bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Methylene Blue Surface Area Method to Correlate with Specific Soil Properties
Authors: Sivapullaiah P. V. , Prasad B. Guru , Allam M. M. 
Published: March 2009

Abstract
Specific surface area (SSA) of soils is calculated by determining the amount of adsorbed substance such as methylene blue (MB), ethylene glycol monoehtyl ether (EGME), or water required to form a monolayer. Free swell index and liquid limit of soils, which are well correlated with each other, and with engineering properties of soils, can be used to check the relative advantage of determination of a specific area by different methods in geotechnical engineering. The water adsorption method yields different values depending on the relative humidity (RH) at which the soils are equilibrated with water and gives significantly high adsorption values at 100 % RH. The water adsorption method, comparatively simpler, gives more accurate values for kaolinitc soils but generally has lower values for soils with montmorillonitic mineral owing to insufficient saturation of exchangeable ions. The SSA values obtained by EMGE correlates reasonably well with free swell index. Improved correlation is observed in specific surface area values obtained by MB methods. The SSA values obtained by methylene blue titration (MBT) or as methylene blue spot method (MBS) are comparable.
Structure and Composition Effects on Irradiation Sensitivity of Pressure Vessel Steels
Authors: Steele LE 
Published: March 2009

The paper emphasizes engineering implications of the effects of structure and composition on the irradiation sensitivity of steels. Theoretical considerations are discussed and reviewed as they relate to possible explanations for observations on the subject.
The structural aspects include primarily the type of metallurgical microstructure and the grain size and also the steel condition, that is, plate, forging, weld metal, or weld heat affected zone. The compositional factors are never quite separable from structural factors in a microscopic sense. Several interstitial elements, primarily nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, have been investigated for their relationship to neutron radiation sensitivity. Substitutional elements, including nickel, copper, phosphorus, vanadium, sulfur, and boron, as constituents in steels have also been included. Copper and phosphorus are found particularly detrimental to radiation resistance when present in quantities above certain levels.
Effects of Irradiation in a Thermal Reactor on the Tensile Properties of Zircaloy 2 and 4 and Borated Stainless Steel
Authors: Baroch CJ , Munim AV , Harbinson EN 
Published: March 2009

Babcock & Wilcox conducted a series of tests to determine the effects of irradiation and thermal aging on the tensile properties of core structural materials used in a PWR. Type 304 stainless steel (containing about 250 ppm boron) and Zircaloy 2 specimens were obtained from the first core of the Consolidated Edison Indian Point reactor, and Zircaloy 4 specimens were irradiated in the Babcock & Wilcox test reactor. The Type 304 stainless steel cladding and the Zircaloy 2 channel from the Indian Point reactor had operated at about 600 and 525 F, respectively, and had achieved peak fluences of about 3×1021 n/cm2, E &gt; 1 MeV. The Zircaloy 4 specimens were irradiated at 130, 650, and 725 F to peak fluences of about 9×1020 n/cm2, E &gt; 1 MeV.The borated stainless steel specimens were tested at 70, 600, 750, 900, 1050, 1200, 1300, and 1450 F. Some of the specimens were annealed at 1832 F for 1 h to eliminate all displacement-type defects. Irradiation increased the strength of the cladding at test temperatures below 900 F, but it had little effect on the strength at higher test temperatures. At all test temperatures the ductility of the cladding was quite low—often less than 0.5 percent. Postirradiation annealing for 1 h at 1832 F returned the strength to the unirradiated condition but had little effect on the ductility.Specimens obtained from both the longitudinal and transverse directions of the Zircaloy 2 channel were tested at 70, 525, and 750 F. At all test temperatures the ultimate and yield strengths increased with fluence up to the peak fluence achieved in the program. The uniform elongations were all 1 percent or less, regardless of fast fluence or specimen orientation.Zircaloy 4 ring specimens were tested at 900, 1100, 1300, 1450, and 1600 F. About half of the tension specimens were in the mill-annealed condition, and the remainder were cold-worked. At 1100 F and above the tensile properties of cold-worked and mill-annealed Zircaloy 4 were identical. At a test temperature of 900 F, irradiation caused some changes in the tensile properties of both materials. The extent of the effect of irradiation was dependent on the level of cold work and fluence.
Some Observations on the Structure and Tensile Properties of AISI Type 316 Steel as a Function of Fast Reactor Irradiation Temperature
Authors: Barton PJ , Higgins PRB 
Published: March 2009

