bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Chemical Reactions in Rubber Compounds. I. Reactions between Pine Tar and Litharge
Authors: Reece W. H. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The results of the experiments indicate that when litharge and pine tar are present in a rubber mixing, a chemical reaction takes place which does not appear to differ from that which occurs between litharge and pine tar in the absence of rubber. The figures obtained are also in agreement with the assumption that the reaction is one in which the acids present in the pine tar react with the litharge to form soaps. It has been shown that the pine tar contained 46.9 per cent of acids which reacted with litharge to produce 2.45 per cent of water.
Meaning and Measurement of Plasticity
Authors: Karrer E. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
ALTHOUGH the word “plasticity” is widely used in the arts and sciences, it has no definite quantitative meaning (6, 7), yet the plastic properties of matter are of enormous importance in many industries. As scientific study of materials has increased, it has become more and more desirable to attain to a clearer idea of what is involved in this concept, to the end that plasticity may ultimately be quantitatively defined and measured. The emergence of the word from common usage into the realm of technical words with well-defined meaning for quantitative considerations has been accompanied by considerable difficulty and confusion. Plasticity does closely relate to other properties of materials and the phenomena wherein plasticity may be an important factor are so varied that the role it plays may be overshadowed by and confused with the interplay of elastic and hardness phenomena on the one hand, and permanent set and viscous flow on the other. Reference to a few comments found in the literature will convince anyone of this. Van Rossem and Van der Meyden (14) have pointed out that plasticity involves more than deformation— that the amount of recovery is an essential element. Some seem to indicate that plasticity is synonymous with softness (11), or permanent set (14). Frequently the flow involved in the deformation is the all-engaging aspect and considerable confusion with viscosity has resulted (1, 2, 16). Inverse flow, or recovery, or “revertibility” is also to be considered. Loose and contradictory usage of the term exists in the rubber industry (12, 14, 15). A few attempt to use the term with the usual common-sensical meaning (5, 8).
Discussion
Authors: Boggs C. R. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Doctor Blake has suggested a theory for the mechanism of filler dispersion and reënforcement. However, he deals only with carbon black in rubber. Carbon black is the most important reënforcing ingredient we have for a tire-tread compound. Being a conductor, it cannot be used in appreciable quantities in insulation. We might consider the possibility of finding a non-conducting reënforcing filler for insulation and also what should be done when the present supply of natural gas is depleted. What is needed is a material similar to clay which is cheap and has a small particle size. With present dispersing agents, clay does not, however, reënforce rubber to anywhere near the extent that carbon black does. For a filler to reënforce satisfactorily it must be well dispersed and adhere firmly to the rubber. The correct dispersing agent should bring this about. This agent should be a polar compound. One portion of the molecule should be soluble in the rubber hydrocarbon and another portion should be capable of being adsorbed by and adhering strongly to the surface of the clay.
Aging of Mechanical Rubber Goods Stocks by Various Methods
Authors: Soule K. J. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
THIS paper records the aging of thirty typical mechanical rubber goods stocks, all of which are, or have been, in regular factory use over long periods of time. The times of aging used are 1 year of natural aging in the dark; 24 hours and 48 hours in the oxygen bomb at 60° C. and 300 pounds (21 kg. per sq. cm.) pressure; and 96 hours at 70° C. in the Geer oven. These stocks are arranged in three groups: (1) lightly compounded, three stocks; (2) medium compounded, twenty stocks; and (3) heavily compounded, seven stocks. The physical properties studied are tensile strength, elongation, tensile product, and modulus. The percentage increase or decrease in each of these properties after each type of aging is recorded. (Tables I to III) Figures 1 to 6, inclusive, show graphically the changes in the physical properties studied on each of the three lightly compounded stocks, using several different methods of presenting the data.
