bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
International Human Rights Law
Authors: Kiyoteru Tsutsui  
Published: March 2012

Abstract
International human rights law refers to a collectivity of international legal agreements that are designed to promote and protect human rights. In a narrower definition, international human rights law includes only legally binding international treaties. A broader conceptualization would include declarations, resolutions, and other international instruments that do not have binding authority but serve as customary international law in some contexts. In international human rights law, the concept of human rights typically includes civil and political rights, and economic, social, and cultural rights. While collective rights, such as indigenous peoples' rights, are emerging as a new frontier of international human rights law, especially with the adoption of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in 2007, the primary focus of international human rights law is protection of individual rights.
International Olympic Committee
Authors: Grainger Andrew F. , Andrews David L. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The International Olympic Committee (IOC) is the governing body of a global and multifaceted complex of individuals, events, institutions, and organizations, oftentimes, if somewhat ambiguously, referred to as the “Olympic Movement,” whose most globally visible manifestations are the Olympic Summer and Winter Games. Based in Lausanne, Switzerland, the global reach of the Olympic Movement is such that more nations are presently members of the IOC (205) than the United Nations (UN) (192). The IOC's primary function is to establish and advance the principles of the Olympic Charter, and its attendant ideology of Olympism, which provide the values and rules for the governance of the Olympic Movement and the organization of the Olympic Games. Clearly, the IOC's global influence is as much material as ideological, since its sphere of influence includes: 205 National Olympic Committees (NOCs); International Federations (IFs) for the 26 Summer and 7 Winter Olympic sports; Organising Committees of the Olympic Games (OCOGs); as well as national associations, clubs, and individuals belonging to the IFs and NOCs including athletes, administrators, judges, referees, coaches, and officials. Clearly, the IOC is inextricably conjoined with sport at all levels, and across all reaches of the globe. Furthermore, in legal terms, the Swiss government has recognized the IOC as having “the specific character of an international institution,” while granting the Committee an exemption from direct taxation of its revenues and imposing no limitations on the nationality of its administrative staff.
International Telecommunication Union
Authors: Drori Gili S. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe International Telegraph Union, the predecessor of today's International Telecommunication Union (ITU), was founded in 1865 in Paris, some 30 years after the electric telegraph was invented. Its founding was formalized through the ratification by 20 European countries of the first ITU convention, whose goal was the cross‐national harmonization of telegraph technical standards. This theme of cross‐national harmonization of technical standards remains the framework of numerous ITU‐initiated regulatory conventions since then: from the July 1875 St Petersburg International Telegraph Convention to the 1999 protocol of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), ITU conventions have maintained the focus on the mission of setting international technical standards for telecommunications. This technical mission dominated ITU operations until the 1980s, when it was supplemented with a broader social mission aiming at the expansion of access to and use of telecommunication technologies. This change in the tone of ITU's mission – adding a social justice component to the goal of advancing technical standards – was formally encoded in several ITU conventions since then. Most explicitly, the 1994 Declaration on Global Communications Development for the 21st Century went as far as to define telecommunications as a right by specifying the “right of connection.” This extra mission inspired the initiatives to create a global information society, with the two World Summits on Information Society (WSIS), orchestrated by ITU, as the mission's pinnacle events.
Interpol
Authors: Deflem Mathieu 
Published: March 2012

AbstractInterpol was founded at an international police congress in Vienna in 1923 as the International Criminal Police Commission (ICPC). Its formation signaled the growing awareness among police professionals that crime was of an increasingly international character, especially under the influence of advanced technological means of transport and communication, and that political and legal agreements did not suffice to tackle this problem. The 1923 gathering was organized independently by police professionals. A permanent structure for international police cooperation with a central headquarters (at the Viennese criminal police) was set up through which information could be passed on among the member agencies. Since its founding, Interpol has not been organized as a supranational police force with powers of arrest, but as a collaborative network of criminal police agencies from different countries around the world. At present, Interpol has member agencies from 188 nations.
Isomorphism
Authors: Robinson Karen Jeong 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe term isomorphism was introduced in the organization literature to explain the striking similarities in the formal structures of organizations. Early work differentiated two types of isomorphism: one that underscored a process motivated by efficiency and competition and the second that highlighted the embeddedness of organizations in highly institutionalized environments. The latter conceptualization was elaborated and expanded to a wider global context to account for the similarities between nation‐states, specifically, in terms of structures and policies.
Labor Unions
Authors: Fairbrother Peter 
Published: March 2012

