bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pictograms in pharmacy
Authors: Dowse R , Ehlers M S 
Published: February 2011

AbstractThis review examines the use of pictograms in health care. Well designed pictograms are simple, clear, graphic symbols able to convey their intended meaning to all patients, including those who are illiterate, elderly or visually impaired. Although some research on the effectiveness of pictograms has not supported the hypothesis that pictograms are beneficial for the acquisition and comprehension of information, most studies investigating health-related applications of pictograms have shown them to be of benefit in the comprehension and recall of instructions on prescription and over-the-counter medicines. However, the success of pictograms as a communication aid in pharmacy depends first on a rigorous design process, followed by well-designed, randomised, controlled trials using an appropriate method of evaluation. The final stage is to investigate the optimal way of using pictograms in practice and to assess their effect on behavioural outcomes, such as compliance. We discuss methodological issues associated with the design process of pictograms, the evaluation of pictograms in practice, reasons for their use in pharmacy and their potential in improving medication compliance. We also report on the positive and negative aspects of various pictograms that have been developed and tested in pharmacy.
UK postal survey of pharmacists working with general practices on prescribing issues: characteristics, roles and working arrangements
Authors: Martin Richard M , Lunec Susan G , Rink Elizabeth 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Pharmacists are increasingly undertaking more non-dispensing work within the general practice setting. A postal survey of 414 United Kingdom pharmacists working with general practitioners (GPs), resulting in 174 responses (42 per cent), indicated that the pharmacists were working with 200 surgeries. The practices with which they worked were more likely to be fundholding (P&lt;0.001), vocational training (P&lt;0.001), and multipartner (P&lt;0.01) practices, when compared with national statistics. Pharmacists funded by family health services authorities (FHSAs), commissioning agencies or health boards worked fewer hours in general practice (P=0.002) than those funded by a practice. The commonest roles, each reported by more than 50 per cent of pharmacists, were PACT (prescribing analysis and cost data) analysis, challenging doctors' prescribing, formulary development, guideline and protocol development, drug information resource, and liaison with pharmaceutical advisers. Thirty-two pharmacists ran in-house clinics. This study was limited by the low response rate. However, the findings suggest that pharmacists working with GPs undertake a range of roles, some of which involve direct patient care and responsibility for practice policy.
Role of consumer attributes in predicting the impact of medicines deregulation on National Health Service prescribing in the United Kingdom
Authors: Payne Katherine , Ryan-Woolley Bernadette M , Noyce Peter R 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
This study aimed to identify the key variables that determine consumers' preference for over-the-counter (OTC) purchase, rather than obtaining a National Health Service prescription, of a deregulated medicine. An empirical approach, using a convenience sample of 628 consumers, was taken to explore the impact of consumer characteristics and preferences on the decision to purchase rather than obtain a prescription. The study focused on four groups of deregulated medicines: intravaginal imidazoles, aciclovir cream, oral H2-antagonists and intranasal steroid sprays. A postal questionnaire, designed for self-completion, was distributed at point of sale, or dispensing, by community pharmacists. Two main groups of respondents were compared: those who had purchased OTC on this occasion and those who had obtained a product on prescription. Of the initial 23 variables included in the primary cross-tabulations, a total of 18 were statistically significant (P&lt;0.05). A CHAID analysis identified four key factors that were found to influence respondents' decision to purchase OTC: stated preference for OTC purchase, knowledge of OTC availability, liability for prescription charges and not currently using other medicines on prescription. These key attributes should prove a valuable tool in the design of a predictive model to quantify the impact of deregulation on NHS prescribing. This model should, in turn, be a useful indicator of the likely effect on the demand for OTC sales of medicines and associated advice-giving from community pharmacists and their staff.
Mass media health information available to young adults in the United Kingdom: (1) Daily newspapers and magazines
Authors: Gray Nicola J , Cantrill Judith A , Noyce Peter R 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Consumers are increasingly challenging community pharmacists with mass media advertisements and news items. This has the potential to produce conflict as professional judgment, editorial priorities and advertising practices are inevitably not aligned. To explore the characteristics and distribution of health information in publications read by young adults (15- to 24-year-olds) in the United Kingdom, four newspapers and 29 magazines were surveyed over an eight-week period in January/February 1997. Nine hundred health items were found in 84 newspaper issues and 80 magazine issues. Newspapers commonly included health information in the form of advertisements and news items; magazines included features and readers' letters. Descriptions of disease treatment and states were the most common subjects. Although conventional therapies were featured more often than alternative options, there was a considerable number of advertisements and features for alternative therapies, especially in newspapers. Most therapeutic areas were included, but the central nervous system was the most prevalent. One hundred and ninety-six newspaper items (40.2 per cent), and 193 magazine items (46.8 per cent) referred to a specific drug or medicine. The drug properties most often described were indication and formulation. Side effects were more likely to be included in magazine items. There was a notable lack of references to professional information sources. Community pharmacists must be aware of the characteristics of this information to help consumers to make better informed self care decisions.
Drug-related problems and pharmacy interventions in community practice
Authors: Westerlund Tommy , Almarsdóttir Anna Birna , Melander Arne 
Published: February 2011

