bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
L
as
C
asas,
B
artolomé
de
(1484–1566)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

“Defender of the Indians” in Spanish America, Bartolomé de Las Casas was the son of a merchant who was trained as a lawyer. He accompanied Columbus on his second journey to the New World and went to Hispaniola (Haiti) at the age of 18. He received an
encomienda
(large estate) as a grant for his services to the Spanish government. Las Casas was perhaps the first priest to be ordained in the western hemisphere and he was also the first to celebrate Mass in the New World in 1510. After taking part in the bloody occupation of Cuba along with Diego Velazquez, he received more land along with Indian serfs. It was at this time that he began to be concerned about the treatment of Indians by the Spaniards and decided to devote his energies to their defense. For this purpose he went to Spain in 1515 and won the support of Ferdinand for a bold experiment to create Indian towns, but his experiment came to naught because of poor planning, settler resistance and an Indian revolt. He was named by Cardinal Ximenes as “Protector of the Indians.” He later tried to plant a Spanish colony on the coast of Cumana in what is now Venezuela. This was destroyed by the Indians in 1521. Las Casas then joined the Dominican Order in 1523 and settled down to use his pen to defend the Indians. In 1537 his
De Unico Modo
(“The Only Way”) championed peaceful evangelization without the enslavement of Indians. His second book,
Historia Apologetica
(1537), refuted the prevalent notion that Indians were savages and described them as mature and civilized in their own way. The pamphlet
Destruction of the Indies
(1542) was his most severe attack on the greed of the Spanish settlers. His most celebrated work was the
History of the Indies
(1875) which was a historical chronicle of the enslavement of the Indians and the deliberate destruction of their culture, coupled with warnings of divine retribution.
Basel Mission
Authors: Olabimtan Kehinde 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Basel Mission (BM; Evangelische Missions‐gesellschaft in Basel) was a German Pietist missionary society established in 1815 as an ecumenical and nondenominational initiative to train prospective German missionaries for service overseas. The mission at various stages received its character and changing understanding of mission from its inspectors. The initial formation was shaped by Christian G. Blumhardt, the first inspector in 1816, who opened the seminary. It drew much of its support and students from southern Germany and German‐speaking areas of Switzerland and Austria. Blumhardt stated the organization's understanding of mission as the facilitation of “a beneficent civilization and propagation of the Gospel of peace to various areas of the pagan world” (Rennstich 1982). He clarified the implications of this, when the mission was sending out its missionaries to Africa in 1827, as courteous entry into indigenous societies with the aim to understand the peoples' language and traditions. Along with founding churches, missionaries were to work at improving the material culture of the people among whom they served.
Beliefs, Christian
Authors: Moody Joshua 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The very task of writing, albeit in summary form, a relatively brief analysis of “Christian beliefs” in their entirety would be substantially absurd, were it not for the fact that Christ, around whom all Christian beliefs of course coalesce, was reportedly in the habit of summarizing his core propositions in even briefer compass. The beginning of Mark's Gospel records Jesus as proclaiming that “The time has come. The kingdom of God is near. Repent and believe the good news” (Mark 1:14). This bold call to stop believing one thing and start another is, arguably, an indication of a central core to Christian beliefs around which the massive infrastructure, raised by time and history, is built.
Berlioz,Hector (1803–1869)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

AbstractLeading French composer of the 19th century. Failing to find success at the Paris Opera, he turned to music criticism and undertook a number of concert tours in England, Germany, and Russia. Although he composed some noteworthy sacred music he is not generally considered a church musician because of his unorthodoxy. He made use of liturgical texts but they were not intended to be used in a worship service. His first substantial composition was aMass(1824). His monumentalRequiem Massin 1837 was commissioned not by or for the church but by the government minister for the interior. It was followed 25 years later byTe Deumwhich was performed not in a church but at the Brussels Exposition in 1855. TheRequiemwas performed on a vast scale, with eight pairs of timpani and four groups of brass, and it constituted Berlioz's vision of the Last Judgment. InTe Deum, there is a children's chorus of 600 and movements of unprecedented grandeur. His third religious work wasL'Enfance du Christ, a choral trilogy which met with great and unexpected success. It is an account of the childhood of Christ in three parts: “The Dream of Herod,” “The Flight into Egypt,” and “The Arrival in Sais.” It is devotional in style and modest in scale. Despite composing three major works, Berlioz is not part of the mainstream of Christian music.
