bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
International Labour Organization
Authors: Jarman Jennifer 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The International Labour Organization (ILO) is the United Nations (UN) agency with responsibility for labor issues. In 1969, the quality of its work was recognized with a Nobel Peace Prize, awarded for its relative success in achieving its mandate when compared to most other international organizations. In giving the award, the Nobel Prize committee recognized the difficulty of improving employment standards in a complex global environment. At the time of the award, it was noted as a substantial achievement that the goals of the organization had been met in most developed countries. It was also noted that the future role of the organization would lie in continuing its work to help shape standards in the developed world. As of May 2009 a total of 183 countries, almost all of the countries in the world, were members. These elements, together with the ILO's long history, its international mandate and profile, and the broad level of participation and comprehensive membership, combine to make it a significant organization involved in the creation of an international framework of employment rights and minimum standards.
International Nongovernmental Organizations
Authors: Boli John 
Published: March 2012

AbstractInternational nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) are voluntary associations operating on a nonprofit basis at the transnational or global level. Most have members or participants from many countries, bringing together like‐minded individuals or associations of individuals to conduct a wide variety of activities. They organize virtually all social sectors, from astronomy to field hockey to paleontology to zoo management. While the best‐known INGOs focus on human rights (for example, Human Rights Watch), the environment (World Wildlife Fund), disaster relief (Red Cross), and the like, most INGOs are found in scientific, technical, business and industry, medical, and professional sectors. Sizeable numbers are also active in such sectors as sports and recreation, development, education, and women's rights. As of 2009, well over 7000 “conventional” INGOs (defined below) were in operation, along with about 20 000 internationally oriented nongovernmental organizations of more limited scope.
International Organization of Securities Commissions
Authors: Tonkiss Fran 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) is a representative forum for regulators of securities and futures markets. Founded in 1983, it is headquartered in Madrid, Spain. IOSCO's voting membership includes the chief regulatory authorities for the world's financial jurisdictions. These are mainly but not solely national – certain members represent transnational (e.g., the West African Monetary Union acts for eight countries) and sub‐national markets (e.g., Ontario and Québec have separate delegates). The organization's voting membership totalled 114 in 2010, with oversight of more than 95 percent of global securities markets. IOSCO forms part of a developing architecture of global governance through international networks. It is significant as an agency whose goals are both to promote global exchange and to regulate the terms of such exchange, implying a model of economic globalization based on increasing standardization across national borders and legal systems. IOSCO is especially interesting in aiming to steer activities in financial markets, one of the primary challenges for global economic coordination. The organization's work has become highly relevant in light of successive shocks to the global financial system: notably the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 and the global financial crisis of 2008.
International Relations
Authors: Elliott David L. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract“International relations” refers to relations that cross national boundaries, especially political relations among states. At the root of international relations is international politics, though social, cultural, economic, and geographic considerations increasingly occupy thinking on international relations. One concept, realism, has dominated theory and practice of foreign policy and international politics since 431 BCE when the Second Peloponnesian War began and was chronicled by Thucydides (400 BCE). In that war, Athens besieged and conquered the previously independent island of Milos. Athens, in turn, was conquered by Sparta. In each case, first Athens over Milos and then Sparta over Athens used superior force to achieve its goal. To this day, realists argue that leaders of each state should exercise power to act in the state's own interests with respect to other states, all existing internationally in a condition of anarchy by virtue of a lack of governance apparatus that transcends the sovereign state. Realists recognize that in the seemingly anarchic absence of a political structure above or mediating existing states, successful international or interstate politics depends upon power and its exercise. This power may take many forms, usually material (economic or military) or ideological. While realism may be considered as much a theory of foreign policy as a theory of international relations (Morgenthau 1972; Barkin 2010), these themes have endured for 2500 years and continue to shape the trajectory of international relations into the epoch of globalization.
Islam: Globalization and its Intellectual Development
Authors: Moaddel Mansoor 
Published: March 2012

AbstractGlobalization is a master historical process of time–space compression (Harvey 1990) between various localities made possible through the employment of modern means of communication and transportation. This process enhances and is reinforced by the expansion of international trade and transnational movement of capital in search of valorization. Globalization may affect major areas of human concerns: from economic and political to the pattern, volume, and intensity of human migration, to transnationalization of migrant communities, to family life and gender relations, to educational institutions, to religious, artistic, and intellectual movements, and to the nature and style of political violence.
