bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
In-vitro Characterization of YM872, a Selective, Potent and Highly Water-soluble α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4- propionate Receptor Antagonist
Authors: Kohara Atsuyuki , Okada Masamichi , Tsutsumi Rie , Ohno Kazushige , Takahashi Masayasu , Shimizu-Sasamata Masao , Shishikura Jun-Ichi , Inami Hiroshi , Sakamoto Shuichi , Yamaguchi Tokio 
Published: April 2011

Abstract
The in-vitro pharmacological properties of (2,3-dioxo-7-(1H-imidazol-***1-yl)-6-nitro-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1-quinoxalinyl)-acetic acid monohydrate, YM872, a novel and highly water-soluble α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate (AMPA)-receptor antagonist were investigated.
YM872 is highly water soluble (83 mg mL−1 in Britton-Robinson buffer) compared with 2,3-dihydroxy-6-nitro-7-sulphamoyl-benzo(F)quinoxaline (NBQX), 6-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)-7-nitro-2,3(1H,4H)-quinoxalinedione hydrochloride (YM90K) or 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxa-line-2,3-dione (CNQX). YM872 potently inhibits [3H]AMPA binding with a Ki (apparent equilibrium dissociation constant) value of 0.096 ± 0.0024 μM. However, YM872 had very low affinity for other ionotropic glutamate receptors, as measured by competition with [3H]kainate (high-affinity kainate binding site, concentration resulting in half the maximum inhibition (IC50) = 4.6 ± 0.14 μm), [3H]glutamate (N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor glutamate binding site, IC50 &gt; 100 μM) and [3H]glycine (NMDA receptor glycine-binding site, IC50 &gt; 100 μM). YM872 competitively antagonized kainate-induced currents in Xenopus laevis oocytes which express rat AMPA receptors, with a pA2 value of 6.97 ± 0.01. In rat hippocampal primary cultures, YM872 blocked a 20-μM AMPA-induced increase of intracellular Ca2+ concentration with an IC50 value of 0.82 ± 0.031 μM, and blocked 300-μM kainate-induced neurotoxicity with an IC50 value of 1.02 μM.
These results show that YM872 is a potent and highly water-soluble AMPA antagonist with great potential for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as stroke.
An Investigation of the Actions of the Essential oils of Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) and Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides), Myrtaceae on Guinea-pig Smooth Muscle
Authors: Lis-Balchin Maria , Hart S L 
Published: April 2011

Abstract
The two New Zealand tea-tree oils, Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium J.R. et G. Forst) and Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides (A. Rich) J. Thompson), Myrtaceae have been used as folk medicines for treating diarrhoea, colds and inflammation but their pharmacological action has not been investigated. Their mode of action was therefore studied on the field-stimulated guinea-pig ileum.
Both Manuka and Kanuka oils induced a spasmolytic effect but Kanuka produced an initial contraction. The spasmolytic action of both oils was the result of a post-synaptic mechanism. Action involving adrenoceptors or cGMP was not considered likely, neither did the oils behave like calcium- or potassium-channel openers. There is some evidence that Manuka acts through cAMP whereas the mode of action of Kanuka is as yet undetermined.
The results indicate that the use of these oils as relaxants in aromatherapy might be valid, although their mode of action is not identical.
Nepetalactone: A New Opioid Analgesic from Nepeta caesarea Boiss.
Authors: Aydin Süleyman , Beis Rana , Öztürk Yusuf , Hüsnü K , Baser C 
Published: April 2011

Abstract
The essential oils of Nepeta species including Nepeta phyllochlamys P. H. Davis, N. nuda L. ssp. nuda, and N. caesarea Boiss. have been screened by use of the tail-flick and tail immersion (52.5°C) methods.
Of the species studied, only N. caesarea showed significant analgesic activity, besides marked sedation, which was also blocked by naloxone, indicating involvement of opioid receptors. Moreover, it was only active on mechanical, not thermal, algesic response which suggests specificity for specific opioid receptor subtypes, excluding μ-opioid receptors.
Because 4aα,7α,7aα-nepetalactone is the main component of the essential oil of N. caesarea, and is present at very high levels (92–95%), it is concluded that 4aα,7α,7aα-nepetalactone is the active principle and has a specific opioid receptor subtype agonistic activity.
THE LIMITS OF GENETIC AND OF COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY1
Authors: CALKINS MARY WHITON 
Published: April 2011

