bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Rape Trauma Syndrome
Authors: Clegg Carl , McCoy Katrina , Fremouw William J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Rape trauma syndrome (RTS) is a cluster of negative mental, emotional, and physical symptoms commonly experienced by victims of rape. There is no consensus among clinicians regarding the type, number, and severity of RTS symptoms and it is not included in the DSM‐IV‐TR. However, it is often diagnosed as a type of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to similar criteria. Expert testimony of RTS is often used in court, despite inconsistent rulings regarding its admissibility. In general, PTSD is preferable in court because it is an officially recognized diagnosis that does not necessarily imply that a rape occurred.
Substance Abuse
Authors: Resor Michelle R. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Oftentimes substance abuse is associated with illicit activity, but this connection can be complex. Crime can be related to the illegal nature of many substances and unregulated drug trade. Also, some substances may cause physiological changes that lead to aggression and impaired judgment. Another possibility is the presence of a third factor, such as a mental health disorder, that leads to both substance use and criminal behavior symptomatic of psychological distress. Options for treating offenders with substance use disorders have been investigated, and Motivational Interviewing may be a good fit for people with substance abuse disorders.
Forged and Counterfeit Documents
Authors: Bicknell Danna E. , Laporte Gerald M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
When allowed to proliferate, fraudulent documents can have a devastating impact on both the integrity and infrastructure of financial systems, as well as the security of a nation. Technologies such as digital imaging software, scanners, color printing devices, and the Internet have paved the way for criminals to easily create an array of fraudulent documents. This improved capability of the counterfeiter, coupled with a lack of knowledge of genuine features by the acceptors of these instruments, has contributed to their escaping detection.
Combating counterfeiting not only requires attention from law enforcement, but also concerted effort from manufacturers, document issuers, financial institutions, and retailers that accept documents as means for transactions. The purpose of this article is to focus on the role of forensic document examiners (FDEs) and the objective examinations they conduct in order to differentiate counterfeit or forged from genuine. The tasks involved in performing these analyses can be complex because, in addition to determining authenticity, the examiner may be called upon to provide expertise regarding how fraudulent documents are constructed, and whether potential associations exist with other suspect documents. Ultimately, providing accurate, unbiased courtroom testimony to assist the trier of fact is the culmination of thorough and intensive examinations. These procedures that are utilized have been outlined with emphasis on physical characteristics, printing processes, security features, and electronic media. A brief discussion of each ensues with numerous illustrations depicting the types of features encountered, as well as necessary examinations that FDEs should conduct to determine if documents are fraudulent.
Dating: Document
Authors: Weyermann Céline 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe determination of the age of a document is a very frequent query; however, it is also one of the most challenging and controversial areas of questioned document examination. Several approaches were defined to address this problem. The first is based on the introduction date of raw constituents (like paper or ink) on the market. The second approach is based on the aging of documents, which is unfortunately not only influenced by passing time, but also by storage conditions and document composition. The third approach considers the relative age of documents and aims at reconstructing their chronology. The three approaches are equally complex to develop and the amount of problems encountered is not negligible. This article aims to expose the potential applications and limitations of current ink dating methods. Method development and validation and the interpretation of evidence prove to be essential criteria for the dating of documents.
Writing Instruments and Printing Devices
Authors: Sharfe Gordon A.I. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article is divided into two main sections. The first discusses the physical characteristics of the ink line of nib, ballpoint, porous tip, rollerball, and gel pens. Distinctive characteristics that allow their direction of stroke to be determined are also identified. The second section examines the image forming processes and characteristics associated with typewriters, dot matrix, laser, inkjet, and thermal printers. Identifying faults common to these printing processes are discussed from the view of comparing questioned documents to known printer outputs, which may lead to the identification of the specific printer as the source of the document under investigation.Identifying characteristics found in photocopiers and facsimile machines are also covered.
Shooting Distance: Estimation of
Authors: Zeichner Arie 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe range from which a weapon has been fired is an important component in the reconstruction of firearm‐related cases.A review of the methods for shooting distance estimation is provided. This refers to the examination of clothing targets, cadavers, and exhibits that cannot be processed in the laboratory. The methods include visual/microscopic examinations, color tests, and instrumental analysis of the firearm discharge residues (FDR) deposits around the bullet entrance holes. The review does not cover shooting‐distance estimation for targets shot by pellet loads from shotguns.