AbstractGlobalization creates both problems and opportunities for workers and their unions. On the one hand, globalization is accompanied by deindustrialization, privatization, and state restructuring. The ending of the Cold War and the embrace of neoliberalism meant that former colonies, ex‐state socialist societies, and the developing societies in the Asia Pacific and South America became attractive destinations as markets and for investment. With the emergence of China and India as major producers and markets, the configuration of the global economy was transformed. On the other hand, workers are no longer insulated from each other, and, whether acknowledged or not, are part of an international division of labor. Additionally, information and communication technologies, often heralded as iconic features of the modern form of globalization, facilitate both capital mobility and global competition as well as enabling connections and political exchanges between workers. This creates possibilities and challenges for labor unions.
Law of the Sea
Authors: Stokke Olav Schram 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe Law of the Sea is that part of public international law dealing with regulation and division of competence regarding ocean activities. Major changes have been driven by key aspects of globalization – competition, diffusion, institutions. In the 1600s, competition among European states over foreign markets and natural resources spurred legal doctrines justifying a simple spatial differentiation. Save for narrow coastal strips controllable from land (territorial waters), the oceans were considered high seas where only the flag‐state of a vessel could limit its freedom of action. Diffusion of new technologies and capital investments in the 1900s undermined the conduciveness of some of these high‐seas freedoms. Recently, international and transnational institutions have offered venues for negotiating more nuanced divisions of competence and more restrictive norms of ocean use.
Leapfrogging
Authors: Ritzer George 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Leapfrogging mainly involves earlier technologies bypassing developing nations, enabling those nations to adopt more advanced technologies. For example, some developing countries have gone straight to solar energy or energy from biomass rather than building huge, centralized systems (e.g., enormous and very expensive power plants operating on the basis of coal, oil, or nuclear energy) for the transmission of power (Ritzer 2010).
Liberalism
Authors: Rudrappa SharmiLla 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
In common American parlance liberals are individuals who want greater state involvement in various realms of economic and social life such as market regulation, environmental protection, public schooling, and public health care. Simultaneously, they ask the state to step out of other arenas; that is, they are ostensibly anti‐war, pro‐immigration, and possibly, for the legalization of drugs. However sociologically speaking, liberalism is the espousal of unfettered individual freedom that arises from the widening and deepening of free markets. This entry maps out the origins of the term, its historical abeyance in the mid twentieth century, and its rise by the end of the twentieth century. The main focus is on the neoliberal developments that have structured the global economy since the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Livestock and Meat Industries
Authors: MacLachlan Ian 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Domestic livestock (defined broadly to include bovines such as cattle and buffalo, swine, horses, sheep, goats, camelids, and poultry) are found in every world region where they may function as draft animals providing a source of primary motive power or as a source of animal products including meat, blood, egg, and dairy foods for human consumption; pharmaceuticals; leather, wool, and feathers; and meat, bone, and blood meal for use as fertilizer and animal feed. The global spread of domestic livestock, mainly from the old world to the new, began as a component of colonial policies to establish self‐sustaining settlements in the Americas, Australasia, and South Africa. Facilitated by technological changes in transportation and food preservation, livestock production and meat marketing attained global scope by the late nineteenth century. Rapid growth in meat and dairy product consumption in the late twentieth century and into the first decade of the twenty‐first century have so transformed the global production and trade of livestock products that some have described it as a “livestock revolution” (Delgado et al. 1999).
Localization
Authors: Brienza Casey 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

