bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Characteristics of important commercial apple cultivars.
Authors: Hampson C. R. , Kemp H. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

The characteristics of the trees and fruits of the important apple cultivars Delicious, Golden Delicious, Fuji, Granny Smith, Gala, Jonathan, Jonagold, McIntosh, Rome Beauty, Braeburn, Elstar and Cox's Orange Pippin, as well as their production and breeding, are discussed in this chapter.
Water relations of apples.
Authors: Lakso A. N. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This chapter covers the basics of water relations in apples, including the concepts of water relations; measurement of apple tree water status; root system characteristics and its effects on plant water relations; water use by apple orchards; water deficits and apple tree growth, cropping and physiology; integration of water stress effects; and effects of rootstocks on apple water relations and drought tolerance.
Diseases of apple.
Authors: Grove G. G. , Eastwell K. C. , Jones A. L. , Sutton T. B. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This chapter covers diseases in apples caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, viroids, phytoplasmas and virus-like or graft-transmissible diseases with no known causal agents. Postharvest diseases affecting the crop such as blue moulds caused by Penicillium sp. are also presented.
Production and handling techniques for processing apples.
Authors: Crassweller R. M. , Greene G. M., II 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This chapter covers the production and handling techniques for apples that are to be processed as juice, cider, apple sauce, or slice or whole apples. The apple processing industry in the People's Republic of China is described, along with the important apple processing cultivars and fruit attributes for processing. Differences in cultural practices, harvest and handling techniques and delivery of the produce to the processing plant are discussed.
Conceptual and theoretical perspectives.
Authors: Ritchie J. R. B. , Crouch G. I. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This chapter consists of two complementary components that are intended to provide the theoretical and managerial interfaces between the two main concepts of competitiveness and sustainability. This chapter consists of two parts: Part I and Part II. Part I examines the theoretical and conceptual foundations of competitiveness in order to impart a basic understanding of what a destination is trying to achieve when it proclaims a goal of enhancing its competitiveness. The tourism industry must continue to organize, professionalize, communicate, educate, and conduct and support research if it is to compete effectively for its share of a nation's resources. Part II examines the concept of sustainability. Because the historical roots of this concept are more recent and much shallower than those of competitiveness, there is often no clear consensus regarding what sustainability truly means. Although much of the traditional concern for sustainability, as related to tourism, has focused on environmentally sensitive areas such as national parks, it is argued that every destination must examine its ability to maintain all dimensions of environmental, economic, social, cultural and political sustainability if it is to develop and preserve true competitiveness.
The macroenvironment: global forces shaping world tourism.
Authors: Ritchie J. R. B. , Crouch G. I. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This chapter examines the global forces and the manner in which they affect each of the components of the model of destination competitiveness. As shown, the totality of global forces affecting destination competitiveness/sustainability is captured within what we term an 'onionskin taxonomy'. The global forces may be viewed as consisting of different layers surrounding the destination. The innermost layer, or layer 1, of the 'onion' consists of three types of forces that tend to affect changes in the performance and well-being of the destination most directly, in that they normally fluctuate widely and rapidly within short periods of time. These forces can usually be categorized as economic, political and technological. The next layer of the onion, layer 2, contains forces that tend to be somewhat more stable, and therefore a bit easier to predict. Demographic and sociocultural forces are in layer 2. Finally, there are forces that, in normal times, are quite stable and that can be anticipated with a fairly high degree of reliability. Climatic forces, geographical forces and environmental forces are in this layer. This taxonomy reflects the stability of the global forces but not necessarily their importance. Consequently, at any given point in time, any particular force within any of the layers can be having the greatest impact on destination competitiveness/sustainability/success.
Supporting factors and resources: elements that enhance destination appeal.
Authors: Ritchie J. R. B. , Crouch G. I. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This chapter examines the supporting factors and resources that serve as the foundation of a competitive tourism and hospitality industry. The core resources and attractors represent the principal 'pulling' force driving the demand for destination tourism, but if these are inaccessible, if the private sector is unable or unwilling to create the necessary business services which bring core resources to the market, if the economic and social infrastructure is insufficient, and if the resources which facilitate tourism development are limited or substandard, abundant core resources and attractors will be significantly constrained in their ability to pull tourists.
Fruit disorders.
Authors: Huang XuMing Huang XuMing 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This chapter discusses the factors that affect the occurrence of fruit cracking in litchi (Litchi chinensis) and longan (fruit skin morphology, cell walls, endogenous growth regulators, weather, nutrient content, pests and diseases, and orchard management), and briefly describes the symptoms and development of sunburn and stunted fruit disorder in longan.
Attitudes to risky consequences.
Authors: Hardaker J. B. , Huirne R. B. M. , Anderson J. R. , Lien G. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This chapter shows how the degree of risk aversion of a decision maker, in the context of agriculture, can be assessed and quantified. Sections discuss: utility function elicitation; risk aversion; utility function fitting; ways to transform expected utilities into certainty equivalents; problems in utility function elicitation; alternatives to direct elicitation of utility functions; rationalizing risk aversion; and group decision making.
Stochastic simulation.
Authors: Hardaker J. B. , Huirne R. B. M. , Anderson J. R. , Lien G. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

