bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Perceptual Development
Authors: Monesson Alexandra , Scott Lisa S. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractParents, educators, and researchers alike often question how infants and children learn to organize and interpret things they see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. The study of perceptual development examines how the use of the five senses changes over time as well as how information perceived in the environment shapes later perceptual abilities. There are several present‐day theories of perceptual development that differ in their views of the nature of the information available to infants' sensory systems (see Gibson & Pick, 2000, for a review). For example, some view sensory information as crude and insufficient for perception, and they suggest that the first step is to actively construct a representation of the external world. Another view, the ecological approach, considers sensory information as rich and well organized, in addition to assuming reciprocal interaction between the environment and the perceiver. The present review highlights the fundamentals of perceptual development, and it suggests that this development is best viewed as a bidirectional interaction between maturational factors and experience.
Personality Assessment
Authors: Weiner Irving B. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Personality assessment is the use of psychological assessment procedures to identify personality characteristics of individuals. These personality characteristics consist of various traits and states. Personality traits are abiding dispositions of people to think, feel, and act in certain ways, to deal with situations in a fairly consistent and predictable manner, and to conduct themselves in a distinctive fashion. When people are asked to describe someone (as in “What is this person like?”), the words they use (e.g., friendly, quiet, self‐centered, generous, grouchy) typically identify personality traits. Personality states consist of what people are thinking and the mood they are in at the moment, as in paying close or little attention, being worried or unconcerned, feeling happy or sad, or being anxious, angry, fearful, relaxed, bored, or enthusiastic.
Personality Development
Authors: Robins Richard W. , Donnellan M. Brent 
Published: January 2010

AbstractPersonality refers to an individual's stable tendencies to think, feel, and act in particular ways. The field of personality development focuses on the age at which these tendencies first emerge in childhood, the role of nature (genes) and nurture (environment) in their development, and their patterns of consistency and change across the life span. In this entry, we summarize the most recent findings and conclusions emerging from the field.
Personality Psychology
Authors: Robins Richard W. , Donnellan M. Brent 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Personality psychology focuses on understanding individual variability in people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors: why is one person shy and another sociable, one person irritable and another even‐tempered, and one person reliable and another irresponsible? One of the hallmarks of the field is that such questions are investigated at multiple levels of analysis, from genes to sociocultural contexts. Consequently, personality researchers use a broad array of methods, including self‐report questionnaires, computerized tasks, behavioral observation, brain imaging, and DNA analyses. Individuals trained in personality psychology work at universities, private and federal research institutes, test‐publishing companies, organizational consulting firms, and government agencies such as the CIA.
Pheromones
Authors: Sorensen Peter W. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractForty years ago, Karlson and Lüscher (1959) coined the termpheromoneto describe chemicals that are “excreted to the outside by an individual and received by a second individual of the same species in which they release a specific reaction.” They created this term for bombykol, the first conspecific attractant to be identified in an insect (the silkworm). Since the structure elucidation of this long‐chain alcohol, hundreds of pheromones have been identified, and it is now commonly accepted that most animals (with the possible exception of birds and marine mammals) use chemicals released by conspecifics to mediate various social interactions. Frequently, these conspecific chemicals are found in precise mixtures that are discerned at very low concentrations with great specificity, sometimes exerting subtle effects that seem to go beyond the original definition (e.g., kin recognition). Nevertheless, the termpheromoneremains in common usage, and it is now used to describe almost any chemical cue that mediates intraspecies communication and to which organisms are predisposed to respond.
Phi Coefficient
Authors: Wearden Stanley 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The phi (
φ
) coefficient was proposed by George Utney Yule in 1912 as an index of association between two dichotomous variables. The
φ
statistic is particularly useful to many research workers because it is the familiar product‐moment correlation when computed for data from a bivariate binomial distribution. When such data are organized in a fourfold table, the coefficient is most easily computed as

urn:x-wiley:9780470479216:media:corpsy0677:xm1
Premenstrual Syndrome
Authors: Stubbs Margaret L. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is commonly understood to refer to a cluster of unpleasant physical and psychological symptoms that may be experienced prior to menstruation. Identified symptoms include bloating, breast tenderness, backache, muscle or joint pain, trouble with sleeping, acne, food cravings, irritability, mood swings, anxiety, and depression. The onset of menstruation is said to diminish symptom experience, and the cause of PMS is often described as related to the changing hormone levels of the menstrual cycle. The American Psychiatric Association (2000) includes premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) as a diagnostic category in the fourth edition of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR) to refer to an extreme form of PMS, which is asserted to affect 3–8% of women.
