bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pathologies of Testimony
Authors: Coady C. A. J. 
Published: May 2010

AbstractGiven that testimony is a fundamental and fundamentally reliable source of information, having a status akin to perception and memory in our fabric of understanding, then questions arise about how to comprehend those categories of testimony that seem inherently misleading. Some of these are the ‘pathologies of testimony’ discussed in this chapter: gossip, rumour, and urban myth. It is argued that philosophers have paid insufficient attention to the phenomenology of these three and that what has been said suffers from certain defects. The chapter explores both the conceptual structure of gossip, rumour, and urban myth, and the social and moral significance that they have. It concludes with comment on the epistemic value (and dis-value) of such pathologies.
Getting Told and Being Believed
Authors: Moran Richard 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter argues for the centrality of believing the speaker (as distinct from believing the statement) in the epistemology of testimony, and develops a line of thought from Angus Ross, which claims that in telling someone something, the kind of reason for belief that a speaker presents is of an essentially different kind from ordinary evidence. Investigating the nature of the audience's dependence on the speaker's free assurance leads to a discussion of Grice's formulation of non-natural meaning in an epistemological light, concentrating on just how the recognition of the speaker's self-reflexive intention is supposed to count for his audience as a reason to believe P. This is understood as the speaker's explicitly assuming responsibility for the truth of his statement, and thereby constituting his utterance as a reason to believe.
Introduction
Authors: BURGE TYLER 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
Frege's work is set in the context of its enormous subsequent influence on 20th-century philosophy. Associations with the term ‘analytic philosophy’ are discussed and criticized. Frege's influence on thought about truth, structure, and philosophical method is expounded at some length. His notion of sense as a cognitive notion and the main theoretical functions of this notion are developed. The theoretical functions are defended, but Frege's view of sense as a Platonic, eternal, mind-independent entity is criticized. Frege's rationalism is developed and compared with Kant's.
Frege on Extensions of Concepts, From 1884 to 1903 (1984)
Authors: BURGE TYLER 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter traces historically Frege's uncertainty about how to complete his logicist project by invoking extensions of concepts. The uncertainty is placed in the context of his view that experts can incompletely understand the senses of mathematical expressions. Frege's discussions of incomplete understanding are surveyed. It appears that for some years Frege attempted to avoid invoking extensions of concepts by appealing to contextual definition. By contrast, during the same period, Frege was working out the approach that he eventually took in Basic Laws of Arithmetic, in which he attempted to justify, on purely logical grounds, the existence of infinitely many logical objects; the numbers, taken as extensions of concepts. Much of his thinking centered on how to understand the singular term ‘the concept F’. Frege's justification ultimately centered on his attempt to justify Law V, the principle that leads to contradiction in Russell's paradox. He tried to justify Law V by holding that reference to concepts on the left side of the principle's bi-conditional has the same sense as reference to extensions of concepts on the right side. Frege's claiming that the purported logical law was, in effect, a tautology, while at the same time being uncertain about whether to believe the (claimed) tautology, is explained with Frege's notion of incomplete understanding. Frege never regarded Law V as obvious, not even when he thought it to be self-evident. Self-evident propositions could come to be obvious only when completely understood, and complete understanding required mastery of theory, not simply immediate insight.
Introduction: Governmental Intervention in the Economy and Subsidies
Authors: Rubini Luca 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the forms of public intervention in the economy that may in general give an economic advantage and may thus in principle be covered by subsidy or State aid rules. In doing so, and in particular in distinguishing those cases that are commonly held to be subsidies (those of ‘financial assistance’) from those that are more controversial (those of ‘regulation’), an attempt is made to provide a conceptual explanation of this different treatment. This is followed by the examination of the legal techniques that can be used to determine the legal relevance of governmental action in the context of a definition of subsidy. A final section concentrates on the significance of the objectives of the measures, and maps their position within the issue of the definition of subsidy.
The Advantage Analysis: An Introduction
Authors: Rubini Luca 
Published: May 2010

