bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Two Perspectives On Organizational Wrongdoing
Authors: Palmer Donald 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter describes the two main perspectives on organizational wrongdoing, the abnormal and normal perspectives, in detail. It also describes the two main approaches to explaining wrongdoing, the dominant and alternative approaches, in depth. The chapter also establishes the link between the abnormal and normal perspectives on organizational wrongdoing, the dominant and alternative approaches to explaining the causes of wrongdoing, and the eight specific explanations of wrongdoing that form the core of the book. The eight specific explanations focus on rational choice, culture, ethical decision-making, administrative systems, situational social influence, power structures, accidental behavior, and the social control of wrongdoing. The chapter illustrates the two approaches to explaining organizational wrongdoing with a detailed description of a professional bicycle racer's experience with the use of banned performance-enhancing substances. It concludes with a few remarks about the book's overarching message.
Definitions, Theoretical Development, and Method
Authors: Palmer Donald 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter elaborates three underlying criteria according to which organizational behavior can be considered wrongful: the law, ethics, and social responsibility. It then outlines two alternative approaches to defining organizational wrongdoing that capture these three underlying criteria: the exegetical and sociological approaches. After considering the advantages and disadvantages of each approach, it opts for the sociological one and describes it in more detail. The chapter also describes the nature of the theoretical explanations of wrongdoing developed in the book, and the empirical evidence offered in the book. It characterizes the book as being simultaneously based on a theoretical analysis of prior theory and research on organizational wrongdoing, and rooted in qualitative empirical analyses of actual instances of organizational wrongdoing.
A Rational Choice
Authors: Palmer Donald 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter presents the rational choice explanation of organizational wrongdoing. This explanation is the first dominant account of wrongdoing considered in the book. It is rooted in a theoretical perspective that views organizations as nexuses of contracts linking multiple stakeholders, and views organizational participants as cost/benefit calculators. The chapter describes the basic rational choice explanation of wrongdoing and presents the two most influential rational choice theories: agency and strain theory. It then develops an overarching rational choice framework based on the expectancy theory of motivation. It considers the conditions that give rise to rational-choice inspired wrongdoing and details the policy prescriptions intended to eradicate those conditions. It also discusses recent work in cognitive psychology that suggests how rational choice can go wrong, leading people to embark on wrongdoing when it runs counter to their interests. The chapter concludes with an overall assessment of the rational choice account.
Culture
Authors: Palmer Donald 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter presents the culture explanation of organizational wrongdoing. This explanation is the second dominant account of organizational wrongdoing considered in the book. It is rooted in a theoretical perspective that views organizations as communities and organizational participants as normative appropriateness assessors. The chapter describes the basic concepts of cultural analysis. It then elaborates two ways that organizational cultures can facilitate wrongdoing: by endorsing wrongdoing and by stipulating extenuating circumstances in which wrongdoing can be considered acceptable (that is, by promulgating techniques of neutralization). It describes how people come to embrace their organization's culture (that is, how employees are socialized into wrongdoing) and delineates how cultures that facilitate wrongdoing arise and can be eradicated. It also considers the relationship between the rational choice and culture explanations of organizational wrongdoing. The chapter concludes by offering an overall assessment of the culture account.
Ethical Decisions
Authors: Palmer Donald 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter presents the ethical decision explanation of organizational wrongdoing. This explanation represents a bridge between the dominant and alternative accounts of wrongdoing. It is rooted in a theoretical perspective that views organizations as collections of people engaged in complementary tasks and views organizational participants as decision-makers. The first part of the chapter characterizes early theory and research about ethical decision-making. This work largely embraced the four assumptions that characterize the dominant approach, that is, it tended to assume that people deliberate mindfully and rationally, in social isolation, make discrete decisions, and formulate positive inclinations all before embarking on wrongdoing. The second part discusses and extends recent theory and research. This work jettisons several of the assumptions that underpin the dominant approach; most importantly, the assumption that ethical decision-making is a fully rational endeavor. The chapter concludes with an assessment of the ethical decision explanation.
The Power Structure
Authors: Palmer Donald 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter presents the power structure explanation of organizational wrongdoing. This explanation is the third of five alternative accounts of wrongdoing considered in the book. It is rooted in a theoretical perspective that views organizations as arenas of conflict, and views organizational participants as combatants. The chapter offers a definition of power and describes the two main types of power: formal authority and informal power (also known as resource dependence-based power). It then delineates how both types of power can cause those who possess power and those who are subject to it to engage in wrongdoing. It also explores how formal authority, informal power, and organizational wrongdoing can co-evolve over time. The chapter uses an extensive case analysis of illegal special purpose entities at Enron Corporation to illustrate its central ideas. It concludes with an overall assessment of the power structure explanation.
1951: The Interview and the Melodrama of Social Mobility
Authors: Savage Mike 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter examines how the interview could be claimed for an emerging sociology, as a means of generating distinctive kinds of ‘ordinary’ knowledge. It illustrates how interviews were removed from the distinctively psychoanalytic and therapeutic domain in which they had originated, and were deployed in collaboration with literary narratives in order to provide ‘melodramas of social mobility’. The chapter shows how research associated initially with the Tavistock Institute allowed a different kind of social science to take shape and traces how Elizabeth Bott helped to shape this new social science, and in the process displaced concerns with personality and morality that had been fundamental to earlier social science.
Experimental techniques of luminescence spectroscopy
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

