bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Some Observations on Carbon Black
Authors: Carson C. M. , Sebrell L. B. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Different carbon blacks have certain definite effects upon the vulcanized rubber stocks with which they are mixed. The experiments described herein may be grouped under four main heads: (1) adsorption, (2) effect of heat, (3) reaction with sulfur and zinc oxide, and (4) dispersion or rate of settling. The adsorptive capacity of the black is a measure of the rate of cure of the rubber mix, low-adsorptive blacks giving a faster curing stock than high-adsorptive blacks. An indication of the stiffening action of a carbon black may be secured by measuring the amount of carbon dispersed in a thin rubber cement which cannot be centrifuged out in a given time. The effect of temperatures from 500° to 1200° C. on carbon blacks is to render them highly adsorptive and also to give a rubber mix which cures faster and has a higher modulus. The reaction of carbon blacks with sulfur and zinc oxide in boiling xylene liberates a substance having accelerating properties in a pure gum mix.
Carbon Black. II—The Role of Oxygen
Authors: Johnson G. R. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The results reported in this paper confirm the indication of previous work that a portion of the oxygen in carbon black exists in rather definite chemical combinations on the surface of a hydrocarbon with a high carbon-hydrogen ratio. It is not clear yet whether all of the oxygen in carbon black exists in this state, as previous work has shown that after heating for extended periods at 955° C. there still remains a small amount of oxygen in the black. It has been shown that the oxygen attached as here described does not exist in the state of gaseous adsorption and cannot be removed by heat alone as oxygen, but can be removed by reaction with zinc dust at temperatures below that at which gaseous evolution usually takes place. The oxygen goes over to zinc oxide and the volatile matter of the residue is considerably reduced.
Relation between Artificial Aging Tests and Natural Aging
Authors: Bierer J. M. , Davis C. C. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
THE more varied the uses to which rubber is put, the more varied are the conditions under which it ages, and the less can it be expected that any single aging test will duplicate these various conditions. The most important factors which promote the deterioration of rubber goods are oxidation by atmospheric oxygen, after-vulcanization, heat effects, cracking and other changes from exposure to sunlight, and wear or deterioration due to mechanical work. No two types of rubber products are exposed in just the same way to these various influences; in fact, one product may be exposed to a marked degree to only one of the influences whereas another may deteriorate from all five influences. Thus, automobile tires undergo oxidation, after-vulcanization, heat effects, cracking from exposure to sunlight and abrasion, and deterioration from mechanical work. On the other hand, steam hose tubes deteriorate predominantly from after-vulcanization and heat effects; oxidation, mechanical work and sunlight playing almost no part. After-vulcanization and oxidation are the most important factors in the deterioration of air-brake hose, while auto-topping and bathing caps undergo severe exposure to sunlight. In brief, each kind of rubber goods is exposed to different conditions, and to attempt to duplicate the different combinations of light, heat, oxygen, and mechanical work would lead to a different test for every type of rubber goods manufactured. Obviously, this is impracticable and undesirable.
Correlation between Geer Oven and Natural Aging of Selected Tire Compounds
Authors: Nellen A. H. , Sellers H. M. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
In standard guanidine tread and carcass compounds, test results obtained from the 4- and 8-day periods in the Geer oven at 70° C. correspond approximately to 1 and 2 years of natural aging. Data obtained from the 12-day period correspond with 3 years of natural aging for tread compounds, but results showed no relation between these same periods for carcass stocks. The tensile product is the criterion which shows the best correspondence between Geer oven tests and natural aging tests on the tread and carcass compounds used.
The Effect of Solvents on the Stress-Strain Curve of Vulcanized Rubber
Authors: Tiltman H. A. , Porritt B. D. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
(1) The results indicate that the rigidity of a piece of vulcanized rubber is considerably reduced by the absorption of small amounts of a solvent; thus, at a strain of 6 ( = 600 per cent elongation) the absorption of 5 per cent by weight ( = 8 per cent by volume) of benzene lowers the rigidity by 21 per cent. (2) The greatest effect is produced by the first 20 or 30 per cent (by weight) of absorbed benzene, further absorption having a less marked effect on the stress-strain curve. (3) The absorption of solvent seems to have very little effect on the breaking elongation, although the tensile strength is considerably lowered. This conclusion, however, is probably no longer true in the case of rubber swollen by immersion in liquid, where the absorption is very much greater than in the present tests. (4) Absorption of solvent followed by complete drying appears to produce a slight, but technically negligible, permanent effect on the stress-strain curve. It is evident from these results that when it is necessary to use solvents, either in the process of manufacture or the after-treatment of rubber products, these should be selected as free as possible from high-boiling constituents liable to be permanently retained by the rubber with consequent detriment to its strength. A conclusion of some theoretical interest is that since all the stresses in the present investigation were calculated on the dimensions of the original dry rubber, the low rigidity of swollen rubber cannot be ascribed simply to the “dilution” of the rubber by the absorbed liquid, but must be due to a loosening of the cohesive forces between the ultimate particles of the material.