AbstractIn Canada-Aircraft the Appellate body laid down findings whose generality makes them a suitable starting point for explaining the operation of the advantage analysis in both legal systems. As expressed by its ordinary meaning, the concept of ‘benefit’ under Article 1.1(b) of the SCM ‘clearly encompasses some form of advantage’. The determination of the conferral of ‘some form of advantage’ is based on (i) ‘some kind of comparison’ which in turn requires (ii) an ‘appropriate basis’ for it, that is an appropriate benchmark. Crucially, this comparative process should lead to a determination of (iii) whether the recipient is ‘better off ’ than ‘would otherwise have been, absent’ the government measure. This chapter examines these findings in turn.
Concluding Remarks: Objectives and the Advantage Analysis
Authors: Rubini Luca 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter provides a brief summary of the findings of Part III on the advantage analysis and, to further explore one of the main recurring themes of the book (namely the role played by the objectives of the public measure). A topical case-study focusing on the status of the financing of public services under EC State aid law is used. A final section assesses the issue's possible implications in the WTO framework.
The Distortion of Competition
Authors: Rubini Luca 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter analyses the ‘impact standards’ in WTO subsidy and EC State aid rules. ‘Impact standards’ are those elements of the definition of subsidy (or State aid) that identify the negative effects produced by the measure. Building on the findings on the objectives of subsidy control outlined in Chapter 2, i.e., the protection of market access and of competition, the first section analyses the impact subsidies may have on the competitive process. This is arguably the deepest and most specific concern of subsidy rules, and should hence be properly reflected in the ‘impact standards’ of the relevant definitions of subsidy. This broad analysis leads to the core of the chapter where the current standards in the EC and WTO are examined and critically evaluated. Among the various findings, a trend from a ‘trade’ to a ‘competition’ perspective is advocated.
2 Reflections on Manner/Result Complementarity
Authors: Rappaport Hovav Malka , Levin Beth 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter investigates the observed complementarity of manner and result as components of lexicalized verb meaning. We provide a precise characterization of these meaning components: results involve scalar changes, while manners involve nonscalar changes. We propose a verb may only lexicalize one type of change, giving rise to manner/result complementarity.
6 The Emergence of Argument Structure in Two New Sign Languages
Authors: Meir Irit 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThe chapter investigates how a new language develops devices for marking argument structure, by investigating two young sign languages, Israeli Sign Language (ISL) and Al‐Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language (ABSL) that emerged about seventy‐five years ago. At earlier stages, the two languages tend to avoid argument structure marking. However, later on they diverge, indicating that there is no one universal path for developing argument structure marking.
11 Incremental Homogeneity in the Semantics of Aspectualfor‐Phrases
Authors: Landman Fred , Rothstein Susan 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter argues that the constraint on the distribution of for phrases, and thus a relevant definition of atelicity is best phrased using a notion of incremental homogeneity which we define and explain. We show that on this definition, accomplishment predicates with bare plural or mass objects are incrementally homogeneous on the assumption these nominal phrases are taken to denote kinds.
12 Event Measurement and Containment
Authors: Mittwoch Anita 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThe chapter argues that in‐adverbials as in Jane walked five miles in one hour do not directly measure the event, but rather an interval containing the event. This explains why they work on a descending scale, so that the shorter the interval for which a claim is made, the stronger the claim. It also accounts for a number of constraints on in‐adverbials, e.g. #Jane walked five miles in at least one hour.
15 Locales
Authors: Borer Hagit 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter relates two questions concerning bare noun arguments: (i) the contrast between the acceptability in Hebrew of sentence initial V‐S with bare noun subjects where V is unaccusative, and its unacceptability where V is unergative; (ii) the telicity in Hebrew and English of achievements with bare noun arguments, in contrast to the atelicity of accomplishments with bare noun arguments. The argument that the two contrasts are related relies on the observation that both disappear under the presence of a locale (an indexical adverb of the sort found as subject of existential constructions). The major claim made in the chapter is thus about the central role locatives play both in forcing existential interpretations and in allowing telic readings with non‐quantity arguments.
16 Modal and Temporal Aspects of Habituality
Authors: Boneh Nora , Doron Edit 
Published: May 2010

