bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Molecular Biological Analyses and Molecular Pathology in Clinical Chemistry
Authors: Dennis Lo Y.M. , Wong Ivy H.N. , Tsui Nancy B.Y. , Lam Ching‐Wan 
Published: December 2009

AbstractThe introduction of powerful methods for the analysis of nucleic acids started a revolution in medicine, opening up a new field of molecular diagnosis. The core technologies of molecular diagnosis involve techniques for the amplification and characterization of nucleic acids. These techniques have enabled the diagnosis of many diseases with unprecedented sensitivity and specificity. As research tools, these methods have increased our understanding of many diseases on a molecular level, with the unraveling of the molecular pathology of many common disorders. The foundation for the rapid and continual development of molecular pathology received a boost from the genome‐wide scale analyses of the human genome, such as the Human Genome Project (HGP) and the HapMap Project, which have provided the essential genetic blueprint for future investigations.
Pesticides (New Generation) and Related Compounds, Analysis of
Authors: Picó Yolanda 
Published: December 2009

AbstractMiscellaneous pesticides and related compounds comprise substances that can neither be included in the classical chemical category of pesticides nor classified by their mode of action. They are a heterogeneous group of substances, the most representative of which are macrocyclic lactones, chloronicotinyls, tetranortriterpenoids, ammonium quaternary salts, dinitroanilines, acetamides, oximes, triazoles, and pyridine‐based molecules. The pesticides covered in this article have hardly changed in the last years. However, their analytical determination has undergone significant improvements. This article provides a well‐defined and critical compilation of the sample treatment and clean‐up procedures, as well as determination techniques applied to miscellaneous pesticides. The new approaches in sample preparation in environmental matrices, such as air, water, soil, food and biological samples, are described. Analytical techniques for characterizing these compounds, which mostly include gas chromatography (GC) and high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to mass spectrometry (MS), are discussed. Both techniques have almost completely displaced other chromatographic methods. However, in the frontier between chemical and biological techniques, the development of biosensor techniques is very promising. Here, analytical methods applied to the field of real samples are also presented.
Pharmacogenomics
Authors: Melanson Stacy E.F. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractAdverse drug reactions occur in 5–10% of hospitalized patients and are one of the leading causes of death in the United States. 1, 2 The field of pharmacogenomics explores the relationship between a patient's genetics and his/her response to drugs. If a patient's response to a drug can be predicted by his/her genetics, then the right drug at the right dose can be administered. Additionally, harmful side effects and toxicity can be avoided. Pharmacogenomic genotyping offers the advantage that it only needs to be performed once and can provide unequivocal genetic information. However, the complexity of gene regulation and gene–environment interaction can complicate pharmacogenomic testing. This article provides an overview of pharmacogenomics and examples of pharmacogenomic applications.
The Formation of the
C

F
Bond: The Last Twelve Years
Authors: Rozen Shlomo 
Published: December 2009

Abstract

Introduction

Nucleophilic Fluorinating Reagents

Electrophilic Fluorinating Reagents

Synthesis of Compounds Containing The
18
F
Isotope For Use In Positron‐Emitting Tomography

Recent Reviews on Selective Fluorination Methods
General and Theoretical Aspects of the Cyclopropyl Group
Authors: Cremer Dieter , Kraka Elfi , Szabo Kalman Josef 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionStructure and TopologyElectronic Structure—Orbital DescriptionElectron Density Distribution and Chemical BondingEnergy and StabilityGeometryVibrational SpectraOne‐Electron PropertiesNMRSpectraExcited States and Ultraviolet Absorption SpectraCharged Cyclopropyl GroupsThe Cyclopropyl RadicalFused CyclopropanesFormation and ReactivityAcknowledgements
Photochemistry of Nitro and Nitroso Compounds
Authors: Ho Tong‐Ing , Chow Yuan L. 
Published: December 2009

