bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Study Design, Measures of Effect, and Sources of Bias
Authors: Nelson Lorene M. , Tanner Caroline M. , Van Den Eeden Stephen K. , McGuire Valerie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses the principles of research study design. It provides an in-depth description of commonly used study designs to address research objectives. It presents information about study designs for descriptive epidemiology (i.e., studies of disease incidence, prevalence, and mortality rates) and analytic epidemiology (i.e., randomized trials, prospective cohort studies, retrospective cohort studies, cross-sectional studies, case-control studies). It describes the measures of effect that reflect the associations between health predictors and neurologic outcomes (odds ratios, relative risks). The second part of the chapter describes common study biases that can adversely affect study validity (sampling error, selection bias, confounding) and how to avoid these biases in the design and conduct of clinical and epidemiological studies.
Alzheimer’s Disease and Vascular Dementia
Authors: Nelson Lorene M. , Tanner Caroline M. , Van Den Eeden Stephen K. , McGuire Valerie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter explores the frequency with which dementing illnesses occur in populations, their distributions by personal characteristics, and what is known about their causes and potential protective factors. The primary focus is on the most common forms of dementia: Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. The chapter summarizes clinical and pathologic features of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia, and highlights recent theories of how risk factors affect brain reserve. With the evolution of the epidemiology of dementia from case-control studies to prospective cohort studies has come a new set of methodological challenges. These include identification of representative populations, enhancing subject participation and retention in studies, the need to include institutionalized as well as community-dwelling populations, the non-standardized use of cognitive tests to screen for dementia, and the complexities of the diagnostic process itself. Finally, the chapter summarizes risk and protective factors for disease expression, including cardiovascular risk factors, lifestyle factors, and factors that affect brain reserve.
Movement Disorders
Authors: Nelson Lorene M. , Tanner Caroline M. , Van Den Eeden Stephen K. , McGuire Valerie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter covers five movement disorders: Parkinson's disease, dystonia, tic disorders, Huntington's disease, and essential tremor. These disorders demonstrate many of the most common challenges encountered in the epidemiologic investigation of movement disorders. Each section includes a description of the disease, followed by a review of descriptive studies (disease incidence, prevalence, and mortality studies), and discussion of genetic and environmental risk factors for the disorder. At the end of each section, directions for future studies are discussed.
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Authors: Nelson Lorene M. , Tanner Caroline M. , Van Den Eeden Stephen K. , McGuire Valerie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), the most common motor neuron disease. It discusses the three major forms of ALS: sporadic ALS, the familial or hereditary form of ALS, and the western Pacific (Mariana Islands) form. Considerable progress has been made in recent years on identifying genetic loci responsible for Mendelian forms of ALS; this evidence is summarized. The potential importance of geographic clusters is discussed, with particular emphasis on the western Pacific form of ALS because it often occurs in association with a parkinsonism and/or dementia complex (PDC). The incidence of Western Pacific ALS peaked and then declined in the mid-20th century, which strongly implicated an environmental cause. The chapter also presents detailed information regarding putative risk factors for sporadic ALS, which includes environmental toxicants, skeletal trauma, cigarette smoking, diet, and vigorous physical activity.
Multiple Sclerosis
Authors: Nelson Lorene M. , Tanner Caroline M. , Van Den Eeden Stephen K. , McGuire Valerie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter provides information on the epidemiology of multiple sclerosis (MS), the most common disabling neurological disease in young adults. It describes the clinical and pathologic features of MS and how these features pose challenges for clinical diagnosis and case definition criteria. Information is provided regarding the descriptive epidemiology of MS, including studies of incidence, prevalence, and temporal trends in MS frequency. Also included is a discussion of the interesting geographical features of the MS distribution, including MS disease clusters, the latitude gradient in disease risk, and migrant studies of individuals who move from high-risk to low-risk regions. Other sections of the chapter cover evidence regarding the infectious etiology of MS, including the important role that Epstein-Barr virus appears to play in disease susceptibility. The role of lifestyle factors is receiving increasing emphasis in MS epidemiologic studies, and evidence is summarized regarding the potential role of cigarette smoking, diet, and hormonal factors.
Brain and Spinal Cord Injury
Authors: Nelson Lorene M. , Tanner Caroline M. , Van Den Eeden Stephen K. , McGuire Valerie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractUp to 50% of all trauma deaths in the United States involve significant injury to the brain or spinal cord. This chapter highlights the public health significance of traumatic brain and spinal cord injury and examines methodological issues in studies of the epidemiology of these injuries. It addresses methodological challenges in epidemiologic and clinical studies of brain and spinal cord injury, including difficulties in case ascertainment, differing approaches to brain injury classification, and measurement issues in brain injury severity and outcome scales. The chapter summarizes scientific literature addressing demographic and lifestyle risk factors for brain injury including age, sex, and alcohol consumption. External causes of traumatic brain and spinal cord injury are also discussed, including transportation-related injuries and increasingly recognized sports-related brain injuries.
