bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Rapid Shifts in Stages of the Nutrition Transition: The Global Obesity Epidemic
Authors: Popkin Barry M. , Mendez Michelle 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the types of shifts in food availability, dietary intake patterns, and obesity that have taken place in developing countries during a period of rapid globalization and urbanization. The effects of globalization and urbanization on dietary and activity patterns and nutritional status in developing countries are complex. These forces are associated with potentially beneficial dietary shifts, such as increases in energy sufficiency and reduced micronutrient deficiency, but also appear to promote potentially obesogenic shifts, such as increased intakes of edible oils, animal foods, and caloric sweeteners. While there have been substantial reductions in undernutrition in this period of rapid development and social change, being overweight has become an increasing problem.
Structural Adjustment Programs and Health
Authors: Breman Anna , Shelton Carolyn 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter reviews literature comparing empirical, theoretical, and normative articles on the relationship between structural adjustment programs (SAPs) and health. The first section discusses the debate, the role-players, their main arguments, and trends in the debate. The second section presents a framework illustrating the causal arguments for how structural adjustment may affect health outcomes and discusses methodological issues in empirical estimations of this relationship. The third section summarizes and analyzes the empirical evidence, and finally draws conclusions from the review.
Promoting Public Health in the Twenty-First Century: The Role of the World Health Organization
Authors: Bonita Ruth , Irwin Alec , Beaglehole Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
One of the paradoxes of globalization is that an increasingly interconnected and interdependent world is simultaneously marked by widening health gaps between privileged and less advantaged groups, both between and within countries. Ambitious development and health objectives, most prominently the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), have been set by the global community to promote a fairer distribution of the benefits of progress. But gains toward the targets are too slow, particularly in the countries with the greatest needs. This chapter assesses WHO's capacity to lead in meeting these challenges. It begins with a review of key stages of WHO's history, then surveys the current state of global public health. Finally, it explores strategic directions set by WHO's current leadership to respond and help shape a healthier, more equitable future for all.
Military Spending: Global Health Threat or Global Public Good?
Authors: Hyatt Jr. Raymond R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the specific tradeoffs between military spending and social welfare spending (the well-known guns vs. butter tradeoff) and the effects of expenditures in military budgets for recently expanding peacekeeping operations. The analysis confirms the negative relationship between mortality and the allocation of resources to military programs by the state. Citizens in countries with higher allocations to military programs have worse mortality outcomes. Greater percentages of state resources allocated to military programs are associated with higher infant mortality rate (IMRs) and lower overall life expectancy at birth (LEB) for the average citizen. The most basic aspect of freedom—the opportunity to live a life of choice—is restricted as resources are allocated away from domestic programs.
Medical Education: Teaching Doctors to Be Trustworthy
Authors: Cohen Jordan J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Physician trustworthiness is the best protection against error-prone modern healthcare. This chapter discusses how medical education can nurture and sustain trustworthiness in future physicians using appropriate admissions criteria, explicit learning objectives, and rewards and sanctions for professional behaviors. It argues institutions should also be clear in articulating expectations, commitment, and values from students and faculty through an approach similar to the Compact Between Teachers and Learners of Medicine, which is a model compact designed by the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC). Other initiatives the AAMC is developing to improve education include the Institute for the Improvement of Medical Education and measures of professionalism for peer evaluation.
Trust in Vaccines
Authors: McCORMICK MARIE C. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Improvements in immunizations have been perceived as one of the greatest medical advances. However, recently, there has been increasing mistrust of the effects of vaccines on children. This chapter delineates how this decline in trust occurred, including sections on changes in policy, adverse events, myths, misinformation, and incomplete science. It describes ways that physicians can enhance the patient-physician relationship by increasing patient trust in vaccines and immunizations, through better communication and flexibility.
Trust in the Trenches: Developing the Patient-Physician Dyad in Medical Genetics
Authors: Pauker Susan P. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Genetic medicine is unique in that it involves the patient, living and deceased relatives, and future generations. Because of this complexity, medical genetics can bring patients and doctors face to face with sudden and painfully difficult decisions. Despite the controversy, the medical genetics specialty has the potential to build trust in the patient-physician relationship in difficult situations. This chapter identifies some of the difficult decisions patients face when meeting with a medical geneticist. These difficulties can be compounded by confidentiality and informed consent issues. Physicians can avoid some of these situations by building trust with sensitive and accurate communications.