Solution treated AISI Type 316 steel strip specimens were irradiated in the Dounreay fast reactor to doses of 1.0 to 1.3 ×1022n/cm2 (total), 1.7 to 2.6 ×1021 n/cm2 (fission) within the following measured temperature ranges: 420 to 440, 500 to 513, 520 to 533, 560 to 570, and 645 to 650 C.
Transmission electron microscopy reveals the presence of voids after irradiation at all these temperatures. Distribution is uniform after irradiation at 420 to 440, 500 to 513, and 520 to 533 C. At higher temperatures it is uneven and concentration is so low that probably helium bubbles and not voids are being observed. From the temperature dependence of void concentration and average diameter it is deduced that the consequent density decrease is maximal after irradiation at 500 to 513 C.
Dislocation loops are present for irradiation at all but the highest temperature. They are interstitial and lie on {111} planes with Burgers vectors of the type a/3 ⟨111 ⟩. At 420 to 440 C all loops are faulted. As irradiation temperature increases, loop concentration decreases, and at 520 to 533 C a few unfaulted loops are observed. Yield stress increases estimated from loop and void concentrations are found to be in fair agreement with measured values.
Uniaxial and Biaxial Creep Rupture of Type 316 Stainless Steel After Fast Reactor Irradiation
Authors: Lovell AJ , Barker RW 
Published: March 2009

The degradation in creep rupture properties of Type 316 stainless steel after fast reactor irradiation has been determined for both uniaxial and biaxial loading conditions. Uniaxial specimens (rod type) and biaxial specimens (tube type) were irradiated in the 7C4 position of the EBR-II to a total fluence of 1.2×1022 n/cm2 (1×1022 n/cm2, E&gt;0.1 MeV) at∼ 480 C. Postirradiation tests were performed over a temperature range of 538 to 760 C.
The results from both uniaxial and biaxial tests at 538 C show significant losses in rupture life relative to unirradiated specimens when compared on the basis of initial true stress. Rupture life was reduced by factors down to 1/20 for uniaxial and 1/40 for biaxial tests. The substantial loss in rupture life at 538 C was primarily a result of high creep rates, and the contribution from ductility loss was relatively small. Uniaxial test results at 593 C show reductions in rupture life to a factor of 1/5 at high stresses and only small reductions at low stresses. The rupture life for both uniaxial and biaxial tests at 649 C show only a decrease of 1/2 after irradiation. The decrease becomes more substantial again at 760 C, with a reduction in life to 1/10 to 1/7. The rupture life reductions at 593, 649, and 760 C were the results of reduced ductility, with no significant contributions from creep rate differences. The underlying cause of the low ductility at these higher temperatures is associated with helium embrittlement and defect structure.
The Resistance of Metals to Cyclic Deformation
Authors: Landgraf RW 
Published: March 2009

Fatigue behavior of metals is reviewed with particular emphasis on those properties and parameters which relate to cyclic deformation resistance. Representative data for aluminum-, titanium-, and nickel-base alloys and steels strengthened by various processes are presented to illustrate procedures for characterizing cycle-dependent deformation and fracture behavior.
The nature and extent of cyclically induced changes in deformation resistance are conveniently described in terms of a cyclic stress-strain curve. A metal's monotonic strain hardening behavior provides an indication of cyclic stability. Fracture behavior is characterized by simple relations in terms of stress resistance, plastic strain resistance, and total strain resistance. True monotonic fracture strength and ductility can be related to fatigue strength and ductility, thus providing useful approximations of life behavior. Indications of notched fatigue resistance can be gained from smooth specimen data through consideration of local stress-strain response. Finally, the utility of such material behavior considerations in arriving at the proper combination of properties to maximize the fatigue resistance of a metal under specified conditions is discussed.
Metal Fatique with Elevated Temperature Rest Periods
Authors: Sandor BI 
Published: March 2009

Intermittent annealing of oxygen-free high-conductivity copper is used to investigate the accumulation of low-cycle fatigue damage under total diametral strain control. Cyclic strain-induced cold work can be removed independently of the number of prior strain cycles or annealing periods. Specimens with frequent intermittent annealing have slightly extended fatigue lives instead of reductions in life predicted on the basis of the Manson-Coffin relation.
Frequent rest periods at mildly elevated temperature reduce the cyclic plastic strain and retard the fatigue damage process in mild steel tested under axial stress control. Fatigue life may be increased by a factor of 100 as a result of treatments applied every 1 percent of the estimated life. The Manson-Coffin relation accurately predicts the prolongation of fatigue life in this case.
Cavitation and Impact Erosion—Concepts, Correlations, Controversies
Authors: Eisenberg P 
Published: March 2009

