bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Recriminations: Viceroy’s Memorandum and Bishops’ Memorial
Authors: KERR DONAL A. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
By May 1847, the second and most disastrous year of the Famine, with its horrendous death-toll, was over. The failure and death of Daniel O'Connell and the feeling of helplessness in the country when faced with a disaster on the scale of the Famine, had convinced many of the clergy of the futility of the campaign for repeal. Notwithstanding Clarendon’s complaints, it was unrealistic to expect the priests to view elections through the eyes of an English Whig. The Famine and its horrors constituted the backdrop to the election while, politically, the struggle was between those who were loyal to the memory of O'Connell and his constitutional movement and those who were not. In an extraordinary memorial, the bishops went beyond the strict bounds of religion to criticize the existing social order, condemn government policy, and express principles of social justice.
Body Language
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses how the responses to Quakers' body language reveal a great deal about general attitudes to civility and bodily control at that time. Friends' unusual body language is an important factor in providing an explanation on the hostility they encountered in local society. Much advice was given about the correct use of the physical body during the early modern period. The principal method of acknowledging the status of life of an individual was through the medium of the physical body. The bodily style of Quakers was related to Friends' experience of spiritual rebirth and the path to heavenly perfection.
Gospel Order
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the notion of a disciplinary process or ‘Gospel Order’. Gospel Order had existed since the early years of the movement but it was not extensive and not organized. The crucial step in empowering the Society to police members' behaviour more effectively was the intervention of George Fox. He urged the creation of a network of particular, monthly, and quarterly meetings in the late 1660s. The consensus among historians is that the main aim of Quaker discipline was to maintain the reputation of the Society.
Spreading Forth the Truth
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the role of Quaker books and pamphlets. These allow Friends to evangelize and let them fortify themselves with the truth through reading and contemplation. Quaker schools and teachers acted as barriers between the children of Friends and outsiders. The literacy rates of Quakers showed Quaker separatism, since an incentive to develop literacy in the sect was provided by the need to educate members with the values of faith, which were acquired through reading of the scriptures and Quaker books.
From Lollards to Quakers
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter answers the questions: To what extent were itinerant ministers like Parnel responsible for the early growth of the movement? Should people attribute the success of the early movement to the heroic labours of early Quaker evangelists alone? The influence of itinerant preachers should be acknowledged, but it is possible that the rise of interest in the new faith owed much to its ministers.
The Pastoral Arts of the Rhetor Pomerius
Authors: Leyser Conrad 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter begins with a scene painted by the North African rhetor Julianus Pomerius, in his On the Contemplative Life, composed in southern Gaul in the early years of the sixth century. Although rarely recognized as such, the work is cast as a dialogue. As Robert Markus has emphasized, what Pomerius in fact composed was a handbook for pastors, encouraging them to participate in an ascetic understanding of moral authority and pastoral responsibility. These priorities are announced at once: having promised to define ‘in a few words’ the nature of the contemplative life, Pomerius offers to consider ‘whether one charged with ruling a Church can become a sharer in contemplative virtue’. This question in turn leads on to a host of others, all of which presume a concern with the moral exercise of episcopal office. Taken together, the evidence generated around Pomerius reveals a network of rich and cultured clerics and laity in southern Gaul and beyond, with particular interests in the ascetic life and its promotion throughout the Catholic Church.
The Anonymity ofThe Rule of St Benedict
Authors: Leyser Conrad 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThere can be few more vivid illustrations of the moral power of humility than that afforded by The Rule of St Benedict. Its appeal is readily ascribed precisely to its winning lack of self-importance. This chapter argues that the author of the Rule’s determination to write for beginners represented not merely a generalized modesty, but a particular resolve to establish a monastic community and a language of authority which did not presume a high, or even a uniform, level of ascetic competence among its members. The Rule solves the problem of asceticism and community that had specifically defeated John Cassian: how experts and beginners could live together in a monastery.
Vodka
Authors: Christian David 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Vodka consists in principle (and sometimes in practice) of little more than pure alcohol and water. Of these two, it is, of course, the alcohol that is the active ingredient. The word ‘alcohol’ has two distinct meanings. To the chemist, it means a group of simple organic molecules, or molecules containing carbon. The simplest organic molecules are the hydrocarbons. On earth, alcohol appears most commonly as one by-product (the other being carbon dioxide) of a series of reactions in which energy is released through the breakdown of glucose during the chemical reaction known as fermentation. This chapter considers the chemistry of vodka, some definitions of vodka and vino, additives mixed with vodka, alcoholic drinks that can be found in Russian taverns in the middle of the 19th century, and the role of vodka as object of use and bearer of wealth in Russia.
