bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The concept of evolutionary change
Authors: Chipman Ariel D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Natural selection results in organisms that are optimally adapted to their environment. Organisms change over time and lineages split through speciation. Phylogenetic trees are a graphical representation of the evolutionary history of species and of the relationships among them. Trees are reconstructed by searching for a tree that best satisfies a series of criteria, given the data available about the taxa for which we are building the tree. Having a tree allows us to trace the evolution of characters over evolutionary time. Characters that are derived from a shared common ancestor are homologous characters, whereas characters that appeared independently several time over evolution are convergent characters. Characters that do not have homologs in any related species are known as evolutionary novelties. When tracing the evolution of characters or of organisms, we often ask question about why they are the way they are. It is important to differentiate between proximate causes, the immediate driving force for a phenomenon we see, and ultimate causes, the deeper causes that reflect the full evolutionary history of a species.
Motility and symmetry
Authors: Chipman Ariel D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Almost all animals are capable of some form of movement. However, this movement is often of body parts relative to each other. Not all animals are capable of locomotion, which is the movement of the entire animal from one place to another. Animals can be classified based on their degree of motility. Sessile animals do not move from their place at all. Sedentary animals move little or infrequently, and mobile animals are capable of free movement in space. Aquatic mobile animals can move on the sea floor and are then known as benthic, or move in the water column and are then known as pelagic. On land, animals can walk, run, crawl, or fly. Locomotion is usually achieved by muscles, but in some smaller organisms it is achieved by ciliary action. The degree of motility is linked to body plan and to the structure of the nervous system. Sessile and sedentary animals are often radially symmetrical and often have a nervous system arranged as a nerve net. Mobile animals tend to be bilaterally symmetrical and have centralized nervous systems.
Diploblastic organisms
Authors: Chipman Ariel D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Diploblastic organisms have only two germ layers: endoderm and ectoderm. The largest phylum of diploblastic animals is Cnidaria—jellyfish, corals, sea anemones, hydroids, and others. Cnidarians are radially symmetrical with a digestive system that has only one opening. The mouth is usually surrounded by tentacles that carry cnidocytes or stinging cells. Many cnidarians are colonial, and the colonies are sometimes embedded in a mineral skeleton. Some cnidarians can appear in two form, polyps or medusae. When there is a medusa stage, it is usually responsible for sexual reproduction. Many cnidarians have complex life histories, often with an alternation of sexual and asexual generations. The second bilaterian phylum is Ctenophora. While superficially similar to cnidarians, ctenophores are very different in structure and life history. They move using rows of cilia known as comb rows or ctenes. All ctenophores are predators and most of them trap food using long tentacles with sticky cells.
Sensory systems
Authors: Chipman Ariel D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
The world is teeming with information that can be collected by an organism and used to improve its chance of survival. Different sources of information are known as sensory modalities. Sense organs in diverse animals are optimized for detecting and interpreting different sensory modalities. The interpretation of sensory information is done by the nervous system, which is composed of neurons and a range of other supporting cells. The most ancient and most common sensory modality is chemoreception—the ability to detect specific molecules based on dedicated receptors situated on chemosensory cells. Mechanical reception includes a range of organs that give information about physical-mechanical aspects of the world. This includes touch receptors, gravity and motion detectors, flow detectors, pressure detectors, and others. Photoreception gives many organisms, including ourselves, the most detailed and nuanced information about the world. Photoreceptor organs range from simple light-detecting patches, to complex eyes with a movable lens and a large hemispherical retina. We can trace an evolutionary trajectory linking the different types of photoreceptor organs. Additional sensory modalities include detection of electro-magnetic fields, a sense of self, and the perception of pain.
Platyhelminthes
Authors: Chipman Ariel D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Platyhelminthes (flatworms) is a bilaterian phylum that include both free-living and parasitic taxa. Flatworms have a flat body with no secondary body cavity. The free-living flatworms are small simple animals that live in water and in damp terrestrial environments. They are unusual among bilaterians in using stem cells for all growth, which leads to highly developed regenerative capabilities. Many flatworms have adapted and specialized as internal parasites of other animals. These parasitic taxa have lost some of the typical flatworm characters, including a reduction or complete loss of the digestive system. On the other hand, they have evolved adaptations to the parasitic lifestyle, including a unique type of integument that protects against the host’s immune system. Many have also evolved highly complex multi-stage life histories.
