bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Islam, Political
Authors: Sayyid Salman 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Political Islam or Islamism is not a specific ideology, in the sense of being a set system of beliefs and values. Nor is it best understood as a perennial or persistent feature of Islamic societies and histories. Rather, Islamism is a discourse that seeks to re‐center Islam within the public sphere of Muslim communities. Islamism emerges in the context of the
de facto
(and often
de jure
) displacement of Islam from the public to the private sphere. This displacement of Islam was most effectively pioneered by Mustafa Kemal (1881–1938) and his followers who in series of interventions transformed the remains of the Ottoman state into Turkey following their victory in the Greco‐Turkish War (1919–1922). These reforms included banning the fez by the Hat Law (November 25, 1925). Veiling of women was discouraged; Western clothing for men and women encouraged. The Islamic Hegira calendar was replaced with the Western (Gregorian) calendar. In 1926 Ottoman and sharia law were replaced with a legal system based on the Swiss Civil Code. In 1928 the New Turkish alphabet (in a modified Latin form) was adopted. In the same year the state was declared to be secular (April 10); and the constitutional provision establishing Islam as the official religion was deleted. In 1933 the Islamic call to worship was required to be in Turkish rather than Arabic. In 1934 the Law of Surnames was adopted, forcing Turks to adopt arbitrarily chosen surnames by administrative fiat. In 1935 Sunday was adopted as the legal weekly holiday rather than Friday.
Knowledge Societies
Authors: Stehr Nico 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The foundations for the transformation of modern societies into knowledge societies continue to be – as was the case with the industrial society – changes in the structure of the economies of advanced and developing countries. Economic capital – or, more precisely, the source of economic growth and value‐adding activities – increasingly relies on knowledge. The transformation of the structures of the modern economy through knowledge, conceived of as a productive force, constitutes the “material” basis and justification for designating advanced modern society as a “knowledge society.”
La Vía Campesina
Authors: Desmarais Annette Aurélie 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
La Vía Campesina is currently the world's most politically significant international peasant movement. Its actions have contributed to, among other things, slowing global trade talks and securing moratoriums on genetically modified seeds (Edelman 2003), putting agrarian reform back on the global agenda (Borras 2008), placing peasants and small‐scale farmers at the forefront of defining rural development alternatives (Desmarais 2007), and the formation of a transnational food sovereignty movement. Many national agrarian organizations in the Global North and Global South have joined La Vía Campesina because of its non‐violent resistance to the globalization of a neoliberal, industrial, and corporate‐led model of agriculture.
Landscapes
Authors: Puleo Thomas J. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Landscapes are assemblages of objects and spaces arrayed on the surface of the earth. As influenced by Dutch landscape painters of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the term came to mean the scenic aspect of an area, particularly as it was viewed from a single vantage point. In a global context, landscapes are the material and symbolic sites of agglomerated economic, political, social, cultural, and environmental phenomena that functionally and symbolically mediate global processes.
Late Capitalism
Authors: Smart Barry 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The term
capitalism
has its roots in the nineteenth century and received its most influential analytic clarification in the respective works of Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895). Karl Marx in a series of analyses, some in collaboration with Engels, delineated the distinctive features of capitalism as a mode of production and provided a powerful analysis of its logic and an influential critique of its social and economic consequences. Capitalism is an economic system that has “transformation” in its DNA, it is constantly mutating and changing, perpetually in the process of becoming, a form of economic life for which a “steady state” is anathema. As Marx and Engels (1968: 83) succinctly note in
The Communist Manifesto
, capitalism is “constantly revolutionizing the instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production, and with them the whole relations of society.”
Liberalization
Authors: Williford Beth , Subramaniam Mangala , Whitlock David 
Published: March 2012

AbstractLiberalization refers to a relaxation of government regulations typically in social and economic policy. Economic liberalization thus refers to fewer government restrictions in economic matters and a heightened importance placed on the participation of private companies. Economic liberalism is a philosophy that supports laissez‐faire capitalism, striving for economic freedom and limited government. It was developed during the Enlightenment in Western Europe and the Americas.