Peripheral Neuropathy
Authors: Nelson Lorene M. , Tanner Caroline M. , Van Den Eeden Stephen K. , McGuire Valerie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on peripheral neuropathy, which is the third or fourth most common neurologic disorder, even among the elderly. It begins with a description of the classification system for peripheral neuropathies. Because the underlying etiology or precipitating events of peripheral neuropathy are identifiable for the majority of affected individuals, epidemiologic research has largely focused on descriptive studies of disease frequency or on identifying the factors that modify the influence of the already existing risk factors. Three of the most common neuropathies are covered in detail: diabetic neuropathy, carpal tunnel syndrome, and Guillain–Barré syndrome. Each of these conditions is discussed in terms of distribution and risk factors, and is concluded with a discussion of future research directions to address unanswered questions. The chapter emphasizes methodologic approaches that that could be employed to improve the rigor of studies of these conditions.
Epilepsy
Authors: Nelson Lorene M. , Tanner Caroline M. , Van Den Eeden Stephen K. , McGuire Valerie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter begins with a discussion of the taxonomy of seizure disorders and the clinical features of epilepsy that pose methodological challenges in clinical and epidemiologic studies. Descriptive studies of incidence and prevalence are described for the following seizure types: partial, generalized tonic-clonic, myoclonic, and absence seizures. Risk factors for epilepsy are discussed in the context of case-control and cohort designs, and evidence is summarized regarding the role of non-genetic risk factors (traumatic brain injury, infections, cerebrovascular disease, brain tumors, degenerative CNS diseases, and developmental deficits). The chapter discusses factors associated with prognosis and mortality of epilepsy, as well as common causes of death in epilepsy patients. The final section addresses evidence for familial aggregation and genetic causes of seizures.
Health Services Research in Neurology
Authors: Nelson Lorene M. , Tanner Caroline M. , Van Den Eeden Stephen K. , McGuire Valerie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter covers the principles of health services research, which is critical for understanding and reducing the burden of neurological disease across populations. The goal of neurologic health services research is to create a scientific basis for measurably improving the care that is provided to patients with both chronic and acute neurological conditions. It is multi-disciplinary research that draws on the expertise of neurologists trained in clinical research methods, economists, biostatisticians, epidemiologists, sociologists, and other social scientists. Typical sources of data for health services research studies are surveys and interviews, medical records, and administrative data sets. Most health services researchers employ a combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods, and they work in collaboration with health care administrators and organizations in which health care is provided in the US. The chapter encompasses the design and execution of studies of access to care, quality of care and outcomes research, effectiveness, and cost-effectiveness.
The Quantitative Assessment of Neighborhood Social Environments
Authors: Raudenbush Stephen W. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractAs interest in the social sciences and public health increasingly turns to the integration of individual, family, and neighborhood processes, a potential mismatch arises in the quality of measures. Standing behind individual measurement are decades of research, producing measures that often have excellent statistical properties. In contrast, much less is known about measures of ecological settings such as neighborhoods, and the methodology needed to evaluate these measures is in its infancy. This chapter aims to adapt tools from psychometrics to improve the quality of ecometric measures. An extension to the approach sketched in the chapter would take into account spatial autocorrelation. Neighborhood clusters have been treated as independent. Ongoing work will build spatial associations into the models presented here.
Geocoding and Measurement of Neighborhood Socioeconomic Position: A U.S. Perspective
Authors: Krieger Nancy , Zierler Sally , Hogan Joseph W. , Waterman Pamela , Chen Jarvis , Lemieux Kerry , Gjelsvik Annie 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on conceptual and methodologic issues germane to public health monitoring in the United States. Many of the concepts, methods, and questions, however, are likely to be relevant to other countries as well as to etiologic studies of neighborhood effects on health and other aspects of well-being. It argues that data on the socioeconomic characteristics of neighborhoods—whether compositional or contextual—can be useful for describing and monitoring social inequalities in health.
Neighborhoods and Infectious Diseases
Authors: Fullilove Mindy Thompson 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter focuses on a series of neighborhood-level social/structural processes that have influenced the spread of HIV, syphilis, gonorrhea, and tuberculosis in the United States. Through the lens offered by three highly social processes, it examines the ways in which fundamental causes of disease, in the sense proposed by Link and Phelan (1995), contribute to the propagation of infectious disease agents and cases of infection. The chapter focuses on the local construction of sex and drug scenes, disruption in neighborhood cohesion, and the “redlining” of epidemics that are concentrated in marginalized communities.