Mollusca
Authors: Chipman Ariel D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Mollusca is a large and diverse phylum with many familiar representatives, from snails and clams to octopuses and squid, as well as several less-familiar representatives, such as chitons and aplacophorans. Despite this diversity in body plans, we can reconstruct a generalized mollusk and see how all these body plans are variations on a theme. The generalized body plan usually includes a shell that is secreted by a mantle. On the ventral side of the animal is a muscular foot, and dorsal to it is the visceral mass. In different lineages, each of these components has been expanded, reduced, or specialized as part of an adaptation to different lifestyles. Bivalves (oysters, clams, and relatives) have reduced the foot, the head, and sense organs as part of a transition to a sessile lifestyle. Gastropods (snails) maintain almost all of these structures, but have evolved a torsion of the visceral mass relative to the foot. Cephalopods (octopuses and squid) have lost or reduced the shell, evolved a closed circulatory system, and are adapted for an active and highly mobile lifestyle. Because of their hard shells, mollusks have an excellent fossil record, and they are important components of almost all fossil assemblages.
Skeletons and coeloms
Authors: Chipman Ariel D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Skeletons are structural elements that provide support, muscle anchoring points, and protection. Skeletons can be external or internal. External skeletons are composed of plates and offer physical protection. Internal skeletons are often composed of bones. For a rigid mineralized skeleton to allow movement, there have to be joints between individual elements. The type of movement and locomotion an animal can carry out depends on what type of skeleton it has, if any. The main muscles used for locomotion tend to be body wall muscles, which can be longitudinal or circular. Coordinated activity of body wall muscles can lead to peristaltic or sinusoidal types of locomotion. Animals with appendages display other types of locomotion, such as walking or swimming. All muscle activity must be done against some sort of support structure. Animals without rigid mineralized skeletons often have a hydrostatic skeleton or coelom, which serves as the semirigid anchoring point for locomotory muscles.
Molting animals
Authors: Chipman Ariel D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Rigid exoskeletons impose a constraint on an animal’s ability to grow. In order to grow, animals with a rigid exoskeleton must remove and replace the skeleton with a new one of a larger size. This is known as molting, and is found in a large clade of animals, the Ecdysozoa, which is composed of three sub-clades. One of the sub-clades within Ecdysozoa is Nematoida, which includes nematodes or round worms, and nematomorphs or horsehair worms. Both of these phyla are elongated worms with no external appendages, and with a reduced body cavity or pseudocoelom. Nematodes display very little morphological diversity, but are extremely abundant, with their diversity being manifested in physiological and ecological specializations.
Arthropoda II
Authors: Chipman Ariel D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Mandibulata is the larger of the two branches of Arthropoda (the other being Chelicerata). It includes hexapods and their relatives, crustaceans, and myriapods. Mandibulates are characterized by a head tagma with antennae and three pairs of feeding appendages. Myriapoda is the least diverse class and includes centipedes and millipedes. Centipedes are predators with anterior venom claws. Millipedes are herbivores or detritivores with pairs of segments fused to give diplosegments. Crustacea is a paraphyletic group, since it encompasses hexapods as well as a diversity of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial taxa that are considered to be crustaceans. There is a diversity of body plans within crustaceans, with different levels of tagmatization and adaptations to different modes of life and motility. Hexapoda is the class that includes insects and is by far more diverse than the others. Known insect diversity is higher than the known diversity of all other animals combined. Insects are characterized by three tagmata: head, thorax, and abdomen, by three pairs of walking appendages, and, in most cases, by two pairs of wings. The diversity of insects lies in the specializations of the walking appendages, feeding appendages, and wings.
Excretory systems
Authors: Chipman Ariel D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Excretory systems have two separate roles: elimination of waste products and maintaining a correct ion balance. Waste products are mostly breakdown products of nitrogenous compounds, which include toxic ammonia. The excretory system has to detoxify and remove ammonia to prevent it from accumulating in tissues. Maintaining ion balance, or osmoregulation, involves selectively removing excess ions and water or both to maintain a level of salinity of the tissue fluids that is similar to that of sea water. The simplest excretory organs are protonephridia. These are single-cell structures that draw water and small molecules from the body fluids and remove excess material as urine. Metanephridia are multicellular structures that draw fluids into a lumen and return necessary components back to the body, removing the excess as urine. Terrestrial arthropods have a third type of excretory organ, known as Malpighian tubules—these remove excess ions from the body fluids and transfer them to the digestive system for removal.
Vertebrate characteristics
Authors: Chipman Ariel D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Vertebrata includes some of the most familiar and best-loved animal species. The generally larger size of vertebrates makes them dominant animals in most environments. Vertebrates are distinguished from other chordates by the presence of bone, which forms the vertebral column and to other skeletal structures. Vertebrates also have a large distinct head with a skull and an enlarged brain. Many of the novel structures of vertebrates are derived from a vertebrate-specific group of embryonic cells, the neural crest. There are two types of bones in vertebrates: endochondral bone, which is derived from ossification of cartilage, and dermal bone, which is derived from ossification of the mesodermal layer of the integument. The brain of vertebrates is composed of three embryonic regions that differentiate to give rise to a complex, multi-regional adult brain. A series of acute sense organs are linked to the brain, to give a high level of sensory processing.