In the social sciences broadly, localization is a process by which a form or practice, either globalized or originating from within a particular cultural locality, is adjusted to suit the specific contexts of a new locality. The original and target localities need not be geographically distinct or in separate nation‐states, although this is arguably its most pedestrian and widely recognized use. Localization is to be distinguished from other related terms such as creolization, deterritorialization, hybridity, and regionalism in that it must be understood as neither an ontological state nor a social force. The sense of the word, rather, is that of a deliberate act or series of acts carried out
by
an individual or organization
upon
specific cultural forms or practices. In other words, any example of localized culture is produced by a particular process of localization as its end goal – not merely as one of its manifestations or as its by‐product.
Management, Global Models
Authors: Clegg Stewart R. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Global models of management are of most relevance for multinational organizations, which have to manage operations in several different countries. Stopford and Wells (1972) studied 187 of the largest US‐based multinational corporations (MNCs) in the late 1960s and found that MNCs typically adopt different models at different stages of global expansion. In the early stages firms tended to establish an international division to handle the early limited volume of foreign sales and range of products being sold internationally. As sales of the limited range of products expand, and the product range does not grow accordingly, the firms tend to move to managing by an area structure while firms that develop many more product lines tend to adopt a worldwide product division structure. When both foreign sales and product diversity are high, firms tend to adopt a matrix structure. However, all these design choices are deeply constrained by the previous histories and contexts of the firms in question.
Marketization
Authors: Vujnovic Marina 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Marketization, which is sometimes referred to as commercialization and/or commodification, is a process through which the market sphere continually penetrates and slowly displaces non‐market activities. Marketization's thesis is that, in today's advanced economies, all products, goods, and services are produced to be monetized or exchanged for profit in the market. Marxist scholars such as Harvey (2005) argue that production, exchange, allocation of goods, labor, and consumption in today's advanced economies are by‐and‐large marketized. Capital seems to be the dominant feature of our everyday lives. Capitalism, in particular its neoliberal form, has an enormous impact on the way we understand our everyday actions, practices, and motives. Neoliberalism is characterized by the dominance of capital, liberalization, the shrinking of regulation, and by the social and economic policies that prioritize interests of the capitalist and economic elites. This shift toward the loosening of regulation and the expansion of markets has changed, not only social and economic relations, but cultural consciousness as well. According to Harvey (2005), capitalism has penetrated every aspect of our lives, and the market logic that currently spearheads the process of globalization is producing gross inequalities across the globe.
McDonaldization
Authors: Ram Uri 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe sociological concept of McDonaldization denotes, in the most direct sense, the diffusion of the mode of operation of the McDonald's restaurants chain to other service and retail organizations. More broadly, however, it denotes that this practice is becoming a pattern of social operation and a major social phenomenon, far beyond the specificity of its original setting and, on the broadest scope, the concept denotes the paradigmatic essence of the modernization process as such. The meaning of the concept thus unfolds along a continuum from a case (the firm), to a pattern (the social phenomenon), and to an icon of a whole culture (modernity): meanings that are interrelated, but also distinct.
Médecins Sans Frontières
Authors: Fox Renée C. , Shevchenko Olga 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Since its inception, Doctors Without Borders/Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), an international, nongovernmental organization with a transnational vision, has played a groundbreaking role in combining medical humanitarian action and bearing public witness to the predicament of the people whom it assists (including human rights advocacy on their behalf), for which it was accorded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1999.
Media Convergence
Authors: Rhomberg Markus 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Media systems across the world are becoming increasingly alike with regard to their products, professional practices and cultures, and their relationship with other political and social institutions. These trends of convergence can be found on different levels, especially from a media systems perspective, but also on economic, technical, and content levels as well as in news and journalistic routines. Some scholars identify a trend toward global homogenization of media systems.
Medium is the Message
Authors: Kuipers Giselinde 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

“The medium is the message” is a phrase coined by Canadian media theorist Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980), in his book
Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man
(1964). In this book, McLuhan examines the impact of media on societies and human relations, arguing for the primacy of the medium – understood broadly as any “extension of man” – over overt content. According to McLuhan, each medium has a specific logic and nature, which embeds itself in the content. The medium itself has more fundamental and long‐lasting effects than the more overt content to which people direct their attention. Consequently, the dominant medium of a particular age and place, like print, radio or television, profoundly affects human relations.
Mercenaries
Authors: Avant Deborah 
Published: March 2012

AbstractA “mercenary” is generally taken to be someone who fights for money and/or for a foreign cause, not related to the national interest. Often referred to as the world's second oldest profession, mercenaries are commonly seen as an enduring phenomenon but also one that is suspicious; less legitimate than soldiers or other fighters, with a dubious relationship to state authority, and often less effective. In practice, though, “mercenary” has been used to describe so many fighters and violent forces through history that finding a consistent thread linking all together is difficult. The emergence and boom of the global industry in military and security services in the past 20 years has prompted the most recent debate about mercenaries.
Migrant Sex Workers
Authors: Hidalgo Danielle Antoinette , Royce Tracy 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Simply put, migrant sex workers are migrant women, children, and men who perform waged sexual services. Migrant sex workers may travel from rural areas and relocate in more densely populated areas or near military bases where sexual industries blossom, or they may leave their countries of origin and cross national boundaries in order to obtain work. Such workers may migrate with the intention of engaging in sex work, while others migrate with the initial intention of performing other types of waged labor such as manufacturing or domestic work, but become involved in sexual labor by choice, chance, or coercion once they arrive at their destination.
Migrants
Authors: Faist Thomas 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Migrants are specific types of movers engaged in spatial mobility. They differ from other types, notably travelers and tourists, in that migrants often engage in search of employment, business, or family reunification. In contrast to migrants, the social ties of membership for travelers and tourists do not change as a result of movement. Migrants also differ from nonphysical movers who are mobile through imagination, aided in many cases by particular communications media and technology.
Migration Control
Authors: Schuster Liza 
Published: March 2012

