bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
K
ierkegaard,
S
øren
A
abye (1813–1855)
Authors: Cantrell Michael A. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Søren Kierkegaard was a Danish philosopher, theologian, and literary figure. The youngest of seven children, Kierkegaard was born in Copenhagen, where he spent the vast majority of his short 42 years. Kierkegaard received an uncommonly rigorous religious upbringing at the hands of his strict father, who expressed his high expectations for his son in no uncertain terms. Endowed with uncommon intellectual capacities, Kierkegaard became a remarkably prolific writer, producing a body of work noted for its literary brilliance, psychological perceptiveness, and uncompromising ethical rigor.
K
ingdom of
G
od: Biblical Perspectives
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Synoptic Gospels make clear that the Kingdom of God was at the very heart of Jesus' proclamation. John's Gospel, on the other hand, transmutes Jesus' teaching regarding God's Kingdom into his provision of eternal life for believers (though see John 3:3, 5; 18:36). While the exact phrase “Kingdom of God” is not found in the Old Testament, the concept certainly is, harking back to the notion of God's rule over his creation and specifically as king over Israel. This divine kingship, in turn, was exercised during the days of Israel's monarchy through human kings, particularly David and his dynasty, who became the focus of future expectations centered on the hope of a coming messianic king and deliverer.
K
nights of Malta
Authors: Phillips Benjamin Blair 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Order of Malta was founded by Pope Paschal II's bull of February 15, 1113. Its official name is “The Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta,” but it is informally called the Knights of Malta. The Order's motto is
Tuitio Fidei et Obsequium Pauperum
(Defense of the Faith and Assistance to the Poor and Suffering). Its initial purpose was to aid poor and sick pilgrims in the Holy Land. The second Grand Master, Raymond of Provence, oversaw construction of a large infirmary in Jerusalem and established the knights who escorted Christian pilgrims.
Korean
C
hristianity
Authors: Wook Chung Sung 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Roman Catholic mission began in Korea in 1784 and Protestant mission started in 1884. Therefore, Korean Christianity including both Roman Catholicism and Protestantism has a history of some 220 years. Nevertheless, according to some ancient historical records, there was a Christian presence in the ancient kingdom of Kaya in the 7th and 8th centuries. It seems that these early Christians were Nestorians, who were influenced by Chinese Nestorians. During the middle ages of Korea (14th–16th centuries), several Roman Catholic priests and laypeople visited Korea but their impact was negligible.
K
uyper,
A
braham (1837–1920)
Authors: Warmath Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Abraham Kuyper's first parishioners led him from the convictions of 19th century liberal theology to those of evangelical Calvinism that would characterize the rest of his life and influence Dutch society. Kuyper became the editor of many Christian publications, an MP, leader of the Antirevolutionary Party (the first modern mass political organization in the Netherlands), founder of the Free University of Amsterdam, and Dutch prime minister. Though largely abandoned by Dutch culture, Kuyper's evangelical Calvinism remains influential on contemporary American evangelicalism.
L
agrange,
M
arie‐Joseph (1855–1938)
Authors: Morrow Jeffrey L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Marie‐Joseph Lagrange was born Albert Lagrange in Bourg‐en‐Bresse, France on March 7, 1855. He died on March 10, 1938. He became a Dominican and was ordained a Catholic priest. He studied numerous ancient languages, philosophy, theology, and the Bible. In 1880, because of anticlerical matters in France, Lagrange and many of his fellow Dominicans were exiled to Spain. In 1890 Lagrange founded the École biblique, the famous Dominican biblical school in Jerusalem. As head of the École biblique, Lagrange also founded and edited the international biblical journal,
Revue biblique
. He was later caught up in the Catholic controversies during the Modernist crisis when, in 1907, Pope St. Pius X issued his encyclical
Pascendi Dominici Gregis
which condemned what the Pope labeled Modernism. This was the official beginning of the Modernist crisis. It officially ended after Vatican II, when, in 1965, the Oath against Modernism (begun in 1910) was no longer imposed upon Catholics. The Modernist controversy focused primarily upon the historical critical study of the Bible, and was especially directed against the works of Alfred Loisy. Lagrange was implicated in this controversy, not only because he was a personal acquaintance of Loisy (although he criticized in print Loisy's works), but also because of Lagrange's own use of the historical critical method to study the Bible. Lagrange was even removed from his capacity as editor of the
Revue biblique
, and a number of his works, including a commentary on the Book of Genesis, have to this day not been published. Lagrange was a prolific author. He published over 1,700 books and articles. An early 1943 bibliography of Lagrange's, which was not exhaustive, included 1,786 of his publications. Most of his works dealt with the Bible, and many explicitly used the historical critical method.
