bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Western Blotting: Immunoblotting
Authors: Bjerrum Ole J , Heegaard Niels HH 
Published: March 2009

AbstractWestern blotting is a method by which proteins that have been physically separated and subsequently immobilized on the surface of a membrane are probed for reactivity with different types of affinity reagents, such as antibodies, receptors, are tested for the presence of interacting proteins in pure preparations or complex mixtures. Immunoblotting and the major steps of the procedure are described. It concerns the most commonly applied separation technique: sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDSPAGE); the major transfer techniques: semidry or tank blotting; the many protein stains where the choice is depending on the sensitivity wanted and selection of the right blocking procedure. Visualization of bound probes represents a major issue as the variations are legio, but where the use of enzyme conjugated antibodies for colorimetric, chemo‐ and bioluminiscence is the most applied ones. The limits for quantitative use of the technique, the specificity problem crucial for a proper interpretation and various application, are described.Key conceptsThe nomenclature including geographical terms.Overview of the many variants of the steps of the immunoblotting procedure.Knowledge of the commonly appearing pitfalls of the technical process.The limits for using immunoblotting for quantification purpose.Understanding the importance of antibody specificity and use of controls for correct interpretation of the patterns.
Bunyaviridae
Authors: Taylor Shannon L , Altamura Louis A , Schmaljohn Connie S 
Published: March 2009

Abstract

The family
Bunyaviridae
is a large and diverse group of enveloped viruses with
ribonucleic acid
(RNA) genomes. The family consists of over 300 species that are divided into 5 genera. All bunyavirus genomes are comprised of three negative‐sense RNA segments, but they differ in their coding strategies to generate the structural and nonstructural proteins required for replication. Viruses are transmitted by infected vectors that include mosquitoes, phlebotomine flies, ticks and rodents. Bunyaviruses are distributed worldwide and are responsible for a variety of illnesses in human hosts ranging from mild to haemorrhagic fevers or fatal encephalitis. Thus, bunyaviruses are important infectious agents and vector control, precautionary measures, and education are needed to prevent future outbreaks in endemic areas.

Key Concepts

Bunyavirus replication occurs in the cytoplasm via a viral RNA‐dependent RNA polymerase.

All bunyavirus genomes consist of three negative‐sense RNA segments that encode for structural and/or nonstructural proteins.

Structural proteins are required for replication and nonstructural proteins generally play a role in evading host cellular responses.

Vectors that transmit bunyaviruses to humans include mosquitoes, phelobotomine flies, ticks and rodents.

Symptoms of bunyavirus infection include mild febrile illness, haemorrhagic fever and encephalitis.

Bunyaviruses can be found worldwide, so precautionary measures should be taken when travelling to endemic areas.
Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease
Authors: Belsham Graham J , Charleston Bryan , Jackson Terry , Paton David J 
Published: March 2009

Abstract

Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) is an economically important, highly contagious disease of cloven‐hoofed animals characterized by the appearance of vesicles (blisters) on the feet and in and around the mouth. The causative agent,
foot‐and‐mouth disease virus
(FMDV), was the first mammalian virus to be discovered. It has a
ribonucleic acid
(RNA) genome enclosed within a protein coat. The virus replicates very rapidly within the cytoplasm of cells. The RNA genome has to function both as a messenger RNA (mRNA) and as a template for RNA replication. The RNA encodes a single polyprotein which is processed, by
virus‐encoded proteases
, to about 12 mature products which are required for virus replication and assembly. Some of these viral proteins modify host cell activities to block antivirus defence systems. Thus, this small virus displays a remarkably complex array of biological activities.

Key concepts

Foot‐and‐mouth disease has worldwide economic importance.

Foot‐and‐mouth disease virus (FMDV) is able to replicate rapidly in a range of different animals and then spread within the environment.

FMDV uses specific cell‐surface molecules as receptors to gain entry into cells.

The viral RNA displays diverse activities, as a messenger RNA, as a template for RNA replication and as the genome.

