bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Frege's Contribution to Philosophy of Language
Authors: Heck Richard G. , May Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Gottlob Frege's contributions to philosophy of language are so numerous and so fundamental that it is difficult to imagine the field without them. This article discusses Frege's apparently metaphysical doctrine that concepts are ‘unsaturated’. It argues that it is primarily a semantic thesis, an essential ingredient of Frege's conception of compositionality. It next discusses Frege's conception of truth. It argues that his seemingly puzzling doctrine that sentences denote objects, namely, truth-values, emerges from considerations about the logic of sentential connectives and the semantics of predicates and embodies an understanding of why, as Frege sees it, logic is so intimately concerned with the notion of truth. The article then turns to Frege's notion of a thought and, more generally, the distinction between sense and reference.
Conceptual Role Semantics
Authors: Greenberg Mark , Harman Gilbert 
Published: September 2009

AbstractConceptual role semantics (CRS) is the view that the meanings of expressions of a language (or other symbol system) or the contents of mental states are determined or explained by the role of the expressions or mental states in thinking. The theory can be taken to be applicable to language in the ordinary sense, to mental representations, conceived of either as symbols in a ‘language of thought’ or as mental states such as beliefs, or to certain other sorts of symbol systems. CRS rejects the competing idea that thoughts have intrinsic content that is prior to the use of concepts in thought. According to CRS, meaning and content derive from use, not the other way round.
Predicate Reference
Authors: MacBride Fraser 
Published: September 2009

AbstractWhether a predicate is a referential expression depends upon what reference is conceived to be. Even if it is granted that reference is a relation between words and worldly items, the referents of expressions being the items to which they are so related, this still leaves considerable scope for disagreement about whether predicates refer. One of Frege's great contributions to the philosophy of language was to introduce an especially liberal conception of reference relative to which it is unproblematic to suppose that predicates are referring expressions. According to this liberal conception, each significant expression in a language has its own distinctive semantic role or power, a power to effect the truth-value of the sentences in which it occurs.
Speech Acts and Performatives
Authors: Hornsby Jennifer 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article aims to connect Austin's seminal notion of a speech act with developments in philosophy of language over the last forty odd years. It starts by considering how speech acts might be conceived in Austin's general theory. Then it turns to the illocutionary acts with which much philosophical writing on speech acts has been concerned, and finally to the performatives which Austin's own treatment of speech as action took off from.
World Politics
Authors: Weiss Thomas G. , Daws Sam 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses world politics and international relations, with a primary focus on the United Nations Organization. It enumerates the four most relevant changes within the United Nations (UN), namely: the emergence of a single ‘hyper-power’, the emergence of threats, the reformulation of state sovereignty, and the increasing role of nonstate actors. It evaluates the efforts of the UN at problem-solving, discusses the concepts of global governance and US hegemony, and enumerates three analytical problems.
Secretary‐General
Authors: Newman Edward 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses the intricacies of trying to be a Secretary-General. It describes the evolution of the roles of the Office of Secretary-General in the context of international politics. The article also provides an outline of the articles of the Charter that relate to the Secretary-General, the evolution of the office during the Cold War, and how the office has encountered challenges in the ‘new era’.
Peaceful Settlement of Disputes and Conflict Prevention
Authors: Mani Rama 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines the issues traditionally dealt with by the Secretary-General of the UN. These issues are negotiations, fact-finding, mediation, good offices, conciliation, and arbitration. More recent inventions such as international tribunals and regional arrangements are studied as well. The concept of ‘culture of prevention’ is introduced in this article.
Is the Science of Comparative Politics Possible?
Authors: Przeworski Adam 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article provides an overview of the issues needed in making causal inferences, when the generated data come from processes that are not controlled by the researcher. This overview serves as an introduction to the issues that have been discussed in detail by other researchers. This article emphasizes that the possible causes of these issues may include events, institutions, and policies. It also tries to determine if the science of comparative politics exists, by identifying the problem, the kinds of data, and the potential biases. Several historical studies are also provided.