Heats of Combustion of Rubber, Gutta-Percha, and Balata
Authors: Messenger T. H. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Though differing superficially to a considerable degree, rubber, gutta-percha, and balata possess so many properties in common that it is difficult to find an acceptable explanation for the respects in which they differ. The chief suggestions postulate differences in molecular structure or in state of polymerization, and since both might be expected to affect the heat of combustion a study of the value of this property is suggested. Before proceeding to a description of experimental work, the position may be illustrated by reference to the more interesting differences and similarities recorded in the literature. In connection with specific gravity it has been found that most raw rubbers, which are hard from being stored a long time in the cold, show a sudden change in the value of this property between 30° and 35° C., when slowly warmed. But on cooling, the specific gravity increases but slowly, and only regains its original value after several months' storage in the cold. This phenomenon has been described by Bunschoten (Mededeelingen van den Rijs-rubberdienst, 3rd series, 1921) and by Pickles (India Rubber J., 67, 69 (1924)). It has been reported by Park (Ind. Eng. Chem., 17, 152 (1925)) that balata behaves similarly, though the time scale is different, being measurable in minutes rather than in weeks, as with rubber.
The Berginization of Raw Rubber
Authors: Waterman H. I. , Dewald R. H. , Tulleners A. J. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
As a raw material for the experiments, a sample of raw rubber, viz., first latex crepe, was used. This was obtained from the Reichskautschukprüfungsanstalt in Delft, where analysis showed the particular sample of crepe contained 93 to 94 per cent rubber hydrocarbon, with the remaining 6 to 7 per cent composed of 2 to 3 per cent acetone extract, 2 to 3 per cent proteins (calculated as protein with factor 6.25) and finally moisture and ash. When dry distilled in the ordinary way, this crepe yielded up to 450° C. about 95 per cent of a yellow oil which was highly unsaturated. The bromine addition number (according to the McIlhiney method) of the distilled benzine (b. p. up to 220° C.) was, with a 3-minute contact period in carbon tetrachloride in darkness, higher than 120. The benzine obtained from the berginization of the raw rubber was far different from this. The experiments were carried out in an agitated autoclave. Five iron balls served as a means of stirring. In each experiment 150 g. of crepe were rolled around the pyrometer tube in the autoclave. Each time before an experiment, the autoclave was evacuated and was charged with hydrogen at 110 kg. per sq. cm. pressure. Two experiments, D6 and D7, were carried out. For comparison 2 similar experiments, D3 and D4, were made in which hydrogen under pressure was not used, in this case the heating being carried out under the pressure of the gases formed by the thermal decomposition. The conditions used in the D3 and D4 experiments were otherwise identical with those of the D6 and D7 experiments. The heating was carried on so that 450° C. was reached as rapidly as possible, at which point the system was maintained for 15 minutes. At the end of this period of heating, the autoclave was cooled rapidly by compressed air. After cooling the gases were drawn off through a previously evacuated spiral receptacle cooled with a carbon dioxide-acetone mixture. Whatever was not condensed in this way was collected in a gas-measuring receiver. After the pressure in the autoclave had fallen to one atmosphere, the autoclave valve was closed, the cold mixture was removed from the spiral, as a result of which the liquid condensed within the spiral evaporated in part.
An Attempt at a Rational Classification of the Principal Accelerators of Vulcanization. II. A Study of the Time Required for Vulcanization Giving the Maxima Physical Properties at Different Temperatures
Authors: Thiollet R. , Martin G. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
We have attempted to classify the principal accelerators of vulcanization according to their chief characteristics which are the following: (1) Time necessary for the fixation of mixtures at different temperatures. (2) Times required at different temperatures to obtain vulcanization giving the maxima physical properties. (3) Aging. The first of these 3 items has been treated in Caoutchouc et Gutta-Percha (April, 1929) and we have shown how accelerators can be classified by their “precocity” of action; that is to say, by the rapidity with which they “fix” mixtures at different temperatures. The mixture being fixed, vulcanization continues and the physical quality of the rubber improves. It thus reaches a maximum, then diminishes upon too prolonged heating. In this second study we have attempted to determine the following points: (1) At a given temperature, how long a period of vulcanization is required to impart to the mixtures their maxima physical properties? (2) Within the range of temperatures, which temperature gives the optima physical properties?
The Swelling of Vulcanized Rubber in Liquids
Authors: Scott J. R. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The object of this paper is to present some of the results of an investigation of the swelling of vulcanized rubber carried out in the laboratories of the Research Association of British Rubber Manufacturers. It would be impossible in the space available to describe all the work in detail, and what follows must be regarded merely as a summary of the outstanding results obtained, supplemented by references to published literature. The mechanism of the absorption of liquid and the structure of swollen rubber gels are not discussed in this paper; water absorption also is omitted, as it depends mainly on the non-rubber constituents, and therefore differs essentially from the absorption of organic liquids.