Malaria
Authors: Hall Jason K. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Malaria is a potentially life‐threatening disease that impacts on poor and vulnerable populations across the developing world. The World Health Organization (WHO) reported almost 250 million cases of malaria in 2008, resulting in 863 000 deaths. Of these deaths, 85 000 were children under the age of 5. The disease is consistently one of the leading global causes of death among children. Almost half of the world's population lives in countries with some incidence of malaria, with those living in Africa, Southern Asia, and equatorial regions of South America at greatest risk. While a focus of the global health community for decades, the recent emphasis placed on malaria by the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) initiated a renewed effort toward the elimination of this disease.
Marine Pollution
Authors: Burns Thomas J. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractMarine pollution refers to a disruption to the natural ecology of water systems, particularly oceans, as a direct or indirect result of human activity. While some pollution is caused by directly identifiable sources, such as an oil spill, the preponderance of marine pollution is “nonpoint source,” or stemming from a variety of possible diffuse causes. By‐products of extensive agriculture such as herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers constitute major causes of marine pollution.
Market Externalities
Authors: Banerjee Tarun 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Externalities are costs of an activity that impact actors external to the activity. Applied to markets, they can be understood as the cost of goods or services that are not reflected in the price, but placed outside the exchange relationship. Externalities may be positive, such as research put in by a firm that benefits its competitors; or negative, for example injury to workers sustained during the manufacture of a product. In the former case, the efforts invested by the initial firm create a positive externality for future firms, who are able to offer similar products at costs that do not reflect the resources, labor, time, or risk of this firm. Similarly, production under unsafe conditions creates a negative externality for society when the manufacturer does not have to factor in the cost of injury to workers in the cost of the good. In both cases, the cost or benefit accrues to parties external to the transaction. Externalities may occur in many forms: some, such as injuries sustained, may be clearly visible and have immediate effects; while others, such as transnational water pollution, may be less visible and more long‐term in effect. Further, although market externalities can often be understood as purely economic costs and benefits, they are not always so easily viewed and can be wide‐ranging, such as mental health effects, job security, or urban overcrowding.
Media culture
Authors: Adolf Marian 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Media culture (MC) refers to a historical process whereby the cultural sphere of modern, Western societies becomes increasingly permeated and shaped by the content and forms of the modern mass media. In the narrower sense, MC describes the patterns of communication and prevalent mediated themes of social discourse of a certain time or place (“the US media culture of the 1950s”). In a wider, conceptual use, MC can be understood as a contemporary approach to popular, mainstream culture in Western consumer societies that continues the tradition of previous centuries' mass culture debates. Much of the current media culture research has its roots in the tradition of the Birmingham tradition of cultural studies. Culture is seen as global, contested terrain as it constitutes the realm of societal discourse concerning ideals, values, identities, and meanings.
Media Imperialism
Authors: Ritzer George 
Published: March 2012

AbstractMedia imperialism is a subcategory under the broader heading of cultural imperialism. The conventional view for quite some time was that it was the Western (especially US) media, and the technologies associated with it, that was imperialistic and that dominated less developed nations and their cultures. Thus, it was television programs created in the United States, movies from Hollywood (Cowen 2002), books by American authors and published originally in the United States, US media conglomerates such as Fox and Time Warner, and so on, that were seen as imposing themselves on less developed nations and playing a key role not only in their media, but in shaping their culture. For example, the idea that American movies have dominated not only less developed nations, but much of the world as a whole, is supported inGlobal Hollywood 2: “Los Angeles–New York culture and commerce dominate screen entertainment around the globe, either directly or as an implied other, and the dramatic success of US film since World War I has been a model for its export of music, television, advertising, the Internet, and sport” (Miller et al. 2005).
Mediascapes
Authors: Kuipers Giselinde 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The term “mediascape” was coined by anthropologist Arjun Appadurai in his widely cited and anthologized article, “Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy” (1990; 1996). Mediascape denotes both “the distribution of the electronic capabilities to produce and disseminate information” and “the images of the world created by these media.” The spatial “scape” metaphor highlights the fluid and fragmented nature of people's (media) surroundings as a result of intensifying global flows.
Megachurches
Authors: Peria Michelle 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
“Megachurch” is a term used to refer to a type of church, often defined as having 2000 or more people in attendance at a typical weekly service. As a significant development in Protestant Christianity, megachurches are part and parcel of an increasingly globalized world. While scholars dispute the nature and impact of globalization, a globalized world is readily recognized as one of increased acceleration of flows of people, things, and ideas across borders driven by the tools of modern technology and the free‐market economy. Arguably, the openings created by this process have facilitated the development and growth of a globally inclined Christian mission and impacted the flourishing of megachurches in recent decades.