Some Notes on Artificial Aging Tests for Rubber
Authors: Vogt W. W. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
FROM a strictly quantitative point of view we should expect an artificial age test to duplicate in all respects the changes that take place on natural aging. In other words, all of the measurable physical and chemical properties should be changed in the same direction and to the same degree for all types of compounds. if we are looking for such performance from an artificial aging test, then in the writer's opinion none of the present tests fulfil these conditions to a sufficient degree to warrant any extensive use of correlation factors. It must, moreover, be realized that the present methods of artificial aging seek only to duplicate the natural aging of rubber on shelf storage in the dark. If we wish information that will predict aging of rubber products under their normal service conditions, then we must get into the field of specialized testing wherein the conditions with respect to light, temperature, humidity, etc., may be made to approach more nearly those of the actual service.
Color Reactions of Rubber and Gutta-Percha
Authors: Kirchhof F. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
A previous article of mine entitled “Observations on Color Reactions of Rubber and Gutta-Percha” has led to the question whether intensely colored reaction products which are obtained by fusion of phenols with bromides of hydrocarbons give characteristic absorption spectra. I have carried out a few preliminary experiments on this subject, which appear to confirm my earlier point of view that the cause of the different colorations is to be found in dispersion color reactions. It is well known that when rubber bromide or gutta-percha bromide is suspended in carbon tetrachloride and is heated with phenol until the carbon tetrachloride is eliminated, a red-violet to blue fusion mixture is obtained, which gives colors of various stabilities depending upon the solvent into which the fusion mixture is dropped. Thus the blue and violet colorations in chloroform are stable for some time, but they change gradually to green and then to brown, with separation of a flocculent precipitate. Yellow-brown reaction products (hydroxyphenylhydrorubber and gutta-percha) are however obtained in the presence of catalysts (iron, aluminum chloride) or by the action of alkalies (NH3, KOH) or by pouring the blue-violet fusion mixtures into ether.
Structural Differences in Masticated and Unmasticated Raw Rubber Mixtures and Vulcanizates, and Their Significance from a Practical Point of View
Authors: Hauser E. A. , Hünemörder M. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The use of latex in certain branches of the rubber industry is even today looked upon with a great deal of skepticism in technical circles. This point of view rests not so much on ignorance of actual progress in this field as on the still prevalent idea that a mixture of latex and fillers can never give a useful product and one comparable in quality with a raw rubber mixture. This belief is based on the fact that latex is a decidedly heterogeneous system, since the rubber in latex is distributed throughout in the form of individual particles. In spite, however, of this current belief there is now satisfactory evidence to show that products made from latex mixtures without mastication of the rubber are superior in almost all their physical properties to products made from raw rubber in the conventional way. This superiority is in evidence particularly in the higher tensile strength and elasticity and in the incomparably better resistance to tearing. The experiments to be described, which are based in part on work already published elsewhere and on still unpublished investigations of Miss Hünemörder and the author, will serve to make clear the theoretical basis on which these facts rest and will furthermore indicate a few points which in our opinion are worthy of special consideration in the preparation of latex mixtures.
Condensation Products of Aminophenols with Aldehydes
Authors: Levi T. G. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
In the present note condensation products of the simpler aminophenols with aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes are described The condensation products with aldehydes and 2,4-diaminophenol are of particular interest because the latter is so unstable that so far as known it has not been directly isolated. Some of these condensation products may well have useful applications in the rubber industry.
The Coefficients of Friction between Rubber and Other Materials. Frictional Grip of Rubber-Tired Wheels
Authors: Ariano R. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
(i) The coefficients of friction (ƒI and ƒnI) of rubber tires on dry non-dusty surfaces are practically independent of the load on the wheel, and (with pneumatics) of the inflation pressure; on muddy surfaces the coefficients (especially ƒnI tend to decrease with increasing load. (ii) Dust, mud, or water reduces the friction with rubber tires, but not with iron tires. (iii) The tread pattern reduces the friction on dry surfaces, but increases it on muddy surfaces. (iv) There is no systematic difference between pneumatic, semi-pneumatic (cushion) and solid tires as regarda coefficient of friction; the details of individual design and material are the deciding factors; this is in agreement with the results of Bredtscheiner (Verkehrstechnik, 1922; see Schaar, “Die Beanspruchung der Strassen durch die Kraftfahrzeuge,” Zementverlag, 1925). (v) There is no simple relationship between the coefficient of friction and the compressibility or area of contact of the tire. (vi) The static friction perpendicular to the direction of travel is greater than in this direction. (vii) The coefficient of friction depends on the type of road surface, its de-formability, and especially on the presence or absence of dust, mud, or water. (viii) Rubber tires have a much higher coefficient of friction than iron tires, especially on dry hard surfaces. (ix) The static friction is 10 to 20 per cent higher than the dynamic friction.