AbstractWe argue that habituality is primarily a modal category, which can only indirectly be characterized in aspectual terms, depending on the particular aspectual operators at work in a given language. In languages which do not overtly contrast perfective/imperfective aspect, we identify a habitual form, morphologically and aspectually complex, which characterizes an interval in retrospect by means of an actualized habit holding throughout the interval.
Drug Policy and the Public Good
Authors: Babor Thomas F. , Caulkins Jonathan P. , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David R. , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore S. , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John 
Published: May 2010

AbstractDrug use represents a significant burden to public health, through disease, disability and social problems, and policy makers are becoming increasingly interested in how to develop evidence-based drug policy. It is therefore crucial to strengthen the links between addiction science and drug policy. Drug Policy and the Public Good is collaboratively written by an international group of career scientists, to provide an analytical basis on which to build relevant global drug policies, and to inform policy makers who have direct responsibility for public health and social welfare. Drug Policy and the Public Good presents the accumulated scientific knowledge on illicit drugs that has direct relevance to the development of drug policy on local, national, and international levels. The authors describe the conceptual basis for a rational drug policy, and present new epidemiological data on the global dimensions of drug misuse. The core of the book is a critical review of the cumulative scientific evidence in five general areas of drug policy: primary prevention programs in schools and other settings; supply reduction approaches, including drug interdiction and legal enforcement; treatment interventions and harm reduction approaches; criminal sanctions and decriminalization; and control of the legal market through prescription drug regimes. The final chapters discuss the current state of drug policy in different parts of the world, and describe the need for a new approach to drug policy that is evidence-based, realistic, and coordinated.
Framing the issues
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter begins with a brief description of the focus of this book, namely the scientific evidence on the impact of policy responses to drug use. It then discusses why drug policy matters, the meaning of the term drug policy, and four reasons why policymakers and those involved in drug policy should invest precious time in perusal of this volume. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Matters of substance
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John 
Published: May 2010

AbstractPsychoactive substances have assumed increasing public attention in most parts of the world, especially when they are defined broadly to include alcohol, tobacco, illicit drugs, and certain types of legal pharmaceutical agents that have high dependence potential. The effects these substances have on individuals and society depend on a variety of factors, including the pharmacological properties of each drug, the way the drugs are ingested, their cultural meanings in everyday life, the reasons for using them, and the harms associated with their misuse. Public discussion of drug policies has too often failed to take these complexities into account. Simplistic views that all drugs are the same and all are equally dangerous not only limit our understanding of drug-related problems but also impair our ability to develop meaningful policy responses. Advances in psychiatry, psychology, neurobiology, cultural anthropology, epidemiology, and a variety of other disciplines have substantially increased our understanding of psychoactive drugs, drug actions, and drug misuse. This chapter addresses these fundamental ‘matters of substance’ in order to set the stage for the chapters to follow.
The international dimensions of drug use
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter shows that significant progress has been made in developing the methodological tools needed to assess variations in incidence rates of drug use and prevalence trends over time. Topics discussed include the current scope of drug use, population prevalence estimates, trends in drug use, prevalence of drug use by young persons, trends in youth drug use, variations in drug use within populations, injection drug use, and individual trajectories and drug use careers. Drug use and its related problems do not occur randomly. Some nations and some neighbourhoods are more likely at times to experience high rates of drug use, and some individuals are more likely to initiate and continue heavy drug use. The fact that problem drug use is most often interwoven in a complex network of other social problems, both at the individual level and at the societal level, implies that strategies to prevent drug use or drug-related harms need to address this complexity.
Illegal markets: the economics of drug distribution and social harm
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter describes what is known about drug markets, and the nature and extent of harms that arise from them. It begins with a brief theoretical discussion about the structure, prices, availability, and product quality of illegal markets. The discussion of harms distinguishes between drug production and international trafficking on the one hand, and wholesale distribution and retail marketing of drugs on the other. Each affects a specific set of communities and nations in a particular fashion.
The legal market: prescription and diversion of psychopharmaceuticals
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John 
Published: May 2010

