bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Rape
Authors: Rudrappa Sharmila 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Laws regarding crime are not derived from some universal truth, but are socio‐historically specific, expressing the collective consciousness of societies. Laws regarding rape are a fundamental example of such collective consciousness. From not being a recognizable crime for much of Western history, to now being considered a crime against humanity in certain cases, to the differences that we see that in some nations where victimizers are perceived as perpetrators and therefore criminals, to others where those victimized are held responsible, the legal recognition of rape as a crime is an exegesis on social movements, changing social norms and the processes by which legal reforms emerge. Rape is currently defined as a type of sexual assault, usually involving sexual penetration of the victim without her/ his consent. While the prevalent notion has been that a rapist is some unknown, terrifying man who accosts a woman in some dark alley, the reality is that most perpetrators of rape and sexual violence are known to the victim. That is, perpetrators tend to be acquaintances, family members, or friends of the victims. It is estimated that three out of four American adolescents who were sexually assaulted were victimized by someone they knew (National Institute of Justice 2003).
Rationalization
Authors: Brändle Gaspar 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Human beings are endowed with the ability to reason, a specific feature that has been highlighted throughout the history of eminent thinkers and philosophical movements that have emphasized reason over all other human capacities. From Aristotle in Ancient Greece and his many influences throughout the Middle Ages (for example the vision of faith in rational terms characteristic of the thoughts of St. Thomas Aquinas), to the more radical positions of Descartes and Spinoza that do not support sensory knowledge as true, it has been argued that the only source of human knowledge is reason or, ultimately, the philosophical rationalism of the Enlightenment itself, whose base is the omnipotence and independence of human reason.
Refugees
Authors: Kivisto Peter 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Migration scholars distinguish between labor immigrants and refugees, the former being considered voluntary migrants while the latter are deemed involuntary migrants. It is often difficult to empirically ascertain the extent to which movement either within or across international borders is a matter of choice, or one determined by external forces that are to a large extent beyond the control of the individuals involved. However, a cursory consideration of concrete cases readily reveals a wide range of degrees of freedom. Thus, the IT person leaving the high‐tech sector in Hyderabad for Silicon Valley has a high degree of freedom, while the Tutsi fleeing the genocidal massacres initiated by extremist Hutu nationalists in Rwanda is a forced migrant. Given this reality, the distinction is useful both analytically and at the policy level, for at both the national and international levels immigration policies and refugee policies are treated as distinct. Nevertheless, as will be discussed later, many situations are not nearly so clear‐cut. To recognize this reality, some demographers have sought to introduce interstitial categories to capture those migrants somewhere in the middle of the spectrum, going back to William Petersen's (1958: 261) suggestion that a category called “impelled migration” be introduced to describe situations “where the migrants retain some power to decide whether or not to leave.”
Remittances and Development
Authors: Ratha Dilip , Mohapatra Sanket 
Published: March 2012

AbstractRemittances provide the most tangible link between migration and development. Remittances have proved to be a large and stable resource flow for developing countries. Recorded remittance inflows to developing countries are estimated to have reached $325 billion in 2010, three times the size of official development assistance (Figure 1). The true size of remittances including unrecorded flows through formal and informal channels is likely to be even higher. In many developing countries, these flows exceed foreign direct investment (FDI) and portfolio equity and private debt flows. In Egypt, remittances exceed the revenue from the Suez Canal; in Morocco and Nepal, they exceed tourism revenue; and in Sri Lanka, they exceed tea exports.
Reproductive Tourism
Authors: Martin Lauren Jade 
Published: March 2012

AbstractReproductive tourism refers to a contemporary practice in which people cross political and geographic borders – usually national – in order to access assisted fertility services and reproductive technologies. Such services and technologies includein vitrofertilization (IVF), egg donation, surrogacy, sex selection, and the diagnostic technology called pre‐implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD). These services enable people with infertility issues, single people, and gay and lesbian couples to conceive and bear biologically related children with the assistance of medical technologies and third parties. Some of these services also enable intended parents to reduce the chances of having children with genetic conditions, or to select for certain traits such as sex. Technically, reproductive tourism can also refer more broadly to any kind of cross‐border reproduction or reproductive health care, including adoption, contraception, and abortion. However, in its most popular usage by scholars and in the mainstream media, it typically refers to services involving medically assisted conception, and is often framed as a subset of medical tourism, or travel to obtain health care.