Collective Action Theory
Authors: Ostrom Elinor 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses collective action theory and focuses on three broad tropics. It first examines the growing and extensive theoretical literature that posits a host of structural variables presumed to affect the likelihood of individuals achieving collective action to overcome social dilemmas. It studies how a theory of boundedly rational, norm-based human behaviour is a better foundation for explaining collective action than a model of maximizing material payoffs to self. The article also discusses the link between structural measures and core individual relationships. It ends by reflecting on the challenge that political scientists face in testing collective action theory in light of the large number of variables posited to affect outcomes.
The Emergence of Parties and Party Systems
Authors: Boix Carles 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses the emergence of parties and party systems. It summarizes the two main competing explanations of party systems, which are the neo-institutionalist research agenda and the historical-sociological literature. It then evaluates their strengths and limitations. The last two sections are focused on a new method of restructuring the way people think about how parties emerged. This method eventually integrates both approaches within a broad analytical framework.
Comparative Studies of the Economy and the Vote
Authors: Duch Raymond M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article looks at comparative studies of the economy and the vote and is divided into three major parts. The first portion provides a summary of the four important contributions of economic voting research. This is where the work on the American economic vote and economic voting are reviewed. The second portion suggests one methodological approach for analyzing the numerous existing surveys, modeling cross-national variation, and measuring the magnitude of the economic vote. The third and final portion provides a brief summary of the contextual theory of the economic vote from Duch and Stevenson, which builds the assumption of instrumentally rational voters.
The effects of sitaxentan on sildenafil pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in healthy subjects
Authors: Stavros Fiona , Kramer William G. , Wilkins Martin R. 
Published: September 2009

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT • Endothelin‐A receptor antagonists (ETRAs) and phosphodiesterase‐type 5 inhibitors are approved monotherapies for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension; combining agents from these two drug classes could be beneficial.• There is a significant pharmacokinetic (PK) interaction between the ETRA bosentan and the phosphodiesterase‐type 5 inhibitor sildenafil.• This study assessed whether the ETRA sitaxentan similarly impacts the PK of sildenafil. WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS • This study demonstrates that sitaxentan has little effect on sildenafil PK and pharmacodynamics and that no dose adjustment of either agent is required upon co‐administration of sildenafil with sitaxentan.AIMS This study evaluated the effects of sitaxentan on the pharmacodynamic [systemic blood pressure (BP)] and pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters of sildenafil in healthy volunteers.METHODS Healthy subjects (18–60 years, n= 24) were randomized into two sequence groups. Group 1 received sitaxentan sodium 100 mg daily (7 days), followed by placebo (7 days). Group 2 received placebo (7 days), followed by sitaxentan sodium 100 mg (7 days). On day 7 of each treatment period, participants received sildenafil 100 mg. PK parameters and BP were analysed on day 7 in each treatment period.RESULTS Sildenafil exposure was slightly higher [AUC∞ geometric mean ratio (GMR), 128%] when co‐administered with sitaxentan 100 mg vs. placebo, demonstrating a weak, but statistically significant interaction (90% confidence interval 115.5%, 141.2%). The mean maximum positive (Emax+) and maximum negative (Emax–) changes from baseline in both systolic and diastolic BP were comparable for sitaxentan and placebo (range 4.8–7.3 mmHg) with three of four geometric mean ratios falling within the equivalence window, suggesting that the drug interaction was not clinically significant. Adverse events were similar between sitaxentan 100 mg (39%) and placebo (30%). No deaths or serious adverse events occurred during the study.CONCLUSION The dose of sildenafil does not need to be adjusted when co‐administered with sitaxentan.
Inhibition of oral midazolam clearance by boosting doses of ritonavir, and by 4,4‐dimethyl‐benziso‐(2H)‐selenazine (ALT‐2074), an experimental catalytic mimic of glutathione oxidase
Authors: Greenblatt David J. , Peters Diane E. , Oleson Lauren E. , Harmatz Jerold S. , MacNab Malcolm W. , Berkowitz Noah , Zinny Miguel A. , Court Michael H. 