Laity
Authors: Shields Candace C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Laity is a term used to designate the individuals in the church who are not ordained or licensed. It is a term used in religious circles to recognize those who are not ordained, but are nonetheless a vitally important part of the church. The ministry that is conducted by laypersons is a very productive and useful ministry of the church. However, the term laity is from the Greek word
laos
which means the people at large, thereby designating any person who is a part of the Body of Christ as a layperson. Churches are thereby predominately populated by lay membership. However, this does not mean that the people who are sitting within the congregations of the church do not have a ministry, although they may not be ordained. On the contrary, the ministry of the laity is an important aspect of the church. Laity is a ministry within the church that gives the church the ability to move in areas where it would not be able to move if only the leadership were permitted to do ministry. The laity is made up of the congregation of a church for the congregation of the church. While the laity may be trained to do work within the church, the laity is not licensed or ordained within the Protestant church to do the work. This would be in accord with the early church. In the beginnings of the early Christian church, the church was a church of laypeople. The early church began with the individuals of the church working in the church together, side by side, shoulder to shoulder, doing the work of Christ. It was in the 1st century that distinction of those who are considered to be clerics and those who are just laypeople became significant. The use of the term laity has caused deep consternation among the people of the church because it separates the individual workers from the clergy. This gives the impression that the ministry of the laity is not as important nor does it carry as much prestige as the clergy.
Lalibala (Lalibela)
Authors: Haile Getatchew 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe hamlet of Lalibala (or Lalibela) in the Lasta mountains, in the north central province of Wallo, Ethiopia (at 12°02′N by 39°2′E, altitude: 8,500 ft.), is famed for 11 monolithic churches hewn directly out of mountainsides. Most of these monumental churches, which some historians call the eighth wonder of the world, were built during the Middle Ages by the Zagwe dynasty. In the 9th century (the date is uncertain), Marara or Marra Takla Haymanot overthrew King Del Na′d of the Aksumite dynasty and moved the center of the Ethiopian kingdom from the city of Aksum to Adafa, his home, and thereby founded the Zagwe dynasty. For the new dynasty, establishing a holy place that would overshadow both the holy places of the Christian Middle East and the holy city of Aksum became a priority. Imraha, who overthrew Ta(n)ta Wedem, Marara's successor, took the first step by building Yemrhanna Krestos, a church concealed in a nearby cave that was meant to rival the cathedral of Aksum. (Yemrhanna Krestos, “May Christ guide us,” is Semitization or Ge′ez version of the Cushitic name Imraha.) Imraha's hagiography states that beams for the church's foundation were brought all the way from Egypt. The Zagwes then renamed the city Roha, the Arabic name of the city of Edessa in Syria; and renamed the river that runs through the hamlet Jordan.
L
aski (or à
L
asco),
J
ohn (1499–1560)
Authors: McAlhaney Timothy M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Little is known of the early life of John Laski (or John à Lasco). His uncle, a prominent church leader, took an interest in him and enrolled him and his brother Jerome at the University of Bologna to study law (1514–1517). In 1517, after leaving Bologna, Laski was made canon of the collegiate church at Leczyca, coadjutor to the Dean of Gniezno, canon of Cracow and of Plock, and was ordained priest in 1521, at which time he was also promoted to Dean of Gniezno.
