bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Time and Infinity
Authors: Craig William Lane 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter examines recent criticism of two arguments for the beginning of the universe similar to the kalām cosmological argument. These arguments are about the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite and the impossibility of the successive formation of an actual infinite. This chapter argues in defense in these arguments and concludes that both arguments have yet to be found unsound. It explains that both arguments do seem to furnish philosophical grounds for holding to the finitude of the past and the beginning of the universe.
A Criticism of A Posteriori and A Priori Arguments for a Cause of the Big Bang Singularity
Authors: Smith Quentin 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter argues against William Lane Craig's theory of causality and against a posteriori and a priori arguments for a cause of the Big Bang singularity. It highlights some prima facie problems with a posteriori arguments for a cause of the Big Bang singularity, a priori arguments for a cause of the Big Bang, and Kantian a priori arguments for a cause of the Big Bang. This chapter concludes that there is no reason to think that it is metaphysically impossible for the Big Bang singularity to occur uncaused.
The Origins of the Federal Theology in Sixteenth-Century Reformation Thought
Authors: Weir David A. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The development of the federal theology of the late 16th and early 17th centuries was a significant transformation in Reformed theological thinking. According to the federal theologians, all of human history could be described using the rubric of a series of covenants, or foedera, beginning with a ‘covenant of works’ in the perfection of Eden and concluding with the new covenant fulfilled by Jesus Christ in the New Testament. The new covenant was in effect the conclusion of the ‘covenant of grace’, and it was this which united the Old and New Testaments into one continuous epic of God's grace and mercy. While John Calvin and many earlier Reformers discussed the importance of the postlapsarian covenant of grace, they never taught the federal theology with its key identifying feature of a prelapsarian covenant. This book traces the prelapsarian covenant idea in Reformed theology from its first use by Zacharias Ursinus in 1562 to its flowering in 1590. Besides its origins, the implications of the federal theology for Reformed thinking are made clear, and it is shown that the idea of covenant could have important implications for areas such as church and state, the sacraments, the Puritan doctrine of conversion, the Christian Sabbath, and the doctrine of justification and Christian ethics. The federal theology is of considerable historical importance in intellectual history and forms the framework for much of the Reformed theology in the English-speaking world for three centuries.
The Lexical and Biblical Evidence
Authors: Weir David A. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The original Old Testament word for covenant is berith. However, the primary import of the meaning of the word berith was lost as it was translated into various languages, particularly Greek and Latin. In the Septuagint berith was translated by the word diatheke. With the translation of the scriptures into Latin these two words had three possible Latin translation: foedus, pactum, and testamentum. This chapter explores the way the 16th-century student of the Bible perceived and understood these words. Research on the Reformation understanding of covenant has centred mainly upon tracts and treatises of various theologians. The chapter confines itself simply to the lexical evidence and biblical translations of the period. The first printed Hebrew lexicon was produced by Johannes Reuchlin, and the next lexicon of significance is one compiled by Alphonso Zamorensis.
Athanasius Transcendence and Transformation
Authors: LYMAN J. REBECCA 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Athanasius' passionate defence of the incarnation of Christ appears to provide a purely religious cosmology. This ‘soteriological’ or ‘Christocentric’ emphasis is a commonplace in scholarly literature: the incarnate Christ was not the culmination of pedagogical cosmology or history, but rather the key to the salvation of all existence. Throughout his career of over four decades as bishop of Alexandria, Athanasius combined administrative, political, and theological skills to bring unity and to ensure Nicene orthodoxy in the Eastern church. Discussion on Athanasius as theologian is given as well. His reflections on anthropology show a similar mix of ascetic interests, polemical refutations, and soteriological issues. Examples that demonstrate one of the troublesome issues of his theology of incarnation are explained. Athanasius' compelling theological vision derived strength from a Christian transposition of contemporary trends to underline soteriology and cosmology, with Christ as the decisive pivot.
The ʽAshīra Muḥammadiyya and the Muḥammadiyya Shādhiliyya Order
Authors: Johansen Julian 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
To set this religious discourse against a background of contemporary religious practice in Egypt, one organization on which to focus the study has been chosen. The 'Ashīra Muṭammadiyya is a substantial group with its headquarters in Cairo and branches all over the country. It is also an informal grouping of non-initiates, who show their commitment to the organization by attending the Friday Prayer in one of its mosques, or by enjoying the twice-weekly open lecture and congregational invocation given at the main mosque in Qaytbay. Within the general, membership-by-attendance grouping is a core of initiates. These make up the membership of the Muṭammadiyya Shādhiliyya Sūfī Order. A short overview of the life of Sheikh Muṭammad is given. Topics covered include the formation of the ṭarīqa and the transfer of authority, Sheikh Maṭmud Abū 'Ilyān al-Shādhilī, Sheikh Ibrāhīm Ibn al-Khalīl al-shādhilī, the building of reputation, and fame and virtue.
