bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
3 Lending to and for the Poor: How the IMF's Role Has Evolved
Authors: Boughton James M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The IMF began concerning itself with poverty and the social aspects of Fund-supported programs in the late 1970s. The limitations of the traditional exclusive reliance on macroeconomic policy tools gradually became apparent through the 1980s. That understanding, coupled with external pressures and changes in the world economy, led the IMF to broaden the scope of its policy advice and eventually the scope of its conditionality. In recent years, however, the weaknesses of that broad strategy have swung the pendulum back toward a more limited approach.
4 The Case for a Universal Financial Institution
Authors: Boughton James M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractAll financial institutions specialize, in dimensions that may include categories of assets and liabilities, types of services offered, customer demographics, and geographic coverage. The IMF is the only international financial institution that is truly universal in its geographic scope, prepared to lend on request to virtually any country in the world. Why has this status come about? What are its costs and benefits? Is it an appropriate model for a world where macroeconomic imbalances, financial crises, and disparities in economic development must compete for attention and resources?
5 The Role of the IMF in Low‐Income Countries: An Institutional Approach
Authors: Lombardi Domenico 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter elaborates on the role of the IMF in support of its low-income members, pointing to the global character of the institution and to its superior ability — due to the multilateral nature — to serve as a financial institution, an information provider, and a commitment device. The IMF assists low-income members through a range of activities that are normally bundled together, including lending, offering policy advice, and providing assistance with capacity building. The study reviews the features of IMF policies towards its low-income membership and points to the main challenges to their success.
7 The IMF's Approach to Macroeconomic Policy in Low‐Income Countries
Authors: Bevan David 
Published: September 2009

AbstractDonors often make foreign aid conditional on an ‘on-track’ IMF-supported program. This practice is supported by evidence that aid is more effective in the presence of sound macroeconomic policies. But it is important to consider whether IMF program approval is the measure of policy soundness most relevant to decisions on aid. Moreover, the use of IMF financing as a signal — like any signaling mechanism — affects the incentives of the parties concerned, including aid-receiving countries, donors, and the IMF itself. This chapter examines these issues and their implications for aid allocation and variability as well as for IMF financing.
9 Debt Relief in Low‐Income Countries: Background, Evolution, and Effects
Authors: Bird Graham , Powell Robert 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe conventional modalities for providing financial assistance to low-income countries have been foreign aid and debt relief. Although some attention has been paid to establishing new methods of development financing, recent global initiatives have concentrated instead on the traditional ones. This chapter focuses on debt relief. It describes how debt relief to indebted poor countries has evolved from early attempts to relax the ‘terms’ applied to poor country debt, to the heavily indebted poor country (HIPC) initiative and its enhancement and, more recently, to the multilateral debt relief initiative first proposed in June 2005 at the G8 summit. It gives some calculations of the size of the relief provided. It also discusses and estimates the extent to which debt relief has been ‘additional’. In this context, it examines the relationship between debt relief and foreign aid; has it been positive or negative? The empirical part of the chapter focuses on the low-income countries of Sub Saharan Africa and shows that the effects of debt relief on aid flows and resource transfers have changed over time. The chapter conjectures as to why these changes may have occurred, and discusses some of the more important contemporary policy issues surrounding debt relief.
10 The Role and Performance of the IMF in Aid to Low‐Income Countries: Lessons from Evaluation
Authors: Salop Joanne 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the treatment of aid to Sub-Saharan Africa in programs supported by the IMF's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF), along with relevant Fund policies and communications. It builds on an evaluation by the IMF's Independent Evaluation Office — The IMF and Aid to Sub-Saharan Africa — which explored the validity (or not) of three external criticisms. The first is that PRGFs blocked the use of aid through overly conservative macroeconomic programs. The second is that PRGFs lacked ambition in projecting and identifying opportunities for the use of aid, which may in turn have tempered donors' actual provision of aid. The third is that PRGFs focused little on poverty reduction and growth. The chapter also explores the institutional drivers for Fund behavior and the disconnectedness identified in the evaluation between the Fund's rhetoric on aid, poverty reduction, and the Millennium Development Goals, and its operational practices.