Abstract

Objectives
(1) To document types and number of drug-related problems identified by community pharmacy personnel in Sweden; (2) to determine relationships among the types and number of problems identified and the gender, age and number of prescribed drugs in patients; and (3) to document the interventions made by pharmacy personnel with patients and prescribers.

Method
Random samples of pharmacists, prescriptionists and pharmacy technicians were drawn nationwide in Sweden; 144 (63 per cent) of the employees fulfilling the inclusion criteria agreed to take part. The participants documented drug-related problems, interventions and patient variables on a data collection form, and tallied the number of patients they served on another form.

Setting
One hundred and sixteen community pharmacies and 12 outpatient hospital pharmacies.

Key findings
One problem or more was identified among 2.5 per cent of the patients. The median number of problems identified per 100 patients was greater for pharmacists (6.1) than for prescriptionists (2.6) and pharmacy technicians (1.1). About one in three problems was presented to the participants by their patients, while two thirds were detected by the pharmacy staff. One in four problems was related to dosage, and one in five to uncertainty about the aim or function of the medication. Problems were over-represented among children and the younger middle-aged and under-represented in the elderly. Patient medication counselling was the most common type of intervention. When contacted, the physician nearly always approved the recommendation made by the pharmacy staff.

Conclusion
The results led to suggestions as to how pharmacy practitioners can augment pharmaceutical care through drug-related problem detection.
HEALTH SERVICES RESEARCH METHODS IN PHARMACY: Triangulation
Authors: Smith Felicity 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
There are many examples of studies in which pharmacy practice researchers have combined different types of data, methods and approaches within a single research project. Although a common practice in research across many disciplines, concerns have been expressed over combining methods underpinned by different philosophical assumptions and conceptual frameworks. The choice of methods made by pharmacy researchers is generally governed by practical considerations of the research and data requirements for fulfilling research objectives rather than these theoretical concerns. This review of the pharmacy practice research literature demonstrates how a wide variety of methods have been combined for different purposes and in a variety of study designs.
Patient drug information and consumer choice of pharmacy
Authors: Whitehead P , Atkin P , Krass I , Benrimoj S I 
Published: February 2011

Abstract

Objective
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether there is an association between the level of drug information provided in community pharmacies and business performance as measured by consumer satisfaction and consumer loyalty.

Method
After an initial qualitative phase and a pilot survey, a questionnaire was administered to 253 consumers in 10 high and low information provision pharmacies.

Setting
The study took place in community pharmacies in the Sydney metropolitan and Newcastle areas of New South Wales, Australia.

Key findings
There was no significant difference in the summed consumer scores of behavioural intention or consumer satisfaction between the two pharmacy types. However, this study showed that up to 41 per cent of consumers (n=182) currently patronising low provider pharmacies indicated a preference for a high information provider pharmacy given equivalent convenience and no preformed loyalties to a particular pharmacist. This represents a potential net shift of 24 per cent of consumers from low information provider pharmacies to high provider pharmacies.

Conclusion
This study provides initial evidence to show that the level of provision of drug information has the potential to increase consumer patronage and loyalty to a community pharmacy. The full implications of this should become more apparent as the number and convenience of high provider pharmacies increases and more low provider consumers are exposed to this type of pharmacy.
Reassessing the MAI: elderly people's opinions about medication appropriateness
Authors: Volume Carlyn I , Burback Lisa M , Farris Karen B 
Published: February 2011

Abstract

Objectives
To identify the criteria that the elderly use to assess the appropriateness of their medications, rank the identified criteria in terms of importance, and compare elderly people's and clinicians' ratings of the importance of medication appropriateness index (MAI) criteria

Methods
A qualitative method was used to understand why elders' rankings of appropriateness criteria may or may not differ from clinicians'. Five focus groups with 38 elderly people were completed and content analysed. The participants also completed a written ranking of 10 criteria, indicating them as being of high importance, moderate importance or low importance