Firearms: Scene Investigation
Authors: Maiden Nicholas R. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The investigation of shooting scenes is a specialized form of crime scene investigation and is usually conducted by forensic firearm examiners. It requires a detailed knowledge of firearms, ammunition, interior, exterior and terminal ballistics. As with any crime scene, preservation of the scene is critical so that all available evidence can be located. The suitability of exhibits for DNA and/or fingerprint analysis is an important matter to be considered before and during the collection of exhibits. Fired bullets and cartridge cases can be macroscopically compared to determine if they were fired from a suspect firearm. Stringlines, probes, and lasers can be used on suitable bullet impact points at a scene to determine the approximate trajectory or path of a bullet. From this information, the approximate position of the shooter can also be determined. Dithiooxamide (DTO) and sodium rhodizonate are chemical tests that can be used to determine if a questioned impact point or damage was caused by a bullet. Tattooing on the victim's skin and propellant or gunshot residue (GSR) patterns on clothing can be used for distance determination tests, which involve replicating the pattern by test firing the firearm involved. Gunshot residue sampling of a suspect soon after a shooting can assist in determining if that person has fired or had recent contact with a firearm. All of these are important considerations which collectively ensure that an accurate analysis, interpretation and reconstruction of events can be made and assist an investigation and/or be presented to a court of law.
Footwear and Foot Impressions: Comparison and Identification
Authors: Keereweer Isaäc 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article describes the comparative examination of shoemark examination, based on the similarities of class characteristics and absence of meaningful differences, wear and tear, and accidental characteristics. It incorporates a classification method, which takes into account the complexity of similarities. The similarities can thus be numerically handled. A conclusion is then expressed according to a verbal scale. The most important advantage by using the guideline is transparency. This means what kind of decisions were used by the investigator to draw his conclusions, which items are similar, what is the degree of similarity in shape, and what is the characteristic value. Experience has shown that when this methodology is used, conclusions drawn by different examiners do not vary greatly. These guidelines are based on the Dutch system and also an example of how international harmonization of shoemark examination may be achieved.
Footwear and Foot Impressions: Foot Impressions and Linking Foot to Shoe
Authors: Hammer Lesley , Kennedy Robert 
Published: September 2009

AbstractBarefoot impression evidence may be used to link a person to a shoe or foot impression found at a crime scene. The analysis of barefoot impressions involves the examination and comparison of the morphology and test impressions of the foot, to the questioned crime scene impression. Although a lesser known type of physical evidence, barefoot evidence has proven to be a valuable aid in criminal casework.
Friction Ridge Skin: Morphogenesis and Overview
Authors: Maceo Alice V. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The friction ridge skin has served as a means of personal identification in criminal justice systems for over 100 years. Fingerprints, palm prints, and sole prints continue to be a cornerstone in personal identification because each area of the friction ridge skin is unique and, barring injury or disease, the friction ridge skin persists through the lifetime of an individual.
This article discusses the (i) terminology of the volar surfaces of the hands and feet; (ii) general anatomy of the friction ridge skin and its contribution to persistency of the skin; (iii) general physiology of the friction ridge skin and its contribution to persistency of the skin; and (iv) embryological development of the friction ridge skin and its contributions to pattern formation and uniqueness.
Light Bulbs and Filaments: Examination of
Authors: Stauffer Eric 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
When road traffic accidents occur at night time, the question whether the lights of one of the vehicles were on or off at the time of the accident is sometimes raised. In such instances, the questioned light bulb(s) may be forensically examined and it may be possible to determine whether the bulb was energized or not at the time of the glass breakage and/or the filament rupture.
A complete forensic examination of light bulbs must also include the accident scene and vehicle examinations. The circumstances around the case must be clearly integrated in the interpretation of the results, otherwise a wrong conclusion may be reached. The electrical circuit of the vehicle must be understood and evaluated. Then, the light bulb assemblies are observed and, whenever significant, collected as evidence.
The rest of the examination takes place at the crime laboratory, where the light bulb is electrically tested (resistance measurement) and observed under magnification with an optical and possibly an electronic microscope. The criminalist must comprehend the failure mechanisms of a tungsten filament in order to properly interpret the evidence observed on the filaments. By following a clear interpretation scheme, an educated conclusion can be reached in most instances.
Marks or Impressions of Manufactured Items
Authors: Luong Susan , Roux Claude 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Marks and impressions can be exploited by the investigator to extract information associated with the crime as part of the forensic investigation. The scope of this article covers fabric impression, which is any mark or imprint left by a material made by a fabric, including glove marks. This article describes the techniques and processes of examination, as well as interpretation and the evidential significance of such types of evidence.