Abstract

Introduction

Photochemistry of Aromatic Nitro Compounds

Photochemistry of Nitro‐Olefins

Photochemistry of Aliphatic Nitro Compounds

Photochemistry of
C
‐Nitroso Compounds

Photochemistry of Alkyl Nitrites

Photochemistry of

N

‐Nitro and

N

‐Nitroso Compounds
Analysis of Dienes and Polyenes and Their Structure Determination
Authors: Aizenshtat Zeev 
Published: December 2009

Abstract

Introduction

Spectroscopic Methods

Separation and Chromatography of Dienes and Polyenes

Thermal Desorption and Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy

Mass Spectrometry

Chemical Derivatizations

Selected Examples of Multi‐Parameter Analysis for Dienes and Polyenes: Structure Determination

Analysis of Carotenoids as an Example of Polyene Studies

Acknowledgements
Strained Olefins
Authors: Sandström Jan 
Published: December 2009

AbstractBasic ConceptsTetrasubstituted EthylenesPush–Pull SystemsBis‐Tricyclic EthylenesMedium‐Sizedtrans‐Cycloalkenes and AnaloguesBi‐ and Polycyclic Bridgehead OlefinsMiscellaneous CompoundsConclusions
Advances in the Metathesis of Olefins
Authors: Ivin K. J. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionCatalysts, Intermediates, Initiator EfficienciesAcyclic Monoenes not Containing Functional GroupsAcyclic Monoenes Containing Functional GroupsThe Carbonyl–Olefination ReactionAcyclic Diene Metathesis (ADMET)Ring‐Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) Of CycloalkenesCopolymerizationPolymerization of Acetylenes by Olefin Metathesis CatalystsIntramolecular Metathesis Reactions of Enynes and DienynesMetathesis Reactions of Alkynes Involving Total Cleavage of theCCBond
N‐Oxidative Transformations ofCNGroups as Means of Toxification and Detoxification
Authors: Hlavica Peter , Lehnerer Michael 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionChemical Aspects of theN‐Oxygenation of theCNFunctionalityOccurrence ofN‐OxygenatedCNFunctionalities in Natural and Synthetic Compounds and Biological ActivityMetabolic in Vivo and in Vitro Formation ofN‐OxygenatedCNFunctionalitiesEnzymology of the Formation ofN‐OxygenatedCNFunctionalitiesFurther Transformations ofN‐OxygenatedCNFunctionalitiesConclusions
Thermochemistry of Azo, Hydrazo, Azoxy and Related Species†Dedicated to Charles G. Overberger, pioneering investigator of cycle azo componds.
Authors: Liebman Joel F. , Afeefy Hussein Y. , Slayden Suzanne W. 
Published: December 2009

Abstract

Introduction: Scope and Definitions

Azo Compounds

Hydrazines

Hydrazides

Azoxy Compounds

Azodioxy Compounds

Acknowledgements
The Photochemistry of Organosilicon Compounds
Authors: Brook A. G. 
Published: December 2009