Synopsis.The distinction between these two branches of Psychology.Genetic Psychology, incompatible with the Humian position, presupposes as its ‘unit’ the conscious self. This involves distinguishing psychical development from biological. Individual and social factors of developing consciousness.The initial problem of Comparative Psychology is to determine the criterion of consciousness. The ‘continuity theory’ maintains that life implies consciousness; the ‘mechanistic theory’ denies consciousness in organisms whose actions are unvaried reflexes. So far as they differ neither theory proves its own thesis or refutes that of its opponent: both agree in recognising consciousness where there are adapted reactions.A survey of the relevant facts known shows that the scope of comparative psychology is after all as wide as animal life.The problem of the nature of animal consciousness at different stages: in the minimal form of consciousness clearly ascertained, where truth and error generate the habit of purposeful reaction, imagination is implied. But even the higher animals seem only to react to concrete situations which they very imperfectly analyse. The question how far there is a social factor in animal development can only be settled when we have an objective test of true imitation.Child psychology: the comparative method alone applicable to infancy: later the child's own introspection may supplement the study of its thoughts, imitations, and self‐assertiveness.
LISTENING BETWEEN AND DURING PRACTISED AUDITORY DISTRACTIONS
Authors: BROADBENT D. E. 
Published: April 2011

Subjects were instructed to answer a rapid series of questions, and during series a buzzer was sometimes sounded. Some subjects were instructed to make a reaction to this buzzer; this produced an interference with speech task, both at instant of buzz and also between buzzes. latter interference was reduced by previous practice at buzzer reaction, but former was not.If buzzer was one of two possible signals for a two‐choice reaction, interference at moment of buzz was greater, suggesting that situation is most easily described in terms of information theory. But previous practice in this case causes subject to perform secondary task in a way which requires less information and so interferes less. effect of practice in’ automatizing’ a task is thus real, but has important limitations.
USE OF EEG IN STUDY OF IMAGERY
Authors: BARRATT P. E. 
Published: April 2011

An experiment was designed to test hypothesis that suppression of amplitude of alpha rhythm provides a reliable objective index of visual imagery under two conditions of problem solution, namely, solving a ‘verbal’ problem and solving a ‘visual’ problem. Sixty‐nine subjects were examined in following way: first, preliminary ‘runs’ were made with each subject for EEG recording under conditions (a) eyes‐shut, relaxed and (b) eyes‐open, relaxed, yielding base lines for comparison; secondly, EEG recordings were made under conditions (a) concurrently with solution of ‘verbal‐reasoning’ problem and (b) concurrently with solution of ‘visual‐reasoning’ problem.It was found that, although visual content of awareness during two problem‐solution periods as reported by subjects differed markedly, suppression of alpha rhythms occurred under both conditions, amplitudes in both cases falling about half‐way between two values recorded in preliminary ‘runs’. There was, however, a greater suppression effect in case of the’ visual’ problem. results, as a whole, therefore, suggest that hypothesis is not tenable, since ‘imagery’ appears to be only one of many factors that may produce suppression effects. This conclusion is supported by a breakdown of subject sample, according to reports of imagery on verbal problem, which showed that there was no difference in basic patterns as between those who visualized verbal problem and those who did not.Repeated solution in a check period, immediately following solution period, made no significant difference to suppression of alpha in verbal problem, but did so in visual problem. suggested interpretation follows Fisher (1916) in regarding this as a possible decrease in image content.
A NOTE ON SCALE PRODUCT AND RELATED METHODS OF SCORING ATTITUDE SCALES
Authors: BUTCHER H. J. 
Published: April 2011