Published: September 2009

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT• The viral protease inhibitor ritonavir is known to inhibit clearance of intravenous midazolam.• ALT‐2074, a catalytic mimic of glutathione oxidase, inhibits human cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) isoformsin vitro.WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS• Short‐term administration of low‐dose ritonavir increases area under the plasma concentration curve following oral midazolam by a factor of 28.• Therefore ritonavir is an appropriate positive control inhibitor for clinical drug interaction studies involving CYP3A substrates.• Midazolam clearance is weakly inhibited by ALT‐2074, consistent with itsin vitroprofile.AIMSWe evaluated whether ‘boosting’ doses of ritonavir can serve as a positive control inhibitor for pharmacokinetic drug–drug interaction studies involving cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A). The study also determined whether 4,4‐dimethyl‐benziso‐(2H)‐selenazine (ALT‐2074), an investigational organoselenium compound that acts as a catalytic mimic of glutathione oxidase, inhibits CYP3A metabolismin vivo.METHODSThirteen healthy volunteers received single 3‐mg oral doses of midazolam on three occasions: in the control condition, during co‐treatment with low‐dose ritonavir (three oral doses of 100 mg over 24 h), and during co‐treatment with ALT‐2074 (three oral doses of 80 mg over 24 h).RESULTSRitonavir increased mean (±SE) total area under the curve (AUC) for midazolam by a factor of 28.4 ± 4.2 (P< 0.001), and reduced oral clearance to 4.2 ± 0.5% of control (P< 0.001). In contrast, ALT‐2074 increased midazolam AUC by 1.25 ± 0.11 (P< 0.05), and reduced oral clearance to 88 ± 8% of control.CONCLUSIONSLow‐dose ritonavir produces extensive CYP3A inhibition exceeding that of ketoconazole (typically 10‐ to 15‐fold midazolam AUC enhancement), and is a suitable positive control index inhibitor for drug–drug interaction studies. ALT‐2074 inhibits CYP3A metabolism to a small degree that is of uncertain clinical importance.
Contributions of climatic and crop varietal changes to crop production in the North China Plain, since 1980s
Authors: LIU YUAN , WANG ENLI , YANG XIAOGUANG , WANG JING 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe North China Plain (NCP) is the most important agricultural production area in China. Crop production in the NCP is sensitive to changes in both climate and management practices. While previous studies showed a negative impact of climatic change on crop yield since 1980s, the confounding effects of climatic and agronomic factors have not been separately investigated. This paper used 25 years of crop data from three locations (Nanyang, Zhengzhou and Luancheng) across the NCP, together with daily weather data and crop modeling, to analyse the contribution of changes in climatic and agronomic factors to changes in grain yields of wheat and maize. The results showed that the changes in climate were not uniform across the NCP and during different crop growth stages. Warming mainly occurred during the vegetative (preflowering) growth stage of wheat and maize, while there was a cooling trend or no significant change in temperatures during the postflowering stage of wheat (spring) or maize (autumn). If varietal effects were excluded, warming during vegetative stages would lead to a reduction in the length of the growing period for both crops, generally leading to a negative impact on crop production. However, autonomous adoption of new crop varieties in the NCP was able to compensate the negative impact of climatic change. For both wheat and maize, the varietal changes helped stabilize the length of preflowering period against the shortening effect of warming and, together with the slightly reduced temperature in the postflowering period, extend the length of the grain‐filling period. The combined effect led to increased wheat yield at Zhengzhou and Luancheng; increased maize yield at Nanyang and Luancheng; stabilized wheat yield at Nanyang, and a slight reduction in maize yield at Zhengzhou, compared with the yield change caused entirely by climatic change.