Healthier Societies: An Introduction
Authors: Heymann Jody , Hertzman Clyde 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This introductory chapter calls attention to the emphasis that individuals and nations currently place on the treatment of illnesses and injuries at the expense of addressing the conditions that give rise to them. In most countries, there is far more political pressure to invest in medical care services for those who are already sick and injured than to invest in the programs and policies that could prevent those injuries and illnesses. Many adults believe that it is too late for them to take steps that would help prevent their own health problems, and even if convinced of the importance of addressing social determinants of health, have no idea how to move policy makers. This book is designed to address the knowledge gaps behind the barriers to approaching health from a societal perspective. The chapter also contains a detailed summary of the book's contents.
Biological Pathways Linking the Social Environment, Development, and Health
Authors: Hertzman Clyde , Frank John 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter begins by presenting an overview of current knowledge regarding the biological pathways by which socioeconomic, psychosocial, and developmental experiences affect human biology over the life course. The goal is to understand not only how systematic differences in health status emerge among groups of people whose life experiences differ from one another, but also how the variations are translated into differential risks of conditions such as coronary heart disease and Alzheimer's disease. The chapter then offers a conceptual framework for comprehensively integrating and accommodating the rapidly growing body of evidence on the biological pathways that contribute to this process, which the book has termed “biological embedding”. Finally, the chapter identifies key research opportunities and challenges in furthering our understanding of this field.
A Life Course Approach to Health and Human Development
Authors: Hertzman Clyde , Power Chris 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter expands on the idea that the health status of populations cannot be adequately understood without recognizing health-determining influences across the life course. It begins by discussing socioeconomic gradients in health and development in childhood and young adulthood, and their effects in later life. It then presents three models (latency, cumulative, and pathways) that explain the possible connections between long-term exposure to various circumstances and their manifestation as different health and well-being outcomes, and explores the evidence illustrating each relationship. Finally, it discusses policy implications, concluding that health policies should be based on the understanding that problems emerging today may be related to life experiences that occurred years or decades earlier, and that the range of social and economic policy decisions made today will affect future health profiles.
Food, Nutrition, and Population Health: From Scarcity to Social Inequalities
Authors: Dubois Lise 
Published: September 2009

AbstractNutrition is an important determinant of population health, and social inequalities create nutritional inequalities even in industrialized countries where a wide variety of high-quality food is available. This chapter describes the effects of food and nutrition on different health outcomes at the population level. It begins with a presentation of food- and nutrition-related diseases in developed countries, as well as childhood nutritional needs and their long-term consequences. It then examines the relationship between social inequalities, nutrition, and health, and highlights the growing problem of poverty and food insecurity within industrialized countries. The chapter concludes with a discussion of nutrition policies that are important in order to diminish nutritional and related health inequalities within and between nations.
Role of Geography in Inequalities in Health and Human Development
Authors: Dunn James R. , Frohlich Katherine L. , Ross Nancy , Curtis Lori J. , Sanmartin Claudia 
Published: September 2009

AbstractWhile the empirical evidence for the effect of geography on health is compelling, to make further progress it is necessary to revisit the scientific basis for asking questions about the influence of places on health. This chapter addresses this conceptual question. It first reviews existing evidence on location and health, then offers two perspectives from the past—one from sociology and one from epidemiology—that clarify the motivations for studying place effects and that help to chart a path forward. It concludes with a discussion of the challenges and possibilities for future study on the connections between location, social environment, and health, as well as the potential policy implications.
Social Welfare Models, Labor Markets, and Health Outcomes
Authors: Vogel Joachim , Theorell Töres 
Published: September 2009

AbstractInequalities in material living standards can be regulated by various institutions and methods, including tax and transfer programs through the public sector; individual, family, and community norms and actions (social networks); and the labor market. All three factors will likely play a role in any country, but the nature and strength of their roles will vary. The nations belonging to the European Union encompass several different configurations of labor market conditions, welfare state arrangements, and family arrangements, termed welfare production models in this chapter. This chapter explores the link between welfare production strategies and living conditions, focusing on health status. It compares institutional variation between groups of EU member states, and conducts a longitudinal analysis of health outcomes and the labor market in Sweden.