Transformation of Energy by Rubber
Authors: Williams Ira 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The data which have been presented indicate that elasticity is a property of rubber which persists through vulcanization and is not created to any great extent. The physical state of the rubber after any period of cure depends on the balance between suppression of plastic properties either directly or indirectly through the influence of combination of sulfur, and the creation of plastic properties through the influence of heat. It is probable that sulfur also combines at a slower rate with the elastic portion of the rubber and finally results in a product of almost no mechanical strength. The transformation of energy by rubber depends upon the condition of the rubber as well as on the condition of the test. Heat liberated by elastic strain can be transformed almost quantitatively into mechanical work. Heat due to internal-frictional resistance which will be caused by both plastic and elastic flow is not reversible. Any reduction in time required for the transfer of energy reduces the amount lost through plastic flow. An increase in temperature increases the resistance of the elastic portion to strain, but also reduces the resistance to flow of the plastic portion. Sufficient increase in temperature causes a large energy loss due to a considerable but limited permanent flow of the rubber. This cannot be plastic flow of the elastic portion, since it is limited in extent, but can better be explained by some mechanical change such as a breaking of the anchorage between portions of the plastic material and elastic network.
Permeability of Rubber to Air. I—Effect of Temperature, Pressure, and Humidity
Authors: Morris V. N. , Street J. N. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Apparatus and procedure are described for investigating the influence of temperature, pressure, and humidity upon the capacity of rubber membranes to retain air under pressure. The relation between total pressure and permeability has been found to be almost linear, the permeability being approximately proportional to pressure. The temperature coefficient of permeability is very high, thus indicating that the pressures of inner tubes should be checked much more frequently in summer than in winter. Moisture has been found to decrease the permeability of rubber to air slightly under certain circumstances. Prolonged immersion of the rubber in water, however, resulted in an appreciable increase in permeability.
Moisture Content of Carbon Blacks
Authors: Plummer William B. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
A METHOD for the determination of total moisture in carbon blacks recently proposed (1) involves mixing the sample (5 grams) with 25 cc. of dry xylene and 200 cc. of dry mineral oil, heating to 175° C., passing dry nitrogen through the system until the xylene and water have been displaced from the carbon black-oil mixture, and continuing the nitrogen stream until all water has been displaced from the intermediate xylene receiver and absorbed in the final CaCl2 tubes. By this method values of 3.54–5.96 per cent. total water are obtained for channel blacks, whereas the same samples showed only 1.42–1.85 per cent. loss on ordinary drying for 6 hours at 105° C. The moisture content of carbon blacks is an important factor in many of their uses, so that the discrepancy between this and the usual oven drying method becomes a matter of practical importance as well as theoretical interest. Hence it has been further investigated. Various types of blacks on heating in a 1-2 mm. vacuum show widely differing weight losses, as illustrated by the results in Table I.