Joint‐Ventures
Authors: Rivera‐Santos Miguel 
Published: March 2012

AbstractA joint‐venture is a voluntary cooperative agreement between two or more organizations, the goal of which is to improve performance by sharing tasks or resources. While joint‐ventures have existed for several decades, their importance in firms' strategies has dramatically increased with globalization, leading some authors to argue that we have entered an age of alliance capitalism with porous boundaries of firms, countries, and markets. In the strict sense, a joint‐venture involves some form of equity sharing, either through the creation of a separate entity jointly owned by the partners, or through the partners' acquisition of a minority stake in each other's equity. A great deal of inconsistency exists in the use of terminology across authors and disciplines, however, and the term “joint‐venture” has also been used to refer to any type of inter‐organizational relationship. Reflecting this tendency, the terms “joint‐venture,” “alliance,” and “inter‐organizational relationship” are used interchangeably in this entry.
Judaism
Authors: Goldscheider Calvin 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Jews, their communities and their Judaism, have undergone major transformations in the decades since the end of World War II. Their migrations and settlements in dozens of countries around the world have made them the quintessential ethnic and religious minority characterized by globalization. Their population dispersal among many countries, the development of local institutions, and their cultural and social assimilation are legacies of the past but have been radically reshaped beginning in the nineteenth and continuing in the twentieth and twenty‐first centuries.
Labor and Work
Authors: Jarman Jennifer 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Labor and work are related concepts with overlapping meanings. Because human beings have such a wide variety of purposes, there is no simple definition of either “labor” or “work” that applies to all societies at all points in time. Work has more of a connotation that something is being or has been accomplished, and labor has more of a physical connotation. Both terms suggest that a purposeful effort has been expended and some sort of a result produced.
Labor Movements
Authors: Timms Jill 
Published: March 2012

AbstractLabor movements consist of people and groups who come together to establish and protect the rights of workers. They can differ in terms of their focus, organizational form and composition, ideology, size, reach, and the strategies employed, but share a determination to improve conditions of work. Labor movements are by no means static, but are continually evolving, often conflicting, and increasingly diverse. The range includes formally organized and legally recognized trade unions; networks of precarious workers; labor‐focused nongovernmental organizations (NGOs); peasant associations; and broader social movements for human rights and global justice as they connect to issues of work.
Labor Migration
Authors: Stalker Peter 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Around 200 million people live outside the country of their birth – some 3 percent of the global population. Some will have moved to build a new life in another country, others might be living overseas as refugees, studying abroad, or joining family members who have already emigrated. But one of the principal motivations, especially for people moving from developing to developed countries, is to earn a higher income. Those who travel primarily to work can be considered as “labor migrants” – though there is considerable overlap between the various categories. Even refugees or students may also be working.
Liquidity
Authors: Beilharz Peter 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The idea of liquidity has become increasingly popular in the sociology of globalization over the last decade. This popularization has much to do with the use and influence of the work of Zygmunt Bauman. For Bauman, liquidity is a successor term for the postmodern, referring to contingency, uncertainty, the slipperiness of everyday life and its institutions and expectations. Fixity means predictability; liquidity ushers in a whole new way of life.
Mass Media
Authors: Matos Carolina 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe mass media are today seen as playing a key role in enhancing globalization, and facilitating cultural exchange and multiple flows of information and images between countries through international news broadcasts, television programming, new technologies, film, and music. If before the 1990s mainstream media systems in most countries of the world were relatively national in scope, since then most communications media have become increasingly global, extending their reach beyond the nation‐state to conquer audiences worldwide. International flows of information have been assisted by the development of global capitalism, new technologies, and the increasing commercialization of global television, which has occurred as a consequence of the deregulation policies adopted by various countries in Europe and the United States in order to permit the proliferation of cable and satellite channels.
Mass Migration
Authors: Pok Binh 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe most basic definition of mass migration is the movement of large numbers of people from one geographical area to another. It differs from individual migration in the sheer numbers of people involved in a “mass migration.” It is further distinguished from large‐scaleseasonalmigration in that the latter is characterized by its periodicity and repetition, whereas mass migration usually refers to an event or series of events that may take place over the course of several years or even decades but is nevertheless bounded by time and usually results in permanent settlement.
