bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Falklands War (1982)
Authors: Turner Blair 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The world awoke on April 3, 1982 to the shocking news that an Argentine invasion force had landed on the desolate Falkland Islands in the far South Atlantic, subdued the small force of Royal Marines stationed at the capital, Port Stanley, and proclaimed the islands
nuestras
—“our”—Malvinas (Argentina would follow up with the capture of a tiny garrison on South Georgia Island that same day). No one except the invasion force and a few planners in the Argentine military staffs knew of the expedition until it was over. There had been long and drawn‐out discussions in the United Nations (UN) and other venues for decades about the contentious issue of sovereign control of the islands. Multiple conflicting claims dating back to the Seven Years' War of the eighteenth century ensured that both sides had established rather rigid positions: Britain in favor of “self‐determination” for the few settlers on the islands (Scots and Welsh) and the Argentines in favor of exclusive sovereignty over islands on the Argentine continental shelf, with guarantees of civil rights for the settlers as Argentine citizens. Even so, the notion of actual hostilities over the islands seemed remote. The Argentine plan was based on forcing a
fait accompli
. That the British would undertake the costly and huge operation necessary to recover the islands some 8,500 miles distant in the coming South Atlantic winter was deemed too unlikely; a negotiated settlement would be reached. Argentine planners understood, however, that defeat was a distinct probability if the British did fight.
Franco, General Francisco (1892–1975)
Authors: Alvarez José E. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Spanish general and head of state. Francisco Franco Bahamonde was born on December 4, 1892, in El Ferrol, Spain. The son of a naval paymaster, he aspired to a career in the Spanish navy. The Spanish–American War (1898), and the loss of Spain's overseas colonies, led him to join the army in 1907. Diminutive and underage, Franco endured the hazing of his classmates at the Infantry Academy in Toledo, graduating in 1910, 251st out of a class of 312 cadets. Second lieutenant Franco was assigned to the Regiment of Zamora, in El Ferrol.
Gallic War (58–51
bce
)
Authors: Dart Christopher J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The Gallic War was a series of campaigns conducted by Gaius Julius Caesar as proconsul which resulted in the conquest of the region of Gaul between 58 and 51 BCE. He relied heavily upon a team of senior officers (
legati
), sometimes placed in command of one or more legions, in order to subdue such a large territory. Caesar's conquest laid the foundations of Roman rule in the region for the next four centuries. The principal sources for the war are Caesar's own commentaries. These provide a level of detail that has rarely been preserved in Roman history. They are, however, imbued with contemporary political concerns and omit some key details. Accounts in other ancient sources such as Appian (
B Civ.
2.13–29) and the biographies of Caesar by Plutarch and Suetonius provide comparatively little detail about the Gallic War.
Garibaldi, Giuseppe (1807–1882)
Authors: Di Scala Spencer M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Born on July 4, 1807, in Nice—at the time part of the Kingdom of Sardinia—Giuseppe Garibaldi was the popular hero of the Italian Risorgimento, the nineteenth‐century movement for independence and unity. As a young man, he became a merchant marine captain and later led the most successful military expeditions of the Risorgimento. Because of his radical inclinations, traditional forces regarded him with suspicion, were diffident in accepting his offers of aid, and marginalized him after unification. Nevertheless, Garibaldi remains the best‐known and revered figure of the Risorgimento.
Gaugamela, Battle of (331
bce
)
Authors: Banchich Thomas M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
On October 1, 331, at Gaugamela, about seventy miles northwest of Arbela (Arbil, Iraq), the army of Alexander the Great—officially that of the Corinthian League, which had appointed Alexander “Plenipotentiary Commander”—defeated a much larger Persian force led by Darius III, King of Kings. Tell Gomel, on the plain of Nauquûr, north of the Jabal Maqlub range and west of the Gomil/Bumelus River, may mark the site. The Persian command had chosen this location and manicured and mined the terrain to facilitate a coordinated release of scythed chariots against Alexander's center with a massive cavalry envelopment of both Macedonian flanks, the objective being their enemy's annihilation. In contrast, Alexander's immediate goal was to kill or capture Darius. The Persians undoubtedly realized this and, in consequence, anticipated that Alexander would bring the battle to them.
