bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Constantine the Great (c.280–337)
Authors: Tarwater John K. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Many church historians consider Constantine (born as Flavius Valerius Constantine, the son of Constantius “Chlorus” and Helena) as the first Christian emperor of Rome. When Diocletian decided to organize his empire under two Augusti, each with an accompanying Caesar (tetrarchy), he promoted Constantine's father to Caesar. Later, Constantine was reared in the court of Diocletian, although some scholars consider he was held hostage. By the time of his death in 337, Constantine had risen to the position of sole ruler of the empire and initiated a number of reforms, making life as a Christian no longer a constant threat.
Constantinople
Authors: Quantz Amanda D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Located at the mouth of the Bosphorus River in modern‐day Turkey, the ancient city of Byzantium was probably established by Greek colonists in about 660
bce
. After legalizing Christianity in 313
ce
, Constantine moved the seat of the empire in 324 from Rome to Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. Following the Council of Constantinople in 381 the bishops of the eastern cities of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Constantinople began to see themselves as having greater power and authority than other metropolitans in the eastern Roman Empire. Until the mid 15th century, these sees, along with the bishopric of Rome, constituted the five major patriarchates of Christendom.
Constantinople, Councils of
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Constantinople (
Constantinopolis
) was the city that the Roman emperor Constantine the Great named after himself and made the headquarters of the Roman Empire in 330. Previously, it was known as Byzantium, so named by the Greeks around 600
bc
, and in 73
bc
it became part of the Roman Empire. Similar to Rome, it was built on seven hills. It was seen as the citadel of Christianity until 1453 when the Muslim Turks conquered it. In 1930, the city's name was officially changed to Istanbul by Turkey's leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, even though the Turks, among themselves, had been calling it Istanbul even before they captured it in 1453.
Consubstantiation
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Consubstantiation is a doctrine that pertains to the Lord's Supper or Eucharist. Theologians of the Reformed churches, and also some others, often say that Lutheran theology, which states that Christ's body and blood are really and truly present in the Lord's Supper, is the doctrine of consubstantiation. But Lutheran theologians have usually rejected the term, especially when its users imply that in the Lord's Supper the heavenly and earthly elements are mingled or mixed. By using the term consubstantiation, some also say that the Lutheran doctrine of Christ's real presence in the Supper is a modification of the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation. The latter means that the natural substances of the bread and wine are transubstantiated (changed) by the officiating priest into Christ's body and blood, and that then only the body and blood of Christ are present. But Lutheran theologians have never taught that Christ's bodily presence in the Lord's Supper is a modified doctrine of transubstantiation, for in the Lord's Supper bread and wine still retain their natural substance as communicants also receive Christ's real body and blood supernaturally.
C
opernicus,
N
icholas (1473–1543)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Nicholas Copernicus, astronomer, was born on February 19, 1473, and died on May 24, 1543. Current history books commonly say he was Polish, but before Germany fell out of favor with American historians after World War I he was called a German, a view supported by John Draper in his book
The Intellectual Development of Europe
(1986).
Coptic Church
Authors: Farag Lois 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Coptic Church is also known as the Church of Alexandria and the Egyptian Church. The ancient Copts called themselves “en‐remen‐kame” that is “the people of the Black Land” referring to the fertile black silt of the Nile valley. When the Greeks invaded Egypt in the 4th centurybc, they arrived at the port of Alexandria (Rakoti in Coptic) where “the house or temple of the spirit of Petah,” Hak‐Ka‐Petah, was located. They named the country they invaded after the temple of Hak‐Ka‐Petah which was corrupted to Ai‐Ga‐Ptos, which became the root for the Greek wordaigyptos, from which “Egypt” is derived. Since Semitic languages write only consonants, when the Arabs invaded Egyptaigyptoswas corrupted further to the Arabicqubt, which in its Europeanized form is “Copt.” Thus the Coptic Church means the Egyptian Church. The conquering Arabs, who were Muslims, began using “Copt” to refer to the native inhabitants of Egypt, who were Christians. Though it began as an ethnic distinction, it also carried a religious connotation. Presently in Egypt, the word “Copt” is synonymous with “Christian” and is associated with Coptic Orthodox Christians, though a few Copts converted to Catholicism and Protestantism when European colonialism made new opportunities available.