Attitude scales constructed by Thurstone's method of equal‐appearing intervals may also be scored by Thurstone's method or by Likert's or by a combination of two. Some possible advantages of a combined method are described.Three variants of such a combined method are distinguished, and their characteristics discussed. In case of two of these, no evidence is found to show that they possess any advantage over Likert's method of scoring, and some evidence seems to indicate that they do not. For third (Scale Product method of Eysenck & Crown, 1949), higher reliability is claimed by its authors, but insufficient information is available about details of method for this claim to be tested.
THE ROLE OF PAST EXPERIENCE IN APPARENT MOVEMENT: A REVALUATION
Authors: TOCH HANS H. , ITTELSON WILLIAM H. 
Published: April 2011

An attempt is made to provide a theoretical framework within which data concerning effect of stimulus connotations on perceived movement might be evaluated. Jones's & Bruner's (1954) results, and those of our own study, have been examined in this context.In both cases, it was possible to demonstrate that loading through meaning, to be effective, had to be compatible with generalized past experiences with movement, or (from a structuralist viewpoint) with physiological mechanisms underlying movement perception.Jones's & Bruner's failure to obtain satisfactory positive results could thus be regarded as due to their underestimation of determinants underlying stroboscopie movement as such. Similarly, successful loading with an adaptation of von Schiller's paradigm could be anticipated, given fact that equipotential movement alternatives were provided. extent of phenomenal results of loading through connotation was assumed to provide a measure of influence of relevant past experiences.
PERSONALITY AND PERCEPTION: CONSTANCY EFFECT AND INTROVERSION
Authors: ARDIS J. AMOE , FRASER ELIZABETH 
Published: April 2011

An investigation of relationship between shape constancy and introversion‐extroversion was carried out, using as subjects twenty‐four first‐year Psychology students of Aberdeen University; twelve introverts and twelve extroverts, selected on basis of Minnesota TSE scale. Results showed (a) that introverts showed lower constancy effect than extroverts and (b) that there was a tendency for men to show greater constancy effect than women.There was also some suggestion of presence of a learning factor in perceptual process which also distinguished introverts from extroverts. These results are discussed in light of previous investigations. Hypotheses, which are shortly to be tested, and which might account for findings, are advanced.
THE QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF INTELLIGENCE
Authors: McCOLSKEY ANN SHEDDEN 
Published: April 2011

A battery of seven intellectual tasks, designed for the qualitative examination of intelligence, was administered to thirty‐five (experimental) children of superior ability and thirty‐five (control) children of average ability, matched for age and other variables, and selected by a set of multiple criteria, including teachers' opinions, grades, and intelligence and achievement tests.Under the conditions of this study, superior intelligence was characterized, with significant frequency, by a variety of qualities, including: coherence and productivity of informal thought processes; a facility for abstracting conceptual principles as against ‘situation‐bound’ responses; conceptual flexibility; perseverance and independence of structure (or aid) in complex problems; attentiveness and spontaneous perception of incongruities. It is felt that this approach to intelligence can ultimately produce a more fertile, inductive quantification, in dimensional terms.
THE EFFECTS OF INCENTIVES ON THE PERFORMANCE OF DEFECTIVE IMBECILES
Authors: WALTON D. , BEGG T. L. 
Published: April 2011

The present experiment was designed to inquire into the effects of different incentive conditions on the performance of male imbeciles. In particular the aim was to clarify further the effect of goal‐striving and encouragement on performance in uncontaminated experimental groups. The experiment was suggested, first, because the previous results in the field had been equivocal, and secondly, since inquiry into the trainability of imbeciles had been encouraging. The latter results suggested how imperative it was to determine the best incentive conditions to be employed in any experimental workshop in which such work was being undertaken.Forty‐eight imbeciles were used. On the basis of their first performance on the Leg Persistence Test they were divided into four matched groups of 12 subjects each and asked to perform under different motivating conditions. There were four incentive conditions used—‘Control’, ‘Goal’, ‘Competition’ and ‘Encouragement’. The experiment continued at the rate of one trial per day over twenty trials. As far as possible each of the four groups was tested on the same day for the equivalent trial number. The four groups were also found to be closely matched on the basis of intelligence.There can be little doubt that incentives improve the performance of imbeciles on a dull routine task. In contrast, under conditions of indifference their performance deteriorates. No support was gained for Gordon's contention that imbeciles respond to goal conditions of motivation better than when encouraged. In the present study competition and encouragement appear to be the best conditions of motivation.
THE EFFECT OF SET ON ACCURACY OF AUDITORY PERCEPTION
Authors: TALLAND GEORGE A. 
Published: April 2011

