bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Secondary Market for Emissions Trading: Balancing Market Design and Market Based Transaction Norms
Authors: Hedges Andrew 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The EU Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS) is a leading example of how to strike a balance between the necessity for a sufficiently certain market design to underpin its growth and the critically important need to allow private sector mechanisms to emerge and evolve. Section 1 of this chapter considers the design elements of the EU ETS that provide market participants with the certainty necessary to underpin their participation, with a particular emphasis on the reforms to be implemented from 2013. Section 2 then considers the market mechanisms and norms that have been developed or applied to provide those participants with the confidence that key risks are addressed. Section 3 looks at some of the issues that arise in the context of the interplay between secondary markets such as the EU ETS and the primary markets where emission reduction credits under the flexible mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol are generated. Examples of new types of transactions will be used to demonstrate the innovation that such interaction drives.
Canada’s Experience in Emissions Trading and Related Legal Issues
Authors: Taylor Gray E , Barrett Michael R 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter provides an analysis of current and proposed Canadian greenhouse gas (GHG) regimes and issues. Section 2 addresses the national government's proposed GHG emission reduction plan. Section 3 reviews some of the more significant implemented and proposed provincial governments' GHG emission reduction plans. Section 4 discusses issues of significance to Canadian GHG emissions reduction policies, such as trade and trade law considerations and potentially inconsistent US and Canadian GHG emission reduction policies.
International Market Solutions to Protect Tropical Rainforests
Authors: O’Sullivan Robert , Saines Rick 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Tropical forests play a crucial role in the global carbon cycle and have consequently moved to the forefront of the discussion about how to effectively reduce global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and mitigate climate change. At the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 13th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP) in Bali in December 2007, governments from around the world agreed to consider, over the next two years, ‘policy approaches and positive incentives’ for reducing emissions from tropical deforestation that might become part of an agreement that would follow on after the current commitments under the Kyoto Protocol expire. UNFCCC member states are currently undertaking a work program to consider different policy approaches to address emissions from tropical deforestation in the post-2012 agreement, to be finalized at COP 15 in Copenhagen in 2009. One of the policy options under consideration is a mechanism that would create positive incentives to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD). This chapter provides background on international forest carbon policies, making the case that market-based mechanisms are the most appropriate ways to provide the bulk of finance needed to address REDD. In this context it assesses challenges related to REDD and the recognition of credits for REDD in global carbon markets.
Carbon Leakage from Unilateral Environmental Tax Reforms in Europe, 1995–2005
Authors: Barker Terry , Junankar Sudhir , Pollitt Hector , Summerton Philip 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter assesses the macroeconomic effects of carbon‐energy taxation introduced under unilateral environmental tax reform (ETR) in the 1990s undertaken in six member states of the European Union: Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the UK. The effects are estimated using the large‐scale Energy–Environment–Economy (E3) model for Europe, E3ME, which covers the countries involved as well as the complete single market, so that the effects on other economies can be considered, along with any effects on competitiveness. The method is to identify the key characteristics of the green tax reform packages and include these in the modelling of the price and non‐price effects of the ETR on energy use and international trade in E3ME. The effects are then compared with a ‘reference case’ (i.e. a counterfactual case) generated by E3ME over the period 1995–2012, including current and expected developments in the EU economy, e.g. the impact of the EU Emission Trading Scheme, but without the ETR. The revenue recycling meant that the cost of ETR to the economy was significantly reduced and in several cases resulted in an increase in GDP. The method for revenue recycling strongly affects the results, as does the scale of exemptions offered to certain fuel user groups.
Structural focus and exhaustivity
Authors: Kiss Katalin É. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractIn chapter 4 ‘Structural focus and exhaustivity’, Katalin É. Kiss claims that the structural focus of the Hungarian sentence, occupying Spec,FocP, and structural focus (e.g. the English cleft), in general, encodes the feature [+exhaustive]. After reviewing the standard arguments for the exhaustivity of structural focus, a new argument against it, proposed by Wedgwood (2005), is examined, and is shown to be based on a false premise. Finally, a new type of evidence is presented. It is argued (following van Kuppevelt (1996), and Wedgwood (2005)) that the ‘exactly n’ reading of a focussed numeral (as opposed to its basic, ‘at least n’ meaning) is a manifestation of its exhaustivity. It is shown that the ‘exactly n’ meaning of focussed numerals is grammaticalized in Hungarian; it is associated with the preverbal focus position, causing obligatory focus movement in the case of certain types of scalar elements, and predictable, structurally determined meaning differences in the case of others.