C
onner,
W
alter
T
homas (1877–1952)
Authors: Dockery David S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
W. T. Conner was born on January 19, 1877, in Cleveland County, Arkansas. When he was 15, his family moved to Texas where he was baptized at the Harmony Baptist Church at Caps, Texas. Conner received a B.A. and M.A. from Baylor University and was a member of the first graduating class of Southwestern Baptist Seminary in 1908 with a Th.B. degree. In 1910 he received a B.D. degree from Rochester Seminary where he studied with A. H. Strong and Walter Rauschenbusch. Following his graduation from Rochester and a brief period at the University of Chicago, Conner was invited to join the Southwestern faculty in 1910. He was given leave of absence in 1914 to pursue his Th.D. with E. Y. Mullins at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary.
Cosmology
Authors: Feser Edward 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Cosmology is the study of the universe as a whole, including its origin and ultimate destiny. From a Christian point of view, any complete cosmology must culminate in the assertion of God's creation of the universe
ex nihilo
(“out of nothing”). Indeed, the cosmological argument — perhaps the central argument of natural theology — holds that there is no way to explain the existence of the universe apart from an appeal to God as its first cause. But there are various ways in which this claim has been interpreted. According to the
kalam
version of the cosmological argument, it can be established by both philosophical and scientific arguments (especially the Big Bang model of cosmic origins) that the universe must have had a beginning in time, and that there must have been a cause of this beginning. However, other versions of the argument, such as those associated with Thomas Aquinas, hold that whether the universe had a temporal beginning or not is irrelevant to whether it was created by God. According to the first of Aquinas's Five Ways, that anything in the universe undergoes motion or change at all — even if the series of moving or changing things extends infinitely into the past — is only explicable if there is a first unmoved mover, altogether outside of time and space, who sustains the motion or change of the entire infinite series. The Second Way argues that the sequence of causes and effects existing within the universe, even if it has no beginning in time, must be explained in terms of a first uncaused cause that, again, sustains the whole infinite causal series. The Third Way (the last of the Five Ways constituting a cosmological argument) holds that even an infinite sequence of things which come into being and go out of being must be explained by reference to a necessary being, one which has always existed and cannot fail to exist.
C
ouperin,
F
rançois (1668–1733)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Leading French composer of the early 18th century. Couperin came from a renowned French family of musicians who included two first‐rate composers, including his father Charles Couperin who was an organist at St. Gervais. Musically precocious, François Couperin started playing music at the age of 10. He succeeded the famous organist Jacques Thomelin as organist and
maitre de chapelle
of
Chapelle Royale.
Although Couperin's fame rests on his secular compositions, he composed a significant body of church music.
Covenant
Authors: Shields Candace C. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractA covenant is a binding agreement which sets the terms of relationships and contracts. The term can be traced back to ancient times. It was by the conditions of a covenant that nations, tribes, and families were able to be organized and have lasting relationships in ancient times. However, the concept of a covenant as a regulator of relationships is more in line with the biblical use of the term. When it is used as an organizational term it is more of a legal term.
C
ranmer,
T
homas (1489–1556)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Thomas Cranmer was born in 1489 in Nottinghamshire, England; he studied at Jesus College in Cambridge but dropped out when he married. After his wife died in childbirth, he resumed his studies and became a Catholic priest in 1523. Soon after becoming a priest, he became acquainted with King Henry VIII who had assumed the crown in 1509. Henry married Catherine of Aragon the same year. By the late 1520s, the king was convinced that Catherine would notbear him a male heir. He asked the pope in Rome for an annulment, but the pope refused. Several years later, Parliament made the English church independent of Rome, and the king became head of the church. In 1533 Cranmer was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury by the pope at Henry's urging. Feeling secure, Cranmer voided Henry's first marriage in 1533. The king married the already pregnant Anne Boleyn the same year.