Bible,
A
rmenian Version
Authors: Hovhanessian Vahan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Until the first decade of the 5th century, the Bible was preached in Armenia using the existing Syriac and Greek texts. Historians of the 5th century comment on the difficulties Armenians faced in preaching the gospel and teaching Christianity in Armenia using the non‐Armenian texts of the Bible. Hearing the Bible alone was not sufficient to achieve the desired spiritual impact on the souls of the newly converted Armenians: the need for written material was urgent. This inspired an Armenian monk named Mashtots to invent the Armenian alphabet around 405. Following the invention of the Armenian alphabet, Mashtots and his disciples immediately embarked on the monumental task of translating the Bible into Armenian.
Biblical Criticism
Authors: Smith Jay E. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractBiblical criticism is the term used to designate the academic discipline or field of inquiry given to the scientific investigation of the biblical documents. Its ultimate goal is a clear and accurate understanding of the biblical text in its original historical setting. Traditionally, biblical criticism has employed a variety of principles and methods to study three interrelated dimensions of the biblical text: (1)the textual(the text with respect to its transmission, corruption, and restoration); (2)the literary(the text with respect to its words, genre, structure, and meaning); and (3)the historical(the text with respect to its origin and authenticity, as well as a historical reconstruction of the events described within the text). Biblical criticism is often referred to as the historical‐critical method, and the two designations function more or less synonymously.
Biblical Theology
Authors: Finlay Timothy D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Biblical theology as a distinct discipline was born in a 1787 lecture by J. P. Gabler. Gabler distinguished biblical theology, which has historical origins and concerns what the biblical writers thought about divine matters, from dogmatic theology, which has didactic origins and concerns what theologians philosophize rationally about divine matters. Gabler envisioned two stages in doing biblical theology: first, evaluating by careful exegesis the ideas of each biblical author; and second, analyzing these ideas to derive universal theological concepts where the biblical authors agree.
Blood of Christ
Authors: Macy Gary 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The “blood of Christ” refers first and most obviously to the blood of Jesus shed during his crucifixion. Based on John 19:34, “one of the soldiers pierced Jesus' side with a spear, bringing a sudden flow of blood and water,” a belief developed that Jesus shed all his blood during the crucifixion. Christian teaching also holds that Jesus' body and blood were restored intact as the transformed and glorified body of the risen Christ when Jesus rose from the dead.
Bogomilism
Authors: Parsons William H. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Bogomils were members of a religious group that originated in Bulgaria and spread through the Balkans in the Middle Ages. They believed in a dualism that contrasted the principles of good and evil, light and dark, the spirit and the body, that was similar to Manichaean beliefs, and like religious groups in other countries of the time, like the Cathari, the Patarines, and the Albigenses in Western Europe. They may in fact have influenced these groups. The movement was directed against the Byzantine Empire, Bulgarian serfdom, and authority of any kind. The Bogomils were attacked by the Byzantine and Holy Roman Empires and the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. They basically came to an end as an organized religion as a result of the advance of Islam into the Balkans in the 15th century.
Boniface of Mainz, St. (671–754)
Authors: Gordon Whatley E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Boniface bears the sobriquet “apostle of the Germans” not because he was the first Christian to preach the gospel east of the Rhineland to the German‐speaking subjects and neighbors of the Franks (SS. Willibrord, Killian, and Rupert, among others, had preceded him), but because he firmly established orthodox Christian worship and church governance in important areas of central and southern Germany that were hitherto only nominally or haphazardly Christian (Thuringia, Hesse, Bavaria).