Investigating effects of structural and information‐structural factors on pronoun resolution
Authors: Kaiser Elsi 
Published: February 2010

AbstractIn chapter 14 ‘Investigating effects of structural and information‐structural factors on pronoun resolution’, Elsi Kaiser presents a sentence‐completion experiment that explores two questions related to reference resolution: (i) How do information‐structural factors and syntactic factors interact to guide reference resolution? (ii) Is the interpretation of a sentence‐initial pronoun connected to the presence/absence of other referential forms later in the same sentence? The results indicate that a subject‐position pronoun prefers the subject of the preceding sentence, regardless of whether the subject is discourse‐old and pronominalized or discourse‐new and contrastively focused. Moreover, a pronoun referring to the preceding subject is more likely to be followed by a subsequent mention of the preceding object than a pronoun referring to the preceding object is to be followed by a mention of the preceding subject. This suggests that if a less‐salient referent (object) is upgraded by being interpreted as the antecedent of a subject‐position pronoun, subsequent mention of the higher‐salience referent (subject) in the same clause is avoided. Put together, the results suggest that subjecthood is important both when looking back at preceding discourse and when looking forward to subsequent discourse.
Chapter 5 Chartering Europe
Authors: Eriksen Erik O. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThe EU's Charter of Fundamental Rights is a means to secure the interests and the diverse values of the citizens of Europe. It denotes the EU as a union of citizens and not merely as a common market. It has been argued that rights are detrimental to social integration since the granting of individuals legal rights has atomistic—disintegrative—consequences. However, human rights are not merely abstract principles which, when positivated, secure negative freedom. When they are constitutionalized and turned into fundamental rights they contain a guarantee for equal freedom of all citizens. A charter of fundamental rights is needed to enhance the legal certainty of citizens, reduce arbitrariness, and to institutionalize the right to justification. However, as the principle of popular sovereignty points to a particular society, and human rights point to an ideal republic, only with a cosmopolitan order—democracy at a supranational level—can human rights be properly institutionalized.
Chapter 6 The Cosmopolitan Dimension
Authors: Eriksen Erik O. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThe parameters of power politics have changed in Europe, and the EU exports the rule of law, democracy, and human rights worldwide. The threat of force is needed to ensure equal rights for all but can only find justification when used to protect human rights. Hence the defining feature of a legitimate polity cannot be the absence of military force. The criterion for judging the polity's normative quality should rather be derived from cosmopolitanism, that is, whether it subjects its actions to the constraints of a higher‐ranking law. This chapter establishes this criterion, its theoretical and institutional underpinnings, and provisionally assesses whether the EU in fact complies with it.
The Future of Public Employee Retirement Systems
Authors: Anderson Gary 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
People covered by public pensions are often the subject of ‘pension envy’, that is, their benefits might seem more generous and their contributions lower than those offered by the private sector. Yet this book points out that such judgments are often inaccurate, since civil servants hold jobs with few counterparts in private industry, such as firefighters, police, judges, and teachers. Often these are riskier, dirtier, and demand more loyalty and discretion than would be required of a more mobile labour force in the private sector. The debate challenges traditional ideas about how the public employee labour contract is structured and raises questions about how such employees are attracted to the public sector, retained and motivated on the job, and retired, via an entire compensation package of wages and benefits. This book explores aspects of these schemes, addressing the cost and valuation debate, along with the political economy of how public pension asset pools are perceived and managed. The discussion also explores ways that public pensions can be strengthened in the US, Japan, Canada, and Germany.
Chapter 4 Between Scylla and Charybdis: Improving the Cost Effectiveness of Public Pension Retirement Plans
Authors: Waring M. Barton 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Unless defined benefit pension plans are managed much better and more cost-effectively, they will be replaced by defined contribution plans. Benefit and contribution policies need to be carefully evaluated to make sure that a reasonable level of ongoing contributions, together with investment income, are adequate to fund the defined benefit plan without unpleasant surprises. Unless valuation and contribution conventions change to market-valued economically based quantities, decision makers will lack the right information with which to make informed policy decisions.