Key findings
Overall, the group discussion cited indication, effectiveness and drug-drug interactions as most important. The written ranking of the MAI criteria suggested drug-drug interactions and correct directions as being most important. Elderly people appeared to have difficulty ranking the criteria of indication and effectiveness, as there was some evidence that they took these criteria for granted. Differences among focus group participants appeared to be due to their varied medication use experience

Conclusion
These findings suggest that drug-drug interactions may be ranked highly important and practicality ranked moderately important when elderly patients' opinions are sought about medication appropriateness. Further research should be conducted to assess whether the MAI is accountable to patient viewpoints
Analysis of data from focus groups: Group interaction — the added dimension
Authors: Smith Felicity 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
This is the first article in an occasional series in which researchers will share their experiences of methodological issues. Some articles will draw attention to particular aspects of the research process while others will describe how methodological problems were resolved. In this article, the author discusses how interaction between members of a focus group influences the data obtained and should attract special attention when the data are analysed.
Attitudes of hospital pharmacists to adverse drug reactions and the “yellow card” scheme: a qualitative study
Authors: Green Christopher F , Mottram David R , Brown Adrian M , Rowe Philip H 
Published: February 2011

Abstract

Objective
To elicit the views of hospital pharmacists towards adverse drug reaction (ADR) reporting.

Method
Qualitative, semi-structured interviews were conducted on a face to face basis using a prepiloted questionnaire. Analysis was carried out using Winmax Pro, content analysis and comparison of interpretation by two independent reviewers.

Setting
All major hospitals in one Committee on Safety of Medicines/Medicines Control Agency (CSM/MCA) regional monitoring centre in England.

Key findings
It was considered that introduction of reporting had been poorly publicised and promoted. Only 42 per cent of those interviewed had submitted more than one “yellow card” report and a similar percentage had reported none. The CSM/MCA has a poor image in terms of accessibility and its perceived opinion of pharmacists' role in reporting. Feedback from the CSM/MCA was satisfactory and Current Problems in Pharmacovigilance was highly regarded. Several factors appear to be dissuading pharmacists from participation in the scheme, including lack of clinical knowledge, pressure of work and a lack of time. The absence of a fee did not appear to be a deterrent to reporting; in fact, a fee was considered inappropriate. Initial schemes for education and training were perceived as having been successful. However, ongoing training needs had not been fully addressed.

Conclusion
While hospitals pharmacists acknowledge ADR reporting as part of their professional role, it is not yet considered as part of their daily practice and requires more vigorous promotion. Further investigation and quantitative work are required to investigate fully this aspect of pharmacy practice.
The effect of pharmaceutical review of repeat prescriptions in general practice
Authors: Granås Anne Gerd , Bates Ian 
Published: February 2011

Abstract

Objectives
To investigate how a community pharmacist can affect the quality of repeat prescribing, and to develop a model for general practitioner (GP) and pharmacist co-operation.

Methods
Repeat prescriptions with three or more items were reviewed by a community pharmacist and randomly allocated to a trial or control group. Drug-related problems (DRPs) were discussed at joint meetings with the GP and the pharmacist. A modified Delphi technique was used to evaluate the clinical significance of the DRPs identified by the pharmacist.

Setting
The repeat prescription review and meetings took place in a GP surgery in an inner city location between November, 1995, and October, 1997.

Key findings
The pharmacist reviewed 511 repeat prescriptions, representing 3,018 prescribed items. Ninety repeat prescriptions (36.3 per cent) in the trial group and 86 repeat prescriptions (34.1 per cent) in the control group were identified as having DRPs. The GP agreed with 92.3 per cent of the interventions in the trial group, while only 12.8 per cent of the interventions in the control group were routinely resolved by the GP. The difference in interventions dealt with between the trial and the control group is statistically significant (X2=94.14, P&lt;0.001). The absolute risk reduction (ARR) was 26 per cent, and the prescription number needed to treat (NNT) was 3.8. For every 19 prescriptions reviewed, an intervention that results, or potentially results, in clinical improvement in patient care was made by the pharmacist.