German Peasants' War (1525)
Authors: Vice Roy L. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe German Peasants' War of 1525 was the culmination of a series of late medieval revolts, called “Poor Conrad” orBundschuhs(Franz 1965:1–91). The Peasants' War combined the ardent anti‐clericalism of the previous uprisings with the zeal for the evangelical movement of the early years of the Reformation. The Peasants' War was the largest popular revolt in European history before the French Revolution (Sreenivasan 2001:30). The rebellion encompassed central and southern Germany, south of Magdeburg, except for ducal Bavaria, and included part of the present‐day Czech Republic, Alsace in present‐day France, parts of Switzerland, western Austria, and the south Tyrol in present‐day Italy (Scott and Scribner 1991). The most important document produced by the Peasants' War was the Twelve Articles, written by the furrier and lay preacher Sebastian Lotzer in Memmingen on the basis of three hundred articles produced by peasants of the Baltringen Band in Swabia. The Memmingen preacher Christoph Schappeler wrote the preamble and supplied some of the biblical references in the margins. The Twelve Articles called for, among other things: the abolition of serfdom, an end to servile, unpaid labor, the right of each community to pick their own pastor and to control the tithe paid to the pastor, the freedom of poor people to be able to gather firewood in the forests, a restoration of the right to catch fish in flowing streams, and an end to the death tax paid by serfs when a member of the family died (Scott and Scribner 1991: 252–257).
Gordon, General Charles George (1833–1885)
Authors: Green Dominic 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Legendary commander of the “Ever Victorious Army” (1861–1864), and heroic yet futile defender of Khartoum (1884–1885), the soldier, mystic, explorer, and martyr Major‐General Charles George Gordon was an authoritarian imperialist who loathed authority and empire; a skilled tactician lacking political sense; a mercurial personality suspended between despair and rapture; and an unlikely icon of Victorian empire. The son of a Royal Artillery officer, Gordon trained at the Royal Military Academy, where his anarchic tendencies lost him six months' seniority. Joining the Royal Engineers, a depressed Gordon discovered evangelical Christianity. Posted to the Crimea in 1854, he showed insouciant bravery at the siege of Sevastopol, deliberately drawing Russian fire in order to plot the firing positions.
Greco‐Persian Wars (498–448 BCE)
Authors: Sage Michael 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe conflicts between Greeks and Persians extended over a period of two centuries from their first contacts with each other in the mid‐sixth centurybceto the destruction of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great in the 330sbce. The period covered in this article saw a crucial shift in the nature of the encounter. Between 498 and 479, Persian expansion was a serious threat to mainland Greece. However, after 479 the roles were reversed, as the Persians lost control of the Aegean and the cities along the western coast of Asia Minor.
Greek Independence, War of (1821–1829)
Authors: Lekkas Pantelis 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Greek War of Independence was waged mainly on the southern tip of the Balkan Peninsula between 1821 and 1829, and ended with the establishment of the independent state of Greece in 1830. It was the first successful war of national liberation in the Ottoman Empire and had a significant impact on the development of nationalist movements in the Near East.
Guerilla warfare
Authors: Heuser Beatrice 
Published: November 2011

AbstractSince its introduction during the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), the termguerrilla(Spanish for “small war”) has been used for a variety of related phenomena. In 1611, the term meant “feud” or “civil war” (Covarrubias 1943: 666). By the following century it was used also in other languages, e.g., in French asla petite guerre. But now, and up to the French Revolution, it was used exclusively to denote operations conducted by special forces acting alongside regular armies. Such special forces had been employed already by the Roman (including Byzantine) and the late Holy Roman (Habsburg) empires, who recruited them from tribes with special warring traditions, involving reconnaissance, sabotage, and ambushes undertaken by lightly armed units, often on horseback. Other European states began to copy the Habsburg employment of such units for what today would be called special operations from the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) onwards (Selig and Skaggs 1991: 12–14). The units they employed in this way were calledPartheyenin German,partiesin French, and their leader alone was called aPartheygängerorpartisan. Until the American War of Independence (1775–1783), and the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) and Napoleonic Wars (1802–1815), such “partisan warfare” was entirely devoid of ideology, but was warfare carried out by professional units specializing not in regular war and pitched battles but in irregular activities (Rink 1999). These professionals were also called Jäger (huntsmen or foresters) in German and later chasseurs in French; the terms survive in the German‐speaking armies up to the present day. A series of manuals on this type of war was published from the mid‐seventeenth century (Croix 1752; Grandmaison 1756; Jeney 1760; Ewald 1774, 1991; Emmerich 1789, and others) until the 1820s (Decker 1828).