Ressentiment
Authors: Tzanelli Rodanthi 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe termressentimentoriginates in Friedrich Nietzsche's (Leipzig, 1969/1887) historical analysis of morals and describes a constraining sociocultural condition that brews a feeling directed against powerful agents. Nietzsche's French terminology reflects the context in which he developed his theory (nineteenth‐century European concerns about civilization decline, and the nationalization of Franco–German political conflict). The German and French models ofhabitusrationalization served as an ideal type in Elias'sCivilising Process(1982) that forms part of the history of European modernity.Ressentimentcombines an awareness of powerlessness vis‐à‐vis hierarchical power with the hope of an imaginary vengeance to compensate for this impotence. The latter allows space for “transvaluation” to happen, as resentful subjects convince themselves that the desired values of those they resent are worthless. Nietzsche used the example of the Palestinian Jewish rabbis whose “divine role” clashed with the political and physical power of their Roman conquerors. To compensate for this status dissonance, the Jewish nobility constructed their own spiritual values as superior to the material power of their Roman masters.
Romance Tourism
Authors: Williams Erica L. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractRomance tourismis a term that some scholars have used to highlight the romantic, emotional, and intimate connections cultivated between foreign tourists and local men and women in tourist destinations (which are usually in developing countries). Most of the literature on romance tourism is based in the Caribbean. D. Pruitt and S. LaFont (1995) first introduced the concept of romance tourism to distinguish heterosexual male sex work from other prostitution relations in the Caribbean (Kempadoo 1999). The distinction between romance tourism and sex tourism is often split along gendered lines. Sexual/romantic encounters between tourist women and local men are more likely to be referred to as romance tourism, while similar encounters between tourist men and local women are often referred to as “sex tourism.” Men who exchange sexual services for monetary gain in tourist destinations often do not self‐identify as sex workers. These men are referred to as beach boys, island boys, players, gigolos, sanky pankys, hustlers, and other local terms. These terms create a separate discursive space for male actors in Caribbean sex work and a strategy to distance men from the stigma of prostitution. These men's sexual practices are consistent with the construction of Caribbean masculinity in terms of sexual prowess, womanizing, and hypersexuality. For instance, Jacqueline Sanchez‐Taylor (2006) emphasizes how Caribbean men draw upon the stereotype of the “black stud” in their sexual‐affective encounters with foreign women.
Sex Tourism
Authors: Williams Erica L. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractSex tourism is a phenomenon that occurs in various parts of the world, most visibly in Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand and the Philippines, as well as Latin American and Caribbean countries such as the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Colombia, and Brazil. Media coverage generally depicts sex tourists as older, heterosexual, European or North American men who travel to developing countries to have sexual relations with poor women of color, some of whom may even be underage. However, the emergence of scholarly research on sex tourism within the fields of anthropology, sociology, and women's studies has shed new light on the multiple dimensions of this phenomenon. For instance, some research moves beyond a focus on Western men and “third world” women to also include gay sex tourism and female sex tourism; and it also emphasizes concepts such asambiguityandliminalityin sex tourism.
Slave Trade
Authors: Vergès Françoise 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
If we accept the definition that globalization describes the changes in societies and the world economy that are the result of dramatically increased cross‐border trade and cultural exchange, and that it refers to a process whereby an increased portion of economic or other activity is carried out across continental borders, we can subsequently argue that through the slave trade (from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries), a form of globalization operated. Indeed, slave trading implied the connection between different branches of economy (maritime, weaponry, other manufactured goods, agriculture) between continents across the Atlantic Ocean, and in a less intense form in the Indian Ocean. Very diverse cultural and social systems came into contact. The organization of the slave trade had impacts on law, on money, on agreements between powers, on commerce and on culture. Finally, the slave trade led to the circulation of ideas (either justifying this commerce or attacking it), and of cultural practices, beliefs, knowledge and techniques. Its legacies still weigh on the territories on which it developed. It is also still, in the twenty‐first century, an area of debate and controversy on shared responsibility, extent of the crime, and forms of redress and reparation.
Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication
Authors: Polillo Simone 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Over the past decade or so, critics have been simultaneously fascinated and preoccupied by the rise of “electronic money.” For one, Benjamin Cohen ponders whether the multiplication of what he calls “non‐territorial monies,” monies made possible by the electronic revolution, represents a “direct threat to the traditional authority of states” (2006: 179), as the ability of private actors to use new technologies of accounting for and storing value directly challenges the monopoly over money historically enjoyed by the state. Anthropologist Keith Hart (2001), while not dismissive of the destabilizing challenge to state power posed by e‐money, stresses instead its emancipatory potential. Hart thinks that the communication revolution has radically changed the very nature of money: because it is increasingly created outside the purview and control of not just states, but corporations as well, electronic money can thus be “personalized,” turning from an external, alienating object to an expression of one's (credit) history, something over which, potentially, one can exercise some degree of control. Political scientist Eric Helleiner (2003) joins this discussion by cautioning against hasty pronouncements on the replacement of national currencies by e‐money. Yet, because he proposes a theory of money that locates its power in the reduction of transaction costs it makes possible, Helleiner is open to the possibility that new technologies will make private e‐currencies sustainable, widespread, and challenging to state authority.