C
riswell,
W
.
A
. (1909–2002)
Authors: Streett R. Alan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Pastor of First Baptist Church, Dallas, Texas, and leader of the conservative resurgence within the Southern Baptist Convention, W. A. Criswell was born on December 19, 1909 in Eldorado, Oklahoma, and named after his father, W. A. Sr. The family moved shortly after his birth to Texline, Texas, a Panhandle town on the Texas–New Mexico border. At the age of 10, W. A. was converted while attending a brush arbor revival meeting. By the time he reached 12, he had publicly responded to a call to the gospel ministry and preached his first sermon to childhood friends who attended his pet dog's funeral. He was licensed to preach at age 17.
C
roatto,
J
osé
S
everino (1930–2004)
Authors: García Alberto L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born on March 19, 1930 in Sampacho, Cordoba, Argentina, he is respected worldwide as a Roman Catholic scholar, author, and professor. Croatto made significant contributions in the fields of biblical exegesis and Latin American biblical hermeneutics and played a vital role in the Movimiento de Lectura Popular de la Biblia, a popular education movement for training lay people in biblical interpretation. He helped, therefore, to provide interpretative tools to the important Comunidades de Base in Latin America.
Cross, the
Authors: Gagnon Robert A. J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The contribution to civilization rendered by the image of the cross obviously lies not in the mere fact of Jesus' crucifixion by the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate and with the acquiescence of Jewish authorities. Rather, it lies in the degree to which the “cross,” as a metonym for Jesus' violent death, became early on in the church a positive organizing center for Christian thought and practice. It did so in three primary ways: (1) its atoning function; (2) its incorporative function (i.e. crucified with Christ); and (3) its ethical function. Christianity's positive focus on Christ's crucifixion is remarkable in view of the fact that the crucifixion of a movement's founding leader would normally be devastating for that movement. Certainly this was the design of those who had Jesus crucified. Even the stories of Jesus' resurrection appearances to disciples reported soon after his death did not, in and of themselves, require a positive valuation of Jesus' death.
Crusades
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractSome historians speak of the Crusades as having occurred primarily in the Middle East, while others see them having also occurred in France, Spain, England, and in the Baltic area. Some also extend the time period of the Crusades as having lasted for several centuries. The present article focuses on the Crusades in the Middle East and as having essentially ended in 1291.
Crypto‐Calvinism
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
At the Marburg Colloquy in 1529 in Germany the Protestants could not agree on the doctrine of the Lord's Supper. Luther insisted that Christ was bodily present in the Eucharist, while Ulrich Zwingli (d. 1531) refused to accept the doctrine of the real presence. Later, John Calvin (d. 1564) also declined to hold to the doctrine of Christ's bodily presence in the Lord's Supper, contending that Christ was only spiritually present in the Supper. But after Luther died in 1546, his co‐worker Philipp Melanchthon (who was present at Marburg), in his desire to conciliate, together with some compromising Lutherans (known as Philippists, followers of Melanchthon), began to waver on the doctrine of Christ's real presence in order to unite with the Calvinists while still calling themselves Lutherans. Thus, Lutherans holding to the doctrine of the real presence labeled Melanchthon and his supporters “crypto‐Calvinists,” indicating they were really hidden Calvinists.
Cypriot Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christianity in Cyprus has a storied past. Paul visited Salamis with Barnabas in 46 and Barnabas later became the first bishop of Cyprus. In 441 the third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus discussed the separation of the church of Cyprus from the church at Antioch. During the reign of the eastern emperor Zeno (474–491) the Cypriot church received an autocephalous status. The island became famous for a number of monasteries. From the 8th to the 10th centuries, Cyprus was subjected to a series of Arab raids. In 1054 when the schism between the Eastern and Western Churches took place, Cyprus sided with Constantinople.