Latin American Catholicism
Authors: Klaiber Jeffrey 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Catholicism arrived with the first explorers and conquerors in Latin America. First Columbus in the Caribbean and later both Cortez in Mexico and Pizarro in Peru were accompanied by chaplains. The majority of the first missionaries belonged to the older religious orders: Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians, and Mercedarians. Key to understanding this process is the concept of royal patronage, by which the kings of Spain and Portugal were recognized by the pope as “patrons” of the church. In a series of agreements, these kings were commissioned to establish the church in all newly conquered lands. They had the power to name bishops, collect tithes to support the church, and allow new missionaries to go to the New World. Conquest and evangelization — cross and sword — were closely intertwined.
Latin Kingdom ofJerusalem
Authors: Holt Andrew 
Published: January 2012

AbstractAs the site of Christ's death, burial, and resurrection, Jerusalem was of enormous religious and historical significance for medieval European Christians. Indeed, reports of the abuse of the Christian residents of Jerusalem and the desecration of holy places within the city were cited extensively by preachers of the First Crusade to spur their listeners to take crusading vows. Such preaching was so effective that, for many, the ultimate goal of the First Crusade was the restoration of Jerusalem to Christian control, in this case, under Latin Christian governance. In 1099 the armies of the First Crusade accomplished this goal when they successfully captured the city from Muslim forces after a lengthy siege. The response in the West, upon hearing the news, bordered on euphoric.
L
atourette,
K
enneth
S
cott (1884–1968)
Authors: Fischer Benjamin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born in Oregon City to a middle‐class Baptist family, Latourette was early on encouraged in the two pursuits that characterized his life: faith and learning. As an Orientalist, missiologist, and historian of Christianity's expansion, he became, according to Norwegian missiologist O. G. Myklebust (1955: 13), “the greatest missionary scholar that America has produced.”
L
aubach,
F
rank
C
harles (1884–1970)
Authors: Schwanda Tom 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Sometimes called the “apostle of literacy” or the “apostle of compassion,” Frank Laubach was an American evangelical missionary and world literacy champion who traveled the globe tirelessly. What Jan Comenius, the father of modern education, sought to offer to the 17th century through renewing the methods of education, Laubach did for literacy in the 20th century. Both were spiritual leaders and therein was the primary motivation for their educational and literary efforts.
L
avigerie,
C
harles
M
artial
A
llemand (1825–1892)
Authors: Carney J. J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Charles Lavigerie was born into a republican, anticlerical Gascon family in 1825, so his early milieu was not a typical cradle for a Catholic priestly vocation in 19th century France. Over‐coming the opposition of his parents, Lavigerie entered the prominent Paris seminary of St. Sulpice and was ordained in 1849. Fascinated with the ancient catechumenate, Lavigerie spent much of the 1850s teaching church history at the Sorbonne. His interest in Eastern Christian traditions developed further with his appointment in 1860 as director of the Oeuvre des Écoles d'Orient, an organization dedicated to supporting Latin religious communities working among Maronite Christians in the Holy Land. A two‐year appointment as French auditor of the Roman Rota followed, establishing him as an important bridge figure between the Gallican and Ultramontane wings of the French Catholic Church. Named Bishop of Nancy in 1863, Lavigerie developed a reputation for both administrative competence and authoritarian high‐handedness, characteristics that would continue to mark him in later years.
