bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
An Experiment in Mountain-Building
Authors: Avebury  
Published: October 2009

Many years ago Sir James Hall illustrated the formation of folded mountains by placing layers of cloth under a weight, and then compressing two of the sides so that the cloth was thrown into folds. Since then, other and more complete experiments of the same kind have been made by Favre, Cadell, Daubrée, Willis, and Ruskin.
In these experiments the compression was from two sides. If, however, folded mountains are caused by compression due to the contraction of the earth, the compression must take place in two directions at right angles one to the other.
With the view of illustrating this I consulted Mr. Horace Darwin, and he constructed for me an apparatus consisting of four square beams of wood, resting on a floor, which by means of screws could be moved nearer to, or farther from, each other. The beams left between them a space 2 feet across and 9 inches in depth.
In the square central space I placed some pieces of carpet-baize and layers of sand, each about 1½ inches deep. About an inch above the upper layer of sand I placed a piece of plate-glass and some weights. The machine was then set in motion, causing the beams of wood to approach one another. The sand rose in the centre, until it reached the glass, when it was flattened out.
On removing the upper layer of sand, the top-piece of cloth was as shown in fig. 1 (p. 350), which is a photographic reproduction of a
On a Shelly Boulder-Clay in the so-called ‘Palagonite-Formation’ of Iceland
Authors: Pjetursson Helgi 
Published: October 2009

It is a fact well worthy of note that, while the basalt-formation of Iceland bears, geologically, a very close resemblance to the basalt-plateaux of the British Isles, the Tertiary volcanic phenomena of this latter region present nothing strictly analogous to the great tuff- and breccia- or so-called ‘palagonite-formation’ of Iceland. For it is obvious that the fragmental materials of the British volcanic region, which are intercalated with the basaltic lavas and only of ‘trifling thickness,’ cannot have their geological equivalent in the great palagonite-formation of Iceland, which covers thousands of square miles, and in isolated patches is met with over a greater part of the total area of the island.The palagonite-formation has been in several respects a puzzle to the geologists who have visited Iceland: some have been of the opinion that the tuffs and breccias are contemporaneous with the plateau-basalts or even older; but the more systematic investigations of Prof. Th. Thoroddsen have shown that in reality the fragmental masses are younger than the basalt-formation. Prof. Thoroddsen thinks that towards the close of Tertiary time the central parts of Iceland were buried under a continuous covering of fragmental volcanic materials 3000 to 4000 feet thick, which formation was broken up into single mountain-masses and isolated fells before and during the Glacial Period.
In the summer of 1899 it was observed that very considerable masses of ground-moraine are intercalated with the breccias which constitute hills rising out of, or bordering, the southern lowlands of Iceland; and in subsequent years observations
On Primary and Secondary Devitrification in Glassy Igneous Rocks
Authors: Bonney T. G. , Parkinson John 
Published: October 2009

A few prefatory words are needed in explanation of the form of this paper. The authors have frequently discussed its subject, the elder of them having kept it in view since 1877; while the younger has enjoyed favourable opportunities of studying large spherulites, especially those in the obsidian of the Yellowstone, which the other knows only from hand-specimens. When they had agreed upon a joint paper, each wrote a draft, one of them having undertaken to fuse them together. But he found this impracticable; for, while their conclusions were practically identical, the paths followed were very different, so the papers, after substituting cross-references for some passages common to both, are now presented as separate chapters.
Part I.—By John Parkinson, Esq., B.A., F.G.S.
The excellent account and figures published in the Memoirs of the United States Geological Survey by Prof. J. P. Iddings render superfluous any general description of the well-known spherulites of Obsidian Cliff in the Yellowstone Park. Nevertheless some mention, however brief, must be made of a few facts, as these are closely connected with the general problem of devitrification.
Excluding microliths, the first-formed crystallizations are the ‘granophyre-groups’ of Prof. Iddings. These are intergrowths of felspar and quartz built with extreme delicacy, two or more crystals of felspar entering into the composition and forming rectangular or rudely spherical outlines. The greater the number of felspar-individuals the closer is the approximation obtained to a spherical form. As Prof. Iddings states, it is clear that these microscopic ‘granophyre-groups,’ together with the
Metamorphism in the Loch-Lomond District
Authors: Cunningham-Craig E. Hubert 
Published: October 2009