McWorld
Authors: Curran Dean 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
“McWorld” is a term used to describe the increasingly homogenous and consumerist culture that is being produced by economic globalization. In particular, akin to Ritzer's “McDonaldization” (2008), “McWorld” serves to represent the proliferation of forms of consumption and consumerism by using the idea of “fast‐food” as a metaphor for the broader organization of American market society.
Media Society
Authors: Adolf Marian 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Media society (MS) is understood as an emergent social formation that develops when the modern media system, by way of technological means, typical content, and a patterning communicative logic, enters ever deeper into the individual, institutional, and societal sphere of contemporary society. As media and information technologies merge to provide the technical infrastructure of the bulk of human communication, they become the backbone of both private and public social interaction. While media's emergence as a major force of modernization and social change is structurally related to technological innovation and institutional differentiation, their cultural significance lies with their new social, political, and cultural roles. Hence, media have come to be designated a “total social phenomenon” brought about by a rapid process of the mediatization of human relations on the micro‐, meso, and macro‐levels. First, as sophisticated means of (interpersonal) communication, they organize and shape the most fundamental of human traits – communication – as social interaction in work and leisure time, in public and in private, as people increasingly rely on technological devices. Second, in their joint role as social, cultural, and economic institutions that provide professional communication, they increasingly set the standards, and the pace, and suggest the format of human interaction. The modern media system has thus begun to exert increasing pressure on other social fields (Altheide & Snow 1979), as the way they select, shape, and distribute their messages becomes the prevalent source of information and mode of experience. Third, on the macro‐level, they have become a social subsystem (Luhmann 2000) in its own right, as the increasing division of labor and rapid specialization has transformed the media from intermediaries in the service of other social fields into major economic and cultural actors that impact on and irritate other social subsystems such as politics, the economy, science, and education.
Methods in the Study of Globalization
Authors: Babones Salvatore J. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractGlobalization as such and in its current sense first began to attract serious scholarly attention in the 1990s. Sociologist Roland Robertson is widely credited with giving the term its current usage in his seminal book on the subject (Robertson 1992). Robertson makes clear that globalization, in his view, is a phenomenon that “has to do with the ‘organization’ of the world as a whole” (1992: 182–183), with “the scope and depth of consciousness of the world as a single place” (1992: 183). The crux of globalization as a concept is that it is concerned with phenomena that are constructed as global, whether or not in all cases they actually are (Boli 2005). Though the conceptual level of analysis of all globalization research is clearly global, globalization research often focuses on cases or examples that are highly local. Babones (2006) identifies studies using individuals, subnational regions, countries, supernational areas, and the world as a whole as units of analysis.
Microfinance
Authors: Offutt Stephen 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Microfinance has quickly become one of the most visible global initiatives in the fight against poverty. Bill Gates, George Soros, and Queen Sophia of Spain are just a few of the international spokespersons for microfinance. They join various other corporate sponsors, private foundations, multilateral institutions, and national governments that are promoting the industry's development and growth. Such sponsors are linked to more than 3500 microfinance institutions (MFIs) that serve more than 106 million impoverished clients on six different continents (Daley‐Harris 2009). The links that hold this transnational industry together are created and maintained through direct partnerships, umbrella organizations, international summits, advocacy and publicity campaigns, and the growing academic literature that explores its impact on cultures and societies.
Military
Authors: Sandhoff Michelle , Segal David R. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The military has been involved in processes of globalization throughout history. From the unification and expansion of Ancient Egypt to the territorial expansion of the Roman Empire to the establishment of a global British Empire, military forces were used to establish empires that spanned the globe long before scholars began discussing “globalization” (Eisenstadt 1963). After the heyday of Western imperialist expansion in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, militaries became instruments of national sovereignty. Although regionalism replaced global empires, the establishment of alliances for mutual defense led to conflict at a global level in both World Wars. Following the end of World War II, militaries began working in multinational alliances providing peacekeeping and humanitarian assistance globally.