Stochastic simulation, as a tool in decision analysis, is introduced and illustrated with a simple dairy farm budgeting example. Then sampling techniques that are commonly used in stochastic simulation are described, followed by a discussion and illustration of methods to account for stochastic dependency among input variables. Finally, the way stochastic simulation can be combined with optimization is briefly explained and illustrated.
Early development of small intestinal function.
Authors: Uni Z. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

To accommodate the rapid transition to external nutrient sources, the chicken small intestine goes through morphological, cellular and molecular changes towards the end of incubation. The weight of the intestine, as a proportion of embryonic weight, increases from approximately 1% at 17 days of incubation (17E) to 3.5% at hatch. At this time, the embryonic small intestinal villi are divided into two main developmental stages, which differ in both length and shape. Mucin-producing cells can be observed from 17E and at that time contain only acidic mucin. The activity and RNA expression of brush-border enzymes, which digest disaccharides and small peptides, and of major transporters (sodium-glucose transporter and ATPase) which are found at 15E, begin to increase at 19E (2 days prior to hatch), and increase further on the day of hatch. Although the digestive capacity begins to develop a few days before hatch, most of the development occurs post-hatch when the neonatal chick begins consuming feed. During the post-hatch period, the weight of the small intestine increases at a faster rate than body mass. Rapid enterocyte proliferation and differentiation occur. In addition the intestinal crypts, which begin to form at hatch, are clearly defined several days post-hatch, increasing in both cell number and size. Goblet cells produce acidic and neutral mucins in similar proportions. Studies have shown that feeding immediately post-hatch or even pre-hatch accelerates the functional development of the small intestine, while delayed access to external feed arrests the development of the small intestine's mucosal layer and changes mucin dynamics.
Absorptive function of the small intestine: adaptations meeting demand.
Authors: Mitchell M. A. , Moretó M. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

The mucosal epithelium of the small intestine constitutes a highly dynamic interface with the external environment through the delivery, digestive processing and absorption of nutrients. The intestinal mucosa is capable of rapid and extensive morphological and functional adaptation in response to evolutionary changes, genetic selection, altered dietary composition or food availability and pathological processes. The function of the intestine and adaptations therein may be studied at the molecular, cellular, organic or whole animal level, employing a variety of in vitro and in vivo techniques. This review addresses the mechanisms mediating adaptations in mucosal structure and function in chickens in response to selection for production traits and in the face of thermal stress and of changes in dietary sodium intake. The data presented draw upon the outputs of studies using membrane vesicles, isolated enterocytes, in vitro sheets and in vivo perfusion preparations. The findings of the different methodologies and approaches are compared and contrasted and their contribution to characterization of digestive and absorptive function in the whole animal is considered. These studies help elucidate the basic mechanisms involved in nutrient absorption from the small and large intestine in the fowl and an understanding of the adaptive potential of the mucosa and the underlying mechanisms may provide the sound scientific basis for nutritional strategies that exploit the physiological adaptations induced by the requirement for improved growth rates or efficiency of production under a wide range of climatic conditions.
Effects of amino acid and protein supply on nutrition and health.
Authors: Kidd M. T. , Corzo A. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

Modern commercial broiler strains accrete more breast meat and are marketed earlier than were previous strains, in addition to typically having different feed intake patterns. Much recent research has addressed increasing dietary amino acid density to optimize growth and tissue accretion rates of modern commercial broilers. Increasing amino acid density, especially early in the bird's life, results in improved live production and carcass traits, resulting in increased profitability. However, supplying amino acids in excess can be costly and increase nitrogen excretion, whereas limiting their supply can result in suboptimal yields and economic returns. Essential amino acid (i.e. threonine, isoleucine, valine, arginine and tryptophan) experimentation with respect to their effect on broiler live performance, carcass traits and health is discussed. Although feeding deficient levels of isoleucine, valine and arginine suppressed some aspects of the immune system, fortifying these amino acids to levels above surfeit was without effect on immune system measurements. Our findings suggest that the threonine, valine and isoleucine requirements for functionality of a normal immune system do not exceed needs for growth. Arginine, however, has vast metabolic functions related to immunity and further testing is warranted to determine if its need for health is higher than that for growth in commercial broilers. Although the dietary supply of amino acids is critical for good growth and tissue accretion, marginal limitations or excesses do not seem to impact bird health. Future amino acid research via early feeding and in ovo may result in early growth and health benefits.
Broodiness and broody control.
Authors: Sharp P. J. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