AbstractExperimental techniques of luminescence spectroscopy take into consideration specific features of the field: very low level of the detected light and requirement of not-extremely high spectral resolution. Physical principles and modes of operation of photon detectors used in luminescence spectroscopy are discussed (photomultiplier tubes, avalanche photodiodes and CCD detectors). Basic constructions of spectral devices (monochromators and spectrographs) and their important parameters (dispersion, resolving power, and throughput) are introduced and analyzed. Two signal detection methods are described: phase-synchronous (lock-in) technique and photon counting. Experimental conditions imposed to acquire spectra with high signal-to-noise ratio are examined. Corrections to be applied to spectra owing to spectral sensitivity of the detection channel and monochromator slits opening are considered. Finally, methods and apparatus for time‐resolved luminescence measurements are introduced (the phase-shift method, time‐correlated photon counting, and boxcar integrator). The exposition throughout the chapter is illustrated by selected examples of experimental curves.
Kinetic description of luminescence processes
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

AbstractKinetic description of luminescence processes treats concisely the luminescence phenomena by making use of simple differential equations in time. Important terms like radiative and nonradiative lifetimes are introduced, along with definitions of quantum and power luminescence efficiencies. The important difference between the radiative lifetime and luminescence decay time is stressed. Characteristic luminescence features as the temporal decay shape and intensity dependence of photoluminescence are theoretically derived. Three model situations are examined: monomolecular process (localized luminescence centre), bimolecular process (recombination of free carriers) and their simultaneous occurrence. Single exponential, hyperbolic and stretched exponential luminescence decays are discussed. The model results on intensity dependence are compared with experiment. The general role of the kinetic approach in analyzing experimental data is considered.
Luminescence of excitons
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

AbstractLuminescence of excitons’ treats in a comprehensive way a series of luminescence manifestations of bound electron–hole pairs, i.e. excitons. First, the concept of a free Wannier exciton is introduced and a shape of the pertinent absorption spectrum is described. Then multiple luminescence effects due to the free exciton radiative recombination are discussed in direct bandgap materials (exciton–polariton luminescence and LO-phonon assisted exciton annihilation) as well as in indirect bandgap materials (no-phonon luminescence, phonon replicas). Relevant selection rules are derived. Various kinds of excitons bound to impurities (neutral and/or ionized donors and acceptors, Haynes’ rule) are dealt with. Description of the luminescence of bound multiexciton complexes follows. The application of the bound exciton concept to quantitative impurity analysis in silicon is described. Finally, the cases of excitons bound to isoelectronic impurities and of self-trapped excitons are analyzed. Whenever meaningful, a particular characteristic emission lineshape that helps to decipher experimental spectrum is pointed out.
Highly excited semiconductors
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

Abstract‘Highly excited semiconductors’ basically signifies important qualitative modifications in the appearance of photoluminescence emission spectra when excited with high-power lasers. In comparison with a ‘standard’ weak lamp excitation, a number of novel emission lines may appear. Responsible for these prominent luminescence features are various interactions between closely spaced free excitons. Particular microscopic mechanisms are examined, namely: excitonic molecule (biexciton) creation, decay and binding energy; collisions of free excitons; electron-hole liquid and the pertinent phase diagram; Mott transition and electron–hole plasma; Bose-Einstein condensation of excitons. Attention is paid to typical emission lineshape and its behaviour with varying excitation intensity and measurement temperature. The goal is to teach the reader to identify correctly a plenty of lines that may occur in the experimental emission spectrum. Throughout the chapter, typical luminescence spectra as acquired on various semiconductors illustrate the text.
Stimulated emission
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