Increasingly severe requirements for materials in modern high performance applications have re-emphasized the need for fundamental understanding of erosion processes associated with cavitation and liquid impingement. In recent years, there has been disclosed a number of concepts which are proving helpful in the description of both types of erosion in a wide range of hostile environments (high temperatures, corrosive liquids, etc.). Such probings are providing a framework for development of useful methods of analysis and prediction of the response of materials under cavitation attack and liquid impact. In spite of the ingenuity of these ideas and investigations, however, the nature of the complex interactions among the many parameters involved inevitably has resulted in controversies which have yet to be resolved.
Perhaps the most important concepts which have made possible rational correlation attempts and show promise of a unified treatment of erosion are those of energy absorption. In both types of erosion, very useful results have been obtained based on static strain energy, but a more complete and critical evaluation of these ideas must await the accumulation of data on behavior of materials at high strain rates. Strain rates of interest are those associated with cavitation bubble collapse and with liquid droplet velocities typical of rain impact on high-speed aircraft and droplets in wet steam or vapor turbines.
Whether cavitation damage descriptions can be treated independently of the manner in which the pressures of collapsing cavities are applied—shock waves or internal jet formation—still requires investigation. Internal jet impact is analogous to droplet impingement. These problems are connected intimately with the hydrodynamics of cavitation bubbles, droplet deformation, and the physical properties of the liquid environment. In the latter connection, recent work in hot liquid alkali metals has added to the background information needed to achieve useful correlations.
The dependence of rate of erosion on exposure time and the existence of definite “zones” of erosion (incubation, accumulation, attenuation, steady state,) now seem clearly established for both cavitation and impingement attack. The mechanisms which account for this behavior, however, whether hydrodynamic, mechanical, metallurgical, or combinations of these, still require clarification. Very impressive correlations have been achieved for data in the so-called steady-state zone using strain energy concepts, but even here there is a question about the “steadiness” of this zone. Phenomenological fatigue theories have been adapted to describe the history of damage progression with good results. Here again further research is required to clarify whether the role assigned to fatigue is truly governing in the context of these theories or whether the correlations based on statistical fatigue theories are physically correct.
Vibratory Tests in Water on the Combined Action of Cavitation and Corrosion
Authors: Schulmeister R 
Published: March 2009

Cavitation damage in magnetostriction tests depends primarily on the frequency and amplitude of the oscillation and on the pressure and temperature of the test fluid. The damage is increasing with rising frequency and amplitude; depending upon pressure and temperature it reaches peak values. In water and watery solutions the amount of damage is affected strongly by corrosive influences. In the model setup it is possible to superimpose the influence of corrosion stimulators, corrosion inhibitors, and gases onto specific influences of the device.
The deterioration of materials by cavitation and corrosion is simultaneously depending on many factors; it is not possible to make generally applicable statements on the significanse of the quality of one single influence. If remedies for a particular damage are to be examined, seperate tests are necessary which have been adapted to this particular purpose.
A Statistically Verified Model for Correlating Volume Loss Due to Cavitation or Liquid Impingement
Authors: Hammitt FG , Huang YC , Kling CL , Mitchell TM , Solomon LP 
Published: March 2009

Rocket sled data have been used to evaluate statistically best values for threshold velocity and velocity exponent as well as the coefficient n in the relation: MDPR=K(Vsinθ-V0)α/sinnθ It is found that a reasonable assumption for most materials is that threshold velocity is zero, n = 1, and that there is a rough correlation between K and α. The correlations with the data are relatively poor. However, within the basic precision attained, a single figure of merit for the material in terms of either K or α could be derived easily.
A more basic relation for the evaluation of MDPR has been assumed in terms of the energy flux model. In this relation the material properties are described in terms of an energy per volume term describing material failure. It has been found that the material energy term is best described as proportional to ultimate resilience. No correlation with any efficiency term relating liquid and material properties alone has been found.
Hydrodynamic Model of Correlation of Metal Removal Rates from Repetitive Drop Impact
Authors: Pouchot WD 
Published: March 2009

There is available from the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) of the United Kingdom information on metal removal by water drops from steam turbine blade materials. By postulating a liquid film on the CEGB specimens, a dimensionless correlation of the data is obtained in terms of both fluid and metal properties. From the correlation it may be concluded that the characteristic changes of erosion rate with normal impact velocity and impinging drop diameter are predominantly hydrodynamic effects working on a material of constant average strength.
The presence or absence of a fluid film on test pieces should be directly observable through strobe lighting and photography. Such an experiment would be a first step in testing the proposed correlation procedure.
Use of the Coulter Counter and the Alpine Sieve for Particle Size Analysis of Cement
Authors: Brown OE , Bobrowski GS , Kovall GE 
Published: March 2009

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the Coulter counter was an effective means of determining particle size distributions of portland cement. Complete Coulter counter and Alpine sieve analyses were performed on National Bureau of Standards Samples 114-J and 114-K. The data received from the Coulter counter and the Alpine sieve were supplemented by Wagner turbidimeter and Blaine air permeability data on the two samples.
Specific surface area calculations made with Coulter counter and Alpine sieve data agreed remarkably well with similar Blaine data. Wagner data at no time correlated with either Alpine sieve or Blaine air permeability results. Perhaps the Wagner turbidimeter should have been investigated as to its reliability as a particle size distribution or surface area measurement device.
The Coulter counter was found to have primary value in validating Alpine sieve results. The Alpine sieve was found to be useful in getting data much faster and with a higher degree of reliability or repeatability than the Coulter counter, which is very time-consuming to operate, and appears to be the most efficient device used for particle size studies.
Laboratory Simulation of Structural Fatigue Behavior
Authors: Morrow J , Wetzel RM , Topper TH 
Published: March 2009