Gulf Wars (1990–1991, 2003–present)
Authors: Estes Kenneth W. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Known in the region as the Second and Third Gulf Wars, with the Iraq–Iran War (1980–1988) as the first of the series, these conflicts marked the apogee and nadir of the regime of the Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein. In the case of the subject wars, each consisted of a coalition war organized by the United States to first limit and then overthrow the Iraqi regime, with the aim of improving peace and stability in the petroleum‐rich region so vital to the economies of most of the rest of the world.
HenryIV(Henry of Navarre) (1553–1610)
Authors: Baumgartner Frederic J. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractFrench ruler and commander. Born at Pau in Béarn (December 13, 1553), he was the son of Antoine de Bourbon, head of the House of Bourbon, a cadet branch of the French royal family, and Jeanne d'Albret, daughter of Marguerite d'Angoulême, Francis I's sister, and Henri d'Albret, king of Navarre (r. 1517–1555). At birth Henry stood sixth in line of succession to the French throne. Henry was baptized Catholic, but his mother, who converted to Calvinism, raised him a Huguenot, as French Protestants were known. Too young to be active in the early French religious wars that began in 1562, he was betrothed to Charles IX's sister Marguerite in 1570 in hope of reconciling the two religions. Henry's presence in Paris for his wedding in August 1572 with numerous Huguenot nobles set the stage for the St. Bartholomew's Massacre, in which many Protestant leaders were killed. Henry avoided death by becoming Catholic but remained confined at court until 1576, when he escaped and returned to Protestantism.
Heydrich, Reinhard (1904–1942)
Authors: Ryan Joseph W. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
SS Obergruppenfuehrer and Reichsprotektor Reinhard Tristan Eugen Heydrich was born in Halle, near Leipzig. Devout Catholics, his father was an opera singer who founded the Halle Conservatory of Music, and his mother, a strict disciplinarian who did not spare the rod, was a classical pianist. While Heydrich grew up in an idyllic setting, he was often teased and sometimes beaten by his fellow schoolboys for his devout Catholicism. Ironically, he was also taken to task for rumors of Jewish ancestry within his family. A natural athlete and competent musician, Heydrich grew to be an award‐winning fencer and a credible violinist. He also became one of the most notorious figures of the Nazi regime.
Hidalgo y Castillo, Miguel (1753–1811)
Authors: Archer Christon I. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Revered today as Mexico's “father of the nation,” Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla was born on the hacienda of San Diego Corralejo near Pénjamo, Guanajuato, where his father Cristóbal was the administrator. Although Miguel's mother died when he was only 8 years of age, his father was well off and able to send him to Valladolid (today's Morelia) where he studied with the Jesuits, and later at the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo. Hidalgo excelled in philosophy, theology, and other subjects, earning his baccalaureate degree at the prestigious Royal and Pontifical University in Mexico City. Ordained as a priest in 1778, he continued his studies and returned to Valladolid where he taught philosophy and theology at the Colegio de San Nicolás. He won recognition as a professor that in 1790 led to his promotion to the prestigious post of rector. Having reached the apogee of academic success and purchased three haciendas, information emerged that altered Hidalgo's fortunes. He overspent the Colegio's budget and mismanaged some accounts. Added to these imperfections, he was a gambler and he sired three children. Some evidence indicated that he was heterodox in his political and religious thinking.