Broodiness is a nuisance and sometimes a serious problem in some poultry. The behaviour is recognized as persistent nesting, usually associated with cessation of egg laying. Broodiness has two components: incubation and brooding behaviour; the former can only be induced in laying hens, while the latter can be induced in both laying and non-laying hens and in males, by forced fostering of chicks. The motivation to incubate wanes after 4-5 weeks sitting on infertile eggs, while brooding behaviour gradually declines as the chicks become independent and egg laying resumes. Incubation and brooding behaviour are associated with low concentrations of plasma luteinizing hormone (LH) and ovarian steroids, and with high and low concentrations of plasma prolactin, respectively. The preoptic area of the hypothalamus (POA) forms part of the neural circuitry controlling both incubation and brooding behaviours. High concentrations of prolactin and low concentrations of plasma LH in incubating hens are a consequence, respectively, of increased vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) and decreased gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release from the hypothalamus. Changes in the release of these two neuropeptides from the hypothalamus are, in part, a consequence of changes in their rates of synthesis. The release of VIP in incubating hens is stimulated by dopaminergic input from the POA, which in turn is stimulated by a serotonergic input. Incubation behaviour is a form of extended nesting behaviour induced by the synergistic action of oestrogen and progesterone. It is transformed into incubation behaviour by increased prolactin secretion stimulated by neural information transmitted through the brood patch from a clutch of eggs to hypothalamic VIP neurones. Broody control is best achieved by good husbandry directed to discouraging the behaviour. Pharmacological and immunological methods can be used to control or prevent broodiness but for most practical purposes are uneconomic and some may delay resumption of egg production. Broodiness is a polygenic trait, and quantitative trait loci analysis can be applied to identify regions of the genome controlling broodiness. Identification of markers in, or linked to, these genes and associated with broody behaviour is likely to be of value in breeding programmes incorporating DNA marker-assisted selection.
Behaviour and environmental enrichment in broiler breeders.
Authors: Estevez I. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

Management practices in broiler breeder production are mostly based on years of farming experience and trial-and-error attempts to address problems as they arise. Some of the problems observed during breeding may be a consequence of the discontinuity in environmental conditions from the rearing to the breeding phase. Rearing takes place in a two-dimensional world, while during breeding birds will have to jump on and off and navigate around farm furniture to find and gain access to nest boxes, feeders and drinkers. Without prior experience this may be a difficult task. Environmental enrichment techniques may help to alleviate this problem as birds gain experience early in life in using the three-dimensional space and would be better prepared for the more complex breeder facility. Enrichment provided by perches, cover panels or other forms of visual barriers not only can reduce the stress of the transition among facilities but may also have a significant impact in reducing the incidence of floor eggs, disturbances, aggression and over-mating. In addition, the presence of cover panels during breeding has been shown to have a positive impact on reproductive performance, and the initial cost of implementation can soon be recovered with additional economic profit. It is clear that environmental enrichment programmes have the potential to benefit animals from the health and welfare standpoint and also improve the management and efficiency of breeding farms.
Feed restriction.
Authors: Hocking P. M. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