Abstract

Introduction

Compounds Containing a Single Silicon Atom

Compounds Containing Two Silicon Atoms Disilanes

Tri‐, Tetra‐ and Polysilanes

Acylsilane Photochemistry

Silyldiazoalkanes and Silylcarbenes

Photochemical Routes to Silenes, Silylenes and Disilenes

Photochemical Rearrangements of Silenes, Silylenes and Disilenes

Other Photolyses Leading to Multiply Bonded Silicon

Photolysis of Miscellaneous Compounds

Addendum

Photochemical Routes to Silenes, Silylenes and Disilenes

Summary
Synthetic Applications of Allylsilanes and Vinylsilanes
Authors: Luh Tien‐Yau , Liu Shiuh‐Tzung 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionElectrophilic Substitution ofCSiBondsOrganometallic Reagents PromotedCSiCleavage ReactionsMiscellaneousCSiCleavage ReactionsReactions of Allylsilanes and Vinylsilanes without Cleavage of theCSiBond
General and Theoretical Aspects of Organic Gold Compounds†This chapter is dedicated to the memory of Prof. Saul Patai, a humane person, educator and outstanding scientist.
Authors: Hoz Tova , Basch Harold 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionAuL+Complexes,L = Neutral LigandAuXCompounds,X = Negatively Charged LigandLAuL′+ComplexesXAuLComplexesYAuX−ComplexesAuL3+andAuL2L′+ComplexesAuL4+Complexes
Thermochemistry of the Organometallic Compounds of Silver and Gold
Authors: Liebman Joel F. , Simões José Martinho , Slayden Suzanne W. 
Published: December 2009

Abstract

Introduction

Silver Acetylides

Silver Cyano Derivatives

Silver(I) Olefin Complexes in the Condensed Phase

Silver Complexes with Acetylenes

Organogold Derivatives in the Condensed Phase

Organosilver Species in the Gas Phase

Organogold Species in the Gas Phase

Summary

Acknowledgments
The Organic Photochemistry of Silver and Gold
Authors: Horspool William M. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionReactions Involving Silver as Films or in SolutionPhotochemistry of Silver Complexes of AlkenesSilver–Carbon Bond Fission on PhotolysisSilver Salts of Carboxylic AcidsReactions with Silver TriflateAmine Complexes of SilverMiscellaneous Reactions Involving SilverMonolayers on GoldGold ComplexesGold as a CatalystCarbon–Gold Bond FissionMiscellaneous Reactions Involving Gold
IntermolecularCyclization Reactions to form Carbocycles
Authors: Beusker Patrick H , Scheeren Hans W 
Published: December 2009

AbstractGeneral Introduction[2 + 2] Cycloaddition ReactionsDiels–Alder Reactions[6 + 4] Cycloaddition Reactions[8 + 2] Cycloaddition Reactions[2 + 2 + 2] Cycloaddition Reactions
Electrophilic Additions to Dienes and Polyenes
Authors: Chiappe Cinzia , Ruasse Marie‐Françoise 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionElectrophilic HydrogenElectrophilic Carbenium IonsElectrophilic Halogens and Positive Halogen DonorsElectrophilic Sulfur and SeleniumElectrophilic MercuryConclusionsAcknowledgements
Recent Developments in the Chemistry of Compounds with Silicon–Nitrogen Bonds
Authors: Neugebauer Peter , Jaschke Bettina , Klingebiel Uwe 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionPreparation and Properties of theSiNBondAminosilanesLithium Derivatives of SilylaminesLithium Derivatives of HydrazinesIminosilanesCyclic Silicon–Nitrogen CompoundsCyclodisilazanesCyclotrisilazanesCyclotetrasilazanesApplication of Cyclosilazanes as Precursors for Silicon‐Based Ceramics
Gas‐Phase Chemistry and Mass Spectrometry ofGe‐,Sn‐ andPb‐Containing Compounds
Authors: Riveros José M. , Takashima Keiko 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionMass Spectrometry ofGe,SnandPbDerivativesGas‐Phase Ion ChemistryGas‐Phase Chemistry of NeutralGe,SnandPbSpeciesAcknowledgments
Synthetic Uses ofR3MH(M = Ge,Sn,Pb)
Authors: Carland Michael W. , Schiesser Carl H. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionThe Preparation of Novel Trialkylgermanes and StannanesTrialkyltin Hydrides as Reagents in Radical Chain ReactionsTrialkyltin Hydrides in Non‐Radical ChemistryTrialkylgermanium and Lead Hydrides in SynthesisAcknowledgement
Trichlorogermane, a New Superacid in Organic Chemistry
Authors: Kolesnikov Stanislav , Tandura Stanislav N. , Nefedov Oleg M. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionSynthesis, Structure and Physical Properties of TrichlorogermaneAcidic and Superacidic Properties of TrichlorogermaneElectrochemical Investigation ofHGeCl3andGeCl4Reactions of Trichlorogermane with Organic HalidesReactions of Trichlorogermane with Unsaturated CompoundsDouble GermylationReactions ofHGeCl3with Aromatic CompoundsConclusions
The Photochemistry of Organometallic Compounds of Germanium, Tin and Lead
Authors: Long Conor , Pryce Mary T. 
Published: December 2009