Czech Christianity
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The modern Czech Republic, or Czechia, consists mainly of the historic provinces of Bohemia and Moravia. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Bohemia was united, centralized, and Christianized by the same process. Borivoj I (d. 894) was the first Christian king, and his wife Ludmilla (860–921) and grandson Vaclav (Wenzel, 907–935) are Bohemia's patron saints for Catholics and Orthodox alike. In 973 Prague became a diocese, but for a long time remained dependent on archbishops in the west. Czechia was Christianized mainly through a large number of religious foundations. As part of the German Empire, Prague finally became an archdiocese in 1344. Bohemia reached its zenith under Charles IV (1346–1378), who founded Charles University in 1348 with an importanttheological faculty, built major churches such as the cathedral of Prague, and initiated church reforms.
Dancing in the Spirit
Authors: DuPree Sherry Sherrod 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In the Old Testament (Exod. 15:20), at the defeat of Pharaoh's armies following the crossing of the Red Sea, Miriam, the prophetess, the sister of Aaron, took a timbrel in her hand; and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dances. In 2 Samuel 6:12‐1, David ‘danced before the Lord’ to celebrate the Ark of the Covenant being brought back to Jerusalem.
D
arby,
J
ohn
N
elson (1800–1882)
Authors: Pratt J. Kristian 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
John Nelson Darby was one of the founders of the Plymouth Brethren movement and the father of dispensationalism. Born in London in 1800 to a prominent Irish landowner and merchant, Darby graduated from Trinity College in Dublin with a BA in 1819 and entered training for a career in law. Shortly after his admission to the Irish Bar in 1822, he abandoned his law career for life in the Anglican Church. On February 19, 1826, he was ordained as a priest in the Church of England and appointed to a parish in County Wicklow, Ireland. Early in his curacy, while recovering from an injury sustained in a riding accident, Darby reflected upon his reading of New Testament passages about the church. Seeing a discrepancy between the Church of England and the New Testament church, he became dissatisfied with the established church and began to seek other like‐minded individuals.
D
avid,
J
ohann
N
epomuk (1895–1977)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Austrian composer who helped to inspire the resurgence of organ music in the 20th century. Beginning his career as an organist he became professor of composition in 1934, director of the Leipzig Conservatory in 1939, director of the Salzburg Mozarteum (1945–1948) and professor of composition (1947–1963) at the Musikhoch‐schule in Stuttgart. Many of his works were lost during the Allied bombing of Leipzig in World War II.
D
e
L
ubac,
H
enri (1896–1991)
Authors: Gonzalez Yolanda J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Henri de Lubac, S.J., French Jesuit theologian and cardinal, was a prolific writer and an important figure of the Catholic Church in the 20th century. He was once described by his student Hans Urs von Balthasar as the “defender of misunderstood and unappreciated themes and currents in the history of theology.” Certainly his corpus of works serves as a testament to this observation. His first published work,
Catholicism
(1938), places him on this trajectory. There he discusses the social aspects of Catholicism, specifically that which entails the salvation of humanity and is illustrated in the sacraments; the historical aspect of Catholicism, dealing particularly with the significance of the church's history; and finally the relationship between the individual and the community.
J
osquin
D
esprez (c.1440–1521)
Authors: McElwain Randall D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The best‐known composer of the early Renaissance, Josquin Desprez devoted much of his life to the church while also making significant contributions to the musical world at large. During his lifetime, he was honored as the “father of musicians.” The German Reformer Martin Luther wrote of him: “Josquin is the master of the notes. They must do as he wills; as for the other composers, they have to do as the notes will.”