Training and Certification (In Criminalistics)
Authors: Stauffer Eric , Schiffer Beatrice 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Being a criminalist requires a strong basis in natural sciences along with emphasis on topics specific to forensic sciences and criminal justice. Before dealing with casework, a criminalist must be fully trained, i.e., have strong educational background followed by an induction (or initial) training. A few organizations have defined minimum criteria regarding these basic educational and training requirements. A criminalist must also be up‐to‐date with evolving science, and thus requires continuous training and education. This can be achieved through the reading of scientific literature, attendance at courses and conferences, and practical experience.
Professional certification of forensic scientists is common in the United Kingdom and the United States; however, it is quite inexistent in most countries around the world. Certification demonstrates the competency of a criminalist. To create a certification program, it is necessary to clearly define the minimum criteria of knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA) that a criminalist must demonstrate. A mean of testing the KSA must also be devised and the certification must gain acceptance among the forensic and legal community. Certification is usually obtained through three main steps: admission and evaluation of the candidate and renewal of the certificate. Finally, some of the most important certification programs are presented.
Crime Scene Management
Authors: Scott Allan Mathieson 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Crime scene management is the term used to define the actions taken to ensure that all available forensic evidence is recovered from a crime scene.
At a minor scene, this can be very basic preservation and protection measures taken by the first officer attending and advice to the victim. At a major scene, the necessary cordons, guards, and protective measure such as tents. The activities need to be managed to allow all evidence recovery to be carried out in a logical sequence that ensures, wherever possible, no other evidence type is compromised. This must be carried out in a transparent manner that demonstrates to the court the impartiality of the examination.
Packaging and Transport
Authors: Scott Allan Mathieson 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
To preserve the integrity of forensic evidence, it must be packaged, sealed, and labeled correctly. Crime scene investigators (CSI), carry, in their vehicle, supplies of paper bags (Kraft bags), polyethylene bags, brown paper, flat‐pack cardboard boxes, weapon tubes, envelopes, and plain unused paper for this purpose. In addition, they also carry nylon bags and various metal containers of the designs used to contain paint stripper and other volatile liquids.
Many bags and boxes are supplied with evidence vouchers, chain of custody forms preprinted. Others may require the voucher to be attached.
While the methods of packaging exhibits and transport employed in different countries are broadly the same these can vary considerably in some respects, reflecting different operating environments and legal requirements. It is only possible to give general guidelines and it is advisable to check local protocols and laboratory packaging guidelines. Many US state and county crime labs publish their guidelines on the Internet.
Toxicology: Forensic Applications of
Authors: Vuori Erkki , Ojanperä Ilkka 
Published: September 2009

AbstractForensic toxicology plays a vital role in the investigation of sudden death to help establish the role, if any, of drugs or poisons. This can only be done if an extensive series of toxicological tests are conducted to cover as large a range of substances as possible. Such findings can provide a cause of death, simply indicate compliance, or otherwise reveal prescribed medication. The science is also used in the investigation of the living persons such as victims or perpetrators of crime to establish their exposure or use of drugs, as well as in road safety to ensure that drugs that impair driving ability are not being taken. More widely, forensic toxicology is used in workplace drug testing programs, doping control, and environmental matters or cases of terrorism involving noxious substances. In any circumstance, it is essential that sufficient data are available to interpret toxicological information. This may also involve epidemiological studies to help in the understanding of drug effects.
Toxicology: Initial Testing
Authors: Felgate Peter 
Published: September 2009

AbstractInitial screening in forensic toxicology is critical to the ongoing investigation for the cause of death: motor vehicle driving‐related offences or criminal investigations. Initial screening should detect as wide a range of licit and illicit substances as possible to assist these investigations. This article describes a number of different immunoassay techniques used in the determination of drugs in biological specimens, sample extraction methods, gas chromatographic techniques for alcohol and volatile organic compound analysis, and general drug screening techniques using gas chromatography and liquid chromatography with a variety of different detection methods.
Drug Profiling
Authors: Esseiva Pierre , Margot Pierre 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article focuses on the description of the processes encountered in illicit drug profiling. Within the forensic science framework, the application of profiles from drug seizures is described. The formation of these profiles or “signatures” is also discussed regarding the identification of the starting material of the substance (for example, “plant‐based” for cocaine, heroin, and cannabis, or origin of the synthetic precursors for amphetamine‐type stimulants (ATS)) and the influence of the selected manufacturing process on the purity profile. The information extracted from these chemical/physical profiles is described with a distinction between political dimensions (support to national, international policies), strategic and operational information (highlighting of regional and local traffic structure and organization), and evidential purpose.