I. Introduction.
This communication has been written, not so much with the idea of describing any phase of metamorphism specially interesting in itself, as of contributing to our knowledge of what metamorphism is, and of distinguishing between different kinds of metamorphism.
The term ‘metamorphism,’ or even ‘progressive metamorphism,’ has so often been used in a somewhat vague sense, without any distinct specification as to whether dynamic, thermal, hydrothermal, or contact-metamorphism, or a combination of two or more of these, is meant, that a study of an area where each of these types can be readily distinguished by its effects and considered separately, may prove of interest, as indicating the nature of those problems which workers among the Highland rocks have to investigate.
In the ‘Loch-Lomond District’ I include all the Highland rocks on both sides of the loch, as well as the area lying to the eastward, including the Trossachs-—in fact that part of the Highlands which is embraced by Sheet 38 of the Ordnance-Survey map. The material for this paper was collected two years ago, after four years of work in the district, and the main conclusions will appear in the ‘Explanation of Sheet 38’ by the Geological Survey of Scotland.
It is well-known that, in passing north-westward from the Highland Boundary-Fault, the metamorphism is seen to increase in degree. The progressive metamorphism in the Loch-Lomond district can be considered under two heads—dynamic, and what, for want of a better word, I call ‘constructive’ metamorphism. These processes have in
The Caernarvon Earthquake of June 19th, 1903, and its Accessory Shocks
Authors: Davison Charles 
Published: October 2009

During the nineteenth century, the county of Caernarvon was visited by at least fourteen earthquakes. Seven, if not more, of these disturbances arrived from distant centres, situated near Pembroke, Hereford, etc.; but three or four were probably of local origin, their epicentres being either within or not far from the boundaries of Caernarvonshire. All of these local shocks, however, were of slight intensity; and, indeed, within the last five centuries, there does not seem to have been a single indigenous earthquake that can be compared either in intensity or in extent of disturbed area with that which, on June 19th, 1903, was felt over nearly the whole of Wales, the North-West of England, the Isle of Man, and several of the eastern counties of Ireland.
In the investigation of this earthquake, I have, as usual, been assisted by a large number of correspondents, to whom my best thanks are due. In various ways, I have also received timely aid from Mr. Edward Greenly, F.G.S., Mr. J. D. Macdonogh of Bettws-y-Coed, Mr. W. T. Davies of Nantlle, and Mr. W. A. Thomas of Llanfair-pwllgwyngyll. For lists of after-shocks, the value of which it would be difficult to overestimate, I am indebted to Mr. F. C. Carey of Bethesda, Mr. E. Davies of Bodfeirig, Mr. W. T. Davies of Nantlle, Mr. W. Hughes of Gaerwen, Mr. W. W. Hughes of Penygroes, and Mr. R. R. Jones of Clynnog.
The total number of earthquakes belonging to the recent series may amount to 15
The Discovery of Human Remains under the Stalagmite-Floor of Gough's Cavern, Cheddar
Authors: Davies Henry Nathaniel 
Published: October 2009