Word Order in Biblical Hebrew Narrative
Authors: Goldfajn Tal 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter examines the syntactic phenomenon of word order in biblical Hebrew (BH) narrative. It argues that variation of verb order is neither random nor explicable solely in terms of stylistic choice and claims that verb order alterations have important effects on the temporal relations between the situations described in a narrative. This chapter suggests that the word order phenomena in BH should be considered as playing a major role in conveying temporal shifts and nuances within the biblical text.
Temporal Relations within the Two Basic Set-Ups
Authors: Goldfajn Tal 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter examines how the basic relations of anteriority, simultaneity, and posteriority between different events are realized within each temporal set-up in a number of classical biblical Hebrew (BH) narrative texts. It identifies the common verb order sequences commonly employed to convey anteriority, simultaneity, and posteriority in the basic temporal set-ups. It provides examples to show how some common verb forms are used in narrative to express temporal relations.
Introduction
Authors: Behr John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Asceticism addresses what we are as human beings and asks questions regarding the appropriate ways of realizing this in our lives. Christian asceticism is a significant part of modern Western civilization. Is Christian asceticism, though, a corruption of true Christianity? Is it intrinsic to Christian existence? How is it different from other types of asceticism? Christianity's ideals regarding virginity, abstinence, continence and other such issues have become issues because of its different representations and interpretations; these ideals have marked Christians as a ‘third race’. The specificity and distinctiveness of Christianity is found not in their practices, but in the ‘constitution of their citizenship’. This book looks into the continuity or lack of continuity between pagan Christian morality through investigating their conceptions of morality from philosophical and socio-historical viewpoints. Specifically, this book concentrates on Irenaeus of Lyons and Clement of Alexandria's understandings on asceticism.
The Economy of God
Authors: Behr John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter explains the features of Irenaeus's economy. Irenaeus asserts how theologians may pursue their reflections only with establishing an overall economy or arrangement of the hypothesis of Scripture. Irenaeus's economy is grounded on relating the human race to what God has done for man. His work revolves around the notion of God, the Son, the Spirit, how man was formed in God's likeness, and how these elements act according to the Father's will. Irenaeus uses plasma to describe man as God's ‘handiwork’. Another feature of this economy is that it has temporality; all things exist as long as God wills them to exist. The chapter explains why God has created man to fulfill his purpose, pointing out how freedom is another pre-condition for God's creations. It emphasizes that the most profound of Irenaeus's reflections is the unity between God's glory and man, the manifestation of God and his visions.
Conclusion
Authors: Behr John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The book defines two different theologies regarding the existence and nature of man. For Irenaeus, asceticism is man living life in the image of God. For Clement, man is in control of how he becomes godlike. Unique features of Irenaeus's theology include: the link between theology and anthropology, how the body is fashioned in the image of God, and man's dependence on God to attain true freedom. Clement, on the other hand, asserts that it is not the body but the intellect that is made in God's image, and man has free will to decide and live. Clement also analyzes the nature of perfection in newly baptized Christians. Clement explains his theology of asceticism in terms of ‘synergy’, emphasizing Christians obeying God's commandments and how their actions become righteous. Irenaeus gives focus on the economy of Scripture while Clement emphasizes how paideia results in man's salvation.
Relative Frequencies of Imperfect and Aorist Indicatives
Authors: Evans T. V. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter's assessment of Pentateuchal usage is essentially a study in statistical syntax. More precise analyses of the linguistic contexts in which these hundreds of imperfects and thousands of aorist indicatives occur, and of relevant issues in translation technique, are likely to demand some nuancing of the argument. Given these qualifications, the conclusions here must be regarded as preliminary. Yet it seems that at the macro-level, the solution to the puzzle of low imperfect frequencies in the Greek Pentateuch. The discussion attempts to show that the essential nature of the phenomenon as the manifestation of a Hebraism. Available statistics for extra-Biblical Greek appear to demonstrate a decline in the frequency of the imperfect relative to the aorist indicative during the post-Classical period, especially in the vernacular language. The actual function of the imperfect remains unchanged.