Selling Vodka: Taverns and Tavernkeepers
Authors: Christian David 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Of all those who profited from the sale of vodka, it was the tavernkeeper who stood first in line, for the tavern or drink shop was where the consumer's thirst for vodka encountered the retailer's thirst for cash. Before arriving at these institutions, vodka was merely a source of wealth; once it left them it was merely a source of gratification. Taverns held the keys to the vodka trade in Russia, opening a channel through which vast amounts of money were pumped upwards (socially speaking) and equally vast amounts of liquor were poured downward (also socially speaking). Many tavernkeepers rose through the ranks of the liquor trade until they became tax farmers, and found themselves on the fringes of high society. This chapter discusses the selling of vodka in Russian taverns during the 19th century, the number and types of liquor outlets, and tavernkeepers.
Taxing Vodka—The Government's Share
Authors: Christian David 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Taxes, like commercial profits, are a form of revenue — a way in which wealth is transferred to social and political elites. The essential similarity of private and public revenues is particularly clear in transitional societies such as 19th-century Russia, where it was literally impossible to draw a clear distinction between taxes and profits. And tax farming provides the clearest possible illustration of the continuity between private and public revenues, for here governments exploited their monopoly position in the market as much as the merchants whose help they recruited. In this chapter, liquor taxes are treated simply as that portion of the revenues derived from the liquor trade which were enjoyed by the state. For the most part, the work of turning vodka into cash was undertaken by tavernkeepers and the tax farmers who employed them, while the chore of producing vodka was undertaken by gentry distillers. This chapter also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of tax farms.
The Action for Criminal Conversation
Authors: Stone Lawrence 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the action for criminal conversation. Between 1600 and 1860, four distinct phases can be discerned in the public opinion over the way to treat adultery by a married woman. Before 1670, in elite circles, it was morally acceptable to avenge the insult by personal violence. In lower classes, threats of public litigation were used to blackmail the seducer into paying for compensation. The second phase began in about 1670, when the common law courts of the King's Bench and Common Pleas devised new action for criminal conversation and provided monetary damages for the loss of male honour incurred though the seduction of a wife. The third phase started around 1170, with changing motives behind criminal conversation actions and parliamentary divorces. The fourth phase, visible around 1800, took the form of multi-faceted reaction against the criminal conversation action.
Social Security in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Comparative Assessment
Authors: Mesa-Lago Carmelo 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter concentrates on formal social security and its associated issues in Latin America and the Caribbean, and does not deal with programmes included under the broader definition of social security, such as famine prevention, agrarian reform, education, and employment promotion. It explains that a major reason for this exclusion is that the ‘formal’ concept is typical of the LAC countries, most of which rank as middle-income economies according to the World Bank classification. The chapter notes that the majority of these countries are urban, its labour force is mostly salaried, and it is rich in natural resources. It specifies that the term ‘social security’ is used in this chapter in its ‘formal’ sense, which, following the traditional ILO (International Labour Organization) concept covers several programmes such as: social insurances (old-age, disability, and survivor pensions; non-occupational sickness and maternity care, and corresponding monetary benefits; occupational accident and disease care, and monetary benefits; unemployment compensation); national health systems; and provident funds.
Mercantilist Policy: The American Colonies
Authors: Skinner Andrew Stewart 
Published: October 2011

AbstractAdam Smith's interest in the American question goes back to his time in Glasgow as student and professor. Smith could hardly help notice that Glasgow's emergence as a major commercial centre was the result of the city's geographical position. This relationship of geography to commercial activity provided a classic modern example of the historical progression that is so dominant a feature of his treatment of the origins of ‘present establishments’ in Europe as developed in book III of the Wealth of Nations. Smith's real purpose in the Wealth of Nations was to produce a searching critique of the mercantilist policy with regard to America's colonies. With this end in view, he offered an examination of the thinking behind the regulating acts of trade and navigation before proceeding to explain why current policy must change, offering a rational solution to the problems that were in due course bound to be exposed as well as to those that were unfolding as he sat in London. Smith's preferred solution was union and the creation in effect of an Atlantic Economic Community.