Pride
Authors: Tracy Jessica L. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractPride is a self‐conscious emotion that fuels many of our most meaningful achievements, both everyday and life‐changing. Like all self‐conscious emotions, pride is experienced when individuals direct their attention inward and make a self‐evaluation. As a positive emotion, pride occurs when these self‐evaluations result in positive views of the self, that is, when individuals realize that their current self‐representations fit with their goals for their identity—the kind of person they want to be. Thus, students experience pride after receiving a good grade, children after succeeding at a new task, and adults after finding a mate. Adults feel pride in response to a promotion at work, their child's first steps, or their partner's love. Indeed, pride seems to fuel several fundamental human pursuits: the desire to achieve, to attain power and status, to meet an attractive and intelligent romantic partner, to feel good about one's self and one's social group, and to raise successful and well‐behaved children.
Psychoanalysis
Authors: Rangell Leo 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Psychoanalysis is a theory of the mind and a method derived from that theory to treat mental disturbances. It had its origins in the discoveries and formulations developed over some 50 years by its creator, Sigmund Freud, a neurologist, neuroanatomist, and neuropathologist living in Vienna, who had an inquiring mind about the nature of mental processes. Freud was born in 1856. During a travel grant at the famous Salpetriere Clinic in Paris for 4 months in 1885–1886, under the noted French neurologist Charcot, the young physician came to learn from his mentor, via now‐classic experiments in hypnosis, that ideas can instill and then remove and abolish the central features of hysteria.
Psychological Health
Authors: Shapiro Deane H. , Santerre Craig , Shapiro Shauna L. , Astin John A. , Shapiro Josh D. , Huston Jena 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
All psychotherapeutic systems have a vision of psychological health rooted in and stemming from their view of human nature. The goal of therapy is to develop interventions that, based on each orientation's personality theory, remove obstacles and barriers and develop awareness, insights, skills, and abilities that enhance a person's psychological health (Shapiro, 1983).
Psychology of Women
Authors: Stake Jayne E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The psychology of women is a subdiscipline of the field of psychology with the primary goal of understanding and improving the lives of girls and women through improved research, methods of practice, and dissemination of knowledge about sex and gender. The psychology of women does not encompass all theory and research about women; instead, it includes only that which is undertaken from the epistemological perspectives and principles of feminism. This area of psychology was spurred by serious limitations in psychological theory and research that date back to the inception of psychology in the late 1890s. During these early years of psychology, male pioneers in the field, such as Francis Galton and William James, held firm opinions of the temperamental and intellectual inferiority of women (Rosenberg, 1982). Along with most of the general public at the time, these early psychologists presumed that gender differences were large in magnitude, inherited, and immutable. To further illustrate misogyny within the field, women were excluded from many educational and professional opportunities in the early decades of psychology. In one striking example, Mary Whiton Calkins was denied a doctorate from Harvard even though she achieved all requirements for the degree, and she went on to have a distinguished research and teaching career.
Psychometrics
Authors: Geisinger Kurt F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The field of psychometrics generally considers the data from educational and psychological tests and assessments from a quantitative perspective. Such data normally emerge from test responses, although they may come from a wide variety of measurement instruments. Two divisions might be identified within psychometrics: theoretical and applied psychometrics. Psychometric theory (as portrayed by Embretson & Reise, 2000; Lord, 1980; McDonald, 1999; Nunnally, 1978) provides researchers and psychologists with mathematical models to be used in considering responses to individual test items, entire tests, and sets of tests. Applied psychometrics is the implementation of these models and their analytic procedures to test data (e.g., Thorndike, 1982).
Psychopharmacology
Authors: Bruce Timothy J. , Alahi Peter 
Published: January 2010

AbstractPsychopharmacology, from the Greekpsychemeaning “soul,”pharmakonmeaning “drug,” andlogosmeaning “knowledge,” is the study of drugs that affect mood, cognition, and behavior. The field encompasses a range of topics including drug composition, properties, effects, interactions, toxicity, and therapeutic application (Stahl & Muntner, 2008). Two fundamental divisions of basic research in psychopharmacology are pharmacokinetics, what the body does to medication, and pharmacodynamics, what medication does to the body (Tozer & Rowland, 2006). Understanding these actions and the functions controlled by the affected neurotransmitter systems has advanced the field of psychopharmacotherapy, the clinical application of psychopharmacology for the treatment of mental and emotional problems (Janicak, Davis, Preskorn, Ayd, & Pavuluri, 2006).