AbstractMigration control usually refers to the attempt by governments to control the entry and settlement of non‐citizens into their territories; that is to select who and how many may enter, under what conditions and for what period of time. Less commonly, at least at the beginning of the twenty‐first century, the term may also be used to refer to attempts to control the exit of citizens from a state's territory. Control is usually exercised at the frontiers of a state, at border crossings, and at sea‐ and air‐ports, and relies on the examination of documentation such as passports, which confirm the traveler's identity, and visas, which confirm that he or she has the receiving state's permission to enter (or a state's permission to leave).
Militarism
Authors: Raffin Anne 
Published: March 2012

AbstractAs Volker R. Berghahn has argued, it is difficult to find a consensus regarding the definition of “militarism” due to the term's widespread use in polemical and propagandistic literature (1981: 2). Since first appearing in the mid nineteenth century, various scholars from different disciplines have had to come to grips with how to interpret the idea of militarism. It has sometimes been used as a synonym of militarization. However, according to Marek Thee, the scope of what is meant by militarism is more restricted than what is implied by militarization; whereas the former highlights martial values within society, the political arena, and social change, the latter stresses concurrent material and discursive aspects of military ascendancy (Eide & Thee 1980: 15; see also Lutz 2002: 725). Overall, the term has rarely been thought of in relation to globalization.
Mobility
Authors: Shamir Ronen 
Published: March 2012

AbstractSocial mobility refers to differential capacities to move along stratified social formations. Spatial mobility refers to differential capacities to move across the borders of gated communities, fortified cities, restricted areas, sovereign territories, private properties, or other forbidden zones. Greater spatial mobility might be sought for purposes of education, employment or trade, physical, political or cultural survival, tourism and exploration, or for maintaining various types of deterritorialized social networks. It may be coerced (e.g., refugees), semi‐coerced due to economic imperatives, or voluntarily sought for profit and status. It may aim at a permanent relocation, temporary sojourn, or a brief visit.
Modernization
Authors: Schmidt Volker H. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The term “modernization” must be understood in relation to the concept and reality of modernity, whose dynamic side it reflects. It refers to (1) evolutionary processes of change that drive and accompany the transition from the premodern to the modern age, (2) conscious efforts on the part of influential actors to set in motion, by means of rational planning, large‐scale processes of social change aimed at achieving what is regarded as modern at a particular point in time, and (3) ongoing (self‐) transformations of social systems once modernity has firmly taken root and become irreversible.
Multiculturalism
Authors: Gunew Sneja 
Published: March 2012

AbstractMulticulturalism is a term that refers to the differing ways in which nation‐states consolidate their putative homogeneity by simultaneously acknowledging and managing various kinds of differences that include ethnicity, race, religion, languages, cultures, and so on. In other words, the very act of citing the differences implies that there is a homogenous core to the nation against which these differences are measured. Multiculturalism is also a term invoked by particular groups in order to argue for retaining their distinctive differences, however they are articulated. Some have argued that one should distinguish between the descriptive term ”multi‐cultures” that denotes the heterogeneity and hybridity of many nations and reserving the term ”multiculturalism” for naming the strategies of governance employed by states to manage such heterogeneity (Hall 2000). As debates on globalization have gathered momentum, multiculturalism has been used as a way of indicating both the local discrepant meanings of the term at the same time that it has been linked to notions of global diasporas. Diasporas appear to threaten the sovereignty of nation‐states and are much discussed in globalization debates. It is also noticeable that in the face of persistent economic inequalities, resistance movements within nation‐states are often symbolically expressed in terms of ethnic or multicultural differences, thus giving rise to the charge that such differences contribute to fragmentation rather than merely describing or acknowledging it (Vertovec & Wessendorf 2010).