The Direction and Flow of Time
Authors: McCall Storrs 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe idea of time moving from past to future is not one generally shared by scientifically minded philosophers. For instance, in the Minkowski world there is no division into past, present, and future. Instead of finding the flow of time and its direction, modern science finds these qualities in the mind of the observer. Of those who have written on the direction and flow of time in recent year, the most thorough is Adolf Grunbaum. This chapter begins the discussion with temporal direction. It brings out many of the important philosophical issues surrounding this notion by examining a recent debate between Grunbaum and John Earman.
Individuals and Identity
Authors: McCall Storrs 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe theory about possible worlds that seems to emerge most naturally from the branched model is identical neither with actualism nor with modal realism, though it has affinities with both. The branched model pictures the universe as one, but branched. Relative to the present, each branch may be regarded as a future possible world. There exist therefore, in the branched model, possible worlds, as the model realist claims, and these possible worlds are not abstract, but concrete.
Morality: Emotivism and Agreement
Authors: Mulhall Stephen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe central lineaments of Cavell's understanding of morality are laid out in the chapters that constitute part 3 of The Claim of Reason — chapters originally composed as part of his doctoral dissertation, and thus roughly contemporaneous with material collected in Must We Mean What We Say?. The guiding assumption is that rationality in moral debate may be a matter of agreement on patterns of support for conclusions rather than guaranteed agreement in conclusions, and he begins by suggesting that it is only the contrary assumption — predicated upon an excessive emphasis on logic and natural science as models of reasoning — which leads many philosophers to deny that moral argument can be seen as rational. In so doing, Cavell makes more explicit the point that those who identify the ability of logicians and scientists to reach agreement on conclusions as the criterion of the rationality of their practices may be completely misidentifying rather than completely describing our concept of rationality.
Postscript:Philosophy's Closet
Authors: Mulhall Stephen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter looks back at the account of the trajectory of Cavell's philosophical project, and finds how much of that project has been left unexamined. It considers in detail the nature of Cavell's relation to feminism. These carry two implications: first, that Cavell, as a man, feels able to identify himself not only as capable of participating in feminism, but also a victim of the sufferings against which feminism sets itself; and second, that in the fight against these forms of oppression, he rejects the use of abstract generalizations in favour of a consideration of particular cases.
Metaphor and Moral Experience
Authors: Denham A. E. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis book examines the parallels between moral and metaphorical discourse, and the ways in which our engagement with literary art, and metaphorical discourse in particular, informs our moral beliefs. It suggests that there are three ways in which one's beliefs can be improved: if more of them are true, if more of them are warranted or justified, or if the warrant or justification for some of them is strengthened. So the book considers whether and how such improvements can be made to moral beliefs, and what role metaphor can play. It is an integral aim of the work to discern to what extent moral and metaphorical discourses deserve to be regarded as cognitive at all. This involves investigating to what extent such discourses are capable of truth or falsehood, warrant or justification, and how it is that we understand moral judgements and metaphorical expressions. This investigation is founded on an account of the nature of value and of our experience of value.
Metaphor and Judgements of Experience
Authors: Denham A. E. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractExperience can be difficult to describe and hence requires the use of figurative devices such as metaphors and similes. This chapter argues that figurative language sometimes succeeds in representing aspects of experience which resist characterisation in literal terms. According to the Inexpressibility Thesis, the truth-conditions of some metaphors can not be represented by terms contained in the strictly literal lexicon (of a given language). By proposing a special category of phenomenological metaphors, this chapter offers an account of metaphor that both explains and supports the Inexpressibility Thesis. It also examines non-cognitivism and reductionism, metaphor and experience-dependent concepts, two models of similarity judgements, and phenomenological metaphors.
Chapter 3
Authors: Hallaq Wael B. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The third point asserted in this chapter has to do with the doctrine that no judgement may be known except by means of syllogism, whose form and content has been stipulated. This is seen to be a negative proposition that is not self-evident. At the same time, there has not been any evidence to say that this is indeed proven, and in fact the logicians themselves admitted that they have made claims that they have not proven and argued without the benefit of knowledge. Establishing this negative proposition with certitude is believed to be impossible according to their own principles. In this regard, there has also been a lot of rejections by many religious innovators, speculative theologians, and philosophers of the prophetic reports which the traditionists retain.