Designing against fatigue failure involves so many uncertainties that it is usually necessary to test full-scale structures prior to service to prove their reliability. Such tests should be simple, short, and inexpensive. At the same time, it is necessary to insure that the fatigue response of the laboratory test reflects the actual performance that can be expected of the structure in its service environment.
The nominal stresses anticipated in a structure in service are usually known or can be estimated. Mechanics analyses have been developed which can be used with smooth specimens or smooth-specimen data to determine local stresses and strains in terms of known nominal stresses even when the local behavior is inelastic. Two methods of solving for the critical stresses and strains are reviewed and compared using notched- and smooth-specimen fatigue data for representative aircraft metals. The approach based upon Neuber's Rule is the most satisfactory and can easily be used to provide control conditions which cause smooth specimens to imitate the stress-strain response of the metal at a notch root.
It is now possible to understand and predict many aspects of structural fatigue from relatively simple tests of small unnotched specimens. The emphasis on the local stress-strain behavior is sufficiently different from more traditional ways of approaching structural fatigue that more research is needed. Advantages and disadvantages of this new viewpoint are discussed and possible future developments are indicated.
Comparison of Fatigue Lives Under Conventional Program Loading and Digital Random Loading
Authors: Jacoby GH 
Published: March 2009

On the basis of a gust-load distribution, evaluated by applying level crossing-counting method, an 8-step program test and tests with a random sequence of stress cycles were performed. The results of these tests are compared with the results of tests with a random sequence of maxima and minima. The latter are based on a distribution of maxima and minima, which were derived from the gust-load distribution splitted in several stationary Gaussian processes. In further tests, ground-air-ground cycles were included in the study. Programmed and randomized flight-by-flight tests were compared.The results of the study revealed that in the case of steady mean stress and the applied conditions program loading overestimates life by a factor of about 6. In case of flight-by-flight tests, however, the load-time history (either programmed or randomized) seem to be unimportant.
An Evaluation of the Charpy Impact Test
Authors: Harsem Ø , Wintermark H 
Published: March 2009

For mild steels intended for service temperatures down to -20 to -30 C it is normal to prescribe a Charpy V-notch test with a minimum requirement of 2.8 kgf∙m. Experience has proved that this is a satisfactory criterion for this type of steel. With regard to steels for lower service temperatures and those with higher tensile strength there is a degree of uncertainty. A minimum impact energy of 3.5 to 4.15 kgf∙m at test temperatures immediately below service temperature often is prescribed.
The investigations described here, cover hot rolled plates from six European steelworks. The materials are from 20 heats (one plate from each) and are intended for welded structures with service temperatures down to -50 C. The steels have an ultimate tensile strength from 47.3 to 67.5 kgf/mm2 and a yield point from 32.1 to 48.9 kgf/mm2.
The nil-ductility transition (NDT) temperature was determined and for the 20 heats lies between -40 and -75 C. Impact tests were carried out as Charpy V-notch tests taken lengthwise (KVL) and transverse (KVT) to the rolling direction. Charpy pressed notch tests also were carried out as longitudinal tests (KPL).
The KVL tests show considerable scattering in the whole temperature range from -15 to -80 C. This tendency to scattering varied greatly from heat to heat. There is no unambiguous correlation between the NDT temperatures and the KVL values. In the transition range the transition curves exhibit two kinks giving the curves an approximate double S-form. This may be interpreted as an expression of bimodality in the range around the kinks. The NDT temperature lies in most cases in the range where the kinks are situated.
The KVT values show considerably less scattering than the KVL values and no tendency to bimodal distribution at the actual test temperatures. An interesting observation is that the KVT values at the respective NDT temperatures of the different steels show very little variation. The average value for all the KVT tests carried out at NDT temperature is 3.21 kgf∙m with a standard deviation of only 0.57 kgf∙m. This seems to indicate that for this type of low temperature steel a criterion based on the KVT value at a constant testing temperature may be applied in order to sort out the steels which have a NDT temperature higher than the testing temperature.
The KPL values generally show little scattering. There is, however, a very marked bimodal distribution over a small temperature range which begins at 30 to 40 C over the NDT temperature.
Microfractographic investigations with extraction replicas taken from just below the base of the notch of KVT specimens show thin discontinuous slag film in the fracture surface. The presence of slag films does not appear to affect the fact that the NDT temperature is independent of the rolling direction but seems to affect the level of the NDT temperature.