Book of Hours
Authors: Gillman John 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Book of Hours, the most popular book in the Middle Ages, was commonly used by the laity as a devotional. It is an abbreviated form of the Divine Office (Breviary), the official prayers said by the clergy and recited in monasteries. The Book of Hours served as a way for the faithful to participate in monastic life. Written in Latin (called
Horae
), and later in the vernacular (called
Primer
in English), the manuscripts are often richly illuminated with full‐page miniatures of religious, even secular scenes.
Book of Kells
Authors: Gallagher Robert L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Book of Kells is an ornately illustrated manuscript of the four Gospels with several historic records and a limited glossary of Hebrew names. The book was translated from Jerome's Latin Bible and named after the Columban monastery of Kells in County Meath, Ireland. Tradition holds that the work was begun on Iona, Scotland, to honor Columba (d. 597). After a violent Viking raid in 802, the Celtic monks fled to Kells and took the manuscript with them, where it was completed.
Born Again
Authors: Mullin Miles S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Common parlance among evangelicals, the phrase “born again” originates from the translation of
anōthen
found in the King James Version (KJV, 1611) of the Bible. In particular, the third chapter of the Gospel of John describes an unusual encounter between Jesus and Nicodemus, a member of the Sanhedrin — the highest Jewish council of the 1st century. When Nicodemus recognizes Jesus as a “teacher who has come from God,” Jesus gives a puzzling response: “Except a man be
born again
[
anōthen
Gk.] he cannot see the kingdom of God” (John 3.3, emphasis added). Explaining further, Jesus connects being “born again” directly to the work of the Spirit (3.5–8) and typologically to his coming crucifixion (3:14–15). In addition, being “born again” centers on belief in him as “the only Son of God” (3.18, New Revised Standard Version, NRSV), which results in eternal life (3:16) and salvation from judgment (3.17–21). Both the New International Version and the New American Standard Bible — popular among evangelicals — follow the KJV in their choice of “born again” for
anōthen
, although the Revised Standard Version and NRSV render
anōthen
“born from above.”
Brazilian Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Brazil is the third largest Christian country in the world. The history of Brazilian Christianity begins in 1549, nearly half a century after Pedro Alvares Cabral first claimed the land in the name of Portugal in 1500. In that year the first Jesuits arrived in the country. They established cooperative Indian villages known as reductions. In 1580 three additional religious congregations arrived, followed in 1734 by three congregations of women.
Brethren of the Common Life
Authors: Beiting Christopher J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Brethren of the Common Life was a religious association founded in the 14th century in the Netherlands by Gerard Groote, which spread to Germany and Switzerland and endured until the 17th century. It began as a household community inspired by Groote, a canon from Utrecht, who resigned his office to serve as a preacher and religious founder. The first house of the Brethren of the Common Life was at Deventer, and was composed of Groote's friends and disciples. It was different from other religious organizations of the time in that the brethren took no formal vows, nor did they have a specific rule or ritual for community life. Rather, individuals were expected to remain in their previous state of life, lay or clerical, and devote themselves to improvement in their moral and religious lives. A parallel house for women, the Sisters of the Common Life, was also founded by Groote.
Britten,Benjamin (1913–1976)
Authors: Hamilton Mark W. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractBenjamin Britten was an innovative and acclaimed composer of operas, concerti, symphonies, movie scores, and song cycles, among other forms. He studied at the Royal College of Music with Arthur Benjamin and John Ireland, graduating in 1932. After traveling and composing, he began work writing film scores in 1935 at the General Post Office Film Unit, where he met his sometime collaborator W. H. Auden. He scored two dozen movies between 1935 and 1939. From 1939 to 1942 he lived in North America with his lifelong partner, the tenor Peter Pears, continuing to compose.