Chapter 4
Authors: Hallaq Wael B. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The point covered in this chapter is the fourth and the enigmatic one which has to do with the logicians' doctrine that syllogism or demonstration leads to the certain knowledge of judgements. The logicians' error concerning the first three points covered in the previous chapters is clear with the least of reflection. It was rather easy to prove and comprehend and the confusions were mostly caused by exaggerations and protracted discussions. For this fourth point, however, it is rather different since a syllogism formed of two premises resulting in a conclusion is in itself valid. The previous points mentioned in the earlier chapters are relatively easy as it was obvious that there was no way to establish with certainty such categorical denials.
Proper Names II: Answering Kripke
Authors: Bach Kent 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter examines Kripke's two main arguments against description theories: the modal argument and the argument from ignorance and error. It contends that even if they refute description theories generally, they are ineffective against nominal description theory (NDT). It answers Kripke's objection to NDT in particular, that it is viciously circular. To complete the defence of NDT, the chapter attempts to explain pragmatically what the so-called illusion of rigidity is.
Reference and Pronouns
Authors: Bach Kent 
Published: October 2011

AbstractIt may seem to be a semantic fact that descriptions and names are referring expressions, but their referring function can and should be explained in strictly pragmatic terms. In contrast, it is undeniable that the referring function of pronouns is inseparable from their semantics. They do not denote in the strict (context-independent) sense, of course, and sentences containing them do not have absolute truth conditions. Yet the fact that they are characteristically used to refer does seem to demand a semantic explanation. Indeed, it might even be suggested that even though the reference of a pronoun is fixed only relative to the context of utterance, still it is fixed semantically, hence that the meaning of a sentence containing a pronoun determines a truth condition relative to the context. One virtue of this suggestion is that it accounts for the fact that the meaning of a given pronoun remains constant even though it can be used literally to refer to various individuals. However, the suggestion also has a serious difficulty. This chapter argues that the speaker's intention always (except in the case of ‘I’) plays an essential role in determining reference and, further, that for semantic purposes this intention cannot count as an element of context. The referring function of indexicals is part and parcel of their semantics. The chapter explains in detail how pronouns and other indexicals can be distinguished semantically from one another in terms of their respective constraints on how they can be used literally to refer. Finally, it points out that they can be used to refer descriptively as well as objectually.
Singular Terms in Belief and in Fictional Contexts
Authors: Bach Kent 
Published: October 2011

AbstractOne of the themes of this book is that the notion of denotation is tangential to the semantics of singular terms. This thesis has been supported by defending Russell's theory of descriptions, by developing a version of the description theory of names, and by arguing that pronouns do not denote, not even relatively to contexts of utterance. This chapter suggests that occurrences of singular terms in belief (or other attitude) contexts do not pose the problems that arise for those views that rely on the notion of denotation. The account of the occurrence of singular terms in such contexts will be rather straightforward. That will not prevent it from being controversial, however, for the distinction between referentially transparent and opaque occurrences will be interpreted pragmatically. The theoretical benefit of drawing this distinction at the level of speaker intention rather than of sentence grammar is that, contrary to popular opinion, belief sentences are not systematically ambiguous. As for occurrences of singular terms in fictional contexts, in the final section a pragmatic account will be given of them as well.
Necessary Connections
Authors: Honderich Ted 
Published: October 2011

AbstractIt is often claimed that people take effects to be events that might not have occurred, given all things exactly as they were beforehand. Such claims about people's ordinary beliefs are commonly depended on in asserting free will, which is to say indeterminist accounts of decision and action. They have been given a confidence and liveliness through the influence of a common interpretation of quantum theory. Another more minor reason for attending to causation is that too dramatic conception of it, such as those which connect it with certain images or ideas of power, or fate or plan, or compulsion, or logical connection, distort, one's responses to determinism. Another larger reason for attending to causation, on the other hand, is that people do well to avoid the general conceptual uncertainty that must be part of an inquiry which leaves undefined any of its fundamental ideas which are open to definition.
The Causation of Actions
Authors: Honderich Ted 
Published: October 2011

AbstractIt is certain that people need a term for the wide category of items which includes not only standing up, winking, pulling the trigger, and the like, which are relatively simple, but also for those which are more complex like writing a letter, going abroad to avoid income tax, and the like. The more specific question here is: what do people take such intentional actions to be and what is their conception of these? These types of questions are obviously often disputed. A defensible account is essential to a fully articulated human determinism, which necessarily concerns actions. If the foundation of any human determinism is an account of the mind, no determinism could be complete without a consideration of actions.