It is common practice to control the feed consumption, and therefore the energy intake, of the parents of commercial broilers and ducks but not turkeys. Genetic selection for high rates of body weight gain results in correlated increases in ovulation rate and disrupted production of eggs with sound shells suitable for hatching. Feed restriction controls multiple ovulation in broiler breeders and ducks but not turkeys. The reasons for these breed and species differences and the biological principles underlying the allocation of feed energy are outlined. A series of experiments provided the basis for a theory of feed restriction in broiler breeders and led to the development of a stochastic model to predict egg production. Research has shown that achieving the target body weight at the onset of lay is critical and that feed supplied after the onset of lay should be adequate to support the peak of egg production. Feed allocation after the peak of egg production has been reached can be gradually decreased to match the requirements for lower egg production and to limit the effects of excessive body weight gain on mortality and productivity. Feed restriction is not practised in turkey breeders because it does not control the ovarian hierarchy and persistency of lay is poor, probably because the birds naturally lose a considerable quantity of body weight after the onset of lay. Conversely, excessive weight gain is undesirable and turkeys are fed low-energy and low-protein diets to limit body weight gain before photostimulation. The body weight of broiler breeder cocks and drakes is substantially limited during rearing to enhance mating efficiency and fertility. Low-protein or low-energy diets are used to limit excessive body weight gain in stags as this facilitates semen collection and improves health. In males of all three species, body weight is allowed to increase slowly during the mating period to maintain fertility. The welfare consequences of feed restriction in breeding birds are discussed and alternatives to quantitative feed restriction are outlined. It is concluded that the long-term solution to the need for substantial feed restriction in breeding birds is genetic selection for a decreased propensity of multiple ovulation.
Protein and amino acid responses.
Authors: Fisher C. , Gous R. M. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This article discusses the provision of protein to breeding hens; protein deposition in breeding hens; response to amino acids in broiler breeder hens; protein utilization in breeding hens; dietary protein supply and breeding males; dietary protein supply and embryonic development; carry-over effects of maternal protein supply; empirical evidence about protein supply to breeding birds; integration: a model of protein utilization in female broiler breeders; and some reference is made to turkey and duck breeders, but most of the evidence and discussion refers to broiler breeders.
Rootstock development.
Authors: Reighard G. L. , Loreti F. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This chapter discusses traditional and new rootstock cultivars of peach, and their potential for solving some of the specific soil and site problems that peach growers are experiencing worldwide. Selection criteria (graft compatibility, ease of sexual or asexual propagation, resistance to abiotic stresses, resistance to soil pests and diseases, increased yield and fruit quality, and tree size control and anchorage), horticultural characteristics, and breeding programmes for these rootstocks are discussed.
Crop load management.
Authors: Marini R. P. , Reighard G. L. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This chapter covers peach tree physiology and the physiological importance of fruit thinning. Various methods that have been developed to thin peach trees and some of the factors affecting the efficacy of these practices are discussed. Specific topics covered are: fruit growth and development; quantification of crop load; modification of crop load (pre-bloom, bloom and post-bloom stages); and crop load interactions with stresses (tree density, water stress, leaf-feeding arthropods, high temperatures and low temperatures).
The genetics and plant breeding of allium crops.
Authors: Brewster J. L. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This chapter reviews: the chromosomes; breeding systems; genetics; genetic linkage maps; genomics; hybrid vigour; genetic male sterility and hybrid breeding; techniques of breeding and cultivar improvement; pollination control in breeding; breeding objectives in edible alliums; selection methods and environmental influences; genetic transformation of alliums; breeding for disease and pest resistance.
Interactions with other organisms: weeds, pests, diseases and symbionts.
Authors: Brewster J. L. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

The main pests and disease-causing organisms and the symptoms they can cause on alliums are briefly described. This chapter aim to show how scientific knowledge of weed, pest and disease biology underlies rational crop protection. Attention is also paid to the interrelations between different classes of noxious organisms. For example, allium viral diseases are vectored by pest insects and mites, pest damage can predispose plants to infection by disease-causing bacteria and fungi, and weeds often act as alternative hosts for such bacteria and fungi. This chapter ends with a section on the mycorrhizal fungi of allium roots where a fungi that can be of direct benefit to the plants is exemplified. Symptoms of a number of the important pests and diseases are also illustrated.
The end of tourism, or endings in tourism?
Authors: Gale T. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This chapter picks up the idea of the 'end of tourism' and explores the capacity for 'endings' in tourism in the context of wider debates on mobilities, sustainable development and the risk society. It adopts a more literal interpretation of John Urry's ideas on the 'end of tourism', extending his thesis beyond the social construction of leisure travel - which, it is argued, has become less distinct and more ordinary - to encompass a number of issues that problematize existing notions of tourism as an industry and a phenomenon in ascendancy. These include the decline of traditional seaside resorts, the unsustainability of 'old' and 'new' tourism alike, and the potentially deleterious effects of macro environmental and political crises such as climate change and the 'war on terror'.
Of time and space and other things: laws of tourism and the geographies of contemporary mobilities.
Authors: Hall C. M. 
Published: November 2009

Abstract

This chapter looks at the development of geographical accounts of mobilities and addresses some of the ontological and epistemological issues that they raise, including intersections between the 'old' and 'new' social physics, issues of scale of analysis and method, as well as the sociology of knowledge of tourism mobilities. It argues that there is great value in engaging in multiple understandings of mobilities in order to better inform method, theory and debates surrounding human behaviour in space and time, including the issue of whether there are laws of mobility. The chapter concludes by arguing that although notions of grand theory in the social sciences are usually relegated to the position of wishful positivist thinking there are nevertheless certain principles that apply to an improved understanding of accessibility and mobility issues in tourism.