Abstract

Introduction

Saturated Oligomeric Systems

Alkyl Compounds

Aryl Compounds

Conjugated Catenates

Metal Oxanes

Photoinduced Electron Transfer

Metal–Metal Multiple‐Bonded Systems

Systems Involving Transition Metal Fragments
α‐Amino‐Organolithium Compounds
Authors: Gawley Robert E. , Coldham Iain 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroduction to α‐Amino‐Organolithium CompoundsUnstabilized α‐Amino‐Organolithium CompoundsDipole‐Stabilized α‐Amino‐Organolithium CompoundsDipole‐andHeteroatom‐Stabilized α‐Amino‐Organolithium CompoundsMesomerically Stabilized α‐Amino‐Organolithium CompoundsDipole‐andMesomerically Stabilized α‐Amino‐Organolithium CompoundsAcknowledgments
Acidity and Basicity of Cyclobutanes
Authors: Quintanilla Esther , Dávalos Juan Z. , Abboud José Luis M. , Alkorta Ibon 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionGeometrical StructuresSome Consequences of the Geometrical StructuresSelected ReactionsCBandCUBas BasesHydrogen Bonding (HB)CBandCUBas SubstituentsAcknowledgments
Cation Radicals in the Synthesis and Reactions of Cyclobutanes
Authors: Bauld Nathan L. 
Published: December 2009

Abstract

Introduction

Historical

Energetic Considerations for Cation Radical/Neutral Cycloaddition Reactions

Novel Cation Radical Structures Encountered in Cation Radical/Neutral Cycloadditions

Mechanistic Considerations

Stereochemistry of Cation Radical Cyclobutanation

Other Early Cation Radical Cyclobutanation Precedents

Mechanistic Diversity

The Concerted (or Quasi‐Concerted) Cycloaddition Mechanism

Mechanistic Considerations in Aminium Salt Initiated Cyclobutadimerizations

Cross Cyclobutanation

Cyclobutane Periselectivity in Cross Additions to Conjugated Dienes

The Competition between Cation Radical Cyclobutanation and
D
iels–
A
lder Cycloaddition

Steric Effects in Cation Radical Cyclobutanation

D
iels–
A
lder Periselectivity in Reactions with Acyclic Dienes

D
iels–
A
lder/Cyclobutanation Competition in Cation Radical Cycloadditions to Styrenes

Conformational Effects upon Periselectivity in Cation Radical/Neutral Cycloaddition Reactions

The Cation Radical
Vinylcyclobutane
(

VCB

) Rearrangement

Stereochemistry of the Cation Radical Vinylcyclobutane Rearrangement

The Cation Radical Arylcyclobutane Rearrangement

Intramolecular Cation Radical Cyclobutanation

Natural Product Synthesis via Cation Radical Cyclobutanation

Cation Radical Chain Cycloaddition Polymerization

Retrocyclobutanation

Cation Radical Cycloadditions Involving Alkynes

Cation Radical Chain Reactions of Alkene Cation Radicals with Dioxygen

Retroelectrocyclic Reactions of Cyclobutene Cation Radicals
Solvent‐Free Photosynthesis of Cyclobutanes: Photodimerization of Crystalline Olefins
Authors: Natarajan Arunkumar , Ramamurthy V. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionPhotodimerization of Cinnamic Acids: Emergence of Topochemical PostulatesPhotodimerization of Coumarins, Styrylcoumarins and BenzylidenecyclopentanonesReaction Cavity Concept: Role of Empty Space and Immediate NeighborsFine Tuning of Topochemical PostulatesImpact of Excitation on Molecular Geometry and Intermolecular ArrangementCrystal EngineeringDoes Dimerization Precede Geometric Isomerization?Single Crystal to Single Crystal Photodimerization of OlefinsConcluding RemarksAppendix: More Examples of Solid State Photodimerization of OlefinsAcknowledgment
Thermochemistry of Peroxides
Authors: Slayden Suzanne W. , Liebman Joel F. 
Published: December 2009