Changing Trends in Economic Well-being in OECD Countries: What Measure Is Most Relevant for Health?
Authors: Osberg Lars , Sharpe Andrew 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter's aim is to determine how best to measure economic well-being in order to understand better the relationship between economic well-being and health. It argues that an index of a society's economic well-being should include four components: current effective per capita consumption flows, net societal accumulation of stocks of productive resources, income distribution, and economic security. The chapter develops such an index for selected OECD countries and compares trends in economic well-being according to this index to trends in GDP per capita—the most commonly used measure of economic well-being. It concludes with a discussion of why the connection between health and economic well-being might be stronger than the relationship between health and GDP per capita.
Taking Different Approaches to Child Policy
Authors: Kozyrskyj Anita L. , Curtis Lori J. , Hertzman Clyde 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the question of whether research evidence regarding early childhood development and population health has actually contributed to the development of policies that affect children's health and well-being. To explore the role that research played in the development of child policy, it examines recently implemented child policies in three countries: the National Children's Agenda in Canada, the State Children's Health Insurance Program in the United States, and the Early Childhood Education and Care Policy in Norway. It contextualizes each of these policies with a discussion of family policy and social attitudes towards family and children in each country. The chapter concludes that while research evidence played a central role in the development of each of these policies, the political, cultural, and historical environment, along with the core social values of the population, shaped policy specifics.
Noise
Authors: Maxwell Lorraine E. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the nonauditory effect of noise on children, that is, the effect of noise apart from hearing loss. Noise sources can be external (e.g., roads, trains, aircraft) or internal (e.g., resulting from poor acoustic designs for classrooms, normal classroom activities, and ambient sources such as HVAC systems). Both acute and chronic noisy conditions influence learning. Noise affects communication between teachers and students, motivation, attention, memory, and thus academic achievement. A noisy school environment can be a source of stress for both children and teachers. Most efforts to reduce noise are directed at the classroom. Careful school design and modification can alleviate noisy conditions in and around the building.
Ergonomics for Students and Staff
Authors: Bennett Cheryl , Woodcock Andree , Tien Diane 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter reviews three pressing ergonomic concerns in schools—furniture, information and communications technology (ICT), and school bags—to illustrate the role of ergonomics in promoting the long-term health of the next generation and in making school environments safer. General physical fitness, posture, back pain, and back care are related to furniture, information and communication technology, and school bags. Ergonomic practices are often cost effective; many can be implemented through education, procedural changes, or adjustments to existing equipment or furniture.
Animal Safety
Authors: Paulson Jerome A. , Harvey Chinonye 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe presence of animals in school settings is common, and the balance of benefits and risks remains controversial. Some experts argue that animals have no place in schools, whereas others contend that animal contact is beneficial. Animals in school settings raise three major health and safety concerns: infectious diseases, allergies, and bites. This chapter presents evidence that addresses both the benefits and the risks of animals in schools, and makes recommendations to maximize the benefits and minimize the risks of animal contact in the school setting.
Injury Prevention
Authors: West Sandra S. , Jackson Hope , Geller Robert J. , Frumkin Howard 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on all the other kinds of injuries that may occur throughout schools—on the walkways, in hallways, in general classrooms, and in specialized settings such as vocational arts shops, biology and chemistry labs, and theaters. The first part focuses on general classroom hazards, and the next part focuses on specialized classrooms. The chapter then discusses the control of injuries in schools, reviews relevant regulations, describes the elements of effective school safety programs, and offers practical strategies to enhance safety.
Indoor Air Quality
Authors: Axelrad Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses indoor air quality (IAQ) in schools. IAQ in schools can have an important impact on health. Four factors determine IAQ in schools: sources of indoor air pollution; heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems; pollutant pathways; and the people themselves. The EPA's Tools for Schools program can be used to identify IAQ problems. These problems may be mitigated and managed with a variety of strategies including controlling sources and exposures and educating teachers, staff, and students.
