bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Edwards Jill 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The particular circumstances of the Cold War that swiftly succeeded World War II highlighted the problem of an unpalatable regime in a country with a desirable attribute, in this case, Spain's geostrategic importance. Dean Acheson's assertion that in relation to foreign policy towards Spain, Britain had become the ‘tail of the kite’, was not entirely accurate. Britain held firm convictions on the matter which, backed by strong political feeling in France, Belgium, and Norway, were sufficient to prevent the inclusion of Spain in the Marshall Plan or NATO. Thus, the bilateral agreements between the United States and Spain were largely a reflection of the implacable opposition of those governments towards a regime aptly described by one Spaniard as ‘a country occupied by its own army’. Spain's role in Anglo-American relations in the post-war period illustrates the far wider problems which still lie behind United Nations efforts to deal with pariah regimes and which, more than fifty years on, neither the international community nor its leading powers have been able to resolve.
Public Action for Social Security: Foundations and Strategy
Authors: Drèze Jean , Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the nature of well being and deprivation, and tries to characterize the focus variables underlying the analysis of social security. It deals with the normative foundations of the problem and asks the question: what is the object of the exercise? The chapter examines whether the desired results can be achieved through normal economic and social processes without needing to devise systems of social security as such. It also discusses a central problem of protective social security, namely, the prevention of famines through public action. The chapter focuses its attention to the prevention of chronic deprivation and determines how promotional social-security programmes can combat regular and persistent hunger and hardship. It examines the nature of public action, and the role of the public in public action is analysed. The chapter also discusses the problem of integration of State activities with those of the public in general and of non-governmental institutions in particular.
Social Security in Developed Countries: Are There Lessons for Developing Countries?
Authors: Atkinson A. B. , Hills John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the measures that have emerged as components of the social-security systems of developed countries. It considers the lessons that developing countries may or may not be able to draw from the experience of developed countries in devising social-security systems, concentrating on case studies of policies aimed at the support of children. The chapter notes that this serves to illustrate a number of key issues. It focuses on the situation in developed countries and considers how far the methods and approaches adopted in the analysis of policy in those countries do indeed suggest wider lessons of relevance to developing countries.
A System of Social Science
Authors: Skinner Andrew Stewart 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The second edition of this guide to Adam Smith's system of thought has been fully updated to reflect recent developments in Smith scholarship and the author's experience of teaching Smith to a student audience. The material from the first edition has been extensively rewritten, and four new chapters have been added, covering Smith's essays on the exercise of human understanding, and his relationship to Francis Hutcheson, David Hume, and Sir James Steuart. The book places Smith's system of social, and moral, science firmly within the context of contemporary British and Continental intellectual history, dealing in particular detail with the founders of the Scottish Enlightenment and with the French Physiocrats. The essays explore Smith's own reception among his peers and successors. The chapters in this volume have been developed from a lecture course on ‘The Age and Ideas of Adam Smith’, taught to senior undergraduate and graduate students in political economy.
Moral Philosophy and Civil Society: Ethics and Self-Love
Authors: Skinner Andrew Stewart 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
There is a certain elegance and ingenuity about the argument of The Theory of Moral Sentiments which is nowhere more obvious than in the way in which Adam Smith made allowances for certain features of the three main types of theory that he reviewed — that is, those that emphasized prudence, benevolence, and propriety. The same features are evident in the way in which he developed concepts, often found in Francis Hutcheson and David Hume, when addressing himself to the question concerning the manner in which moral judgements are formed. This chapter examines Smith's views on virtue, self-love, esteem, honour, approbation, reason, constraint, and sentiment.
The Role of the State
Authors: Skinner Andrew Stewart 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Adam Smith's contribution to the field of political economy was designed to explain the working of a set of institutional arrangements that he regarded as the last of four stages of economic development, and to elucidate the ‘laws of motion’ that governed its operations. The laws of motion, once stated, were designed to show that the control of resources could be left to the market and to explain the source of their increase. This perspective led directly to the demand that the state ought not to interfere with the economy. The same sentiments appear in the Wealth of Nations, albeit expressed with even greater force. According to Lord Robbins, Smith bequeathed to his successors in the Classical School an opposition to conscious paternalism, a belief that ‘central authority was incompetent to decide on a proper distribution of resources’. This chapter also considers Smith's views on economic liberalism, constraints on the functions of the state, the organization of educational provision, justice, public works and public services, and policy reform.