Abstract

Introduction, Scope and Definitions

Hydrocarbon‐Substituted Peroxides

Peroxides with Single‐Bonded Oxygen Functional Groups

Peroxycarboxylic Acids and Their Derivatives

Cyclic Peroxides and Multiply‐Linked Peroxides
Contemporary Trends in Dioxetane Chemistry*This chapter is dedicated to our appreciated friend and esteemed colleague, Professor Rostislav F. Vasil'ev, for his pioneering work on the chemical generation of electronically excited states
Authors: Adam Waldemar , Trofimov Alexei V. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractIntroductionStereoselective Synthesis of Chiral Dioxetanes and their Transformationsα‐Peroxy Lactone as OxidantChemiluminescent Decomposition of 1,2‐DioxetanesBioanalytical Application of the Dioxetane ChemiluminescencePhotooxidation ofDNAby 1,2‐DioxetanesConclusionsAcknowledgment
Mass Spectrometry of Organozinc Compounds
Authors: Palii Sergiu P. , Zagorevskii Dmitri V. 
Published: December 2009

Abstract

Introduction

Mass Spectrometry of Organozinc Compounds

Dialkylzinc and Dihaloalkylzinc Compounds

Other Organozinc Compounds with the General Formula
Zn
R
2

Miscellaneous Complexes Containing a
Zn

C
Bond

Organozinc Ion Structure and Energetics

Energetics and Photodissociation Studies

Gas Phase Ion/Molecule Reactions

In silico
Studies of Organozinc Ion Structures

Other Studies Involving Mass Spectrometry

Mass Spectrometric Investigation of Pyrolysis of Zinc‐Containing Species

Monitoring of Organometallic Vapor Phase Epitaxy by Mass Spectrometry

Conclusions
Synthesis and Reactions of Allenylzinc Reagents
Authors: Marshall James A. 
Published: December 2009

Abstract

Zincation of Propargylic Bromides

Mechanistic Studies

Regiochemistry of Additions to Aldehydes and Ketones

Stereochemistry of Additions

Transition State Calculations

Reagent Regioselectivity

Iodoallene‐Derived Reagents

Configurational Stability

Allenyl Alkylzinc Reagents

Coupling of Allenylzinc Bromide Reagents with Aryl and Vinyl Halides

Palladiozincation of Propargylic Mesylates

Double Diastereoselection

Applications to Natural Product Synthesis

Additions to Imines and Aldehydes

Kinetic Resolution of Chiral Allenylzinc Reagents

Amine‐Substituted Allenylzinc Reagents

Additions to Sulfoximines

Additions of Chloroallenylzinc Reagents to Aldehydes and Imines
Electrochemistry of Organomagnesium Compounds
Authors: Jaworski Jan S. 
Published: December 2009

Abstract

Introduction

Electrochemical Synthesis of Organomagnesium Compounds

Conductivity of Solutions of Organomagnesium Compounds

Anodic Oxidation of Organomagnesium Compounds

Cathodic Reduction of Organomagnesium Compounds

Organomagnesium Compounds as Intermediates in Electrode Reactions

Concluding Remarks: Electrochemical Data in the Elucidation of Reactivity of
G
rignard Reagents
Acute Toxicity
Authors: Andrew David J. 
Published: December 2009