Migration
Authors: Faist Thomas 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Migration as a form of spatial mobility implies the crossing of the boundary of a political or administrative unit for a certain minimum period of time. It includes the movement of refugees, displaced persons, and uprooted people as well as economic migrants. Internal migration refers to a move from one area (a province, district, or municipality) to another within one state. International migration is a territorial relocation of people between nation‐states. Spatial mobility as migration and social mobility form a tightly interrelated set. Often migration is a strategy to improve livelihood, thus increasing social mobility, and has implications for social inequalities in regions of emigration and immigration. It also affects social ties of membership on the level of kinship, voluntary associations, and citizenship.
Migration and the State
Authors: Hollifield James F. , Jacobson David 
Published: March 2012

AbstractToday tens of millions of people cross borders on a daily basis. International mobility is part of a broader trend of globalization, which includes trade in goods and services, investments and capital flows, greater ease of travel, and a veritable explosion of information. While trade and capital flows are seen as the twin pillars of globalization, migration often is overlooked, especially among scholars of international relations (Hollifield 2008). Yet migration is a defining feature of the global era in which we live. Although it is linked in many ways to trade and investment, it is profoundly different. Some clever person once observed that “people are not shirts,” which is another way of saying that labor is not a pure commodity. Unlike goods and capital, individuals can become actors on the international stage, whether through peaceful transnational communities or violent terrorist/criminal networks. Migration and mobility can be a threat to the security of states, as we have been reminded daily since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001; but migrants also are an asset. Immigrants bring human capital, new ideas and cultures to their host societies and they often come with a basic package of (human) rights that enables them to become members of society, if not citizens, of their adoptive countries. Conversely they may return to their countries of origin where they can have a dramatic effect on economic and political development (Hollifield et al. 2007). And lest we forget, not all migration is voluntary – in any given year millions of people move to escape political violence, hunger, and deprivation, becoming refugees, asylum‐seekers, or internally displaced persons. In 2007, UN estimates put the global refugee population at 11.4 million – down considerably from the turbulent decade of the 1990s but trending upward. The total population of concern to the UN High Commission for Refugees, including internally displaced persons, stands at almost 33 million. Because it is so complex and multifaceted, migration poses an enormous regulatory challenge for states and the international community.
Modern Imperialism
Authors: Berberoglu Berch 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Imperialism has been practiced by empires, old and new, for several thousands of years, ever since the formation of despotic states going back to the Greeks, Romans, the Incas, the Moguls, and the Chinese Dynasties, through the Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and Ottoman empires, as well as others, up to the dawn of the twentieth century when many European states had reached their zenith (see “Imperialism” in this volume).
Multicultural Education
Authors: Rizvi Fazal 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe concept of multicultural education emerged in the late 1960s. It prescribed a set of pedagogic principles associated with the broader liberal notion of multiculturalism. Over the years, multicultural education has taken several forms – focusing on the teaching of those regarded as culturally different, as a way of enabling them to integrate into mainstream educational settings; as an attempt to help students of different cultural backgrounds to communicate and work together in a more harmonious manner; as a strategy for promoting ethnic studies designed to raise consciousness about oppressive structures and take social action; as a way of celebrating cultural diversity, together with a commitment to equal opportunity; and as an approach to restructuring teaching–learning contexts and, ultimately, society itself (Sleeter & Grant 2007). Common to these approaches is an attempt to teach students to become critical thinkers and work, more generally, towards the social good. In this sense, multicultural education is viewed as a process which consists of policies, programs, and practices employed in educational institutions to reject racism and affirm pluralism.
Neoliberal as Political Technology
Authors: Ong Aihwa 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Neoliberalism has been viewed as an economic force involved in structuring a new planetary economy, and in the process transforming the political economy of a country. “Neoliberalism” is often reduced to a fixed set of marketizing criteria that one can check against in order to qualify or disqualify a particular country as “neoliberal.” Underpinning this view is the broader assumption that the spread of a cluster of economic coordinates (private property, free trade, free markets, etc.) will everywhere produce the same kind of political‐economic transformation (Harvey 2005). But the very conditions associated with the neoliberal – extreme dynamism, mobility of practice, responsiveness to contingencies, and strategic entanglements with politics – require a nuanced and situated approach, not homogenizing claims about the rise of a new global order. Indeed, the 2008 economic crisis showed how the selective use of neoliberal logic allowed centralized Asian states to rebound much faster than the United States, where risky financial practices nearly brought down Wall Street.