Genetic relatedness in wintering groups of house sparrows (Passer domesticus)
Authors: LIKER A. , BÓKONY V. , KULCSÁR A. , TÓTH Z. , SZABÓ K. , KAHOLEK B. , PÉNZES Z. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractSocial behaviour of group‐living animals is often influenced by the relatedness of individuals, thus understanding the genetic structure of groups is important for the interpretation of costs and benefits of social interactions. In this study, we investigated genetic relatedness in feeding aggregations of free‐living house sparrows (Passer domesticus) during the nonbreeding season. This species is a frequent model system for studies of social behaviour (e.g. aggression, social foraging), but we lack adequate information on the kin structure of sparrow flocks. During two winters, we ringed and observed sparrows at feeding stations, and used resightings to identify stable flock‐members and to calculate association indices between birds. We genotyped the birds using seven highly polymorphic microsatellite loci, and estimated pairwise relatedness coefficients and relatedness categories (close kin vs. unrelated) by maximum likelihood method. We found that most birds were unrelated to each other in the flocks (mean ± SE relatedness coefficient: 0.06 ± 0.002), although most individuals had at least a few close relatives in their home flock (14.3 ± 0.6% of flock‐mates). Pairwise association between individuals was not significantly related to their genetic relatedness. Furthermore, there was no difference between within‐flock vs. between‐flock relatedness, and birds had similar proportions of close kin within and outside their home flock. Finally, relatedness among members of different flocks was unrelated to the distance between their flocks. Thus, sparrow flocks were not characterized by association of relatives, nevertheless the presence of some close kin may provide opportunity for kin‐biased behaviours to evolve.
Ezetimibe added to atorvastatin compared with doubling the atorvastatin dose in patients at high risk for coronary heart disease with diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome or neither
Authors: Conard S. , Bays H. , Leiter L. A. , Bird S. , Lin J. , Hanson M. E. , Shah A. , Tershakovec A. M. 
Published: September 2009

Aim: Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and metabolic syndrome (MetS) are both associated with increased risk for atherosclerotic coronary heart disease (CHD). Thus, it is useful to know the relative efficacy of lipid‐altering drugs in these patient populations. Methods: A double‐blind, parallel group trial of adult patients with hypercholesterolaemia at high‐CHD risk receiving atorvastatin 40 mg/day compared atorvastatin 40 mg plus ezetimibe 10 mg (ezetimibe) vs. doubling atorvastatin to 80 mg. This post hoc analysis reports lipid efficacy results in patients grouped by diagnosis of T2DM, MetS without T2DM or neither. Per cent change from baseline at week 6 was assessed for LDL‐C, total cholesterol, HDL‐C , non‐HDL‐C , Apo A‐I, Apo B and triglycerides. Safety was monitored through clinical and laboratory adverse events (AEs). Results: Compared with doubling atorvastatin, atorvastatin plus ezetimibe resulted in greater reductions in LDL‐C, triglycerides, Apo B, non‐HDL‐C, total cholesterol and lipid ratios in the T2DM, MetS and neither groups. Treatment effects were of similar magnitude across patient groups with both treatments, except triglycerides, which were slightly greater in the T2DM and MetS groups vs. neither group. Changes in HDL‐C , Apo A‐I and high sensitivity C‐reactive protein (hs‐CRP) were comparable for both treatments in all three groups. Safety and tolerability profiles were generally similar between treatments and across patient groups, as were the incidence of liver and muscle AEs. Conclusions: Compared with doubling atorvastatin to 80 mg, addition of ezetimibe to atorvastatin 40 mg produced greater improvements in multiple lipid parameters in high‐CHD risk patients with T2DM, MetS or neither, consistent with the significantly greater changes observed in the full study cohort (clinical trial # NCT00276484).
Open‐label study to assess the safety and pharmacodynamics of five oral insulin formulations in healthy subjects
Authors: Eldor R. , Kidron M. , Arbit E. 