Holy war
Authors: Bonney Richard 
Published: November 2011

AbstractHoly war, or violence sanctified in the name of a particular religion, has existed in one form or another throughout recorded history. In practice, it may exist in any religion although it may not be “justified” according to the precepts of that religion. For example, the various Buddhist traditions are considered to be pacific because the Buddha told a warrior that those who die on the battlefield will not be reborn in heaven but in a realm of hell. Abstention from killing is the first of the Five Precepts of Buddhism. To inflict pain and suffering, let alone death, on one segment of humanity under the guise of benefiting another can never be part of a Buddhism firmly rooted in the teachings of its founder. Nevertheless, even in the various Buddhist traditions there is a long history of violence, with the promotion of the soldier‐Zen by the Japanese military in the 1930s a particularly severe aberration.
Indian National Army
Authors: Sundaram Chandar.s 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The armed dimension of the Indian movement for freedom from British imperial rule, the Indian National Army (INA), collaborated with the Japanese against the British during World War II. The INA was formed through the interaction of the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA), the nearlytwo‐million‐strong Indian expatriate community in Southeast Asia, and the forty‐five thousand Indian troops captured by the IJA in its lightning conquest of Malaya and Singapore in 1941–1942. The idea of inducing Indian troops to turn against their British masters was first proposed to the IJA by the Indian Independent League, a Sikh extremist organization based in Thailand.
Indonesia–Malaysia Confrontation (1962–1966)
Authors: Farrell Brian.P 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

From 1963 to 1966 the Republic of Indonesia waged a military, political, psychological, and diplomatic conflict with Malaysia, which in turn was supported by allies from the Commonwealth: the United Kingdom (UK), Australia, New Zealand, and Singapore. This struggle was an undeclared low‐intensity war. Most military clashes, on land, at sea, and in the air, were small scale and fleeting. Nevertheless, this “Confrontation” — the label applied by Dr. Subandrio, foreign minister of Indonesia, who in January 1963 announced his country would “confront” Malaysia—was a nerve‐wracking and serious conflict, with high stakes, which at times threatened to escalate to open war on a large scale.
Konfrontasi
, to use the Indonesian term, became dangerously entangled with the Cold War. This forced the British, Malaysia's protecting power and strongest ally, to deploy powerful forces, at greater cost than they could afford, to deter further escalation. The causes of the conflict are often misunderstood. Presented as an attempt to abort the consummation of Malaysia, the conflict went beyond this, driven by a deeper dynamic: the struggle to define the nature and future of Indonesia. Because Indonesia was by far the largest state in Southeast Asia, this raised the stakes: the future direction of a post‐colonial Southeast Asia. The war was about Indonesia.
Irgun Zvai Leumi (Irgun)
Authors: Green Dominic 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Inspired by Vladimir Jabotinsky's Revisionist Zionism, the Irgun Zvai Leumi b'Eretz Yisrael (National Military Organization of the Land of Israel, known by the acronym “Etzel”) was a paramilitary organization active from 1931 to 1948 in British‐controlled Mandate Palestine. Although smaller than its left‐wing rival the Haganah, and lacking the institutional support that the Haganah derived from the Jewish Agency (the Mandate's government‐in‐the‐making), the Irgun attained disproportionate historical influence. By modernizing nineteenth‐century terrorist tactics and successfully introducing them into the Middle East, the Irgun demonstrated not just how asymmetric warfare could be used to challenge much larger conventional forces, but also the political utility of terrorism.
Iroquois Confederacy
Authors: Hall John W. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Also known as the Five (later Six) Nations, the Iroquois Confederacy was a powerful alliance of Iroquoian tribes indigenous to New York. By virtue of their location, military might, and diplomatic skill, these tribes wielded tremendous influence in European–Indian relations from the early seventeenth century through the late eighteenth century. The Iroquois Confederacy was a principal party in the seventeenthcentury “Beaver Wars” that transformed the economies and political structures of Native American communities throughout northeastern North America. Whether allied with England or struggling to maintain neutrality, it also played a prominent role in the Anglo‐French contests for dominion over North America. Parlaying its central position between these powers to its advantage, the Iroquois Confederacy remained indispensable to the colonial policies of both regimes until France's decisive defeat in the French and Indian War (1754–1763).