Law and Christianity
Authors: Laing Jacqueline 
Published: January 2012

AbstractIt would be misleading to assume that “law” relates solely to prescriptions governing the behavior of human individuals. The term has a far wider sense. It can also refer to a standard or rule that binds things or events. This sense of the term covers the laws of thephysicalas well as themoralsciences. There is a distinction to be drawn between scientific laws of nature and moral laws. Regularities in natural occurrences are often regarded as laws of nature even though what we ordinarily think of as laws are those rules that govern human behavior. We speak, for example, of the “law” of gravity and of Newton's, Einstein's, and Kepler's laws. In so doing we emphasize the regularity and binding nature implicit in each of their formulas. The thought that there are laws of the natural sciences as well as moral laws has traditionally been seen as implying a creator and regulator of all things, and an eternal source of these laws. Equally it raises the disputed question of the place of miracles, or those suspensions of regularities, in the natural scheme of things. In the same way, sacred scripture speaks of Divine Wisdom as directing all actions and movements. The Psalms say, “He hath made a decree and it shall not pass away” (Psalms 148:6). Creatures both rational and non‐rational alike are subject to the power of divine reason. In Proverbs it is said, “He compassed the sea with its bounds, and set a law to the waters, that they should not pass their limits” (Proverbs 8:29). Law then may be thought to govern natural events as well as human societies. The laws of science, according to scripture, derive from that eternal source of all things. Laws govern nature as understood scientifically. The law that governs both physical and moral laws and is identified in sacred scripture is often spoken of as the eternal law. It is vital to understand that this law, intelligible to humans using reason and described too in scripture, embraces both physical nature as well as rational agents. To limit law to that binding rational agents alone is inappropriately to adumbrate law's binding force and wrongly adopt a humanistic and subjectivized vision of law. It is this broader understanding of law that allows us to observe the law that existed from eternity in the mind of God. When we understand God as the lawgiver and see the fullness of the universe, the earth, sun, stars and planets, of men and angels, of all things visible and invisible, a community under the authority of the lawgiver and source of all things who is God, we are better able to understand the power, dominion, and authority of God. This fuller understanding of law allows us also to make sense of the divinity and incarnation of Christ as witnessed by the Holy Gospel according to St John: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God and the Word was God” (John 1:1).
Christian Leadership
Authors: Kaak Paul 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A study of Christian leadership must traverse a field of thought that is vast and widely interpreted. Frequently throughout history, “Christian leadership” was decidedly not “Christian” in its motivation, manner, or accomplishments. Christian leadership was lacking, for example, in the “grand inquisitors” of the Spanish Inquisition or when the German state church supported Hitler's Third Reich. In his “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” Martin Luther King confronts the lack of proactive leadership on the part of the white Alabama clergymen who criticized the direct action of King and other Christian protestors.
Lent
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The liturgical season of Lent begins on Ash Wednesday and concludes on Holy Saturday (or in the Roman Catholic church, on Maundy Thursday). Lent, meaning “spring” or the “season of lengthening days,” is the period of 40 days when Christians pray, fast, and prepare to commemorate the Passion of the Christ. The 40 days are symbolic of the time that Jesus spent in the wilderness being tempted by Satan. Each of the six Sundays in Lent is considered a feast day and is not included in the season. Because of the penitential nature of the season, alleluias are not allowed in the liturgy during Lent. Christians are called to a Holy Lent each year and many choose to fast or to give up another regular activity in order to substitute these with prayer and reflection. In many denominations, Lent is a time of preparation for new converts to receive the sacrament of Baptism on the Eve prior to Easter.
Liberal/Conservative Dichotomy in
A
merican Christianity
Authors: Marty Martin E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Christianity in the United States is anything but a united whole. Jews, Muslims, and advocates of other religions or no religion may look from a distance at Christianity and speak of it as one faith, in the awareness that there may be basic distinctions within it, such as that between Protestants and Catholics. Yet they will see from listings in telephone books or church advertisements in newspapers what the
Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches
– which lists well over 200 denominations – indicates: that the “whole” of Christianity is divided into hundreds of denominational parts.
Limbo
Authors: Beiting Christopher J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

From the Latin
limbus
meaning “border” or “edge” (as of a garment), the term “limbo” is used by Christian theologians to describe a state or place in the afterlife for souls in special categories who merited neither salvation nor damnation. The term is usually used in two senses:
limbus patrum
, or limbo of the fathers, wherein reposed the saints of the Old Testament until Christ's harrowing of hell opened heaven for them; and
limbus puerorum
, or limbo of children, wherein reposed infants who died without baptism. While Christian theologians have largely been in agreement about the former understanding of limbo, the latter has proved controversial.