Network Society
Authors: Tatarchevskiy Tatiana 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

In his trilogy
The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture
published in the 1990s, Manuel Castells elaborated the term “network society” to capture the essence of social changes powered by new information technologies that have taken place since the 1970s (Castells 2000a). The intellectual heritage of the theory of the network society may be traced to the social theories attempting to account for the perceived growing qualitative role of information and communication in the second half of the twentieth century. It numbers among its precursors Daniel Bell's account of the postindustrial information society, Anthony Giddens's conceptualization of reflexive modernity, and Alain Touraine's theorization of new social movements. Unlike other scholars of the information age who were accused of utopianism and technological determinism at the expense of overlooking other factors (Kumar 1995; Webster 2006), such as power, nation‐state, and capitalist accumulation, the theory of the network society attempts to be more precise in discerning the new features in a society dominated by information.
Offshore Outsourcing
Authors: Lair Craig D. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Offshore outsourcing is a specific type of outsourcing. While outsourcing in general can be defined as when a company or some other entity purchases goods or services once performed within its organizational structure (i.e., “in house”) from an outside supplier, offshore outsourcing refers to those cases where this external supplier is located
in a different country
. In other words, it is outsourcing that occurs
in an international context
. Offshore outsourcing is often confused with another practice – offshoring – that, while having some similarities to it, is nevertheless a conceptually distinct process. Offshoring is generally defined as cases where “a multinational company moves or expands some of its operations and jobs to overseas locations” (Hira & Hira 2005: 201). In a more general sense, it can be said that offshoring occurs when an entity moves some of its activities to a foreign country, but where all of this movement takes place
within
the confines of the entity's organizational structure. For example, many multinational corporations (e.g., General Electric, American Express) have made use of so‐called “captive” centers; that is, company‐owned and operated facilities that are located in a foreign country (Lampel & Bhalla 2008: 434). Since offshoring involves no external supplier, it, by definition, is
not
a case of outsourcing.
Paris Club
Authors: Lavelle Kathryn C. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The Paris Club is an informal group of creditor countries. It meets to find coordinated and sustainable solutions to the payment difficulties experienced by debtor countries threatened by, or in an actual state of default. The first meeting of the Paris Club was held in 1956 when Argentina met with its creditors. Since that time, the Paris Club has focused on medium‐ and long‐term debt owed by sovereign states to other sovereign states. A similar organization, the London Club, meets from time to time to restructure sovereign debt to commercial lenders such as banks, usually after an agreement has already been reached in the Paris Club and coterminous with a standby arrangement with the IMF. Debt to multilateral creditors such as the IMF and the World Bank is likewise handled in other forums. As an agreement in one forum affects what happens in another, these groups constitute important meeting‐places in the governance process associated with sovereign debt.
Public relations
Authors: L'Etang Jacquie 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Public relations comprises a range of activities conducted by organizational agents (employees or temporary consultants) that are designed to contribute to the effectiveness of the organizations they represent by improving organizational relationships with stakeholders and the media. Although public relations is probably best known for its media relations work, some work is less well‐known, such as employee relations and community relations. Public relations work involves persuasive communication and advocacy, lobbying, source–media relations, reputation and relationship management and issues and crisis management. Public relations has a remit for corporate social responsibility through its issues management function and responsibility for reputation. Public relations supports organizational goals employing a range of interpersonal, online and off‐line targeted and mass communications, contributes to the facilitation of public conversations and debate on issues important to the organization and therefore may be seen as “discourse work.”
Racism
Authors: Law Ian 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe many different ways in which race has been coupled with negative associations and linked to social action is at the core of understanding how racism works. Racism comprises two core elements in all historical and geographical situations, it presupposes that some concept of race is being mobilized and involves negative attribution of a specified racial group. Identifying how race is being utilized and represented and how negative attribution is being articulated in particular situations are the two central problems that social scientists face in establishing the existence of racism across the globe.