Sovereignty
Authors: Ieven Bram , Korsten Frans‐Willem 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Although intricately related, the concepts of sovereignty and power should be kept apart. Sovereignty designates a distinct form of political power characterized by its own institutional structures and historical development as well as by its discordant relationship with religion. For this reason one single and concise definition of sovereignty is difficult to provide. Understanding sovereignty means unfolding the historical, conceptual, and institutional components that shaped its meaning and determine its force; and to understand how the concept and practice of sovereignty is being reshaped today under the impetus of globalization we first need grasp the historical emergence of the concept and its different components. Modern political sovereignty has served as a catalyst that regulated the dominant power structures of modernity and with every change in political structures we can see the concept of sovereignty evolving with it (Sassen 2006).
Sport
Authors: Andrews David L. , Mower Ron L. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractAs a multifaceted cultural, social, political, economic, and technological phenomenon, sport has experienced a complex relationship with globalization. This is particularly true at the elite level of sporting endeavor – the focus of this discussion. While the practice of physically‐based, competitive, and expressive game forms has been manifest – albeit in different forms – within virtually all human civilizations, over the past 150 years what were previously highly localized activities have become transformed into a global system of competing sporting spectacles and bodies. Variously described as achievement, corporate, or prolympic sport, the elite sport complex is truly global in scale and scope; efficiently and effectively inserted into the workings of the consumption‐oriented and media‐propelled global capitalist order. Nonetheless, even in its most commercialized, spectacularized, and globalized forms, elite sport retains a capacity to resonate with, and thereby come to represent, the cultures of the local. Although the same local effect can sometimes be discerned within the workings of the music and cinema industries, it is accentuated within the sporting industry largely because sport is a cultural form centered on (physical) contests between individuals or teams, who literally come to embody the constituency they represent every time they enter the playing field. Indeed, it is oftentimes through the formations of the sporting global, that city, regional, and particularly national commitments and affiliations become most materialized in the hearts and minds of the local populace.
Structural Adjustment
Authors: Babb Sarah 
Published: March 2012

AbstractStructural adjustment refers to a set of related economic policy reforms implemented by developing countries, beginning in the 1980s, with the support of international financial institutions (IFIs), particularly the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF). The term is usually used to refer simultaneously to two distinct types of reforms: short‐term fiscal and monetary policies designed to control inflation and stabilize domestic currencies; and long‐term structural reforms designed to open national economies to market forces, such as removing trade barriers and privatizing state‐owned industries.
Sufism
Authors: Vogel Ann 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Sufism (Arabic
al‐tasawwuf
, meaning purification of the self, and after
suf
, which refers to the wool cloak worn by wandering mystics) is a mystical movement, which emerged around 700–800 in the context of vibrant intellectual networks of theology and philosophy and the political‐religious split that produced Sunni and Shia Islam. Like other mysticisms, Sufism focuses on immediate experience of the divine. Although not generalizable to all Sufi practice, Sufism has come to be associated with ecstatic religious performance and a unique poetic form of mysticism. Sufi mysticism aims at a reunion with Allah, the god of Islam, as a personal religious experience and often asceticism and pilgrimage, including the
hajj
. From its early history onward, it has been both ritualistic (“sober mysticism”) and anti‐ritualistic (“intoxicated mysticism”). But it is mainly in this latter form that Sufis have challenged official Islamic rule and provide a seedbed for popular mobilization particularly where other types of political mobilization are difficult to achieve under the pressure of authoritarian regimes. Sufism has often been incorrectly portrayed as “folk Islam” despite the fact that Sufi mysticism has been part of intellectual and theological discourse and has been embraced by political and social Muslim elites.