The Aging of Cotton Contained in Rubber Goods
Authors: Barr Guy 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The paper will not deal with the behavior of such textiles as tire fabrics and cords in service and any general remarks made should be interpreted as applying, in the first place, to balloon fabrics, though some of them will not need the restriction. The subject of the permeability of balloon fabrics to hydrogen or to air will not receive attention, as the aging of the cotton has no direct connection with the variations of permeability which occur on exposure. Early Observations on the Weathering of Balloon Fabrics.—Rubbered cotton had been used on the Continent by the end of last century in the construction of balloons, but the authorities here had put their faith in goldbeaters' skin when building small spherical balloons, so that when attention was directed toward dirigibles, this country had to make up considerable lee-way in the study of rubbered fabrics suitable for such purposes. The manufacturing difficulties which are involved in obtaining satisfactory gas-tightness with a limited weight of rubber proved only a temporary trouble. The chief defect of early balloon fabrics was the relatively rapid rate of increase of permeability, but it was recognized that deterioration of the cotton was of vital importance; if an airship did not continue to hold gas well it was liable to fall gradually, but if the cotton had become weakened a burst was almost certain to involve loss of life.
The Relationship between Forces and Deformations. With Special Reference to Rubber
Authors: Ariano R. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
A matter of great interest and importance in the study of stress-strain relationships is the problem of expressing the behavior of a material in terms of a few constant coefficients, each having a definite physical significance and depending only on the nature of the material. The following is a contribution toward this problem, with special reference to rubber and the analogy between rubber and other materials.
A Spiral Model of Rubber
Authors: Fikentscher H. , Mark H. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
As a result of the work of Harries, the synthesis of rubber-like substances and the recent X-ray researches of Katz and of Hauser and his collaborators, one is justified in regarding the isoprene residue as the basis of the structure of rubber. The reason it has not been possible to obtain quite 100 per cent. of isoprene from rubber, in the way that cellulose can be converted quantitatively into its parent substance, glucose, is because of the strength of the C-C bonds of the individual isoprene residues of the rubber compared with the more easily cleaved glucoside oxygen bridges in cellulose. Above all, the extraordinarily thorough investigations of Staudinger and his collaborators have contributed important facts about the general behavior of chain-forming molecules, the application of which to rubber leads to the conviction that rubber contains long chains held together by primary valences, called macromolecules by Staudinger, a view which was held by Pickles years ago (cf. Ditmar, Der Kautschuk, 1912). Utilizing the Bragg numbers for the diameter of the carbon atom in organic compounds, Meyer and Mark have proposed a “primary valence chain model” of rubber, which conforms to the X-ray data and to the most important chemical properties. Since its general features have been pretty well confirmed, it seems a suitable time to improve this model, to develop it further structurally and to attempt to make clear the mechanical and other properties of the substance.
Chemical Adsorption Studies of Rubber Fillers and Rubber Compounds. Communication No. I
Authors: Fromandi G. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The evaluation of a filler, especially its behavior in a compound, depending on the special considerations to be met, is now judged almost entirely by a systematic study of its physical properties in the compound itself. Results and numerical values thereby obtained, depending on the character of the compound, in the majority of cases permit of no generalizations. However, they do permit certain conclusions which indicate the choice of a particular filler as suitable from a technical point of view. Wiegand obtained some insight into the complicated relationships involved, in the following manner. By a systematic study of the “proof resilience” or work of rupture of a base mix which is characteristically affected by the addition of increasing volumes of various fillers, he was able to show that the reinforcing action of finely divided fillers is primarily a function of their higher degree of dispersion and of the greater surface in common thereby obtained—a finding which was confirmed by the work of North. If, as suggested by Wiegand, the reinforcing action is considered as a function of the amount of filler, introducing the well-known value of “A” and the technically important “ΔA” function, a very clear picture of these relations is obtained.
A Study of the Vapor-Pressure Diminution of Rubber Jellies
Authors: Stamberger Paul 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Methods and results of measurement of vapor-pressure lowering of rubber jellies are described. From the qualitative behavior of the jellies (consistency), from the shape of the curve given in Fig. 3, and from approximate calculations of the thickness of the solvent layer round the molecules, it is assumed that the solvent is bound by the molecules of the jelly in the form of a solvated layer. The existence of such a layer in the sphere of action of the molecules explains sufficiently a decrease of activity of solvents, which results in vapor-pressure lowering, swelling pressure, etc., and makes the process similar to that of solution.