Published: September 2009

Aim: Orally delivered insulin is predicted to bear therapeutic advantages in diabetes management when compared to injectable insulin, because of its ability to mimic the natural route of endogenous insulin secreted by the pancreas into the portal vein and directly to the liver. Oramed Pharmaceuticals is developing an oral insulin product which consists of unmodified recombinant human insulin combined with adjuvants that protect it from enzymatic degradation in the gastrointestinal tract and promote its absorption from the gut. The aim was to determine the optimal adjuvants to insulin ratio which can provide for the best pharmacodynamic profile, while maintaining the safety of the product. Methods: Eight healthy, male volunteers participated in this open‐label study which included five independent visits. During each visit, subjects were administered one of the five encapsulated oral insulin formulations which contained equal amounts of insulin but varying proportions of adjuvants. Parameters measured included safety, Cmax and Tmax for insulin and Cmin, Tmin and area under the curve (AUC) for glucose and c‐peptide. Comparisons were made between formulations and between post‐treatment time periods within each visit. Results: All five oral insulin formulations were well tolerated and no serious adverse events were reported. All formulations resulted in a significant response in the response period (60–300 min) in comparison to baseline (0–60 min); this was captured both in the c‐peptide response and the glucose response (all five formulations p < 0.05). However, none of the formulations turned out significantly different in response over the other. Formulation 5 showed the most profound reduction in c‐peptide when AUC0–60 (baseline) was compared to AUC60–300 (p < 0.007). Conclusions: All five oral insulin formulations resulted in glucose and c‐peptide reductions, where formulation 5 demonstrated the most pronounced effect on c‐peptide concentration reduction. This formulation was deemed the lead formulation to be advanced to future clinical studies. This study also reinforces the notion that oral insulin can maintain its biological activity after delivery, suggesting a potential role for this product in management of diabetes.
Combination treatment with alogliptin and voglibose increases active GLP‐1 circulation, prevents the development of diabetes and preserves pancreatic beta‐cells in prediabetic db/db mice
Authors: Moritoh Y. , Takeuchi K. , Hazama M. 
Published: September 2009

Aim: Alogliptin, a dipeptidyl peptidase‐4 (DPP‐4) inhibitor, and voglibose, an alpha‐glucosidase inhibitor, have different but complementary mechanisms of action on glucagon‐like peptide‐1 (GLP‐1) regulation and glucose‐lowering effects. The present study evaluated the chronic effects of combination treatment with alogliptin and voglibose in prediabetic db/db mice. Methods: Alogliptin (0.03%) and voglibose (0.001%) alone or in combination were administered in the diet to prediabetic db/db mice. Results: After 3 weeks, voglibose treatment increased GLP‐1 secretion (voglibose alone, 1.6‐fold; alogliptin plus voglibose, 1.5‐fold), while it decreased plasma glucose‐dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) (voglibose alone, −30%; alogliptin plus voglibose, −29%). Alogliptin, voglibose and combination treatment decreased plasma DPP‐4 activity by 72, 15 and additively by 80%, respectively, and increased plasma active GLP‐1 levels by 4.5‐, 1.8‐ and synergistically by 9.1‐fold respectively. Combination treatment increased plasma insulin by 3.6‐fold (alogliptin alone, 1.3‐fold; voglibose alone, 1.8‐fold), decreased plasma glucagon by 30% (alogliptin alone, 11%; voglibose alone, 8%), and prevented the development of diabetes, much more effectively than either agent alone. After 4 weeks, alogliptin, voglibose and combination treatment increased pancreatic insulin content by 1.6‐, 3.4‐ and synergistically by 8.5‐fold respectively. Furthermore, combination treatment resulted in an increased expression of insulin, pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1 (PDX1) and glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2), and maintenance of normal beta/alpha‐cell distribution in the pancreatic islet. Conclusions: Chronic treatment with alogliptin in combination with voglibose concurrently increased active GLP‐1 circulation, increased insulin secretion, decreased glucagon secretion, prevented the onset of the disease, and preserved pancreatic beta‐cells and islet structure in prediabetic db/db mice.