Vertebrate organogenesis
Authors: Chipman Ariel D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
To understand the vertebrate body plan, we will follow embryonic development from the end of gastrulation through organogenesis. The model for this will be the frog embryo, as a generalized representative of vertebrates. Gastrulation defines the posterior of the embryo. As gastrulation progresses, it creates a tube that will become the digestive tube. Dorsal to the digestive tube, the mesoderm differentiates into a number of regions. Dorsal to the mesoderm, the ectoderm thickens and flattens to form the neural plate. The neural plate folds and sinks in to form the dorsal nerve cord. The axial mesoderm forms the notochord. The paraxial mesoderm gives rise to a series of cell clusters called somites. These will be the origin of most of the segmental structures: segmental muscle, vertebrae, dermis and others. The lateral mesoderm forms two sheets, with the space between them becoming the coelom. The outer mesodermal sheet or parietal mesoderm will form ventral body wall tissues and the circulatory system. The inner sheet or visceral mesoderm will give rise to all the mesodermal components of the digestive system.
The Importance of Remittance Flows
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , Doyle David , Solaz Hector , Tertytchnaya Katerina 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
This chapter introduces the book, describes the case selection, and previews the chapters that follow. Money Flows proposes that financial remittances influence their recipients’ incentive to hold the authorities to account through various complementary channels. The book focuses on three specific ones, considering how remittances colour recipients’ economic evaluations; shape the burden of corruption; and change how recipients interact with and view their state. Through these three channels, remittances will in turn impact the approval function of the authorities. This process has implications for the incentive to reward those in office for their competence or to punish them for their incompetence.
Remittances and Government Approval
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , Doyle David , Solaz Hector , Tertytchnaya Katerina 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the relationship between remittances and government accountability, focusing on the authorities’ approval function. It demonstrates that remittance recipients report higher levels of government approval than others. Drawing on evidence from the 2008–2009 recession in Central-Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, the chapter also shows that experiencing a decline in remittances makes recipients report lower levels of government support and blame the national government for the recession than other members of the population. In its concluding sections, this chapter also provides descriptive evidence of how changes in remittances impact national-level patterns of government approval. Increasing remittances are associated with increased government approval, and vice versa.
“Please Excuse All Mistakes”
Authors: Lystra Karen 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Letter-writing was a crucial form of labor in nineteenth-century America. And like other forms of labor, it divided people by social class. It was a widely held belief among all ranks of American society that to be inept with language was to demonstrate one’s lower social standing. Working-class correspondents openly expressed fears that their writing would provoke the ridicule and laughter of their peers and of their better-educated compatriots. Such class shame had a partial antidote in community care, respect, and recognition. Less firmly rooted in the advancing culture of individualism, poorer, undereducated Americans felt intensely the loss of their face-to-face community. Exchanging letters with family and friends supported their need for a safe haven within a larger group. The Civil War created a need and an opportunity for unschooled white and Black soldiers to acquire writing skills. This was an unintended consequence of Civil War camp life.
The Love Continuum
Authors: Lystra Karen 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
The language of their letters suggests that the working-class experience of love is best described on a continuum. A small group of couples who shared their sense of love with middle-class romantics congregate at one end of this emotional continuum, while the large majority of working-class Americans were located on the nonromantic side. Some couples were situated in the middle and seemed to mix and match romantic love with elements of nonromantic attachment. The meaning of love in all three groups and their accompanying behavior is discussed, but an understanding of nonromantic love is emphasized. Rarely documented nonromantic proposals of marriage are presented and evaluated. The hostility expressed by family and community toward an interracial marriage and the couple’s emotional response is also highlighted.
Sex Talk, Humor, and Fear of Ridicule
Authors: Lystra Karen 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Middle-class couples took pleasure in verbalizing their sexual experiences and desires, which added to the erotic intensity of extended courtships. But they had the protection of a deeply held ethic of privacy that was lacking in working-class culture. The laboring folk, by contrast, had a porous sense of privacy, reflected in the common practice of sharing letters of all types, including correspondence between married and unmarried couples. Given the truncated value they placed on privacy, and their more relaxed attitude toward disclosing the intimate details of their lives, what was noticeably absent from working-class letters was any earnest erotic content. When they discussed sex, it was most often treated humorously (or as manly boasts). Did certain anxieties provoke this unspoken reserve about sexual intimacy? This chapter addresses that question. A rare discussion of birth control and of sexual harassment in working-class letters is also included.