Gough's Cavern is an extensive and much-branching subterranean waterway, which opens at the base of the cliffs on the south side of a picturesque gorge in the Carboniferous Limestone of the Mendips,near the village of Cheddar. For many years the proprietor,Mr. R. C. Gough, has worked the cavern, clearing out without much
method the accumulation of ages, in order to make a comfortable and easy access for visitors to the principal chambers; and quite recently the grandeur of the vaulting and the beautiful stalactites in the more inaccessible parts have been revealed by the introduction of the electric light.
In carrying out these necessary improvements, beds of stalagmite and cave-earth, blocks of limestone, pebbles and sand have been removed from the entrance and passages ; and the bones and teeth of extinct and existing animals, with human relics (prehistoric and historic) have been brought to light, and are now to be found crowded together in a small museum near the entrance. The objects prove that the caves were the alternate resort of extinct animals and man. The cases contain jawbones and teeth of the cave-hyaena, cave-bear, cave-lion, woolly rhinoceros, boar, horse, deer, Irish elk, etc., which have at various times been taken out of the cave-earth during the excavations ; but they were never found in large numbers, while flint-flakes, knives, scrapers, borers, and chips were plentiful, and bone and horn-borers, needles, and pins were some-times met with. From the takus at the base of the cliffs, which rose high
On some Quartzite-Dykes in Mountain-Limestone near Snelston, Derbyshire
Authors: Arnold-Bemrose Henry Howe 
Published: October 2009

I.
DESCRIPTION OF THE QUARRY AND THE DYKES.

About 3½ miles south-west by south of Ashbourne, near Snelston Common, is an inlier of Mountain-Limestone surrounded by Keuper Marl. According to the Geolo~cal-Survey Map, the outcrop of limestone is roughly elliptical in shape, the major axis extending for a distance of about half a mile in a north-north-easterly direction, and the minor axis in a west-north-westerly direction for about one eighth of a mile. Coekshead Lane, the road from Norbury to Cubley Common, passes over the inlier, which only forms a slight feature in the landscape, at a height of about 600 feet above Ordnance-datum. On a clear day, some of the churches and chimneys of Derby, distant about 11 miles, can be seen from the top of the quarry.
The limestone has been quarried on both the north and south sides of Cockshead Lane for about 40 feet below the ground-level, so that the lane passes over a high wall of limestone-beds, which have been left intact between the two quarry-floors. The northern quarry is now disused. It contains lead-and copper-ores, which were worked about 30 years ago. It is outside the area of the main mass of Mountain-Limestone to which the curious lead-mining laws apply, and I was informed that the present owner does not allow the lead-ore to be worked.
The quarry south of Cockshead Lane is being worked for roadmetal.The inlier is in the form of a dome or pericline,with its greatest extension
V. Petrological Notes
Authors: Howe J. Allen 
Published: October 2009

Rocks from the Neighbourhood of Buta.
Specimen No. 48.—This is a fine-grained, chocolate-coloured,laminated mudstone containing minute flakes of mica. There is no trace of any fossil, unless one or two microscopic pellets may be taken to represent coprolites.
No. 42, Rubi River.—From large blocks apparently embedded in the clayey alluvium of the river.
It is a compact cream-coloured rock, with well-marked oolitic structure. In the thin slice, opaque, dull, spherical grains are seen in a fairly-large amount of granular crystalline calcite, which forms the matrix. The grains are fairly uniform in size, and all possess a well-defined concentric structure; there is no trace of any radial structure, and the material is too dusty in character to give a cross in polarized light. The centres of the grains are usually filled with more or less clear granular calcite, and no organic or clastic bodies have been noticed in them. There are several compound grains, one large grain enclosing one or two smaller ones. (See P1. XLIV, fig. 2.)
The rock is suggestive of an oolite formed from a calcareous spring, but there is nothing to show that organisms have taken any part in its formation. In places the rock includes small pellets of grey clay [52], and where this is present the limestone tends to assume a stylolitic structure.
No. 51.—This specimen, said to be from the same locality as the preceding, is a compact rock of slightly-redder colour; in the hand-specimen it shows the spherical oolitic grains weathering more readily
The Glacial Period in Aberdeenshire and the Southern Border of the Moray Firth
Authors: Jamieson Thomas F. 
Published: October 2009