Chapter 8 Thinking about Funding Federal Retirement Plans
Authors: Hustead Toni 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Most US federal retirement plans are now fully funded, but since plan assets must legally be invested in federal securities, fund surpluses are used to reduce overall federal budget deficits. As a result, current taxpayers are not charged with the cost of future federal retirement obligations. Nevertheless, federal rules do require the employing federal agency to budget for current personnel’s accruing liability of retirement promises. Therefore, policy decisions regarding the number of federal civilian and military personnel and the design of their retirement benefits may be made with a better understanding of the costs.
Chapter 12 Redefining Traditional Plans: Variations and Developments in Public Employee Retirement Plan Design
Authors: Brainard Keith 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Retiree benefits for US employees of state and local governments have been traditionally paid via defined benefit (DB) plans, but this arrangement has been neither monolithic nor static. This chapter provides examples of variants on the traditional DB model and presents recent developments in retirement benefits for public employees, focusing on the incorporation of DC plan elements into or alongside DB plan structures.
Chapter 13 Defined Contribution Pension Plans in the Public Sector: A Benchmark Analysis
Authors: Crane Roderick B. , Heller Michael , Yakoboski Paul J. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter assesses best-practice benchmarks for the design of defined contribution plans in the public sector, where such plans are the primary, or core, employment-based retirement benefit. These benchmarks rely on the notion that providing an adequate and secure retirement income for participants is the primary plan objective.
Relativity, Gravitation and Cosmology
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Einstein's general theory of relativity is introduced in this advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate level textbook. Topics include special relativity, the principle of equivalence, Riemannian geometry and tensor analysis, Einstein field equation, as well as many modern cosmological subjects: from primordial inflation, cosmic microwave anisotropy to the dark energy that propels an accelerating universe. The subjects are presented with an emphasis on physical examples and simple applications. One first learns how to describe curved spacetime. At this mathematically more accessible level, the reader can already study the many interesting phenomena such as gravitational lensing, black holes, and cosmology. The full tensor formulation is presented later, when the Einstein equation is solved for a few symmetric cases. Mathematical accessibility, together with the various pedagogical devices (e.g., worked-out solutions of chapter-end problems), make it practical for interested readers to use the book to study general relativity and cosmology on their own. In this new edition of the book, presentations on special relativity and black holes are augmented by new chapters. Other parts of the book are updated to include new observation tests of general relativity (e.g., the double pular system) and more recent evidence for dark matter and dark energy.
The principle of equivalence
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
After a review of the Newtonian theory of gravitation in terms of its potential function, we start the study of general relativity (GR) with the introduction of the equivalence principle (EP). The Weak EP (the equality of the gravitational and inertial masses) is extended by Einstein to the Strong EP, the equivalence between inertia and gravitation for all interactions. This implies the existence of “local inertial frames” at every spacetime point. In a sufficiently small region, the “local inertial observer” will not sense any gravity effect. The equivalence of acceleration and gravity means that GR (physics laws valid in all coordinate systems, including accelerating frames) must necessarily be a theory of gravitation. The strong EP is used to deduce the results of gravitational redshift and time dilation, as well as gravitational bending of a light ray.
Metric description of a curved space
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Einstein's new theory of gravitation is formulated in a geometric framework of curved spacetime. Here the subject of non-Euclidean geometry is introduced by way of Gauss's theory of curved surfaces. Generalized (Gaussian) coordinates: A systematic way to label points in space without reference to any objects outside this space. Metric function: For a given coordinate choice, the metric determines the intrinsic geometric properties of a curved space. Geodesic equation: It describes the shortest and the straightest possible curve in a warped space and is expressed in terms of the metric function. Curvature: It is a nonlinear second derivative of the metric. As the deviation from Euclidean relations is proportional to the curvature, it measures how much the space is warped.
The expanding universe and thermal relics
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The dynamics of a changing universe are determined by Friedmann equations, which have simple quasi-Newtonian interpretations. The universe began hot and dense (the big bang), and thereafter expanded and cooled. The early universe had undergone a series of thermal equilibriums (e.g., neutrino decoupling). The observed abundance of the light nuclear elements (helium, deuterium, etc.) match well with their being the product of the big bang nucleosynthesis. When the universe was 360,000 years old, photons decoupled, and they remain today as the primordial light having a blackbody spectrum with temperature T=2.725K. The cosmic microwave background (CMB) is not perfectly uniform. The higher multipoles contain much information about the geometry, matter/energy content of the universe, as well as the initial density perturbation out of which grew the cosmic structure we see today.