Two complementary experiments are reported which compare the facilitatory effects of (a) sets established in various ways, and (b) different conditions of confirmation, on accurate recognition of words presented aurally, and on systematic distortion of words incongruent with the set.Sets, whether explicitly established by instruction, or implicitly arrived at from cues embedded in the test material, significantly increase the incidence of accurate perception. The presence of incongruent stimuli does not noticeably reduce the facilitatory effect of a set, not even when confirmation is considerably delayed. Wide spacing of confirmatory stimuli is least conducive to the maintenance of a set.While one set is in operation, and facilitates veridical perception, another set is unlikely to develop, even though conditions for its emergence are furnished by the stimulus material. However, if an initially established and subsequently confirmed set ceases to facilitate correct perception, it will be replaced by another appropriate set; more rapidly if only some of the words presented were congruent with it, more gradually if all were confirmatory.Explicit sets elicit the highest incidence of distortion in accordance with expectancy, more particularly if confirmation is delayed or intermittent.In facilitating accurate perception, double sets are less effective than single sets, whether all stimuli are confirmatory or some are incongruent. The differential effect cannot be attributed to the heterogeneous composition of the stimulus material, nor is it manifested in a manner consistent with a model of reciprocal inhibition exerted by the two sets on one another. The results agree with an inhibitory theory of set according to which sets operate by raising the thresholds of perception for all that is incongruent. The relative lowering of thresholds for the congruent would thus be a secondary effect, as distinct from the hypothetical neural model which accounts for this psychological law in terms of short‐circuiting of pathways.
VISUAL SEARCH FOR SUCCESSIVE DECISIONS
Authors: MACKWORTH N. H. , MACKWORTH J. F. 
Published: April 2011

When a situation provides information from many different independent sources, characteristic difficulties arise, even when the decisions required are of the simplest possible kind and do not require estimates of probability. This paper considers the effect of the amount of material in the display which must be searched for the correct answer, and also how this display load interacts with the speed at which decisions are required, in a situation where successive decisions are posed at approximately equal temporal intervals.It is shown that the percentage of errors is proportional both to the required speed and to the display load, and it is concluded that the time required to search through a display depends on the amount of material in the display, when this unwanted material closely resembles the required answer. In the discussion, the effects of many different sources of information in a moving display are considered in relation to two distinct variables: (1) the display load, and (2) the temporal irregularity of successive decisions.
THE ROLE OF ATTITUDES IN COMPREHENSION
Authors: FRIEDMANN S. 
Published: April 2011

By means of an attitude test and expressed opinions, subjects were divided into pro‐, anti‐ and neutral‐groups for each of twenty‐four political statements. No significant differences in comprehension were found between the three groups, except in two cases where the groups who scored higher for comprehension also had superior intelligence and knowledge scores. A significant result was found for only one of the twenty‐four statements, namely, a negative correlation between liking and comprehension, and a comparable superiority in comprehension of the opposing group: this statement was found to be ambiguous in its expression of attitude.The findings of a control experiment, using comments instead of a comprehension test, supported the main conclusion that for unambiguous statements there was no relationship between the efficiency of comprehension and direction of attitude.
TIME FOR READING AND MEMORY
Authors: POULTON E. C. 
Published: April 2011

