can be traced back to the decision of some churches at the beginning of the twentieth century to extend cooperation and build relations with non‐Christians. This initiative came from the Christian missionaries’ need to adapt to conditions of work in Asia, and the first few world missionary conferences (Edinburgh in 1910, Jerusalem in 1928, and Tambaram, India, in 1938) paved the way for the initial discussions. But the Christians remained divided on how they should approach other religions.