I. Introductory
That north-eastern angle of Scotland which lies between the Moray Firth and the Firth of Tay presents some special features of interest in connection with the history of the Glacial Period, inasmuch as it seems to have been less heavily covered with ice than the rest of Scotland. Nevertheless, no part of the area appears to have escaped invasion, for the ice which filled the basin of the Moray Firth extended over all the southern border of that basin, and even overflowed a considerable part of Aberdeenshire, spreading southward until it met those streams which, proceeding from the Grampian Mountains, moved eastward along the valleys of the Dee and the Don. No part of the surface, therefore, escaped abrasion by the ice; and no remnant of pre-Glacial Tertiary deposits has hitherto been found in any part of the area, even in those spots where one would have thought that they might have been most likely to be preserved. Neither has any trace been obtained of the mammalian fauna which inhabited England during the inter-Glacial Period. No remains of the Mammoth, not even a tooth or a tusk, have been met with in any of the railway-cuttings or other excavations (so far as I am aware), although such have been found in Ayrshire and in the Basin of the Forth.
One of the most interesting features in the Glacial Geology of Aberdeenshire is the Red Clay which occurs along the eastern coast of that county. Some account of it
The Geological Structure of the Sgùrr of Eigg
Authors: Harker Alfred 
Published: October 2009

I. Introduction
The Tertiary igneous rocks of the Inner Hebrides have from time to time engaged the attention of many eminent geologists; and the results of their labours, interpreted by their skill and insight, have become part of the common stock of British geology. In certain cases the investigation has been conducted on an extended scale. This is true more especially of the work of Macculloch in the earlier days, and of Sir Archibald Geikie and Prof. Judd among those who are still with us. Nevertheless, it is only recently that any considerable part of that large and complex area has been mapped with the close attention to detail requisite in a complete geological survey. Even apart from the time demanded by such a minute examination of the ground, the large-scale Ordnance maps which make it possible have been issued only within the last few decades. Thus, in the ten years which the present writer has spent on this work, it has been his good fortune to enjoy facilities denied to his predecessors, besides benefiting by the fruits of their labours in the same field. Fortified by these advantages, he has been enabled to pass with less diffidence from observation to inference, even when the latter is at variance with the views of geologists of much wider experience. For, as might be anticipated, the results of the detailed survey, while generally confirming the conclusions of the recognized authorities, have sometimes extended, restricted, or modified them, or have even led to
On a Case of Unconformity and Thrust in the Coal-Measures of Northumberland
Authors: Lebour George Alexander , Smythe J. A. 
Published: October 2009

I. Introduction.
The object of this paper is to describe a case of unconformity, accompanied by a certain amount of horizontal thrusting, which occurs in the Coal-Measures exposed—chiefly at low water—on the coast of Northumberland at the foot of the Whitley cliff's, and is traceable for upwards of a mile.
The section studied stretches from the bold headland formed by the Table Rocks, northwards almost as far as the Brier-Dene Burn. At the southernmost end—that is, at the Table Rocks—the plane of erosion in question dips and disappears beneath the sea. Near the mouth of Brier Dene it is permanently covered and concealed by Drift and beach-deposits.
The Table Rocks consist of a series of ledges of sandstone, bedded almost horizontally, and presenting vertical cliff-faces to the sea. A little north of this the cliff becomes overhanging, owing to the undercutting by the waves of the soft beds which come to light at its base.
Near the spot marked M on the sketch-map (fig. 1, p. 532), the sandstone-cliff, which so far varies from 30 to 40 feet, gradually lessens in height, and is overlain by a considerable thickness of Boulder-Clay. Up to this point also the foreshore is free from cover, though strewn with boulders, and in places obscured by talus-heaps burying the cliff-foot, and the strata comprised in it can be well seen at low tide. Farther north, however, the boulder-strewn outcrops give place to a broad sandy beach (Whitley Sands proper), which is broken, near low-water-mark only,
Recumbent Folds Produced as a Result of Flow
Authors: Sollas William Johnson 
Published: October 2009