Residential Segregation and Health
Authors: Acevedo-Garcia Dolores , Lochner Kimberly A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines research on racial segregation and health. It argues that both theoretically and empirically, research on neighborhood effects needs to relate neighborhood characteristics to broader social processes such as class segregation, racial/ethnic segregation, and residential mobility. So far, U.S. research on segregation and health has not addressed this type of question. Multilevel studies that assume that neighborhoods do not occur in isolation but are influenced by their metropolitan area may enrich the research on neighborhoods and health.
Neighborhoods and Networks: The Construction of Safe Places and Bridges
Authors: Berkman Lisa F. , Clark Cheryl 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the role of neighborhoods in the structure and functioning of networks. It also aims to classify communities as lost, saved, or liberated based on the structure and function of networks and the extent to which these networks are geographically bounded. It considers two very different communities: gay and lesbian communities in cities and inner-city African-American communities. Men and women living in urban communities today normally have ties within their neighborhoods and across the city. Networks are both local and nonlocal. In this way, gay men and lesbians and African Americans are much like other urban dwellers. Both groups, however, invest a great deal in nurturing local relationships and sharing a common space, perhaps more so than many other urban groups.
Control of Infectious Diseases: A Twentieth-Century Public Health Achievement
Authors: Levitt Alexandra M. , Drotman D. Peter , Ostroff Stephen 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe marked decline in infectious-disease-associated mortality that took place in the United States during the first half of the 20th century contributed to the sharp drop in infant and child mortality and the more than thirty-year average increase in life expectancy over the past 100 years. The 19th-century discovery that microorganisms are the cause of many diseases led to substantial improvements in sanitation and hygiene, formulations of vaccinations, development of diagnostic tests, and the introduction of antibiotics. Despite this overall progress, devastating pandemics of infectious diseases occurred during the 20th century including the influenza in 1918 and human immunodeficiency virus first recognized in 1981. This chapter reviews major 20th-century achievements in the control of infectious diseases in the United States and ends with a discussion of challenges for the 21st century.
Advances in Food Safety to Prevent Foodborne Diseases in the United States
Authors: Tauxe Robert V. , Esteban Emilio J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn the United States, the current food supply is broader and far safer than it was 100 years ago. At the start of the 20th century, contaminated foods frequently caused botulism, typhoid fever, septic sore throat, and trichinosis, diseases that now rarely occur. Along with drinking water treatment, sewage sanitation, and pasteurization, food-safety measures have become routine; these measures have been developed and initiated in response to specific public health threats and are continually evolving. The shift of the U.S. food supplies from small local farms to huge global agribusinesses has opened new niches for pathogens, as well as the potential for more systematic disease prevention. The methods public health authorities use to detect, investigate, and understand these public health threats have also advanced over the last century. This chapter, which addresses the progress achieved in the field of food safety, serves to support the continuing effort to make food safer.
A Shot at Protection: Immunizations Against Infectious Disease
Authors: Hinman Alan R. , Orenstein Walter A. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Edward Jenner, an 18th century English physician, observed that milkmaids who had recovered from cowpox, did not have the facial scars of smallpox. In 1796, he demonstrated that inoculation of a susceptible individual with material from a cowpox lesion protected against smallpox. The next vaccination (against rabies) was introduced 100 years later. The pace of vaccine introduction then increased with a marked acceleration in the introduction of new vaccines in the last years of the 20th century. The widespread use of vaccines has had a dramatic impact on the occurrence of infectious diseases in the United States. This chapter describes the progress made as a result of immunization as well as the challenges remaining to realize the full current and future potential of immunizations. It focuses on smallpox, poliomyelitis, and measles, and briefly addresses other vaccine-preventable diseases of childhood.
Safe Mothers, Healthy Babies: Reproductive Health in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Kotelchuck Milton 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe decline of infant and maternal mortality represents one of the greatest public health achievements of the 20th century. From 1900 through 2000, infant mortality in the United States declined dramatically from estimated 10,000–15,000 deaths to 690 deaths per 100,000 births; similarly, maternal mortality declined from an estimated 600–900 deaths to under ten deaths per 100,000 births. Reductions in both morbidity and mortality have improved the lives of parents and children and have altered expectations for women. Public health actions to improve sanitation, maternal hygiene, nutrition, and prenatal care played a central role in the transformation of reproductive health in the 20th century. This chapter describes decade by decade the evolving concepts and debates about the causes of infant and maternal mortality, the initiatives to ameliorate them, the institutionalization of the major public health advances, and the resulting epidemiologic transformations in the United States.