Kyoto Protocol
Authors: Rhomberg Markus 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement, which for the first time establishes legally binding limits for 37 industrialized countries on emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (GHG). Over the five‐year period from 2008 to 2012, these amount to an average limit of 5 percent against 1990 levels. As of February 2011, 192 states have signed and ratified the Protocol (UNFCC 2011). This Protocol is linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which was opened for signature during the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. The main objective of the Convention was to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference within the climatic system. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in December 1997 and entered into force in 2005. While the Framework Convention “encouraged” industrialized countries to stabilize GHG emissions, the Kyoto Protocol “commits” them to do so (UNFCC 2011). Thus it provides legally binding emission targets for ratifying countries – targets that are based on a five‐year budget period. It contains commitments in three areas: binding emission reduction targets for industrialized countries; a requirement for these countries to implement or further elaborate appropriate policies and measures; and provisions that reaffirm and seek to advance the implementation of certain commitments that pertain to all Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) parties. And it also allows for flexibility mechanisms in the international context by “providing for the use of emissions trading and other market‐based mechanisms, including a mechanism for cooperative projects between developed and developing countries” known as the Clean Development Mechanism (Breidenich et al. 1998: 319).
Nuclear arms control
Authors: Blanton Shannon Lindsey , Dickson Drew D. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractNuclear arms control is the regulation of arms levels, with limitations on the spread of weapons or restrictions on their use. As 2010 began, there were approximately 7560 operational nuclear weapons. Of these, the United States maintained 2468; Russia, 4630; France, 300; China, 200; Great Britain, 160; Israel, Pakistan, and India maintained some number between 60 and 80 (SIPRI 2010). Although some believe the continued spread of nuclear weapons may produce global peace akin to the stability maintained by Cold War superpower nuclear arsenals, others worry that the threat of nuclear confrontation only increases as the number of nuclear‐armed actors grows (Sagan & Waltz 2002; Rosen 2006).
Protectionism
Authors: Chorev Nitsan 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Protectionism refers to the principles and practices that restrict the entry of imported commodities into the local market in order to shield domestic industries from foreign competition. Common protectionist practices include tariffs, which make imported goods more costly than their domestically produced counterparts, and quotas, which restrict the amount of volume or value of imports allowed. Policies such as subsidies or licensing requirements, which give advantage to local products and create “non‐tariff barriers to trade,” are also considered protectionist. Some believe that trade restrictions based on environmental, health or social considerations also fall under the category of protectionist policies.
Public Debate
Authors: Rhomberg Markus 
Published: March 2012

AbstractResearch on public debates is especially interested in the interpretation of rules in the public sphere, the behaviors and arguments of certain actors, constellations of actors (for example discourse‐coalitions), and the issues that are discussed in the public arena. This holds true for the nation‐state concept of public debates as well as for the idea of a global public debate. Ideas on how to transfer the original nation‐state model to a transnational and even global scale are widespread and heterogeneous: the common core concept is that public spheres in modern societies are no longer differentiated by national borders but by issues and the debate of certain issues in specific arenas. On the one hand, such issues could be located on a smaller level (local, regional); on the other the hand, some issues are predestined to integrate different nations or a continent in one debate, for example the European debate about the enlargement of the European Union or the Lisbon‐Contract. These examples show that issues dealing with the institutions of the EU in particular have the ability to establish a transnational debate within that continent.
War on Terror: Humanitarian and Human Rights Issues
Authors: Nagan Winston P. , Haddad Aitza M. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
After World War I the status of former German colonies was negotiated, and the colonies were placed under the League of Nations Mandate System. This was intended to ensure the well‐being of their peoples and expanded the idea of an international obligation to protect the rights and well‐being of dependent people. After World War II, the processes of decolonization and self‐determined independence further affirmed this trend. A central postwar issue was the radical depreciation of human rights and humanitarian values that had taken place during the war and was seen in the rise of the idea of unlimited sovereignty. Unlimited sovereignty betokened an abuse of sovereignty. This was reflected in the practices of totalitarian regimes such as Nazi Germany, which abused its sovereignty in seeking to industrialize the business of mass murder. The Nazis were not the only abusers. Professor Rudi Rummel (1994: 9) has indicated that in the twentieth century, as many as 170 million people were murdered by sovereigns, political groups, and claimants to sovereignty. State absolutism fueled by authoritarian, totalitarian, or chauvinist ideologies has indeed created a crisis of legitimacy for the paradigm of international relations and legal order based on the juridical artifact symbolized by the treaty of Westphalia: the sovereign nation‐state. Sovereignty is not a license to kill, to make war, to commit crimes against the peace, to disparage essential, basic human rights, to despoil the ecosystem, to reduce human aspirations to the whims of caprice, avarice, or arbitrary expedience flowing from the barrel of a gun, or to strip human beings of all vestiges of essential dignity. This entry focuses on the problems of the war on terrorism and its implications for the integrity of humanitarian values and values based on human rights.