This paper on silent reading is concerned with the rate of comprehension, selection while reading, and the rigidity of pacing while reading. Subjects studied 144 short statements under one of three degrees of pacing: (a) a time was set for studying the whole series of statements (whole condition), (b) each complete statement was presented in turn by itself for a set time (statement condition), and (c) part only of a single statement was presented at a time, and there was a period after each statement when no print was visible (segment condition). In different subconditions 1.0 min. was allowed for an average of every 293, 146, 73 or 37 words. In one variation of condition (a) the subject was instructed to pay attention only to the 18% of statements connected with geography (selection condition). In another variation, the time for study was fixed at 3.0 min., and the number of statements was reduced accordingly (shortened condition).After reading, the subject had first to estimate from memory the percentage of statements which could be classified under certain specified topics. He was then given a test of memory for seventy‐two of the statements. Half of them had to be completed (recall), and each of the remaining half had to be discriminated from a paired statement which resembled it in one of six standard ways (recognition). An identical test of memory for the remaining seventy‐two statements was normally given unexpectedly 1 week later. A control group of subjects took these tests without having read the statements.In the whole condition when 1.0 min. was allowed for every 293 or 146 words, most of the subjects reported that they had read practically all the statements once and only once. Reading at about 146 words per minute in this condition Was found to give significantly better comprehension of the individual statements than reading at about 293 words per minute. In contrast, in this whole condition when 1.0 min. was allowed for every 73 or 37 words, the subjects reported that they had re‐read some or all of the statements at least once. Between the rates of presentation of 37 and 293 words per minute, substance memory varied approximately as the logarithm of the time available per statement. After the 3.0 min. of study in the shortened condition, about the same number of statements could be remembered in substance or recognized whether 293 or only 73 words had had to be studied per minute. Selection tended to improve memory for the selected statements, and to reduce memory for the remainder. But when 293 words had to be studied per minute, only recognition soon after study benefited significantly from selection.When 1.0 min. was available for every 146 words, the rigid pacing of the segment condition gave significantly better memory soon after study than the loose pacing of the whole condition. But when 1.0 min. was available for every 37 words, pacing had no effect upon memory. There were no significant differences between the degrees of pacing used in the statement and whole conditions.
BINOCULAR RESOLUTION AND PERCEPTION OF RACE IN SOUTH AFRICA*
Authors: PETTIGREW THOMAS F. , ALLPORT GORDON W. , BARNETT ERIC O. 
Published: April 2011

Our experiment uses a newly developed method for research in social perception: a brief stereoscopic presentation of pairs of racial photographs. Members of the four major racial groups in South Africa—Europeans, Coloureds, Indians, and Africans—serve both as judges and as photographic stimulus material. The factor of eye dominance is controlled.While the stimulus material itself accounts for many of the findings, there is clear evidence that ‘directed state’ factors are also at work. White South Africans, especially the Afrikaners, seem to manifest a ‘perceptual vigilance’ in their judgements. They report racially mixed photographs to be either pure European or full‐blooded African more often than do judges of other races. This tendency is consistent with the bifurcation (judgements of ‘black’ or ‘white’) known to be characteristic of people who are apprehensive concerning race relations.The use of meaningful stimuli presented in a setting of binocular rivalry offers new promise for the study of cultural and personal determinants in perception.
EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON THE INTERESTS AND INITIATIVE OF ADULT VIEWERS IN GREATER LONDON
Authors: BELSON WILLIAM A. 
Published: April 2011

Aims. The aim of this study was to measure the effect of television upon the interests and the initiative of adult viewers in a specific urban area and to relate the extent of the effect to length of set ownership.
Methods. The Stable Correlate design was used for the isolation of effects. There was extensive preliminary test construction, and the measurement of television's effects was made against a representative cross‐section of the public's interests in the one case, and of their acts of initiative in the other. The final survey was based upon about 800 cases and the construction of measuring devices upon about 3000.
Results. The effect of television has been to reduce both interests and initiative. The reduction of interests is not only in terms of activity level, but in viewers' feeling of interest as well. Even when interests are featured in television programmes themselves, the loss to television is made up to only a very small degree. Television's effects do, however, vary markedly from one group of interests to another. The loss in initiative and in interests extends over a period of five to six years. Generally speaking, the loss is greatest in the first few years, after which there is a gradual recovery.