11 Participation in IMF Programs and Income Inequality
Authors: Conway Patrick 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents an empirical analysis of the determinants of income distribution in 108 developing countries over the period 1988 to 1998. The data comes from the developing-country subset of those used by Milanovic (2005), augmented by information on the cumulative prior participation of the country in IMF programs over the preceding ten years. Just as in Li et al. (1998), the conclusion is that the majority of variation in income inequality is cross-country in nature: this component of income inequality will depend primarily upon the development characteristics of the countries, and not on participation in IMF programs. It follows the pattern observed in the Kuznets U hypothesis. The findings, however, also show that cumulative past participation in IMF programs has a positive effect on the change in share of income held by the lowest quintile of the population. This effect is robust to the inclusion of other developmental indicators.
13 Proposing IMF Reforms for Low‐Income Countries
Authors: Momani Bessma 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter surveys recent IMF reform proposals emanating from academia, policy networks, think-tanks, member states, and even within the IMF. It argues that these IMF reform proposals are overly focused on governance reforms and do not adequately cover substantive policy changes. Low income countries would better gain from IMF reforms that addressed substantive policy issues; issues that debtors had long pursued about the efficacy, application, and fundamentals of Fund advice. These functional reform issues have been sidelined in current Fund reform proposals because the debate has been dominated by state officials, primarily from the emerging market economies, who are concerned with increasing their relative power in IMF decision-making. The chapter suggests internal IMF reforms, organizational and bureaucratic changes, that will help meet the needs of LICs.
Restitution Not Based on Performance
Authors: Dannemann Gerhard 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses the second alternative of the general enrichment clause in § 812 para. 1 sent. 1 BGB, that being of ‘enrichment in another way at the expense of another’. This is a negative description and allows restitution in situations where the shift of wealth from the claimant to the defendant has occurred in a way other than by performance.
Lessons to Be Learned?
Authors: Dannemann Gerhard 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines whether the comparison between German and English law of unjust(ified) enrichment can be used for developing the law in both legal systems. It first looks at those other areas of law which can provide the legal basis for enrichments under an absence of basis approach, and in particular contract law. Existing differences between English and German contract law imply that an absence of basis approach should not simply be transplanted into English surroundings without a careful examination as to the effects which these differences in contract law can have on unjust enrichment law. Having thus placed an absence of basis approach in context, the chapter looks at the modifications which would then become necessary or advisable within unjust enrichment law. This concerns some English case law which cannot be reconciled with an unjust enrichment approach. It includes issues of taxonomy, in particular whether switching to an absence of basis approach should also entail the adoption of the performance/non-performance divide eventually adopted by German law in the 1960s, or whether English law would do better without this divide and operate a general absence of basis approach more similar to the pre-1960 system in Germany. Finally, the chapter looks at what German law could learn from the comparison with English law.
Selected Provisions of the German Civil Code
Authors: Dannemann Gerhard 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents translations of provisions of the German Civil Code which relate to restitution and unjustified enrichment partially adapted from two sources. A smaller selection, first appeared 1997 in the German Law Archive. Provisions which were amended during the 2002 reform (§§ 214-215, 275, 285, 346-354) have been taken from the translation of the Reform Act German Civil Code — Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, published in 2002, these are also in the German Law Archive. These have been slightly revised and a few extra translations have been added (§§ 100, 185, 267-268, 291-292, 426, 774, 779). These have not been previously published.
5 Anarchy is What Criminal Lawyers and other Actors Make of it: International Criminal Justice as an Institution of International and World Society
Authors: Ralph Jason 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter argues that the ICC is not merely a response to a developed consensus of the idea that individuals should be held criminally responsible for gross human rights violations. It is also a response to what Alexander Wendt might call the ‘instability’ of an international society that has enabled unaccountable great powers to decide when and where international criminal justice would be administered and promoted, and to grant effectively for themselves exceptions to the laws they applied to others. In this sense, the rules of international society remained unstable and states responded by creating the ICC, which, in effect, turned the exception into the norm. The chapter seeks to show how the Court's independence from the society of states leads us to contemplate further the other aspect of English School theorizing: world society. From this standpoint, it addresses the crucial issue of why so many states thought it necessary to create the Office of the Prosecutor, and to invest it with the powers to investigate without prior authorization of the UN Security Council.
3 Parts and wholes: Implicative patterns in inflectional paradigms
Authors: Ackerman Farrell , Blevins James P. , Malouf Robert 
Published: September 2009

AbstractHumans show an amazing ability to produce novel words based on previous experience. What analogical processes are at work in this process, and how do analogical generalizations emerge from complex morphological systems? This chapter addresses these questions with new quantitative measures. Words are construed as recombinant gestalts. The predictive value of particular words in relation to others is calculated in terms of measures of conditional entropy. When applied to Tundra Nenets nominal paradigms, the model captures central aspects of morphological organization and learning.