Conclusion
The pharmacist significantly reduced the number of DRPs associated with repeat prescriptions compared with routine surgery procedure. Pharmacist review of repeat prescriptions is an effective method of solving DRPs, reducing risk and making significant clinical improvements to patient care.
HEALTH SERVICES RESEARCH METHODS IN PHARMACY: Evaluation of pharmaceutical services: (2) Methods and measures
Authors: Smith Felicity 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Numerous studies have been undertaken to evaluate pharmaceutical services. These include both the evaluation of existing practice and assessments of innovative services in both hospital and community settings. Evaluation requires employment of methods and measures to ensure that relevant data on the effects of a programme are obtained. To evaluate a service from different perspectives (eg, acceptability to health professionals or patients, uptake, clinical outcomes or resource implications), a number of methods may be required. The outcomes may also be wide-ranging. Measures must be selected which provide a true reflection of the extent to which these outcomes are, or are not, achieved. Designs and frameworks used in the evaluation of pharmacy services have been discussed previously,1 this paper reviews the methods and measures that have been employed.
Arguments for theory-based Pharmacy Practice research
Authors: Nosrgaard Lotte S , Morgall Janine M , Bissell Paul 
Published: February 2011

AbstractThe aim of this discussion paper is to argue for the relevance of theory use in Pharmacy Practice research and to stimulate debate about the quality and relevance of research carried out in this field. A general definition of the concept of “theory” is provided, and the paper discusses the advantages of theory-based Pharmacy Practice research. The number and range of theories useful for Pharmacy Practice research are enormous and varied, originating from such fields as sociology, psychology, anthropology, pedagogy and health economics. The paper describes how methods that follow specific theories can serve different purposes. We suggest that engaging with theory provides richer and deeper insights into human behaviour and its social context, which can ultimately contribute to dynamism and diversity in Pharmacy Practice research. Examples are presented from projects carried out in the school of pharmacy in Copenhagen and the school of pharmacy and pharmaceutical sciences at the University of Manchester in order to illustrate the different functions of theory in Pharmacy Practice research.
Motivators and barriers to the implementation of pharmacist-run prescription monitoring and review services in two settings
Authors: Tully M P , Seston E M , Cantrill J A 
Published: February 2011

Abstract

Objectives
To assess the strong motivators and barriers to the implementation of prescription monitoring and review services by community pharmacists either in pharmacies or in general practitioner (GP) surgeries.

Method and setting
A systematic review was used to develop questionnaire statements for a two-part postal Delphi survey to a purposive sample of 120 community pharmacists working in Britain. Responses were analysed, a repeat questionnaire was mailed (including feedback of individual and group response), and respondents re-ranked the statements. The main outcome measure was attainment of consensus as to whether the statements represented motivators or barriers. This was defined as 75 per cent of respondents giving a score of ≥5 (a strong motivator/barrier) or ≤3 (not a motivator/barrier) on a seven-point scale.

Key results
Eighty-four pharmacists (70 per cent) responded to both questionnaires. Consensus was attained that 23 of 24 statements were strong motivators and 14 of 23 statements were strong barriers. There were high levels of agreement that providing a prescription monitoring and review service would improve perceptions of pharmacists, help develop relationships with patients and give pharmacists professional fulfilment. The key barriers to the implementation of these services were their time-consuming nature, locum difficulties, the prohibitive cost and unwillingness of pharmacy owners or GPs to fund services.

Conclusions
The study suggests that these community pharmacists were motivated to participate in prescription monitoring and review schemes by a complex set of personal, professional and altruistic reasons. However, if such services are to be generally successful, adequate remuneration structures, internal rivalries and the structure and culture of the profession itself also need to be considered.
Social constructivist analysis of a patient medication record experiment — why a good idea and good intentions are not enough
Authors: Nørgaard Lotte S , Sørensen Ellen W , Morgall Janine M 
Published: February 2011

AbstractObjectiveTo explain the limited success of a local patient medication record (PMR) experiment in pharmacy practice in Denmark from a social constructivist perspective and to promote a discussion among pharmacy practice researchers of how on-going social constructivist analysis can be used to manage experiments in pharmacy practice.MethodA secondary social constructivist analysis of data collected during and after a local experiment on the development and use of PMRs. Data were analysed using three specific social constructivist concepts. The data consisted of 93 qualitative interviews with elderly medicine users with a PMR, 10 qualitative interviews with representatives from health professionals participating in the experiment, and documentary evidence from a research report.Key findingsEight relevant social groups were identified in the PMR experiment. The groups attached different meanings to the same PMR, such as: threat; totally useless; important tool for preventing drug-related problems, promoting interdisciplinary co-operation and carrying out pharmaceutical care; unnecessary interference in private affairs; security; good checklist. The relevant social groups also had different opinions about responsibility, duty to inform patients about the PMR, and need for and co-ordination of the PMR.ConclusionThe analysis supports an important social constructivist point, namely, that the outcome of a technological development is not given a priori; rather, it is driven by the interests of various social groups. Ongoing identification and assessment of these social groups is recommended to focus future experiments.