L
awrence, Brother (1614–1691)
Authors: Ringenberg William C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Few people have been as widely influential over many centuries based so completely upon only one small book as Brother Lawrence, a monk and mystic born Nicholas Herman at Herimenil, near Luneville in Lorraine, France. His parents, Dominic and Louise, provided him with Christian instruction and a humane example even if not material affluence. Converted initially and profoundly at the age of 18, he entered military service in the period of the troublesome Thirty Years War during which he was both arrested as a suspected spy by German forces and, also, later wounded during the siege of Rambervilliers (1635).
B
runner,
E
mil (1889–1966)
Authors: Werntz Myles 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Emil Brunner is located most accurately within the neo‐orthodox movement within Protestantism. Colleague and occasional sparring partner of fellow Swiss theologian Karl Barth, Brunner is best known for his three‐part systematic theology and as the first expositor of the “neo‐orthodox” school in the English‐speaking world. Educated at Zurich (1913), Brunner taught primarily at the University of Edinburgh, with other posts at the International Christian University in Tokyo and Princeton Theological Seminary.
B
ryan,
W
illiam
J
ennings (1860–1925)
Authors: Rios Christopher M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Political leader, orator, lawyer, social advocate, and religious hero, William Jennings Bryan remained one of the most prominent American figures for more than three decades. Born on March 19, 1860, in Salem, Illinois, to Silas Bryan and Mariah Jennings, William was raised in a family of strong religious and political convictions. Bryan graduated from Illinois College (Jacksonville) and from Union College of Law and married Mary Baird in 1883. In 1887, the couple moved to Lincoln, Nebraska, to pursue William's political and legal career. They had three children.
B
ulgarian Christianity
Authors: Murdzhev Pavel 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The lands in what is now Bulgaria have a long Christian tradition, established at the dawn of the Christian era. The first Christian communities were formed during the missionary journeys of Apostle Paul along the Aegean Sea coast and to the towns of Macedonia and of Apostle Andrew along the Black Sea coast. The first Christian community in Philipopolis (Plovdiv) was established by St. Ermus; that of Vereya (Stara Zagora) by St. Karpus, and of Odesos (Varna) by the Holy Martyr Amplius. By the 3rd century
ad
episcopal sees were also established in Develtus (Debelt), Anchialos (Pomorie), Marcianopolis (Devnya), Dorostorum (Silistra), Nicopolis ad Istrum, and elsewhere. After the Edict of Milan in 313 a dense network of Christian communities flourished in Moesia, Thrace, and Macedonia, the provinces that later became the nucleus of the Bulgarian state.
Byzantine Art and Architecture
Authors: Quantz Amanda D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
With the legalization of Christianity came imperial patronage in the realm of church art. Emperor Constantine (306–337) poured vast resources into public building projects, especially in the imperial city of Constantinople. In the western Roman Empire basilicas were oblong halls used for public gatherings, courts of law, and for meetings with the emperor. These functional spaces served as the blueprint for Christian churches beginning in the 4th century.
Byzantine Christianity
Authors: Holt Andrew 
Published: January 2012

AbstractByzantine Christianity originated in the eastern Roman Empire where it evolved concurrently with the emerging Byzantine state. It was the dominant form of Eastern Christianity throughout the Middle Ages and during this period it developed a complex theological system with unique spiritual practices. Byzantine Christianity's fortunes were in many ways tied to the Byzantine state, because when the empire experienced expansion and heightened influence so did the faith. While Byzantine Christianity formally represented the spiritual beliefs of the vast majority of the citizens of the Byzantine Empire, there were issues over which the leadership of the church and other Byzantine Christians clashed with the state. This was sometimes the case on issues of faith and practice, but also on issues concerning the role of the emperor within the church or even ecumenical efforts. Although the empire eventually fell under the weight of centuries of Islamic aggression, much of Byzantine Christianity has survived in the modern Eastern Orthodox churches.