The virus‐encoded polyprotein is processed by proteases present within itself to make about 12 different mature products (plus important precursors).

Viral proteins are required both for viral RNA replication and virus assembly, in addition, some also modify specific cellular functions in order to block host antiviral responses.
Poliovirus
Authors: Bradrick Shelton S , Romero José R , Minor Philip D 
Published: March 2009

Abstract

Poliovirus is a well‐characterized member of the Picornavirus family. The picornaviruses are positive strand RNA (
ribonucleic acid
) viruses responsible for many human and animal diseases and the relationships between them have been greatly clarified by molecular data. The atomic structures of polio and several other picornaviruses were solved in the 1980s, and the sequence of many strains determined. The growth cycle involves attachment to a specific receptor found only in Old World monkeys and the higher primates and the viral proteins are synthesized using an internal ribosome entry site in the genome as a single large precursor later cleaved to give the functional viral proteins. The pathogenesis of poliovirus has been intensively studied although many aspects remain poorly understood. Vaccines developed in the 1950s and 1960s are likely to lead to the eradication of the disease in the near future.

Key concepts

Classification of viruses on the basis of sequence comparisons.

History of disease.

Positive strand RNA viruses: classification and recombination between related nonsegmented viruses.

Molecular structure of the picornaviruses.

Receptor site usage and host restriction.

Translation and replication strategies: the internal ribosome entry site.

Pathogenesis of the enteroviruses: localization of replication in different compartments.

Vaccine types, usage and effect in eradication and control programs.
Viruses: Genomes and Genomics
Authors: Williams Çiğdem H , Stanway Glyn 
Published: March 2009

Abstract

The virus genome is the nucleic acid component of a virus which encodes the genetic information. The type of nucleic acid inside the virus particle (
ribonucleic acid
(RNA)/
deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), single/double strands) and whether or not the virus uses reverse transcription during replication are fundamental classifications criteria dividing viruses into seven classes. Even within these classes there is great range of genome sizes and organizations, making viruses highly diverse entities. The usually small size of virus genomes makes them particularly amenable to sequencing, and as high‐throughput methods become more commonplace, virus genomics is becoming increasingly prominent. It promises to provide a wealth of new information on the function of virus proteins and nucleic acid structures, virus evolution and how viruses cause disease, which will underpin the development and monitoring of new therapeutic approaches.
Pathogenic Viruses: Clinical Detection
Authors: Zuckerman Mark 
Published: March 2009

Abstract
The clinical and laboratory diagnosis of the viral aetiology of an individual's illness involves understanding their clinical symptoms and signs, how the host's immune system responds to a viral infection, as well as which diagnostic tests are the most sensitive and specific to detect that virus or the host's immune response. Once the choice of test is made, the correct specimen must be collected and the results of these tests interpreted in the context of the clinical picture.
Polytene Chromosomes
Authors: Zhimulev Igor F , Koryakov Dmitry E 
Published: March 2009

AbstractPolytene chromosomes are specific interphase chromosomes consisting of thousands ofdeoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) strands. For this reason they are very large and display a characteristic band–interband morphology. Polyteny arises in tissues, organs and at developmental stages when there is need for the rapid development of an organ at an unaltered high level of function. Organs containing cells with polytene chromosomes are, as a rule, involved in intense secretory functions accomplished during a short time against a background of rapid growth. Chromosome rearrangements andin situhybridization on polytene chromosomes allow genes to be mapped to a resolution of a few tens of kilobases. Polytene chromosomes allow a specific narrow region to be dissected out with a micromanipulator and a library of DNA clones to be derived from the region.Key concepts:Polytene chromosomes are specific type of interphase chromosomes consisting of thousands of DNA strands.Polytene chromosomes have been found in many tissues of the representatives of two orders of insects: Diptera and Collembola, in the macronuclear anlagen of Infusoria, in certain organs and tissues of mammals and also in the cells of the synergids, antipods and endosperm of angiospermous plants.Polyteny arises in tissues, organs and at developmental stages when there is need for the rapid development of an organ at an unaltered high level of function. Organs containing cells with polytene chromosomes are, as a rule, involved in intense secretory functions accomplished during a short time against a background of rapid growth.Along the linear axis polytene chromosome have variation in the concentration of the chromatin. Regions of high concentrations are known as chromomeres (bands), and regions with low concentrations are known as interchromomeres (interbands).The pattern of bands and interbands in each polytene chromosome is specific for the species, and in general is characteristic of that particular chromosome in different tissues or at different developmental stages.Polytene chromosomes are now considered to be very important objects for the analysis of numerous features of interphase chromosome organization and the genome as a whole.
Lymphocytes: Intraepithelial
Authors: Cheroutre Hilde , Lambolez Florence 
Published: March 2009