Hair: Toxicology
Authors: Kintz Pascal 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Given the limitations of self‐reports on drug use, testing for drugs of abuse is important for most clinical and forensic toxicological situations, both for assessing the reality of the intoxication and for the evaluation of the level of drug impairment. It is generally accepted that chemical testing of biological fluids is the most objective means of diagnosis of drug use. The presence of a drug analyte in a biological specimen can be used to document exposure. A typical approach in drug testing is the immunoassay screen, followed by the gas chromatographic–mass spectrometric confirmation conducted on a urine sample. In recent years, remarkable advances in sensitive analytical techniques have enabled the analysis of drugs in unconventional biological specimens such as hair. The advantages of this sample over traditional media, such as urine and blood, are obvious: collection is noninvasive, relatively easy to perform, and in forensic situations it may be achieved under close supervision of law enforcement officers to prevent adulteration or substitution. The window of drug detection is significantly extended to weeks, months, or even years when testing hair. It appears that the value of alternative specimen analysis for the identification of drug users is steadily gaining recognition. This can be seen from its growing use in preemployment screening, in forensic science, in clinical applications, and for doping control. Hair analysis may be a useful adjunct to conventional drug testing in urine. Methods for evading urinalysis do not affect hair analysis. This article aims at documenting toxicological applications of hair analysis in various situations, including survey of drug addicts, doping control, and drug‐facilitated crimes documentation. Hair collection, preparation, and analysis by chromatographic methods coupled with mass spectrometry are also reviewed.
Oral Fluid Toxicology
Authors: Marleen Laloup , Nele Samyn , Gert De Boeck 
Published: September 2009

AbstractTechnological advances over the past decades have enabled oral fluid testing for the presence of numerous drugs, narcotics, and hormones. The advantages of oral fluid over traditional fluids are that collection is almost noninvasive, is relatively easy to perform, and, in forensic situations, can be achieved under close supervision to prevent adulteration or substitution of the samples. Moreover, concentrations of many drugs in oral fluid correlate well with blood concentrations and, therefore, the analysis of oral fluid specimens can be used to determine the current degree of exposure to a definite drug at the time of sampling. These characteristics have resulted in the use of oral fluid for drugs of abuse testing in the workplace, in testing of intoxicated drivers, for monitoring illicit drug use in drug treatment. There are now sensitive and reliable analytical methods available both for screening and confirmation analysis of oral fluid specimens. External proficiency testing is being developed and cutoff concentrations have been proposed by scientific organizations. Appropriate certification of laboratories worldwide and the introduction of legal provisions in several countries will be the next step. However, a number of concerns require further research. The search for an on‐site screening method that can provide acceptable accuracies for the detection of cannabinoids in oral fluid remains a major hurdle. Additional considerations that have received attention are the variability in the volume of sample collected and the drug recovery from the many different specimen collection systems on the market. This article discusses developments in the field of collection devices, pharmacokinetics of common drugs of abuse in oral fluid, and recent technological advances and guidelines that increase the actual use of oral fluid testing in a legal context and its acceptance by the criminal justice system.
Drug Testing: Urine
Authors: Hamilton Warren D. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Urine drugs‐of‐abuse testing is widely conducted to improve the safety of critical work practices and to minimize risks associated with the employment of drug‐using employees. The most common drugs included in this testing are amphetamines, cannabis, cocaine, and opiates such as morphine, codeine, and heroin metabolite 6‐acetylmorphine. In some settings, benzodiazepines, methadone, and/or phencyclidine (PCP) are targeted among other abused substances. Collection of urine requires specially controlled procedures to avoid adulteration or substitution and to ensure proper chain of custody to laboratory. A variety of initial methods are used to test urine for drug presence, but is most commonly based on immunoassay. All presumed positive samples will need to be confirmed using laboratory‐based mass spectrometric methods. Cutoffs are used as reporting thresholds. These vary between the drugs and can vary between jurisdictions depending on the purpose of the drug testing.
Toxicology: Analysis
Authors: Jones Graham R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article outlines the specimens available for toxicological examination in postmortem cases and their potential value for detecting and measuring drugs and other toxicants. Postmortem blood concentrations of many drugs can vary in concentration depending on the location in the body from which the blood is drawn and the volume collected. This is because many drugs concentrate in the major organs and tissues when alive, but diffuse out of those tissues after death, causing local increases in blood drug concentrations. To recognize when these postmortem artifacts occur and assist the interpretation of toxicology findings, collection and analysis of multiple blood and tissue samples is sometimes necessary. The advantages and disadvantages of the various blood and tissue types are listed and discussed.