Lindisfarne Gospels
Authors: Gallagher Robert L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The manuscript known as the Lindisfarne Gospels was written and decorated at Lindisfarne, England (around 715–720) in honor of Bishop Cuthbert (634–687) by the monk, Eadfrith. The book is Jerome's Vulgate version of the Gospels preceded by his prefaces and Canon tables. Written in Latin calligraphy with a complex rhythmic labyrinth of ornamentation, each Gospel was introduced by authorship prologues, chapter summaries, and instructions for feast day readings. A gloss was added by Alder at Chesterle‐Street when translating the work into Old English in the mid 10th century.
Literature, Early
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractChristianity began as a call to discipleship. Although Jesus Christ was obviously literate (cf. Matt 4:4, 7, 10; Luke 2:41–52; 4:14–21; John 8:1–11), he did not submit any writings during his earthly ministry. Jesus did instruct his disciples that after his departing the Holy Spirit would guide them into all truth, and would work within them bringing to remembrance his words and deeds, including the meaning of them (John 14:26). Until that time, it does not appear that the disciples even recorded some of his words and deeds, but it is certain that a verbal proclamation (kerygma) preceded the written proclamation (i.e. the New Testament). The New Testament indicates that there was a fundamental content to thiskerygma: the Old Testament prophecies concerning Christ; the life and ministry of Jesus; his death and resurrection; his post‐resurrection appearing and ascension; and the return of Jesus Christ in glory and power as Judge of the living and the dead (Acts 2:16–36; 10:36–43; 1 Cor. 15:1–8; cf. Mark 1:14–15; Acts 20:35; 1 Cor. 7:10; 1 Thess. 4:15).
Literature, Medieval
Authors: Jeffrey David Lyle 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

“What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?” Tertullian's famous question (from
De Praescriptione Haereticorum
) has sometimes been quoted as if to characterize the early Christians as somewhat philistine, suspicious of art and learning. There is a similar passage in St. Jerome's letter to Estochium (
Epist
. 22.29–30), and every student of later antiquity is familiar with it; it relates the troubled dream of this great 4th century scholar in which “the Judge of all” accuses him of being not a Christian but a Ciceronian. At the headwaters of Anglo‐Saxon literature in the late 8th century we hear the theme again, adapted now by Alcuin, likewise a formidable scholar, admonishing the monks of Lindisfarne: “Quid Hineldus cum Christo?” (“What has Ingeld to do with Christ?”
Epist
. 169). Though the alien attraction which concerns Alcuin is Anglo‐Saxon pagan poetry and for Tertullian and Jerome the literary legacy of Greece and pre‐Christian Rome, the point is evidently the same: a grave risk of theological impurity attends upon dalliance with pagan authors.
Little Gidding
Authors: Gray Patrick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Little Gidding is a village in Huntingdonshire, England and the site of a 17th century Anglican experiment in communal living. Nicholas Ferrar left parliament and founded the community in 1625. He was ordained to the diaconate the following year and oversaw Little Gidding, which consisted of about 40 relatives, until his death in 1637. The austere rule according to which the lay community lived consisted of work and prayer, based on the Book of Common Prayer. Groups took turns reciting extracts from the Psalms and Gospels every hour between 6 a.m. and 8 p.m. for a quarter of an hour, with smaller groups keeping vigil from 9 p.m. to 1 a.m. Their works included care for the sick and poor and operating a school for children. Manuscript illustration and expert bookbinding were among their other activities.
Liturgies
Authors: Maschke Timothy 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Liturgies are the form or pattern of worship which Christians utilize to receive God's blessings and express their faith‐filled thanksgiving. “Liturgy” (Greek
leitourgia
) combines the Greek words for “people” (laity) and “work” (energy) to denote “the work of the people.” In secular Greek, a liturgy was a public obligation in the form of taxation or political service. Christians adapted this word to express their gratitude for God's grace‐filled free gift of salvation in Christ. Roman Catholics refer to the Eucharist (Mass) as well as other rites and services associated with worship, such as the daily office, as liturgy. Eastern Orthodox communions use the word only for the Eucharist. Protestant liturgical churches — particularly Episcopal and Lutheran — use the term to refer to their Sunday services, chiefly Holy Communion.