Introduction
Authors: LUCAS J. R. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This introductory chapter briefly sets out the purpose of the book, which is to offer a single organizing idea which makes sense of a large range of moral, legal, and political discourse on responsibility. Specifically, it brings together the topics of atonement, free will, rationality, consequentialism, political accountability, and business ethics, and offers a unified view of them all. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
Essential Properties
Authors: McCall Storrs 
Published: October 2011

AbstractOf the three kinds of essential property those individuals may be thought to possess — essential physical characteristics, substance-type, and origin — it is the third, origin, that has been the most active subject of debate in recent years. As with many other philosophical debates over the last twenty-five years, the discussion of origins began with Kripke. Kripke asks, how could a person originating from a different sperm and egg from the one she actually came from, be that person? The implication is that she could not, and that it is consequently essential, for every person x, that x should originate from the very sperm and egg that x actually originates from.
Aesthetics: Hume, Kant, and Criticism
Authors: Mulhall Stephen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter examines Cavell's work in the field of aesthetics, and in particular his essay ‘Aesthetic Problems of Modern Philosophy’. Cavell attempts to cast light upon the role of rationality in aesthetics by asking: Does the notorious lack of agreement over aesthetic judgements entail that such judgements lack rationality, or does it rather show the sort of rationality such judgements possess? He begins by summarizing Hume's conclusions about this issue, finding them lacking in credibility but also symptomatic of more contemporary misconceptions, by virtue of Hume's emphasis on agreement as the standard of taste. Cavell turns to Kant to explain his remarks, whose writings on aesthetics defend the specific assumption that judgements concerning the beautiful demand or impute or claim general validity (universal agreement), and that in making such judgements we go on claiming this agreement even when we know from experience that they will not receive it.
Criteria, Counting, and Recounting
Authors: Mulhall Stephen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractIn Chapter 4 the treatment of Cavell's scepticism about the external world separated from his treatment of other minds — a highly artificial strategy motivated by the desire to enhance the surveyability of this complex material. However, it is possible to track the development of Cavell's thought beyond The Claim of Reason without taking very seriously the degree to which he sees these two modes or aspects of scepticism as inextricably woven. This chapter isolates and examines Cavell's reasons for holding this view, and traces out some of the consequences flowing from it. In particular, it considers what would follow if we could legitimately transfer a version of the idea of emphatic projection into our understanding of external-world scepticism. For it is with this speculation that Cavell begins to draw his work in The Claim of Reason to a close.
Thoreau: Writing, Mourning, Neighbouring
Authors: Mulhall Stephen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractCavell's most recent and detailed treatment of the issue of how the individual understands her relationship with others appears in the form of his readings of the work of Thoreau and Emerson, and his understanding of this tradition of American Romanticism — a tradition he wishes to reclaim for and as a philosophy in America — makes its spiritual thrust immediately political in its consequences. This chapter focuses on Thoreau, whom Cavell sees as prophetically diagnosing a state of sceptical despair in his fellow Americans; he claims that the majority lead lives of quiet desperation, ones which mock their own potential and constitute a parody of the promise of renewal upon which their nation was founded.
Art and Morality (I)
Authors: Denham A. E. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractEthics and aesthetics may not be one, but the historical association of their ascendants, morality and art, is an intimate and long-standing one. Like most long associations, theirs has featured a certain ambivalence, and has been marked as much by episodes of hostility and misunderstanding as by mutual support. This chapter looks at one dimension of this relationship, namely, the way in which literary art influences moral experience, and thereby informs moral judgement. It argues that the so-called ‘ethical criticism’ of art need not be motivated by an a priori commitment to the ‘supremacy of moral values’; its validity and interest need not rest solely on an unquestioned subordination of the aesthetic to the ethical. Engagement with literary art can influence one's moral experience and thereby inform his/her moral judgements. This chapter also discusses the views of Leo Tolstoy and Plato regarding art and morality.