10 Words and paradigms bit by bit: An information‐theoretic approach to the processing of inflection and derivation
Authors: Milin Petar , Kuperman Victor , Kostić Aleksandar , Baayen Harald R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter models the role of paradigm structure in lexical processing using cross-entropy measure. New experimental data demonstrates the usefulness of entropy, relative entropy, and cross entropy in modeling analogical generalizations.
A functional guide to functional diversity measures
Authors: Petchey Owen L. , O’Gorman Eoin J. , Flynn Dan F. B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter asks the questions: what kinds of resources do organisms exploit, where do they exploit them, and when do they exploit them? Each of these characteristics, and many others, can be a component of functional diversity. One critical reason that functional diversity might link organisms and ecosystems is that it implicitly contains information about how species will compensate for the loss of another. Another illustration of the interactions that are implicitly represented in measures of functional diversity is that the effect on functional diversity of losing a particular species (or adding a particular species) is context-dependent. The context here is the other species present in the community. Functional diversity is a measure of diversity that implicitly incorporates some mechanisms of ecological interactions between species. At present, much attention is focused on how to measure it, and that is the broad subject of this chapter.
Biodiversity and the stability of ecosystem functioning
Authors: Griffin John N. , O’Gorman Eoin J. , Emmerson Mark C. , Jenkins Stuart R. , Klein Alexandra-Maria , Loreau Michel , Symstad Amy 
Published: September 2009

AbstractConcern that the rapid anthropogenic erosion of biodiversity may undermine the delivery of ecosystem services has prompted a synthesis of community and ecosystem ecology over the last decade. Biodiversity-ecosystem functioning (BEF) research is central to this emerging synthesis, asking how biodiversity is related to the magnitude and stability of ecosystem processes. Isolating species richness effects from species composition has been a chief goal of BEF research. This BEF perspective recognized that fluctuating abundances of component species may not produce instability at the community or ecosystem level because compensatory reactions among species dampen fluctuations of aggregate abundance. Within the BEF framework, experiments and theory explicitly relating to the effect of species richness on community-level aggregate properties (mainly biomass) have focused on variability through time in relation to background environmental variation (temporal stability) as well as on the impact (resistance) and recovery (resilience) of such properties to discrete, and often extreme, perturbations. This chapter reviews recent empirical studies examining the links between species richness and these three facets of stability.
Incorporating biodiversity in climate change mitigation initiatives
Authors: Díaz Sandra , Wardle David A. , Hector Andy 
Published: September 2009

AbstractClimate change mitigation initiatives based on biological sequestration of carbon have paid little attention to biodiversity, with important implications both for climate change mitigation and for ecosystem services that depend on biodiversity. Here the chapter reviews the theoretical and empirical evidence for forest biodiversity effects on carbon sequestration. This chapter suggests that protection of primary forests is the most effective option for maximizing carbon sequestration in forest ecosystems, and should be included in future international agreements. Because carbon sequestration is a long term goal, this chapter presents the case that avoidance of losses should be emphasized over short term uptake, and that maintenance of mixtures of dominant and subdominant species and genotypes are the safest option for carbon sequestration in plantations and agroforestry systems. Biodiversity conservation should be included in the development of policy for climate change mitigation initiatives based on carbon sequestration in forested systems, including those related to the Kyoto Protocol.
Restoring biodiversity and ecosystem function: will an integrated approach improve results?
Authors: Wright Justin , Symstad Amy , Bullock James M. , Engelhardt Katharina , Jackson Louise , Bernhardt Emily 
Published: September 2009

AbstractEcological restorations often focus on restoring communities while ignoring ecosystem functioning, or on ecosystem functioning without regard to communities. This chapter argues that the biodiversity-ecosystem function (BEF) perspective provides an opportunity to integrate these views and potentially improve the success of restoration. First, the restoration of biodiversity may lead to desired levels of ecosystem properties and processes through "classical" BEF mechanisms such as complementarity or selection effects. Second, BEF theory suggests that biodiversity may enhance temporal stability of the provisioning of ecosystem services in restored ecosystems. Finally, in restored ecosystems with multiple management goals, biodiversity may enhance the provisioning of multiple services. Assessing the relative benefits of biodiversity for risk management and the provisioning of multiple services requires economic as well as ecological analyses. Scientists, managers and policy makers will need to ask relevant questions and collaborate in interpreting results if BEF theory's potential to impact restoration is to be realized.