Abstract

Intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL) are small, round mononuclear immune cells, which reside in the paracellular space between nonimmune epithelial cells. They are found in the skin and within the epithelial layer that lines the intestine, the biliary tract, the oral cavity, the upper respiratory tract and lungs and the reproductive tract. The largest population of IEL resides within the epithelium of the small intestine where they form the first line of immune defence against invading pathogens while preserving the integrity of the mucosal barrier.

Key concepts

The lymphocytes located in the epithelium are at the frontline between the self and nonself.

The T‐cell populations from the small intestine are the most important in number and the most diverse in the body.

The T‐cell populations from the epithelium often contain unconventional subpopulation such as CD8aa TCRab+ IEL in the intestine.

Introduction of the new concept of agonist selection for self‐specific CD8aa TCRab+ IEL.

Important function of IEL during immune response against pathogens.
Rubisco
Authors: Portis Archie R , Parry Martin AJ 
Published: March 2009

AbstractRubisco, formally known asribulose‐1,5‐bisphosphate (RuBP) carboxylase/oxygenase, is the chloroplast enzyme that assimilates atmospheric carbon dioxide during photosynthesis by combining it with RuBP to form two molecules of phosphoglycerate. However, Rubisco allows oxygen to react with RuBP in addition to carbon dioxide, producing phosphoglycolate, and thereby also initiates the process known as photorespiration. Genetic modification to overcome the limitations of Rubisco would have great agronomic importance.
Heavy Metal Adaptation
Authors: Herrera‐Estrella Luis Rafael , Guevara‐García Angel Arturo 
Published: March 2009

Abstract

Fifty‐three chemical elements fall into the category of heavy metal (HM) defined as the group of elements with densities higher than 5 g cm
−3
. In an ecological sense, any metal or metalloid that causes environmental pollution or that cannot be biologically degraded and is therefore bioaccumulated, should be considered as an HM. HMs are natural components of the Earth's crust, but as a consequence of human activities, in many ecosystems the soil concentration of several HMs has reached toxic levels. The adaptative responses of living organisms to HM contamined environments are efficient processes that include genetical, physiological, anatomical and ecological traits highly conserved in nature. These traits give certain species the ability to survive in toxic concentrations of HM elements. Actually, using multidisciplinary strategies including genomic, genetic, molecular, biochemical, physiological, ecological and agronomic approaches, substantial progress is being made to elucidate the mechanism involved in HM adaptation.
Oxidative Stress
Authors: Fridovich Irwin 
Published: March 2009