AbstractStimulated emission is treated as a ‘special case of luminescence’ that requires population inversion of energy levels. After introductory examples of spontaneous emission spectra influenced by ingredient of stimulated emission, basic concept of spontaneous and stimulated emission (Einstein coefficients) in an atomic system is reviewed. The notion of optical gain is introduced. Then an analogous treatment is repeated for semiconductors. Bernard–Duraffourg condition is derived and spectral shape of optical gain is dealt in detail with. The issue of stimulated emission in indirect bandgap semiconductors is mentioned, including note on a germanium laser. A number of exciton radiative processes capable to exhibit stimulated emission are exposed. Finally, common experimental techniques to measure optical gain (variable stripe length, scanning excitation spot, and pump&probe) are analyzed and compared. Modal gain and material gain are distinguished. Throughout the chapter, illustrative experimental and theoretical examples adopted from gain spectroscopy in various semiconductors clarify the text.
Stimulated emission and lasing in low-dimensional structures
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
Stimulated emission and lasing can be achieved easily in a number of semiconductor nanostructures. This chapter gives an overview of a series of physical mechanisms that were found experimentally to give rise to positive optical gain in quantum wells, quantum wires and nanocrystals. In quantum wells, these are radiative recombination of localized excitons, LO-phonon assisted exciton recombination and electron–hole plasma luminescence. In quantum wires the data are rather scarce; localized excitons and electron–hole plasma appears to be involved in lasing. Separately treated are the cases of nanocrystals dispersed randomly in a matrix and that of heterostructures with ordered quantum dots (grown by Stranski–Krastanow method). Exciton and biexciton mechanisms of optical gain in quantum dots are analyzed. The crucial competing role of Auger recombination is expressed via the filling factor. Prospects of random lasing in semiconductor nanostructures are outlined.
Photonic structures
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan 
Published: May 2012

AbstractPhotonic structures, i.e. periodically ordered patterns with a period of the order of the light wavelength, affect strongly luminescence properties of embedded (nano)phosphors. Photonic crystals exhibit either a full band of forbidden photon energies, or a stop-band. This fact has impact on spontaneous luminescence spectral shape and decay rate. Concerning stimulated emission, slow group velocity of light may lead to significant enhancement of optical gain. Tiny disc microresonators tailor luminescence spectra into whispering gallery modes. Microcavities with distributed Bragg reflectors improve spectral purity and directionality of spontaneous luminescence. The concepts of a polariton laser and of single photon sources are briefly mentioned. Throughout the chapter, the text is accompanied with experimental examples.
1 Polybius among the Romans: Life in the Cyclops' Cave
Authors: Erskine Andrew 
Published: May 2012

AbstractThis chapter treats Polybius' sixteen-year detention in Rome following the Third Macedonian War and asks what it meant to be a detainee in Rome. Consequently, although the chapter focuses on Polybius, it also examines the situation of those deported with him, whether from Achaea or elsewhere in Greece. It explores the conditions in which he and others were detained, their attitude to detention, the kind of terminology that Polybius uses to describe himself and his fellow detainees, their status compared to those in Rome as hostages, their place of residence, and the degree to which they had freedom of movement. It concludes by reviewing the evidence for Polybius' eventual release.
2 Polybius and Herodotus
Authors: McGing Brian 
Published: May 2012

AbstractThis chapter addresses the question of possible Herodotean influence on Polybius' Histories. The standard modern position holds that Polybius did not know, and owed nothing to Herodotus. This position is challenged. It is suggested that some Herodotean elements have filtered their way into Polybius. Particularly in geographical matters, Polybius seems to inhabit the same thought-world as Herodotus. Polybius' description of the Euphrates (9.43) seems to engage directly with Herodotus' account of the Nile and challenge Herodotean views on the Euphrates. Certain other Herodotean scenes and sentiments have silently infiltrated Polybius' account.
4 Thucydides, Polybius, and Human Nature
Authors: Longley Georgina 
Published: May 2012

AbstractThis chapter discusses the importance of human nature in Polybius' views on historical causation. Scholars such as Walbank have argued persuasively for Thucydides being an importance predecessor of Polybius, but a comparison of their views on causation has yet to be undertaken. It argues that the connection between the fifth-century bc historian Thucydides and Polybius, writing in the second century bc, extends to the prominent place both assign human beings and human nature in their explanation of historical events. How human nature emerges in these authors, how they envisage its functioning within the historical process, and how both authors make clear its centrality to their work are key aims of the chapter. It aims to show that Polybius expanded upon Thucydides' conception of human nature and developed a sophisticated view of human nature's complexities and how this affected historical explanation.
5 The Language of Polybius since Foucault and Dubuisson
Authors: Langslow David 
Published: May 2012