Missionaries
Authors: Williams Roman R. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractA missionary is someone sent on a religious mission, one that typically involves propagating their religion or conducting charitable work in a culture or country different from their own. Throughout history Buddhist, Christian, and Muslim missionaries carried their religions throughout the world. Today, the global diffusion of Buddhism and Islam is mainly due to international migration and formal missionary efforts are rare. The missionary activities of Christians, however, remain a prominent feature of globalization.
Mobilities
Authors: Sheller Mimi 
Published: March 2012

AbstractMobilities are thesine qua nonof globalization. Without extensive systems of mobility, social processes could not take place on a global scale. But the field of mobilities research goes far beyond this moot point. Over the past decade a new mobilities paradigm has been emerging in the social sciences involving new approaches to studying the combined movements of people, objects, and information in all of their complex relational dynamics, as well as the representations, ideologies, and meanings attached to such movement. Unlike the traditional sociological study of social mobility, transdisciplinary mobilities research encompasses not only human mobility, but also thespatialmobility of objects, information, images, and capital, as well as the study of the physical means for movement such as infrastructures, vehicles, and software systems that enable travel and communication to take place. Mobilities research overlaps with some aspects of globalization studies, communications research, migration and border studies, tourism studies, transport geography and the anthropology of circulation, but it also differs in its scope, foci, and methodologies from each of these.
Modernity
Authors: Wagner Peter 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The most common – even though far from unproblematic – view about modernity holds that this term refers to a novel kind of society that emerged from a sequence of major transformations in Europe and North America culminating in the industrial and democratic revolutions of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Significantly, this view often entails both that these transformations catapulted Europe (or the West) to the front position in the course of world history and that the thus established Western model would diffuse worldwide because of its inherent superiority. Thinking about modernity thus meant thinking about globalization, even though these terms only came into frequent use in the 1980s and 1990s respectively.
Multilateral Agreement on Investment
Authors: Kobrin Stephen 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Negotiations to develop a Multilateral Agree­ment on Investment (MAI) were launched at the Organization for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD) in May 1995. The objective was a multilateral agreement resulting in a “high standard” liberal investment regime while providing for the protection of investment and the resolution of disputes. The effort was not successful and discussions were terminated in April 1998. The failure to reach an agreement was due to disputes among participants, vocal protests from the international civil society groups, and flaws in the process. The MAI is of continuing interest as it foreshadowed both the increasing difficulty of reaching broad‐based multilateral agreements and the rise of digitally empowered transnational actors as a significant factor in international politics.
Multinational Corporations
Authors: Bonanno Alessandro , Antonio Robert J. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Multinational corporations (or MNCs) are enterprises that operate in more than one country through branches and subsidiaries. Their national origins are known and recognized as they are identified with, and claim membership in, a particular nation‐state. They differ from domestic corporations – enterprises that operate predominantly within one single nation – and transnational or global corporations. The latter are often recognized as enterprises that have largely severed relevant connections with their home nation‐states and operate disregarding the interests and well‐being of the home country to a
significant
degree. In pertinent literature, however, the difference between multinational corporations and transnational or global corporations is often downplayed. The two terms have been used interchangeably. Simultaneously, many
multinational
corporations have evolved into
transnational
corporations in recent decades.
Museums
Authors: Wulf Andrew 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe etymological origins of the term “museum” derive from the GreekMouseion, the shrine of the Muses who presided over the arts and sciences. What is broadly defined as the first museum, the Library of Alexandria, flourished in the three centuries before the Common Era and housed primarily texts on papyrus rolls whose interpretation by a community of scholars offered a better understanding of what was then the ancient world. Though this forum was more a philosophical academy based on an archive of documents than a repository of artifacts intended for display, it thrived on the ethos of education and discovery through the exploration of world history. This research function has remained a fixture throughout the evolution of museums and reflects the modern museum value of learning through the study and display of material culture.
Nation‐state
Authors: Hershkovitz Shay 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The framework of the modern nation‐state seems to be nowadays the most natural political arrangement one can think of, and it is difficult to imagine an alternative political arrangement. Nevertheless, the state is a relatively new entity in the history of mankind, as it appeared only some 350 years ago. In our times, global processes related to globalization erode the state's position as the main definer of human geographical space. Movements of capital, people, technology, information, ideas – along with the growing power and influence of multinational corporations and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) – all pose a continuous challenge to the framework of the state and to the organization of a world system composed of sovereign states.