AbstractRespiring organisms derive multiple benefits from molecular oxygen. However, some fraction of the oxygen used is unavoidably converted to dangerous substances such as the superoxide radical (O2−), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and the hydroxyl radical (HO). These intermediates of oxygen reduction threaten the integrity of diverse biological molecules and hence the life of cells and organisms. The seeming comfort of aerobes in the presence of oxygen is due to their content of multilayered defences against these reactive metabolites of oxygen. There are superoxide dismutases that eliminate O2−by efficiently converting it to oxygen and H2O2. There are catalases that eliminate H2O2by dismuting it into water plus oxygen and there are also peroxidases that eliminate H2O2and organic peroxides by reducing them to H2O2and to alcohols, respectively. Removing O2−and H2O2prevents the formation of HO. However, no defence is perfect so backing up these frontline defences, that in large measure prevent oxidative damage, are others that repair the damage caused by the reactive derivatives of oxygen and, when that is not possible, eliminate the damaged molecules and replace them with newly synthesized ones.Key concepts:The spin restriction facing oxygen reduction that favours the univalent pathway of oxygen reduction.Superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicalare intermediates on the univalent pathway.These intermediates are reactive and can cause damage.Defences are essential and have been evolved.Superoxide dismutases protect against superoxide by converting it to hydrogen peroxide plus oxygen.There are superoxide dismutases that contain copper plus zinc, manganese, iron or nickel at their active sites.Catalases protect against hydrogen peroxide by converting it to oxygen plus water.There catalases with haem iron at the active site and others with manganese.Peroxidases protect against hydrogen peroxide and against organic peroxides by reducing them to water and to alcohols, respectively.Removing both superoxide and hydrogen peroxide prevents the formation of hydroxyl radical.Oxidative stress contributes to multiple pathologies and to normal aging.
Physical Maps of Chromosomes
Authors: Ussery David W 
Published: March 2009

Abstract

Physical maps of chromosomes are a way of visualizing the entire chromosome in a single figure. Physical maps can come in a variety of formats, including actual photographs of chromosomes, genetic maps where the relative locations of genes are mapped, restriction maps showing the location of restriction enzyme cutting sites along the
deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), and finally maps based on the known DNA sequence along the entire chromosome.
Autoimmune Disease: Treatment
Authors: Kalden Joachim R , Burkhardt Harald 
Published: March 2009

AbstractIn recent years, substantial progress has been made in understanding the mechanisms of inflammation and autoimmunity, providing new targets for the development of new treatment principles. Tumour necrosis factor α (TNFα) antagonists have been proven as a major progress in the treatment of different rheumatic and chronic inflammatory bowel diseases. The interleukin 1 (IL‐1) receptor antagonist has considerably improved our medication for the systemic juvenile arthritis and periodic fever syndromes, an anti‐IL‐6 receptor monoclonal antibody might be of value as well as abatacept, a cytotoxity lymphocyte‐associated antigen 4Ig (CTLA‐4Ig) fusion protein for the treatment of patients with rheumatic diseases who do not respond to TNF antagonists. The same is true for rituximab, a chimeric anti‐CD20 antibody.Key conceptsMode of action and indications for the treatment with traditional and new (cyclooxygenase II, COX‐II, inhibitors), Nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).Mode of action and indications of steroids for the treatment of autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases.Disease modifying and immunosuppressive drugs, there are different modes of action.The limitation of surgical approaches in the treatment of autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases such as thymectomy, splenectomy and synovectomy.The limitation of radiotherapy and total lymphoid irradiation for the treatment of autoimmune diseases.The limitation of plasmapheresis and leucapheresis as treatment principles for autoimmune diseases.Cellular and juvenile targets for immune intervention in autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases.Biologics for the treatment of autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases, modes of actions.Monoclonal antibodies and fusion proteins for targeting T cells, B cells, cytokines and adhesion molecules.Mechanisms that could help to reestablish self‐tolerance as well as the ultimate therapeutic goal in autoimmune diseases.
Genetic Variation: Human
Authors: Hollox Edward J 
Published: March 2009

Abstract

Many different types of genetic variation can be observed in the
deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) of modern humans. Nevertheless, humans have relatively little genetic variation compared with many other species, suggesting a recent common origin for

Homo sapiens

. Some of this variation may have functional consequences, for example in disease states and complex characters such as stature or intelligence, but much variation in DNA appears to be neutral.
Antiprotozoan Drugs
Authors: Fivelman Quinton L , Yardley Vanessa , Sutherland Colin J 
Published: March 2009

Abstract

Parasitic diseases caused by unicellular protozoa account for a huge burden of morbidity, mortality and economic deprivation across the globe. Current drugs for the treatment of such infections, particularly malaria, trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis, are inadequate and new therapies are being sought. A review of currently available therapies for protozoal infections of medical importance is presented. Potential new treatments in the drug development pathway are also discussed. There are no registered vaccines available for any protozoal diseases, and only in the case of malaria are there candidate vaccines that have passed beyond Phase I clinical trials.