Saving Babies and Mothers: Pioneering Efforts to Decrease Infant and Maternal Mortality
Authors: Wolf Jacqueline H. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the efforts of late-19th and early-20th century reformers to lower infant and maternal mortality in the United States. Earlier fatalistic attitudes toward infant and maternal mortality shifted to the view that all premature deaths were inexcusable, prompting assertive state toward setting and maintaining minimal living standards. The chapter focuses in particular on the efforts to lower infant death from diarrhea via dual campaigns, one to encourage mothers to breastfeed and the other to regulate the dairy industry. It also discusses the successful work of home-birth and lying-in dispensaries to lower the maternal mortality rate by providing free obstetric care to the poor and training physicians in the art of obstetrics.
The More Things Change: A Historical Perspective on the Debate over Vitamin Advertising in the United States
Authors: Apple Rima D. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Vitamin supplements have been popular from the time the micronutrients were discovered in the early 20th century. Popular news media and advertisements promoted vitamins as crucial for two critical concerns: vitamin supplements insured that the diet contained sufficient quantities of critical micro-nutrients; and vitamins—whether as a dietary supplement or as an ingredient in cosmetics—could enhance beauty. While health professionals and medical practitioners recognized the critical value of vitamins, they often saw the growth of the vitamin industry as a threat to the general population's health and well-being. Over the century the themes of beauty and insurance were re-interpreted and reinforced through successive eras, reverberating in the contemporary promotion of the cancer fighting potential and beautifying effects of anti-oxidants.
Family Planning: A Century of Change
Authors: Darroch Jacqueline E. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractAs the 20th century dawned, American women typically became biologically capable of conceiving children at age fifteen, were married at age twenty-two, and had an average of 3.6 children during their reproductive lives. In contrast, for women born during the last third of the 1900s experienced menarche at age thirteen, first engaged in sexual intercourse at age seventeen, and had an average of 2.1 children. These changes during the 20th century reflect the technologic changes in family-planning methods available to American women and men increasing couples' ability to successfully control the number and timing of children, increased women's control over fertility, and gave rise to alternative medical provider networks for women's reproductive-health care. This chapter summarizes key changes in family planning over the last century and provides an overview of changes in contraceptive technology and in the provision of reproductive health and contraceptive services.
Teaching Birth Control on Tobacco Road and Mill Village Alley: Race, Class, and Birth Control in Public Health
Authors: Schoen Johanna 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn the 1930s, public health professionals launched birth control programs as part of their infant and maternal health measures. In addition to reducing infant and maternal mortality rates, offering birth control to poor women also seemed attractive for economic and eugenic reasons. Public health birth control services simultaneously offered women reproductive control and provided control over poor women's reproduction. Although clients recognized the race and class prejudices behind many family planning programs, they took advantage of the services offered, and bargained with authorities over the conditions of contraceptive advice. Women's lack of access to contraceptive services, their poverty, their race, and gender significantly influenced their decision to participate in contraceptive field trials or take advantage of birth control programs.
Changing the Face of America: Water Fluoridation and Oral Health
Authors: Burt Brian A. , Tomar Scott L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractDuring the early- to mid-1900s, dental caries (i.e., tooth decay), frequently associated with uncomfortable treatment and tooth loss, was one of life's less pleasant certainties. However, the dental health outlook for Americans growing up during the later part of the 1900s was quite different. Substantial improvements in oral health were the result of many factors, including rising standards of living, better treatment technology, and more positive attitudes toward oral health. However, the widescale exposure of Americans to fluoride also played a crucial role. The concept of water fluoridation as tool for oral health began with studies which revealed that routine exposure to fluoride reduced the incidence and severity of dental caries. By the start of the 21st century, more than half of the U.S. population had access to fluoridated water. This chapter traces the historical development of fluoride as a tool for preventing dental caries.
Dietary Policy, Controversy, and Proof: Doing Something versus Waiting for the Definitive Evidence
Authors: Garrety Karin 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe view that a healthy diet was low in fats and high in carbohydrates became mainstream and widely accepted during the second half of the 20th century. But discussions about diet, disease, and health take place in a highly politicized arena, and this diet was the subject of considerable controversy. This chapter examines the period from the 1940s, when awareness of the increasing incidence of CHD began to grow, to 1985, the year the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) began its effort to sell the anti-fat, anti-cholesterol message to the nation. This campaign marked a victory for advocates of fat reduction over skeptics who continued to question the efficacy of low fat diets as a means of preventing disease.