Byzantine Orthodoxy
Authors: Gkortsilas Paschalis 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe historical dependence of the Eastern Orthodox Church upon its Byzantine past makes a study of Byzantine Christianity inevitable for the proper understanding of the Orthodox tradition. The Byzantine period is considered as the golden age of the Orthodox Church and the point where Orthodox civilization reached its highest peak. We should note here that the names “Byzantium” and “Byzantine” are not to be found in the primary sources. The “Byzantines” spoke Greek and considered themselves as Roman, while their empire was considered as the Eastern Roman Empire. Approximately, the Byzantine period begins with the transfer of the capital from Rome to Constantinople in 330 and ends with the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
C
alvin,
J
ohn (1509–1564)
Authors: Culpepper Scott 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
John Calvin was a 16th century Protestant theologian who led the reformation movement in Geneva, Switzerland and became the most articulate early proponent of Reformed Protestant theology. Calvin was born at Noyon in Picardy, France on July 10, 1509. Calvin's father was an attorney who was adept at both civil and canon law. Calvin was granted a benefice at an early age due to his father's influence. He would later repudiate this inheritance as his convictions became increasingly sympathetic to Protestantism. He matriculated at the University of Paris in 1523. Calvin then studied law at Orleans from 1528 to 1532.
Camp Meetings
Authors: Hopkins Jerry B. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The camp meeting as an event is usually identified with the evangelical open‐air gatherings in the early years of the 19th century in the United States. These meetings, however, are much older than that period and find some association with the gathering of God's people in more ancient times. Throughout the Old Testament there were open‐air assemblies where God's people met for worship. Of course, in the New Testament both John the Baptist and Jesus Christ gathered with people in the open air. Jesus particularly was fond of such meetings, giving many of his famous messages, and calling people to follow him in these gatherings. Large numbers congregated at critical points in the development of the New Testament church in such meetings. One of the events in this early period was the assembly at Pentecost recorded in the book of Acts along with Peter's message for the occasion (Acts 2).
Canadian Christianity
Authors: Steinacher C. Mark 
Published: January 2012

AbstractChristianity's development in Canada is unusual, being neither merely an extension of European parents nor a smaller sibling of American churches. Distinctive elements include emphasis on ecumenism and multiculturalism. Some argue Canada became more thoroughly “Christian” by 1900 than the United States, rendering subsequent secularization more radical. This article is organized chronologically, using political events that impacted faith communities as dividers.
Canon Law
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Canon law is ecclesiastical or church law (Greek
kanôn
, rule). The development of canon law in the high Middle Ages (12th–14th centuries) had tremendous impact on the subsequent history of the Western secular legal tradition. It impacted in particular the spheres of family law (separation and divorce), succession (wills and estates), contract law (the sale of goods), and the criminal law (theft). Indeed, in studies of comparative law today, canon law is classed, alongside Roman law, the Anglo‐American common law, the European civil law, Jewish law, Muslim law, and Marxist law as one of the most influential legal systems of all time.
Canon of the Scripture
Authors: Pannell Randall J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe word “canon,” from the Greek meaning “a rule” or “standard,” is utilized simply for the “list of books contained in scripture, the list of books recognized as worthy to be included in the sacred writings of a worshiping community” (Bruce 1988: 17). Since a “canon” means a correct or accepted list of biblical books, it is important to realize that the recognized list varies among the worshiping communities, especially among the Catholic and Protestant traditions.
Canonicity
Authors: Cowan Steven B. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Canonicity is the property or quality attributed to those books believed by Christians to be divinely inspired by which they are recognized to have a legitimate place in the canon of Scripture. Christians of all ages and denominations have believed that God has revealed himself and his will to human beings, at least in part, through the instrumentality of writing. The Scriptures thus produced were collected and preserved as providing the standard for Christian belief and conduct. The question that God's people have had to face in this connection is how to recognize those writings that should be accepted as canonical. The church has adopted certain criteria it believes enable it to answer this question.