The Logic of Uncertainty
Authors: BARTHOLOMEW DAVID J. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
There are several ways of looking at probability as a degree of belief and no matter how diverse their thoughts might have started out, two people's probabilities will meet at some point. Probabilities may refer to events, propositions, or hypotheses about the state of the world. Probabilities, especially about topics such as God's existence, are conditional; they can be either true or false and cannot be investigated through repeated experimentation. The probability of God's existence is a measure of how strongly one believes in this. This chapter presents two types of probabilities that may aide in analyzing God's existence. The first directly provides the probability of the truth of a hypothesis given evidence derived from the natural world, the second is an event given a hypothesis about the natural world.
Is God’s Existence Probable?
Authors: BARTHOLOMEW DAVID J. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The chapter concentrates on whether the world owes its existence to a fundamental reality or not. Another aspect that needs to be studied is how people recognize God, God's purpose, and their part in the greater scheme of things. The chapter addresses these issues through using different approaches. The first concerns expressing the argument in terms of probabilities and concentrates on a rational assessment regarding the belief in God. The second approach focuses on the fundamental question — what is the probability that God exists? In conclusion, there is no definite answer to the fundamental question; the only way to arrive at a probability would be to assign a prior probability to the proposition; this explains how claims that have concluded the probability of God cannot be justified.
Dimensions of Principle and Sympathy
Authors: Miller William L. , Timpson Annis May , Lessnoff Michael 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter uses factor analysis to help decide, first of all, how many — or how few — general dimensions of principle underlie many particular questions of principle; and, secondly, how closely or loosely individual questions of principle depend upon more general dimensions of principle. It focuses on those elements of principle which our many individual questions have in common. It also pursues a comparison of people and politicians to find out whether politicians have the same structure of general principles as the public.
The Practice of Principle
Authors: Miller William L. , Timpson Annis May , Lessnoff Michael 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe practice of rights is supremely important, particularly to those who seek or enjoy rights, but also to those who would grant or defend the rights of others. Practice tests commitment to principle. This chapter asks how far practice is consistent with principle. It tests the British public’s and politicians’ commitments to the practice of liberty and equality by reviewing the decisions they would make in a variety of situations, all of which have occurred, or could well occur in Britain. It will soon become apparent that even a decision about the simplest of scenarios may involve the exercise of more than one principle, and these principles may themselves be in conflict. For that reason if for no other, any single principle will fail to determine practical decisions completely. However, evidence suggests that principles are, none the less, strong influences upon decisions in specific practical scenarios.
The Institutional Setting
Authors: Miller William L. , Timpson Annis May , Lessnoff Michael 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter looks, both within Britain and beyond, for evidence that political culture reflects variations in the institutional and historical setting. In particular, it compares the political culture of Scotland with that of Britain as a whole; and compares the political culture of Britain with that of its former dominion, Canada. The aim is to consider whether, in fundamental respects, there is a common political culture that pervades these countries. The chapter tests the proposition that attitudes towards civil, political, and social rights reflect the limited — but not trivial — variations in the historical and institutional context between such closely connected, yet different, countries as Scotland, England, and Canada.
An Overview Model
Authors: Miller William L. , Timpson Annis May , Lessnoff Michael 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe previous chapters reviewed a wide variety of potential influences upon attitudes to civil and political rights. But so far we have looked at them separately and in sequence. This chapter looks at them in parallel and in combination. It brings together different aspects of social background, and links those various aspects of social background with experience, principles, prejudices, partisanship, ideology, argument, and practical decisions. The aim is to gain in comprehensibility and understanding what was lost in subtlety and detail.
Technological and Economic Pressures for Change in Telecommunications from the 1960s to the 1990s
Authors: Thatcher Mark 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter considers the ways in which sweeping technological and economic developments altered the nature of the telecommunications sector. It argues that in the twenty-eight years under consideration, these technological and economic developments were exogenous to Britain and France: policy-makers in the two countries could not greatly influence the technological and economic development of the sector, and resulting opportunities and pressures; only whether and how to introduce new technology within their countries.
From Abundance to Scarcity Fuel Shortage and the Rise of Coal, 1550–1700
Authors: Hatcher John 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter discusses the changing demand for coal between the 16th and 17th centuries. The doubling of the English population between the 1530s and the 1650s, from around 2.75 million to approximately 5.25 million, led to a massive expansion of the use of land for crops and animals, and with it the destruction of hundreds of thousands of acres of woodland. There was a build-up of pressure upon resources, and this was greatest upon the products of the land: foodstuffs and a wide range of raw materials such as wool, flax, hemp, dyestuffs, and leather, and of course wood and other surface fuels. By the opening decades of the 17th century, coal had become the staple fuel of the capital, and even those who could afford not to burn it depended upon a plentiful flow to keep wood prices from escalating still higher.