AbstractThis chapter undertakes a provisional reassessment, first, of Polybius' Greek against nine syntactic/stylistic features, comparing his usage with that of both classical and later Hellenistic historians; and, secondly, of the influence of Latin on his Greek syntax and vocabulary. It suggests on the strength of examples and case studies a series of working hypotheses for further investigation, including the following: that Polybius' use of (near)synonyms is less haphazard than is often supposed; that his similes and metaphors contain further evidence of his natural fondness for everyday language; and that, notwithstanding the last, he may occasionally use syntax or vocabulary to allude to a famous predecessor historian.
Development at the World Trade Organization
Authors: Rolland Sonia E. 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This book engages in a systematic analysis of development-oriented rules and procedures at the WTO. It argues that the shortcomings of the Doha Development Round are due in part to the failure to assess trade rules as part of the legal processes and institutions that produce them. A consideration of the development dimension at the WTO must account for the impact of the WTO as an institution on developing and least developed members. The book then seeks to open some paths for reconsidering the trade and development relationship at the WTO taking into account both the heritage of the trade regime and present dynamics. From a pragmatic perspective, this book provides a coherent and systematic analysis of the legal value, the implementation, and the adjudication of special and differential treatment rules for developing members at the WTO. From a theoretical perspective, it posits two paradigms to evaluate different regulatory approaches to trade and development: One where development is considered as a core normative constituent of the trade liberalizing mission of the WTO and one where development considerations are considered on an ad hoc basis. As a prescriptive analysis, it presents a menu of options towards a more functional balance of trade liberalization processes and the development imperatives of many WTO members.
Introduction
Authors: Rolland Sonia E. 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
To date, there has been no integrated or systematic legal framework to accommodate developing countries' needs in the WTO legal regime. Instead, exceptions to the general rules and disciplines provide some flexibility for developing countries (special and differential treatment). The objective of this book is to analyze the nature and content of developing countries' rights at the WTO and to consider whether such rights could evolve from their current status as exceptions to a more coherent system of rules embedded in the WTO legal regime that would more effectively address developing countries' demands. The introduction briefly traces current practice to identify what informs the development dimension at the WTO and introduces two paradigms for the trade and development relationship: development as an idiosyncrasy and trade and development as normative co-constituents.
The Multiple Meanings of Development
Authors: Rolland Sonia E. 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
Despite its ubiquitous use in the international legal discourse, the precise meaning of “development” is elusive and has evolved over time. The purpose of this brief theoretical survey is to understand the influences that have driven normative, regulatory and institutional evolutions in the trade and development relationship. At one end of the spectrum, development has been largely equated with GDP growth; this macro-economic perspective has fuelled much of the Washington Consensus and the international organizations associated with it. At the other end of the spectrum, development is seen primarily as a human rights issue. In practice, the evolving blend of development economics and rights-based approaches has changed what we understand to be the substance of development in international and trade law.
The Contribution of International Organizations to Development Policy-Making
Authors: Rolland Sonia E. 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter identifies the roots of developing countries' current demands at the WTO. Development concerns have been progressively captured by international economic law and its institutions to the detriment of general public international law, a displacement that affected the substance of international trade regulation and its relationship with development. Developing countries raised very early on their concerns regarding the unequal distribution of international trade and continually sought remedies for these imbalances through traditional public international law, multilateral organizations and inter-governmental negotiations. By contrast, developed states used the IMF, the World Bank and the GATT as conduits to disseminate industrial country norms and standards within the domestic legal orders of developing states.
Special and Differential Treatment in the WTO Agreements: A Legal Analysis
Authors: Rolland Sonia E. 
Published: May 2012

Abstract
This chapter examines the legal nature of Special and Differential Treatment (SDT) provisions in the WTO agreements. What rights and obligations do they create and for whom? Using the language of the provisions as well as developments in international law generally, this chapter argues that many SDT provisions could be given more legal force than has been the case so far, and hence become operational tools for developing members. It then surveys the implementation record of SDT provisions to assess whether developing members have in fact used them since the inception of the GATT. It demonstrates that only a handful of SDT provisions have been invoked consistently, and even some of those have fallen into disuse since the inception of the WTO.