Z
urbaran,
F
rancisco
D
e (1598–1664)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

This Spanish artist's most productive years were from 1635, during which he painted mainly for religious orders. His first documented commission was in 1636 for a cycle of paintings for the Dominicans of S. Pablo el Real in Seville. Another commission was the series painted for the Merced Calzada (1629–1630), including
Vision of St. Peter Nolasco
and
Fray Francisco Zumel
. He settled in Seville at the invitation of the city council in 1629. His first work there was part of a cycle dedicated to St. Bonaventura, painted for the Franciscans. He was at his best when painting isolated figures, such as
St. Francis in Meditation
(1655), or martyr virgins, such as
St. Margaret
(1634). He was the favorite painter of the monastic orders, who loved his blend of realism and spirituality. However, he stopped receiving major commissions from the monasteries after 1650. But he continued to paint religious subjects, including
Virgin and Child with the Infant St. John
(1656) and
St. Francis in Meditation
(1658). Among his noblest works is the
Martyrdom of St. Serapion
(1628), a martyr of the Mercedarian Order. His two versions of
St. Francis
(1635 and 1639) are unforgettable in their simplicity.
St. Bonaventura at the Council of Lyons
and the
Saint on his Bier
include very sensitive portraits. He displays a superb sense of the color white in the
Adoration of the Magi
(1638), and his portraits of Carthusian and Mercedarian saints.
P
iero della
F
rancesca (1410/20–1492)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Italian painter. In 1442 he was commissioned to paint a polyptych, the
Madonna della Misericordia.
Between 1452 and 1459 he painted his major work, a fresco cycle in San Francesco Arezzo, of the
Legend of the True Cross
, beginning with the Annunciation and ending with the Dream of Constantine. Between the 1440s and 1460s he painted an exquisitely painted panel, the
Flagellation of Christ
. Heraldic and religious imagery abound in the Flagellation, which is Piero's most enigmatic work. Another unusual work is the
Madonna del Parto
, painted between 1450 and 1455, showing the pregnant Virgin standing in a tabernacle.
The Madonna and Child with Saints and Federigo of Montefeltro
was painted for the Church of San Bernardino in Urbino. Above the Virgin's head hangs an ostrich's egg, a symbol of creation. In the
Madonna di Senigallia
the Virgin appears as Theotokos or the Mother of God flanked by two angels. In the fresco of the
Resurrection
the symbolism contrasts the bare trees and earth on the left with the sprouting trees on the right while two soldiers stare at the Risen Christ in astonishment and another hides his face from the bright light. Toward the end of his life Piero became blind. He was also a mathematician, interested in geometry and perspective as well as color and light.
Devotio Moderna
Authors: Jensen Paul 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Devotio Moderna (Latin, modern devotion) was a late medieval renewal movement, which started in the home of its founder Gerard Groote (1340–1384) in the city of Deventer in the Netherlands. Widespread spiritual hunger, the need for religious reform, and an increasingly rational scholastic theology in 14th century Europe provided a conducive climate for fostering spirituality outside conventional channels. The Devotio Moderna established communal houses for women and men devoted to the experience of imitating Christ in Northern European towns and cities; initially, it constituted a “middle way” between the parish and the mostly rural religious orders of the day. They detested knowledge without virtue, so they established dormitories and schools for the spiritual formation of youth. The movement is best remembered for its great spiritual classic that is now, after some debate, generally attributed to Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ (2005) — the most published Christian text outside the Bible. Heart meditation on Jesus' life and death, written in ordinary language, provided the working masses with an accessible means of imitating Christ. This affective meditation undergirded all facets of the movement's origin, character, development, and considerable legacy in both Catholic and Protestant traditions.
G
iotto (1267–1337)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Giotto di Bondone was an Italian painter who received Dante's praise in the
Divine Comedy
(Purgatorio, XI, 94–96). He was a seminal figure in the revival of the visual arts in Italy and the development of the discipline and vocabulary of art history. Petrarch considers him the founding father of Renaissance painting.