Mold
Authors: Geller Robert J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses mold in schools. Mold frequently grows in schools and other buildings when warm, humid conditions are present indoors. Although people with allergies to mold can suffer adverse effects, the ability of mold to cause other human illness remains controversial and not well established. The two main strategies for managing mold are removing the sources of moisture and cleaning up the mold. The extent of mold contamination in an area will determine how extensive the remediation should be and how much it will cost.
Outdoor Air Pollution
Authors: Hricko Andrea 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses outdoor air pollution in school environments. Outdoor (ambient) air pollution presents a number of issues in the school environment, including exposure of children to diesel exhaust from older buses, potential risks for students who play or exercise outdoors on smoggy days, and exposure to emissions from nearby traffic and industrial facilities. There are steps that school administrators can take to protect children and address pollution. These include limiting outdoor activities on high ozone days, keeping students indoors for recess and practices, and contacting the air pollution control authority with any concerns about sources of pollution very close to the school, and discuss the record of the polluting facility.
Pest Control
Authors: Pierce Troy A. , Geller Robert J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractInsects, rodents, and other animals frequently cohabit indoor and outdoor human settings. They become pests when they put human health or property at risk. This chapter provides an overview of the various pests found in school environments and their effects on the health of students and staff. It then reviews the health effects of pesticides, discusses concept of integrated pest management (IPM), and explains how it can be implemented in schools.
Cleaning Materials and Methods
Authors: Ashkin Stephen , Ellis Richard 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses green cleaning in schools. Clean schools minimize safety hazards and provide an optimal setting for learning. “Green cleaning” is an approach to cleaning designed to meet three different goals: effective cleaning, preventing discomfort and toxicity among people exposed to the cleaning process, and protecting the environment. The direct economic benefits of a green cleaning program include reductions in chemical use and labor costs. Indirect benefits include improved performance and decreased absenteeism.
Safe and Healthy Sports Environments
Authors: Marshall David 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses sports safety in schools. Athletic activities promote good health habits and provide many opportunities for developing social and leadership skills. The inherent risks in outdoor sports participation can be mitigated by careful design and maintenance of playing fields, adequate lighting, and protective fencing. Indoor sports injuries can result from insufficient space allowances or inadequate equipment. Every school should have a general emergency plan that includes communication procedures, presence of an ambulance and emergency medical help at appropriate times, and proper medical equipment.
High-Performance School Buildings
Authors: Eley Charles 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter reviews some material covered in the earlier chapters and introduces some new material, presenting it in the broad context of high-performance schools. High-performance school buildings are designed to be efficient in their use of energy, water, and materials. They are intended to be not only adaptable and easy to operate and maintain but also comfortable, safe, secure, and healthy for teachers and students. The characteristics of a high-performance school building include buildings that are healthy; thermally, acoustically, and visually comfortable; energy efficient, materials efficient, water efficient, and easy to maintain and operate.
Evaluating the School Environment
Authors: Bellomo Angelo J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
A better understanding of the relationship between school conditions and students' academic performance could engender major support for improving the quality of the learning environment. An important step in improving conditions in the learning environment is a routine inspection and evaluation program. Such inspections typically focus on identifying and mitigating risks to the health and safety of school occupants, but the data generated could also be used to examine the relationships between school conditions, students' health and safety, and academic performance. This chapter presents an approach to routine inspections.
Children and Adults with Disabilities
Authors: Gips Kathy , Nodvin Janice , Rubin I. Leslie 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on a wide range of attitudes and design features needed to achieve safe and healthy school environments for everyone, including those with disabilities. Several themes run throughout the chapter. The first addresses inclusiveness, which requires that school facilities be inviting, friendly, and comfortably usable for everyone, including people with disabilities. Second, considering the design needs of people with disabilities yields synergistic benefits for the greater society—the curb cut principle. A third theme is individualization. Just as educational plans must be individualized, sometimes physical accommodations and adaptations must be planned around individual student and staff needs. Tradeoffs represent a fourth theme. Certain environmental changes may work for some people but challenge others.
7 The Assessment of Rational and Irrational Beliefs
Authors: Macavei Bianca , McMahon James 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses a variety of conceptual and methodological issues regarding the assessment of rational and irrational beliefs. It reviews two major ways of identifying and assessing irrational and rational beliefs: (1) psychological instruments and (2) therapy oriented assessment, and discusses state of the science developments in assessment including approaches based on virtual reality.