Linearized theory and gravitational waves
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
In the weak-field limit Einstein's equation can be linearized and it takes on form of the familiar wave equation. Gravitational waves may be viewed as ripples of curvature propagating in a background of flat spacetime. The strategy of detecting such tidal forces by a gravitational wave interferometer is outlined. The rate of energy loss due to the quadrupole radiation by a circulating binary system is calculated, and found in excellent agreement with the observed orbit decay rate of the Hulse-Taylor binary pulsar.
Accountability to whom?
Authors: Fisher Angelina 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers the possibilities for ensuring that accountability takes into account the interests of those most affected by PMSC conduct. It focuses on ‘downward’ accountability — accountability of private companies to the victims of their conduct — and concludes that conditions under which victims of PMSC abuse may seek legal accountability of the companies are limited under many domestic regimes as well as under international law. Attention must therefore be shifted to creating grievance mechanisms as an alternative means of augmenting PMSC accountability to victims. The chapter proposes a mechanism for PMSCs that draws on experience of other private industries, including those discussed in the subsequent chapters. To be effective, such a mechanism must enjoy legitimacy with both the industry and the local populations, be accessible to the public, be transparent with regards to process and the outcome, engage relevant multi-stakeholders in productive dialogue, have a predictable and fair process, and empower local populations.
The privatization continuum
Authors: Barak-Erez Daphne 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The use of lethal violence by private actors is often identified as a uniquely troubling aspect of the PMSC phenomenon. As this chapter demonstrates, however, our understanding will remain only partial if this is not discussed in the broader context of other privatization policies. Through the prism of domestic constitutional law, with recourse to comparative tools, the chapter analyzes the trend to privatize public functions and discusses the limitations on privatization in general and the limitations on privatization of security functions in particular. It argues that the realities of widespread privatization of public functions necessitate a rethinking of the basic principles of constitutional and administrative law beyond the mere adjustment of specific rules and doctrines.
Regulatory choices in the privatization of infrastructure
Authors: Mariana Mota Prado 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers the question of how a decision to privatize is made and examines how such a decision impacts the choice of regulatory framework. By developing a comparative analysis of the privatization processes in infrastructure sectors as well as the military and security sector, it discusses the circumstances under which a regulatory framework is established, designed, and enforced. It argues that a government contracting with PMSCs should not only justify why privatization is necessary. Any such claim should be assessed by an independent body (similar to the cost-benefit analysis of regulation performed by the Office of Management and Budget in the United States). The chapter calls for transparency in privatization of private military and security services, arguing that citizens should have access to all information related to the competitive bidding process and contractual provisions.
The Familiar Enemy
Authors: Butterfield Ardis 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The Familiar Enemy re‐examines the linguistic, literary, and cultural identities of England and France within the context of the Hundred Years War. During this war, two highly intertwined peoples developed complex strategies for expressing their aggressively intimate relationship. The special connection between the English and the French has endured into the modern period as a model for Western nationhood. This book reassesses the concept of ‘nation’ in this period through a wide‐ranging discussion of writing produced in war, truce or exile from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, concluding with reflections on the retrospective views of this time of war created by the trials of Jeanne d'Arc and by Shakespeare's Henry V. It considers works and authors writing in French, ‘Anglo‐Norman’, and in English, in England and on the continent, with attention to the tradition of comic Anglo‐French jargon (a kind of medieval franglais), to Machaut, Deschamps, Froissart, Chaucer, Gower, Charles d'Orléans and many lesser‐known or anonymous works. Chaucer traditionally has been seen as a quintessentially English author. This book argues that he needs to be resituated within the deeply francophone context, not only of England but the wider multilingual cultural geography of medieval Europe. It thus argues that a modern understanding of what ‘English’ might have meant in the fourteenth century cannot be separated from ‘French’, and that this has far‐reaching implications both for our understanding of English and the English, and of French and the French.
1 Pre‐nation and Post‐nation
Authors: Butterfield Ardis 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The introductory chapter sets out the double perspective of the book through the eyes of two Jersey writers, Wace and Victor Hugo. It then considers the role Chaucer has played as ‘father’ to English and Englishness, and argues that decoupling Chaucer from ‘English’ may help us to grasp both Chaucer and Englishness more clearly. Two further threads, on ‘England's vernaculars’ and the constant presence of war, are unwound to give context to the wide range of English and French writings that are discussed throughout the book as a whole. The conclusion asks where the medieval belongs in a construction of nation as modern, and suggests that there might be much to connect current ‘post‐national’ anxieties about ideologies of nation and the ‘pre‐national’ Middle Ages.