AbstractChapter 5 described what is known about the structure, prices, and products of illegal drug markets, and the nature and extent of harms that arise from them. This chapter describes another drug market, this one consisting of an international pharmaceutical industry that operates legally within the market economies of most countries. It begins with a historical introduction to the origins of psychoactive pharmaceuticals (also called psychopharmaceuticals interchangeably) and the ways in which they are produced and marketed. After describing how the pharmaceutical industry is organized on a global level, it suggests that, with the growth of modern medicine and particularly psychiatry, there has been a substantial growth in prescriptions for mental disorders and distress, and increased comfort with the use of such prescribed medications. This situation has had, in some countries, significant consequences for the illicit drug market. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the question: how separate are the regulated and unregulated markets? The answer is that the two worlds are not separated as much as they might at first appear.
Supply control
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter is about supply control approaches to drug problems, a set of interventions targeting the production, distribution, and sale of illicit psychoactive substances. It begins by explaining the distinctions between law enforcement and supply control. Because supply control traditionally focuses on enforcement against producers and dealers, an analytical framework is presented that links different kinds of enforcement to different layers in the drug distribution chain described in Chapter 5. The remainder of the chapter is organized by the supply level that is targeted by an intervention: production/refining, international trafficking, high-level domestic enforcement, and retail enforcement. The final section presents an assessment of what is currently understood about the effectiveness of the different programmes.
Prescription regimes and other measures to control misuse of psychopharmaceuticals
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter examines how well prescription regimes perform their role of allowing psychoactive substances to be consumed for approved, i.e., medical, purposes, while preventing their use for non-approved purposes. It begins with a description of the prescription system that now operates in developed nations, and then lays out the regulatory tools which can influence prescription practices. It focuses on a relatively new set of studies that evaluate these interventions in terms of how they affect drug consumption and patient health. The final parts of the chapter consider the control of psychopharmaceuticals by mechanisms outside of the prescription regimes, such as efforts to control deceptive marketing and to reduce diversion through law enforcement.
Health and social services for drug users: systems issues
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John 
Published: May 2010

AbstractDrug users receive help from a variety of health and social services that have been specifically developed for them and that are reviewed in Chapter 9. This chapter moves up one level of analysis to consider service programmes in the context of larger systems and their population-level impact. It discusses how health and social service programmes interact with each other and with the more generalized types of service programmes that drug users commonly access, for example those that provide vocational training, welfare benefits, and emergency health care. It also discusses how service systems are organized, funded, and managed.
3 HowNotto Count the Poor
Authors: Reddy Sanjay G. , Pogge Thomas 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter argues that the World Bank's approach to estimating the extent, distribution, and trend of global income poverty is neither meaningful nor reliable. The Bank uses an arbitrary international poverty line that is not adequately anchored in any specification of the real requirements of human beings. Moreover, it employs a concept of purchasing power ‘equivalence’ that is neither well defined nor appropriate for poverty assessment. These difficulties are inherent in the Bank's ‘money-metric’ approach and cannot be credibly overcome without dispensing with this approach altogether. In addition, the Bank extrapolates incorrectly from limited data and thereby creates an appearance of precision that masks the high probable error of its estimates. It is difficult to judge the nature and extent of the errors in global poverty estimates that these three flaws produce. However, there is reason to believe that the Bank's approach may have led it to understate the extent of global income poverty and to infer without adequate justification that global income poverty has steeply declined in the recent period. A new methodology of global poverty assessment, focused directly on what is needed to achieve elementary human requirements, is feasible and necessary. A practical approach to implementing an alternative is described.