Our views as to the various kinds of deformation which affect the earth's crust received a remarkable extension with the memorable discoveries of Lapworth, Peach, and Horne in the north of Sutherland. These have now culminated in the long series of revelations which we owe to Bertrand, Rothpletz, Schardt, Kilian, Haug, Lugeon, Termier, Suess, and other workers in various regions of the Alps, who seem to have accomplished a veritable revolution in this branch of enquiry.
The long recumbent folds, which are perhaps the most surprising of the new forms of disturbance lately brought to light, can be more readily demonstrated than explained.
If we turn to one of the most complete and consistent accounts. of these phenomena, Lugeon's description of the pre-Alps of Chablais, we perceive a series of recumbent folds, so gleatly exceeding in horizontal extension their thickness vertically, that they are commonly spoken of as sheets rather than folds: they lie with remarkable flatness one on the other; and as a rule those higher in the series extend farther to the front than those below, a feature referred to as ‘déferlement’ by the French, or ‘leap-frog’ as translated by my friend, M. Allorge.
The roots or origin of several of the lower of these folds are visible in the high Alps adjacent, but the roots of the higher folds, which form the pre-Alps, must be sought in the zone of Mont Blanc and the Brianconnais. Thus, some of the uppermost folds mav have surmounted the obstacle presented
The Influence of Pressure and Porosity on the Motion of Sub-Surface Water
Authors: Baldwin-Wiseman William Ralph 
Published: October 2009

Since the early part of the last century the question of the behaviour of underground water has received the attention of numerous investigators, whose labours have resulted in the compilation of a most voluminous and scattered bibliography, comprising records of field-observations, experimental data, and mathematical deductions, many of which are difficult of access. I have therefore, although deeply conscious of the omission of the names of many worthy investigators, endeavoured to summarize briefly the more important investigations on this subject, with the view rather of outlining the work, than of giving a full record of workers.
In 1837, Robert Stephenson (1) first noted the formation of a cone of depletion in the water-logged sands of the Inferior Oolite, during the progress of the construction of the Kilsby Tunnel on the London & North-Western Railway; and in a later report to the London & Westminster Water Company, he remarked upon the high absorptivity of the Chalk and the intermittent nature of its surface-streams.
The first systematic well-measurements were made by Bland (2) in 1831, along two parallel lines from Sittingbourne to Maidstone; and ten years later Clutterbuck prepared a somewhat similar section on a line from Dunstable to Watford.
In 1851 Ansted (3) experimentally determined the rate of percolation of water through Chalk, under comparatively-low pressures; and seventeen years later, in 1868, Isaac Roberts (4) published a few figures showing the effect of pressure on the rate of flow of water through the Red Sandstone of the Liverpool district.
In 1856
A Silurian Inlier in the Eastern Mendips
Authors: Reynolds Sidney Hugh 
Published: October 2009

I. I
ntroduction
. T
he
Mendip Hills consist of four periclinal upfolds of Carboniferous Limestone, arranged
en échelon
from north-west to south-east. Each perieline includes a core of Old Red Sandstone, and the south-eastern or Beacon-Hill pericline further shows a series of igneous rocks. It is with these that the present paper deals. The existence of igneous rocks in the Eastern Mendips was first noted by Charles Moore, who described them as ‘a basaltic dyke of considerable thickness emerging from beneath the Old Red Sandstone at East End near Stoke Lane.’

He considered that, from the general physical character of the Mendips, it was not improbable that the dyke might be co-extensive with their range. He not only attributed the upheaval of the whole Mendip range to the intrusion of this igneous mass, but also considered that it was responsible for the remarkable inverted character of the Carboniferous beds at Luckington, where the Coal-Measures are worked under the Carboniferous Limestone.
John Morris refers to the rock at Stoke Lane, as ‘a dyke of considerable thickness, emerging from beneath the Old Red Sandstone, occurring as bosses in the field, but, traced for some distance over the district, it is conglomeratic in places, and pronounced by Mr. D. Forbes to be dolerite.’
The igneous rocks are not shown in Sanders's map of the Bristol Coalfield (published in 1864), but appear in tile map of the Geological Survey (1884) as a series of isolated patches extending from Downhead on the east, to Beacon Plantation, southwest