Jellicoe, Admiral Sir John Rushworth, 1st Earl Jellicoe (1859–1935)
Authors: Lambert Andrew 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The son of a merchant ship captain, Jellicoe topped his class at HMS Britannia in 1874 and saw extensive sea service before entering the Royal Naval College at Greenwich. In 1884 he joined the gunnery school on HMS Excellent, under Captain John Fisher. After service afloat Jellicoe returned to Excellent in December the same year. In 1889 Fisher took him to Whitehall. Promoted commander in June 1891, he was executive officer of HMS Victoria in 1893 when she sank off Tripoli after being rammed. Jellicoe was fortunate to escape: 358 men died. He was immediately appointed to the flagship of Admiral Sir Michael Culme‐Seymour, his model admiral. Promoted captain in 1897, he took a leading role during the 1900 Boxer Uprising. Thereafter, he combined short periods of sea service with longer periods at the Admiralty, working on Fisher's Dreadnought and the naval arms race. In December 1912 he became second sea lord: that year Fisher persuaded Winston Churchill to ensure Jellicoe would be in supreme command in 1914, the year he anticipated war. Increasingly concerned by mines, U‐boats, torpedoes, and Zeppelins, Jellicoe agreed with Fisher that the North Sea was no place for battlefleets.
Kayala River, Battle of (1185)
Authors: Dimnik Martin 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

On Sunday, May 12, 1185, Igor’ Svyatoslavich of Novgorod Severskiy and senior prince of the cadet branch of the Chernigov Ol'govichi, descended from Svyatoslav, the youngest son of Oleg Svyatoslavich (d. 1115), suffered a disastrous defeat at the Kayala River. The nomadic Polovtsy decimated his troops and took him and other princes captive. They there‐with inflicted the most devastating defeat on the princes of Rus' that the latter had ever suffered at the hands of these nomads. The campaign has been popularized through the epic poem
The Lay of Igor's Campaign
(
Slovo o polku Igoreve
), written by an anonymous bard (Zenkovsky 1974: 167–190). Owing to its interpretation of events, the popular image of Igor’ is that of a vanquished prince. This stigma implies that he was an incompetent commander and that he conducted a foolhardy campaign. Chronicle accounts of the battle, however, reveal that the historic Igor’ was different from the one portrayed by the poem.
Kursk, Battle of (1943)
Authors: M. Glantz David 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The Battle of Kursk on Germany's Eastern Front in World War II was one of the most important battles in world history and a major turning point in the war. While the Germans consider the battle occurred from July 5–15, 1943 and the Soviets from July 5–August 23, 1943, both agree it began on July 5, when Germany launched its third and final offensive during its war against the Soviet Union, an operation code named Operation Citadel (
Zitadelle
). Planned by Adolf Hitler and the German general staff, the offensive sought to destroy Soviet forces in the so‐called Kursk Bulge—a large salient jutting into German defenses the Red Army had seized during the previous winter campaign—prolong the war, and, perhaps, shift the fortunes of war in Germany's favor. The Soviet
Stavka
(high command) also planned their own series of offensives in the Kursk region, which were to begin immediately after the German offensive faltered, and sought to drive German forces back to the Dnepr River.
Leuctra, Battle of (371 BCE)
Authors: Banchich Thomas M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

In July or August of 371 BCE, at Leuctra, in the territory of Boeotia in central Greece, the army of the Boeotian Confederation defeated a substantially larger force commanded by the Spartan king Cleombrotus. The formal cause of hostilities was Sparta's earlier rejection of a request on the part of Thebes, Boeotia's most prominent
polis
, to be recognized as the signatory for other Boeotian cities of a Spartanbrokered peace treaty. To accept Thebes' proposal would have contradicted a principle of
polis
autonomy that since 387/6 had been fundamental to what the Greeks called “Common Peace.” At the same time, it would have validated the existence of a Boeotian Confederation of cities—some willing, others unwilling members—headed by Thebes, thereby legitimizing a potential rival to Sparta, to the Spartan‐dominated Peloponnesian League, and to certain other
poleis
, most prominently Athens. The proximity to Boeotia of Spartan forces previously deployed in central Greece, together with personal feelings of insecurity on the part of Cleombrotus, resulted in a decision to march from Phocis into Boeotia, which, in turn, prompted the Boeotarchs—generals in charge of the Confederation forces—to block the expected invasion route.