Love to All Inquiring Friends
Authors: Lystra Karen 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
The majority of correspondents did not express their affection in the vocabulary of romantic love. Still, they did not necessarily neglect their spouses as a consequence. Their feelings were often symbolized in prospective acts of kindness. Couples conveyed nonromantic love by performing expected gender roles: women by preparing food and clothing; men by providing necessities for their family. The vocabulary of romantic love was missing from the majority of nineteenth-century working-class marriages, whatever the level of care between partners. There was something off-limits for the majority about sending love to spouses. Time and again, married men and women imparted love to their tribe rather than a spouse. They felt an intense need to reinforce relationships within their community. This deep-seated and taken-for-granted behavior is documented and interpreted.
Fighting to Stay Together
Authors: Lystra Karen 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Several working-class couples disclose a great deal about the dynamics of community and marriage. They often reveal the various points of tension and contestation between the group and the conjugal pair. The married couple, in many instances, maintained permeable boundaries with their community. Those weak boundaries affected good as well as bad marriages. But troubled relationships were especially vulnerable to community pressures. These relationships vividly demonstrate the active role that intermediaries played in marital conflicts. They also display the most common source of marital disputes: a spouse’s failure to satisfy traditional role obligations. This chapter opens up the marital arguments of a poor farming couple living in Alabama, an upstate New York textile factory worker and his sixteen-year-old wife, a bigamous Massachusetts husband and heartbroken wife, and an illiterate Ohio farmer whose scribe freely interjected himself in the couple’s marital friction.
Epilogue
Authors: Lystra Karen 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
After an account of thousands of letters, the shortest in this bulky stack ends the volume. Isaiah Francis Wilson composed his two-line letter in the Mohawk language, indicating his primary identity, followed by an English translation: “I guess there is a great many miles between here and your home, is not that so Friend.” He expressed a longing for home, not only as a place, but as an emotional state. Another emotional state—romantic love—was making inroads in working-class culture, but the individualism it both reflects and inculcates was not yet ascendant in 1880 when this study ends. Waves of immigration, growing urban centers, a national market economy, and the expansion of mass culture and education were poised to noticeably change the American social landscape. The transition to a romantic ethos that promoted self-expression and personal fulfillment over collective bonds in the practice of working-class intimacy had begun.
Divine Dialectic
Authors: Burton Simon J. G. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
This chapter focusses on the development of Petrus Ramus’ dialectic and its abiding Neo-Platonic character. It opens by situating Ramus’ dialectic in the evangelical and mystical milieu of a Paris which had been profoundly impacted by the Fabrist movement. It then considers how Ramus’ early dialectic shows his engagement with Franciscan and Cusan themes of Christian philosophy tracing a mathematical and mystical ascent to God. Outlining the dual rhetorical and metaphysical turn of Ramus’ logic the chapter provides a detailed account of his understanding of invention, judgement, and method. In doing so, it seeks to show the continuing importance of Platonic Realism in Ramus’ mature dialectic, even alongside his important rapprochement with Aristotelian logic. It also reveals an important mathematical dimension of Ramism.
Return to the Golden Age
Authors: Burton Simon J. G. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines Petrus Ramus’ reform of Church and society, through reform of the academy, and his attempt to hold together the older Fabrist vision of the evangelical reform of a unified Christendom with new Protestant imperatives. It opens by examining Ramus’ attempt to reform the University of Paris and its link to a humanist, encyclopaedic and transformative programme of education. It then considers the central role of mathematics in Ramus’ curricular reform as a key to unlocking all of knowledge and initiating an evangelical programme of studies. It also shows Ramus’ desire to recover a lost Golden Age of humanity and his conviction that method marks out the path of return to Eden. It finally considers Ramus’ mathematical and mystical reform of theology, its link to Christian Platonic and Cusan understandings of learned ignorance, and the role of method as a template for a concordant, harmonious Church and society.
Archetypal Reform
Authors: Burton Simon J. G. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
This chapter considers English Ramism and its pioneering of a Realist and exemplaristic method. It focusses especially on Alexander Richardson, William Ames, and the University of Cambridge. It opens by considering the development of Cambridge Ramism and its close link with Puritanism, evident in William Perkins. It then examines Richardson’s and Ames’ logic and its connection to Augustinian and Franciscan Realism. It also considers their eclectic, Scotistic, exemplarism. It then turns to the encyclopaedic grounding of all the arts and sciences in the divine mind, such that all things are understood to emanate from and return to God. This serves to connect Cambridge Ramism intriniscally to Scripture as a logic of faith, enabling the development of a Christian philosophy opposed to scholastic metaphysics and ethics. It also gives rise to a covenantal expression of theology rooted in Franciscan fashion in the freedom and love of the Trinity.