Regional Developments and National Trends
Authors: Hatcher John 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter discusses general tendencies in medieval and early modern coal mining. One such general tendency bestowed a critical role upon location. Variations in costs of production frequently paled into insignificance against the expense of overland haulage. Time and again the evolution of whole coalfields, as well as the individual collieries within them, depended fundamentally upon access to markets: the proximity of the sea, of navigable rivers, of large towns. However cheap it might be to dig coal, and however good that coal might be, the quantity that could be sold imposed an iron constraint upon the numbers of pits that were sunk and the amounts of coal that were raised from them.
Ownership and Enterprise
Authors: Hatcher John 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThroughout the medieval and early modern centuries landed wealth far surpassed all other forms of wealth, and since the initiative in the exploitation of minerals resided first of all with the owners of the land under which they lay, it was destined that landowners and the patterns of landownership should be fundamental to the history of coalmining. This chapter discusses proprietors and entrepreneurs, the sources of mining capital, executive decision-making, and mining leases.
The Economics of Mining
Authors: Hatcher John 
Published: October 2011

AbstractA paradox lies at the heart of the conventional view of the economics of coalmining in the 16th and 17th centuries. On the one hand we are presented with a matchless record of soaring output which was facilitated by massive capital investments made by hundreds of eager adventurers; while on the other, both contemporary observers and historians have painted a gloomy picture of an industry plagued by inordinate risk, wildly fluctuating fortunes, and frequent crippling losses. This chapter discusses risk and rewards, capital investment, profitability, labour productivity, and patterns of production and sales.
The Organization of the East Coast Trade
Authors: Hatcher John 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter discusses Hostmen's and the organization of the Newcastle and London coal trade. The abundant capacity of the north-eastern coalfield undermined any sustained attempts at producers' cartels. Free entry and participation of a multitude of ships on an occasional basis generally rendered the shipping of coal highly competitive, and in the later 17th century there are distinct signs here also of over-capacity and falling returns on capital. The wholesaling and retailing of coal within London, although subject to some abuse, was evidently sufficiently flexible and open to avoid any single group gaining effective control.
The Development of the Electronics Industry and the Scottish Council’s Scheme
Authors: BURNS TOM , STALKER G. M. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter describes the Scottish Council's electronic scheme and growth and development of the electronics industry since World War II. During the war, the section of the industry which had been implicated in radar work had undergone a kind of metabolic change. By force of circumstance, a number of firms witnessed the successful and profitable application of scientific techniques to the design and manufacture of new devices.
Farmers, Seedsmen, and Scientists: Systems of Agriculture and Systems of Knowledge
Authors: Marglin Stephen A. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe origins of hi-tech agriculture (hta) entailed how hybrid corn (maize) was initially developed in the United States during the first three decades of this century, its commercialization in the 1930s, and how the traditional open-pollinated varieties of corn were slowly dominated and almost entirely replaced by their hybrid counterparts during the period between the 1940s and the 1950s. Soon after this, the idea of seed manipulation spread from the Corn Belt to Mexico, and the varieties that developed from these manipulation endeavours have served as the basis for the greatest triumphs of the Green Revolution in Mexico, India, and even in Pakistan. Such attempts were furthered by the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines. Varied opinions have already emerged regarding whether hta should be seen as one of the successes brought about by science, or as a disaster in the making. This chapter looks into the earlier critiques that examine the interaction between the techne of farmers from various agricultural systems and the episteme of agricultural experts.
Implementation and Innovation
Authors: Fincham Robin , Fleck James , Procter Rob , Scarbrough Harry , Tierney Margaret , Williams Robin 
Published: October 2011

AbstractImplementation is the crucial phase of development in which technical capabilities and strategic objectives combine to produce economically effective systems in particular organizations. Where strategic systems are involved, sufficient novelty may be embodied for the resulting systems to be recognized as genuine innovations. Interaction between decisions made by managements in user organizations and the expertise contributed by technical personnel (internal and external) can thus result in creative outcomes with far wider applicability — a distinctive pattern of user-led innovation. Computer developments in general have owed much to user innovation, and this has been particularly marked in the financial services sector. Given the nature of information technology-based strategic innovations in the case firms in this book, users were of central importance. Aside from exploring the major features of the implementation process, this chapter examines the nature of the user-led innovation process in terms of the inputs of expertise involved. The most common features of the implementation process are discussed: uncertainty, time, organization, cost, and work.