Origins of metazoan body plans: the larval revolution
Authors: Raff Rudolf A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractBilaterian animal body plan origins are generally thought about in terms of adult forms. However, most animals have larvae with body plans, ontogenies, and ecologies distinct from their adults. The first of two primary hypotheses for larval origins suggests the earliest animals were small pelagic forms similar to modern larvae, with adult bilaterian body plans evolved subsequently. The second suggests that adult bilaterian body plans evolved first and that larval body plans arose by interpolations of features into direct-developing ontogenies. The two hypotheses have different consequences for understanding parsimony in evolution of larvae and of developmental genetic mechanisms. If primitive metazoans were like modern larvae and distinct adult forms evolved independently, there should be little commonality of patterning genes among adult body plans. However, sharing of patterning genes in adults is observed. If larvae arose by co-option of adult bilaterian-expressed genes into independently evolved larval forms, larvae may show morphological convergence, but with distinct patterning genes, as is observed. Thus, comparative studies of gene expression support independent origins of larval features. Precambrian and Cambrian embryonic fossils are also consistent with direct development of the adult as primitive, with planktonic larval forms arising during the Cambrian. Larvae have continued to co-opt genes and evolve new features, allowing study of developmental evolution.
Beyond linear sequence comparisons: the use of genome-level characters for phylogenetic reconstruction
Authors: Boore Jeffrey L. , Fuerstenberg Susan I. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe first whole genomes to be compared for phylogenetic inference were those of mitochondria, which provided the first sets of genome-level characters for phylogenetic reconstruction. Most powerful among these characters has been comparisons of the relative arrangements of genes, which have convincingly resolved numerous branching points, including some that had remained recalcitrant even to very large molecular sequence comparisons. Now the world faces a tsunami of complete nuclear genome sequences. In addition to the tremendous amount of DNA sequence that is becoming available for comparison, there is also the potential for many more genome-level characters to be developed, including the relative positions of introns, the domain structures of proteins, gene family membership, presence of particular biochemical pathways, aspects of DNA replication or transcription, and many others. These characters can be especially convincing because of their low likelihood of reverting to a primitive condition or occurring independently in separate lineages, so reducing the occurrence of homoplasy. The comparisons of organelle genomes pioneered the way for using such features for phylogenetic reconstructions, and it is almost certainly true, as ever more genomic sequence becomes available, that further use of genome-level characters will play a big role in outlining the relationships among major animal groups.
MicroRNAs and metazoan phylogeny: big trees from little genes
Authors: Sperling Erik A. , Peterson Kevin J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractUnderstanding the evolution of a clade, from either a morphologic or genomic perspective, first and foremost requires a correct phylogenetic tree topology. This allows for the polarization of traits so that synapomorphies (innovations) can be distinguished from plesiomorphies and homoplasies. Metazoan phylogeny was originally formulated on the basis of morphological similarity, and in some areas of the tree was robustly supported by molecular analyses, whereas in others was strongly repudiated by molecular analyses. Nonetheless, some areas of the tree still remain largely unknown, despite decades, if not centuries, of research. This lack of consensus may be largely due to apomorphic body plans combined with apomorphic sequences. Here, the chapter proposes that microRNAs may represent a new dataset that can unequivocally resolve many relationships in metazoan phylogeny, ranging from the interrelationships among genera to the interrelationships among phyla. miRNAs, small non-coding regulatory genes, shows three properties that make them excellent candidates for phylogenetic markers: 1) new microRNA families are continually being incorporated into metazoan genomes through time; 2) they show very low homoplasy, with only rare instances of secondary loss, and only rare instances of substitutions occurring in the mature gene sequence; and 3) are almost impossible to evolve convergently. Because of these three properties, this chapter proposes that miRNAs are a novel type of data that can be applied to virtually any area of the metazoan tree, to test among competing hypotheses or to forge new ones, and to help finally resolve the correct topology of the metazoan tree.
Comparative genomics of insect immunity
Authors: Kafatos Fotis , Waterhouse Robert , Zdobnov Evgeny , Christophides George 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter compares the Drosophila group with mosquitoes and honeybees to disentangle common themes from specific components of immunity. Honeybees, for example, have a relatively small set of immune genes which demonstrate a high degree of conservatism. They are most intriguing when compared with non-social insects, as the differences between them are attributable to the evolution of sociality in bees and other Hymenoptera. The chapter highlights how the use of comparative genomics led to the unravelling of evolutionary novelties. Genes containing leucine-rich repeats are an example, which led to the discovery of a new complement-like mechanism in mosquitoes.