Key concepts

Understand the worldwide problem of parasitic protozoa and how they cause disease.

Understand the range of treatments available and which is best for a specific disease.

Understand the range of antimalarials available and their basic history.

Understand the limited treatment options available against other coccidian parasites such as
Toxoplasma
and
Cryptosporidium
.

Understand the therapies available for trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis.

Understand the new therapies against parasitic protozoa currently under development.

Understand the various options available in the design and development of vaccines against malaria and other parasitic protozoa.
Floral Meristems
Authors: Schneitz Kay , Balasubramanian Sureshkumar 
Published: March 2009

Abstract
Meristems refer to a group of undifferentiated dividing cells that are responsible for the formation of plant organs. Floral meristems are a group of dividing cells that give rise to flowers. The formation of a floral meristem and its subsequent fate are under both environmental and molecular control. Several exogenous environmental factors and a complex network of genes control this process.
Trichomes
Authors: Hülskamp Martin , Schellmann Swen 
Published: March 2009

Abstract
A ‘trichome’ (or hair) is an outgrowth derived from the shoot or root epidermis of a plant. Form and distribution of trichomes differ between plant species or genera, but molecular work reveals common regulatory pathway for development of different trichome types within the same plant species and possibly also across plant species.
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Authors: Schur Peter H 
Published: March 2009

Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus is a chronic inflammatory disease of unknown cause which can affect the skin, joints, kidneys, lungs, nervous system, serous membranes and other organs in the body, in various combinations, especially in young women, and which is characterized by immune abnormalities, in particular antibodies to nuclear constituents. Treatment is based both on preventive measures, alleviation of symptoms, but in particular anti‐inflammatory agents including nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs, corticosteroids and immunosuppressive medications.
The Aetiologic Spectrum of Cerebellar Ataxia: Inherited Causes of Ataxia
Authors: Todd Peter K , Taylor J Paul 
Published: March 2009

Abstract

Cerebellar ataxia is a frequent finding among patients seen in neurological practice and may result in a wide variety of aetiologies, both acquired and genetic. Inherited ataxia is a large and important subgroup of the ataxic disorders, and includes metabolic ataxias, autosomal recessive degenerative ataxias, autosomal dominant spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs), X‐linked and maternally inherited ataxias. Hereditary ataxia is reviewed in this article and acquired ataxias are covered in the accompanying article.

Hereditary conditions
account for the majority of ataxic syndromes in children and one‐third to one‐half of patients with adult‐onset ataxic syndromes. Classification by mode of inheritance is a useful way of organizing the hereditary ataxias for both clinical and research purposes, and this approach will be used in this article.

Key Concepts

Understand that there are a wide variety of different inherited causes of ataxia.

Some patients without a family history of ataxia still have the disorder on the basis of a genetic mutation.

Nucleotide expansion disorders are a common cause of dominantly inherited cerebellar ataxia. The majority of these diseases result from a toxic gain‐of‐function mechanism and they demonstrate genetic anticipation, wherein intergenerational expansion leads to disease with earlier onset and often more severe symptom.

Friedreich ataxia is the most common inherited cause of ataxia. It results from decreased expression of the Frataxin protein due to a nucleotide repeat expansion in a noncoding region.

A variety of mitochondrial disorders are associated with ataxia as one of the number of neurologic and systemic symptoms. These diseases result from mutations in either nuclear DNA in genes involved in mitochondrial function or in mitochondrial DNA itself.

Wilson disease is a disorder of copper metabolism that can present with dystonia, ataxia or neuropsychiatric symptoms and is also associated with liver failure. Early treatment can be curative.

Defects in DNA repair underlie many childhood onset forms of inherited ataxia.