Racism
Authors: Augoustinos Martha 
Published: January 2010

AbstractAlthough many definitions of racism have been proposed, an all‐inclusive definition has yet to be agreed on, particularly as researchers have identified a variety of racisms (Miles & Brown, 2003; Richards, 1997). Central to many definitions of racism is the belief in a biological hierarchy between different racial and ethnic groups and the associated practices that maintain and reproduce social inequalities between groups based on such beliefs. The belief that differences between social groups are biological implies that such variability is fundamental and fixed. These essentialist beliefs lead to the categorization of people into groups based on assumptions that surface characteristics (e.g., skin color) reflect deeper essential features, and these in turn are believed to be inherent and unchangeable and to reflect the real nature of the groups they represent. These ideas were central to scientific racism, which was widely promoted as an ideology in the late nineteenth century and the earlier half of the twentieth century.
Rater Error
Authors: Thomas Jay C. , Meeke Heidi 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Rater errors are systematic biases affecting the distribution of assigned ratings or the construct validity of ratings, typically in the context of performance rating or grading. Rater errors that influence the distribution of ratings include leniency and severity errors and central tendency errors. Leniency and severity errors are the tendency to assign predominantly high or low ratings on a scale; central tendency error derives from a propensity to avoid assigning extreme values, which leaves most ratings near the middle of the scale. Such errors can reduce utility of ratings for decision making. For example, if raises or bonuses are contingent upon ratings and if almost all employees are rated near the top, it becomes impossible to apply contingency. In research, it is feared that these errors can restrict the range of measures, thereby reducing effect sizes.
Rationality
Authors: Krueger Joachim I. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractWith the study of human cognition comes the question of how well people can reason, and any answer requires standards with which observed cognitive performance can be compared. Cognition that does not meet these a priori standards is considered irrational. The Socratic philosophers held that rationality prevails unless disrupted by instincts, appetites, or emotions. They believed that only rational thought, but not momentary affect, can determine the best course of action. People are being irrational when they act against their own best interest, rationally defined. This conflict theory pervades Western philosophy and psychology. Of the topics for psychological research it has inspired, delay of gratification and temporal discounting are good examples. The theory holds that the rational mind takes the long‐term view of the organism's well‐being, whereas irrational forces demand rapid gratification. Although discounting of the future is not by itself irrational, its steep hyperbolic nature is. It is incoherent to prefer $50 now to $100 in a year, while at the same time preferring $100 in two years over $50 in a year (Ainslie, 2001).
Repertory Grid Methods
Authors: Neimeyer Robert A. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Developed within personal construct theory, repertory grid methods represent a diverse set of techniques for studying personal and interpersonal systems of meaning. Because of their flexibility, repertory grids (or
repgrids
) have been used in approximately 3,500 studies of a broad variety of topics, such as children's understandings of physical science principles, consumer preferences, formal structures of self‐reflection within cognitive science, and the mutual validation of belief systems between friends. However, their most consistent area of application has probably been in the clinical domain, where grids have been used to assess the properties of meaning systems of different groups of persons (e.g., those diagnosed as thought disordered or agoraphobic) and how these change over the course of treatment. With the publication of recent manuals on repgrid methods that illustrate their applications in both business and clinical settings, their use might be expected to increase in the years to come.
Residential Treatment
Authors: Leichtman Martin 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Residential treatment is a class of inpatient therapeutic program that is based on the assumption that the milieu of the institution and the conduct of daily life within it are the critical components of treatment. When used in a narrow sense, the term typically designates programs for children and adolescents who exhibit severe psychiatric problems and whose families cannot manage them in the community. When used broadly, it has also been applied to group homes and other out‐of‐home placements for a wider clientele, including delinquent, dependent, and neglected children. Although associated chiefly with programs for children, the concept of residential treatment is similar to that of the therapeutic community and other forms of milieu therapy for adults (Almond, 1974). Moreover, as financial support for intermediate‐ and long‐term hospitalization has evaporated in the past two decades, the term has been used increasingly to designate less intensive 24‐hour care programs for adults.
Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test
Authors: Poreh Amir 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) is one of the first commercially available tests for the assessment of memory. It was originally published in 1907 by Édouard Claparède, a renowned Swiss psychologist, and was called the
Test de Mémoire des Mots
(Test of Memory for Words; Claparède, 1919). In this test, the examinee was read a list of 15 words and was then asked to immediately recall them. Claparède published three alternate lists of the 15 words (Series A, B, and C) and later had the lists translated into German, Italian, and Spanish (Boake, 2000).
Rorschach Inkblot Method
Authors: Weiner Irving B. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe Rorschach Inkblot Method (RIM) is a psychometrically sound performance‐based personality assessment instrument that consists of 10 inkblots printed individually on 6¾‐ by 9¼‐inch cards. Five of these blots are printed in shades of gray and black; two of the blots are in shades of red, gray, and black; and the remaining three blots are in shades of various pastel colors. The RIM is administered by showing people the cards one at a time and asking them to say what they see in them (“What might this be?”). In a second phase of the examination, respondents are asked to indicate where in the blots they saw each of their percepts and what made the percepts look as they did. The basic premise underlying Rorschach assessment is that how people look at the inkblots says something about how they look at the world, and the way people look at the world says something about the kind of person they are.
Sadomasochistic Personality
Authors: Novick Jack , Novick Kerry Kelly 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe termsadomasochismusually refers to a sexual perversion, an attachment or addiction to pain with or without sexual excitement, and a personality type. Early in the history of psychoanalysis, Freud wrote to Jung, “In my practice, I am chiefly concerned with the problem of repressed sadism in my patients; I regard it as the most frequent cause of failure of therapy.…In general, sadism is becoming more and more important to me” (quoted in Novick & Novick, 2007, p. 42). Freud remained intrigued by the complexity of sadomasochism, and each major shift in psychoanalytic theory stemmed directly from his clinical experience with masochistic phenomena. However, by the end of his career, even Freud had to note that “we are specially inadequate” in dealing with masochistic patients (quoted in Novick & Novick, 2007, p. 42).
Sampling Error
Authors: DeMatteo David , Keesler Michael 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Sampling error is the difference between the value of a sample statistic and the corresponding parameter in the population from which the sample was drawn. The idea behind sampling error is that a chosen sample typically does not provide a perfectly accurate representation of the population from which it was selected. The discrepancy, or “error,” between a measurement computed for a sample (which is known as a statistic) and the actual value in the population (which is known as a parameter) is referred to as sampling error. In this context, the term
error
is nonpejorative and refers to the inherent variability found in different samples taken from the same population.
Sampling Methods
Authors: Beins Bernard C. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Psychologists usually test groups of research participants rather than individuals. One goal in creating groups is to select research samples that allow the investigator to generalize research results to the entire population. When results generalize to the population, they are said to show external validity. However, psychological research often involves undergraduate students, so questions arise as to whether the results of the research will generalize beyond the specific sample used in a study. Consequently, sampling methods used to identify research participants are of interest to scientists who study human behavior.
Savant Syndrome
Authors: Heaton Pamela 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The term “idiot‐savant” was first used by Down (1998) to describe a group of rare individuals who, despite severe intellectual impairments, demonstrate impressive skills within specific domains. Published accounts of idiot‐savants appeared as early as the eighteenth century and provided descriptions of extraordinarily skilled performance in music, art, and mental calculation. The phenomenon of the idiot‐savant posed interesting questions about the nature of human intelligence and was frequently invoked in debates about whether humans possess mutiple, independent intelligences or a single global trait (see Nettlebeck & Young, 1996). However, limitations in the extent that intelligence test results inform our understanding of savant skills, along with the rise of cognitive neuropsychology, have motivated a different approach to studying savants, and researchers have increasingly focused on identifying cognitive, perceptual, and memory processes implicated in savant performance (Mottron, Dawson, Soulieres, Hubert & Burack, 2006; Pring, 2005).
School Dropout
Authors: Doll Beth 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
School dropout occurs when students exit from K‐12 schooling without graduating from high school. The failure to earn a high school diploma has been recognized as a serious threat to students' livelihoods since 1950, when, for the first time, more students graduated from high school than did not, and jobs for unskilled laborers began to decline precipitously (Doll & Hess, 2004). Prospective high school dropouts disengage from school as early as the fourth grade with gradually increasing absences and discipline problems and decreasing academic achievement. By middle school or early high school, the students may drop out of school temporarily, return, and then drop out again. Disturbingly, this pattern of school disengagement occurs more often for students who are poor, are from cultural or linguistic minority groups, or have disabilities.