Studies of Conditions Affecting the Vulcanization of Rubber. III. Some Properties of Rubber against Solvents
Authors: Toyabe Yutaka , Fukunaga Kenji 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The authors have determined the solubility of unvulcanized compounded rubber containing 20 per cent. by volume of zinc oxide. The obscurometry method described in a previous report on various mixed solvents was used in the experiments. It was observed that the addition of a small quantity of certain solvents such as ethyl alcohol, acetone or nitrobenzene increases considerably the solvent power of the original solvents, such as benzene or gasoline. The results are shown in Figs. 1 to 12. Similar effects were also observed when inorganic bases or organic accelerators were added to the solvent, as shown in Figs. 18 to 27. These phenomena may be explained by Whitby's electroviscous effects (cf. Second Colloid Symposium Monograph, 1925, pp. 16–28). In the process of peptization of raw rubber in benzine-alcohol mixtures, the so-called gel-skeleton of rubber was easily dispersed in benzine with alcohol or an organic accelerator, whereas it was very difficult to disperse in benzene alone, and in the former case many sub-microns were observed under the ultra-microscope.
The Formation of Thin Films of Organic Colloids on Mercury Surfaces
Authors: Keenan R. L. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
1. A technique has been developed for obtaining thin films of organic colloids on mercury. 2. Several series of cellulose acetates, with varying viscosities and indifferent solvents, were used. 3. In the case of the cellulose nitrates, the limit film thickness varied in an inverse relation with the viscosity of the solutions. 4. Films of rubber and iso-electric gelatin were formed on mercury. 5. Films of the cellulose esters and gelatin were rigid, and condensed, while the rubber films were elastic. 6. The limit thickness increased with increasing complexity of the atom groups
Flexing Test for Tire Carcass Stocks
Authors: Gibbons W. A. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
THE test about to be described has been in use in this company for about fifteen years, and has been adopted to some extent by the rubber industry, particularly for use with belting. However, in response to various requests for information regarding the details of the test as applied to tire-carcass materials, a brief description of the methods now in use in the company laboratories is given here. The tests consists of taking a strip composed of several plies of fabric and rubber, bending the strip around a hub until its two faces are nearly parallel, applying a weight to the hub so that the strip is pulled taut, and moving the jaws reciprocally so that the strip drives the hub and is moved back and forth around the hub. This is continued until a separation occurs between the plies of the strip. This test, if carried out under carefully controlled conditions, gives consistent results, and it is the purpose of this paper to outline these conditions.
Some Engineering Problems in the Rubber Industry
Authors: Young H. C. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
It can be safely said that an industry such as the rubber industry produces by its horse power and its man power. Man power easily attracts most attention because its units are so easily seen, checked, and classed, and everybody considers themselves capable of directly controlling and eliminating such units. But thousands of horse power units rove all over our factories, idle and unemployed, except on work of distribution. The man power is recorded even to habit units such as a boy or a girl, each has its own individuality; but the horse power units are considered only in droves, and whole groups are judged lost, whereas they are tearing out bearings, destroying gear teeth by wear, heating up cooling water, spoiling stock, and taking up man units to repair the damage. It is interesting to note the rates of man power to H. P. in various industries:
Aging of Rubber and Its Retardation by the Surface Application of Antioxygens Diffusion Process
Authors: Moureu Charles , Dufraisse Charles , Lotte Pierre 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
THE deterioration of rubber may be due to any one or a combination of a large number of factors, such as oxidation, depolymerization, continued vulcanization, action of heat or light, and so on. The present paper will deal with the preservative action of antioxygens (12, 15) when applied on the surface of articles, and with some general remarks on the use of antioxygens. Comparison of Accelerated Aging Tests The only test not open to criticism is one which measures the aging of an article under actual service conditions and the writers used it in many control experiments. This test has the disadvantage of consuming an excessive amount of time and of not being suitable for a series of studies. Hence the necessity for artificially hastening the deterioration of the rubber articles. This accelerated aging is obtained, as is well known, by the use of such agents as heat, light, or compressed oxygen used separately or simultaneously. There is some doubt as to which accelerated aging test gives results most similar to natural aging.
Thermodynamics of Rubber. I. Rubber as a System of Two Phases
Authors: Ornstein L. S. , Eymers J. G. , Wouda J. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
In an earlier communication v. Geel and J. G. Eymers published measurements, giving the elongation of raw rubber as a function of the stress per sq. cm. We have repeated the same measurements (Fig. 1) and have determined the changes of width and thickness simultaneously as a function of the stress. The sheets of rubber used in these and in the earlier measurements were prepared by evaporating latex, which had been poured on gelatin. This rubber had therefore not undergone mechanical treatment. Further, in order to eliminate hysteresis as much as possible, a new piece was used for each measurement. The percentage reduction in the breadth and the thickness progresses in a similar way to that of the reduction in length as a function of the stress.