Aspects of Value
Authors: Denham A. E. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe analogy between experience of value and experience of secondary qualities raises as many questions as it answers. This chapter suggests that moral experience, like much perceptual experience, is ‘aspectual’; that is, it presents us with organised, complex wholes which can only with difficulty (if at all) be dissected into their component parts. It also explores whether there is any arena of perceptual experience that can sustain an analogy with moral experience, while yet respecting the judgement-dependence of moral concepts. Moral values themselves are quite unlike physical objects; after all, it was largely their remoteness from the objects of the physical sciences that motivated the analogy with secondary qualities in the first place. A very apt analogy is to be found in the perception of pictures. This chapter ends by considering three difficulties associated with the secondary-quality model: the non-sensory character of moral experience, the rational relations of moral properties to the natural ones on which they supervene, and the contestability of moral judgements.
Art and Morality (2)
Authors: Denham A. E. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractIt is now clear that works of literary art can inform moral judgements, contributing to their justifiability and their truth. This chapter suggests how certain features of metaphor can be extended to explain the positive epistemic value of fiction and its special contributions to the epistemic credentials of moral experience. Moral judgements are truth-apt, where ‘truth’ is construed in minimalist terms. Moral properties are a species of response-dependent ones (where a response-dependent property is just one satisfying a response-dependent concept). Unlike secondary qualities, however, they are not sensible simples and nor are they objects of any distinctive perceptual faculty. While the subjective imagination provides a degree of access to the phenomenological features of others' experience, it is not a necessary condition for the possession of concepts of experience and other ‘experience-dependent’ concepts.
What were the ἄναρμοι ὄγκοι?
Authors: Vallance J. T. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Asclepiades’ physiological theory has exercised the minds of scholars sporadically for seven hundred years. Ancient witnesses for him are agreed that he explained disease in terms of the interaction of theoretical and constantly moving elemental corpuscles in theoretical passages of the body. These corpuscles are termed differently while certain other diseases were not explained this way and they formed a different category of affections. This chapter begins with an examination of what these strange corpuscles might have been and the second part of the argument covers the role of the pores in Asclepiades’ system. This further adds up to the long and distinguished philosophical history of Greek corpuscular theories of matter, which certainly also involved a lot of conflict of ideas and beliefs.
The ὄγκοι in Action
Authors: Vallance J. T. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Asclepiades’ theory was quite spectacularly speculative. Health was nothing but the free, balanced movement of the fluids within the body, an ‘equilibrium of corpuscles and pores’, as Galen states. The ancient witnesses suggest that every detail of Asclepiades’ pathology could be subordinated to the principle that a disturbance of the movement of corpuscles causes some kind of dysnfuction. Caelius is by far the most copious source for the workings of Asclepiades’ pathology, that is why there is not much information available as Caelius sport a lively contempt for theory. Overall, all diseases, whether characterised by impaction or dissolution, could be explained ultimately in terms of the propensity of the αναρμοι ογκοι to shatter and then to reconstitute themselves in different sizes later on.
What are the Standards of Proof in Courts of Law?
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter describes the standard of proof in courts of law. There are two main standards for proof of fact in English and American courts. The plaintiff in a civil case must prove on the balance of probabilities, and the prosecutor in a criminal case must prove his conclusion at a level of probability that puts it beyond reasonable doubt. It also addresses the theories about judicial probability. Some philosophers have claimed that it does, some that if such a probability were measurable it would do so, and some that it is not even in principle a mathematical probability. The third of these views is the most defensible, but it has never been properly argued or substantiated hitherto.
The Logical Syntax of Inductive Support-gradings
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
According to Karl von Frisch's method of reasoning, the conjunction of two generalizations must have the same grade of support as has the less well supported of the two or as both have if they are equally well supported. Also, any substitution-instance of a generalization must have the same grade of support as the generalization, since it is equally resistant to falsification by manipulations of relevant variables. So substitution-instances conform to the same conjunction principle as generalizations. The assumption of evidential replicability is crucial here and bars Carnap's confirmation-measures, or any form of enumerative induction, from applying to experimental reasoning like von Frisch's. Once the correct negation principle for inductive support has been established, it becomes clear how the emergence of mutually contradictory support-assessments can function as a reductio ad absurdum argument for the revision of a list of relevant variables. A support-function for generalizations of a certain category applies not only to those propositions that are constructed out of the basic vocabulary of the category but also to those that have been constructed out of this category when it has been enriched by the addition of terms describing the variants of relevant variables.