AbstractTesting for acute toxicity is the most fundamental of toxicological investigations and is routinely performed as a regulatory requirement for a number of different substance and product types in order to ensure human safety. The results of these studies are used to characterize the hazard, to assign the substance to a classification category, to provide information on the likely medical treatment of an overexposure and to inform the design of subsequent longer‐term toxicity studies where these are required. The relative simplicity of the study design and the endpoints investigated makes acute toxicity studies obvious candidates for replacement by alternative (in silicoandin vitro) methods, and while there has been some progress in the development of these alternatives, regulatory acceptance is currently limited. Incorporation of the use of read‐across and the availablein vitroandin silicomethods, within vivostudies performed only when required, is recommended in order to give an intelligent and integrated strategy to the assessment of acute toxicity.
Repeated Exposure Toxicity
Authors: Ballantyne Bryan 
Published: December 2009

Abstract
Acute toxicity studies are essential preliminaries to repeated‐dosing studies, but the former give limited information about organ‐specific toxicity. Many toxic effects are not detected in acute studies because of the need for cumulative toxicity to develop or because of a long latency to development of toxicity. Evaluation of repeated‐exposure toxicity requires that studies be conducted by an appropriate route for a sufficient number of exposures. The initial concentrations or doses chosen will be determined by findings from acute studies, when these permit the detection of toxicity. Short‐term repeated‐dose studies vary in length from a few (5‐9) days to 28 days, while subchronic studies are usually 90 days, and chronic studies 18 months or more, in rodents. The material to be tested should be of known purity. Most repeated‐exposure studies are conducted using rats or mice, with some regulatory agencies also requiring the use of a larger species (e.g. dog), for subchronic studies. The choice of species is heavily constrained by regulatory authorities and the requirement for normative data. Dosing may be by various routes, that chosen depending largely on the likely route of human exposure. Oral dosing can be gavage, or incorporation of test material into the diet or drinking water. In‐life observations include clinical observation, food and water consumption and body weight determinations. Standard haematology, clinical chemistry and urinalysis measurements are necessary in all studies. At termination, necropsy is carried out, selected organs are weighed and selected organs processed for histopathology.
Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modelling
Authors: Leung Hon‐Wing 
Published: December 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents the readers with a primer on the subject of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modelling. It discusses the theory and principles of PBPK modelling, and compares and contrasts it with classical pharmacokinetic modelling. It describes the multiple steps involved in developing PBPK models, and includes a compilation, with complete referencing, of published PBPK models for environmental chemicals that have been developed to date. The many applications of PBPK modelling to address issues in toxicology and health risk assessment are discussed with relevant examples. It concludes with some discussion of the problems and limitations in PBPK modelling, and offers some observations about future directions for this rapidly emerging field.
Effects of Chirality on Toxicity
Authors: Nilos Mae Grace , Gan Jay , Schlenk Daniel 
Published: December 2009

AbstractChirality is a prominent feature of the living world, and also occurs in man‐made chemicals, especially pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals. The significance of chirality has long been recognized in relation to the biological activity of natural compounds and synthetic drugs. At a molecular level, chirality is ubiquitous in the building blocks of proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids and steroids. Thus, stereoselectivity can be expected in the interactions of chiral chemicals with biological molecules. It is not uncommon in racemic mixtures of chiral drugs or agrochemicals to have only one of its two (or more) enantiomers responsible for most or all of the desired activity. The other enantiomer(s) are all too often assumed to be inactive of little or no important activity. The last 30 years has seen a significant increase in published work highlighting the important relationship between molecular geometry and bioactivity, particularly for chiral pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals. However, a sizable number of chiral drugs and agrochemicals are still available as racemates with relatively little or no information with regard to the toxicological properties of the individual enantiomers. The persistent reluctance to acknowledge the risks associated with the chirality of a chemical is no longer justified. Chiral technology has developed to a point where we are allowed several options in enantiomer resolution and preparation techniques, which in turn offer new avenues for human and environmental toxicologists to explore the stereochemical properties of these ubiquitous agents. This chapter discusses some of the toxicological complexities that could result from chirality, in the hope of highlighting the importance of enantioselective considerations in both mammalian and ecotoxicology.