The Grading of Inductive Probability
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter investigates the grading of inductive probability. It first evaluates the relation between inductive support and inductive probability. In the assessment of an inductive probability, favourable and unfavourable circumstances may be balanced off against one another. A tree-structure simile is available. Uncounteracted favourable evidence raises the inductive probability of a proposition, but uncounteracted unfavourable evidence reduces it to zero — which is not at all the same as making the proposition's negation certain. A statement of the inductive probability of S on R may be construed as grading the informativeness (what Keynes called the weight) of R in favour of S. If R states all the relevant evidence known and the inductive probability of S on R is high enough, it may be reasonable to believe that S is true, but one cannot detach here a monadic, unconditional grading for the inductive probability of S.
The Logical Syntax of Inductive Probability-gradings
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter elucidates the logical syntax of inductive probability-gradings. It first presents some logical similarities between inductive and mathematical probability. The inductive probability-gradings conform to quite different principles from those for mathematical probability in regard to contraposition; in regard to the relation between prior and posterior probabilities; in regard to a proposition's conjunction with other propositions; and in regard to its negation. In terms of inductive probability, it is possible to describe a generalized form of reductio ad absurdum argument. The logical structure of inductive probability cannot be mapped on to the calculus of mathematical probability. Indeed, because inductive support does not seem to be additive, inductive probabilities do not seem to be measurable — though they are rankable. Furthermore, the logical syntax of inductive probability may be deployed axiomatically within a modal logic that generalizes on Lewis' system S4.
Statistical Explanation
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter starts by presenting Hempel's account of statistical explanation. Hempel proposed to deal with the problem of epistemic ambiguity in statistical explanation by a requirement of maximal specificity in the reference-class. But, as Salmon has shown, the reference-class needs to be narrowed only in statistically relevant ways. Also, it needs to be homogeneous. In effect, both requirements seek to maximize inductive probability. So, successful statistical explanations do not need to invoke high statistical probabilities, but favourably relevant ones that have high inductive probability. Additionally, Salmon's arguments for saying that even favourable relevance is unnecessary rest on a failure to distinguish between explanations how a certain event was possible and explanations why it occurred. Finally, the mathematical probabilities involved in statistical explanation are not amenable to interpretation as relative frequencies, and must be given a propensity interpretation.
Extensionality and Meaning
Authors: Bealer George 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter shows that it is formally possible to define the underlying intensional abstraction operation in a first-order extensional language for the theory of properties, relations, and propositions (PRPs). This means that, if one wishes to, one may treat intensional sentences as mere syntactic transformations from fully extensional sentences. Doing this would enable one to conclude that intensionality in language is a mere surface phenomenon, that there is not really a bifurcation of logic into the extensional and the intensional, and that logic is at bottom extensional logic.
Qualities and Concepts
Authors: Bealer George 
Published: October 2011

AbstractPredicates and open-sentences express properties and relations, and sentences express propositions. But which type of properties, relations, and propositions (PRPs) are these, which type of PRP is relevant to the theory of meaning? Do they conform to the first traditional conception or the second? Given Paul Grice's intentionalist analysis of meaning, it is easy to establish that the second traditional conception of PRPs is the one relevant to the theory of meaning, for it is this conception that is suited to intentional matters to begin with. But how, then, does the first traditional conception fit in? This chapter addresses this.
The Properties of Space
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter examines many different properties of space. It specifically presents the electrical, optical, and electromagnetic properties of space; the kinematic and dynamic properties of space; the metrical, topological, and geometrical properties of space; and miscellaneous. The chapter then demonstrates the kind of difficulties to be met in attempting to reduce the statements in one of the senses previously explained to a statement that does not use the term ‘space’. The conductivity of space is also explained. A relationalist reduction of the statement that space has a permittivity of 8.55 × 10−12 farads per metre is developed, but it is shown that this reduction is unsatisfactory when paired with a similar reduction for the statement that space has a magnetic permeability of 4π × 10−7 henrys per metre. In addition, the chapter considers the speed of electromagnetic radiation in empty space.
Time, Space, and Space—Time
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter examines the differences between space and time. Some seemingly obvious differences disappear on closer inspection. The chapter starts by outlining the similarities and dissimilarities between time and space. It then elaborates the measurement of time, and the frozen universe problem. A simple universe is described, whose history is said to be repeated at 15-unit intervals. The questions of temporal topology are presented. It has been shown how similar time is to space in many ways, to the point where many philosophical problems about time have their counterpart in problems about space.