Vulcanization of Rubber. By Organic Peroxides or by Ammonium Persulphate
Authors: Ostromislensky Iwan 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
1. Organic peroxides vulcanize rubber not only in the absence of sulphur but likewise without any foreign substances such as metallic oxides or accelerators of any kind. 2. Rubber vulcanized by means of an adequate amount of benzoyl peroxide (10 to 30 per cent.) gives a soft rubber product which does not differ in point of physical properties from products cured with sulphur, or rather with sulphur chloride. 3. The process of vulcanizing rubber with benzoyl Superoxide is completed in a relatively short time even at a fairly low temperature, sometimes even in two minutes at 119° C., corresponding to 13 pounds pressure. 4. Vulcanization of rubber by means of peroxides may lead to the formation of a soft, transparent and elastic product, which is almost entirely colorless. 5. The products in question vulcanized by means of various peroxides are gradually converted to a very sticky and viscous mass. 6. Sulphur protects the vulcanizates in question from such decomposition or oxidation. However, the products obtained in vulcanization of rubber with organic peroxides in the presence of sulphur are opaque. 7. As distinguished from sulphur, selenium, tellurium, their sulphides, metal oxides (in particular, lead oxide) as well as amines (aniline), tannic acid, and metallic aluminium powder not only do not protect the peroxide vulcanized rubber products from decomposition or oxidation but, on the contrary, they accelerate such processes quite considerably. 8. Benzoyl peroxide is the active vulcanizing agent in the process of heating rubber with a mixture of sulphur and benzoyl peroxide. 9. When rubber is subjected to the action of a mixture of some nitrobenzenes and benzoyl peroxides, vulcanization is effected exclusively by the nitrobenzenes, and the benzoyl peroxide remains altogether passive. 10. Ammonium persulphate vulcanizes rubber completely, resulting in a porous product which, generally speaking, is of small practical value.
The Influence of the Principal Accelerators of Vulcanization on the Preservation of Rubber
Authors: Thiollet R. , Martin G. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
In the April and October, 1929, issues of le Caoutchouc & la Gutta-Percha the authors have shown that accelerators of vulcanization can be classified according to: (1) their precocity, (2) their temperature of normal action (characteristic temperature), and (3) their rapidity of action at the characteristic temperature. The “plateau of vulcanization” was studied for each accelerator. In order to complete the work it has been necessary to study the influence of the principal accelerators of vulcanization on the preservation of rubber. This article gives the result of these experiments. Mixtures of “pure gum” type were prepared, containing the principal accelerators of vulcanization, taking as a basis the following mixture:
The Pneumatic Tire in Heavy Transport
Authors: Healey A. , Bond W. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
The last seven years have seen the beginning of a new era in heavy transport. Hitherto road transport had been confined to services where it was not economical to lay down a railway track, where the distances were comparatively short and loads comparatively light, and where the lorry could handle goods in special ways not possible on the railway, e. g., in the removal of merchandise direct from gate to gate of factories without wasting time. Today the situation is quite different. The reduced profits of railway companies are ascribed to the competition of road transport and those companies are extending their sphere of operation, not so much by building new tracks, but by the simpler and less costly expedient of running road vehicles. There can be no doubt that the tire manufacturers have been largely responsible for this revolution. Their production of the giant pneumatic tire was the first step, for without this accessory, modern road transport, and modern types of road vehicles, would be unthinkable. The technical reasons for this provide interesting study to engineers, and should indeed be properly understood by all who are interested in the engineering and operating sides of transport problems, if the fullest advantage of tire equipment is to be obtained.
Factors in the Works Control of Plasticity by the Williams Method
Authors: Garner T. L. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Two methods are available for the measurement of plasticity in the works— the Williams and the extrusion method. Generally, when the former is used, the original method is modified in some way, the following being used in this case. The plastometer, with a long handle so that it can be operated through a hole in the roof of the oven without opening the oven door, is used with a loose die, the size being varied according to plasticity, but for routine testing of masticated rubber a 3/4-in. disc 1/4 in. thick is used. The sample of rubber used is rather less than 1/4 in. in thickness to prevent the rubber creeping round the die and touching the top plate when the die is pressed into it; the size of test piece is about 1 1/2 in. square. The samples are cut off masticated rubber plied up to give a thickness of about 1 1/2 in. Each morning the plastometer is set so that when resting on the steel die alone a reading of 400-thousandths of an inch is shown. This means that with the die on a sample of rubber, no indication is given on the plastometer gage until the thickness of rubber between the bottom plate and the die is 400-thousandths of an inch, i. e., a constant thickness in each case. As soon as this is reached, and the gage hand moves, a stop watch is begun and the time taken for the hand to cover 50 divisions on the gage is taken as the plasticity figure. An agreement can be obtained under ordinary working conditions of about ten seconds, and the test does not require skilled control.
Rate of Cure of Reclaimed Rubber—II
Authors: Kilboura F. L. , Miller G. W. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
Residual alkali in reclaim is chiefly responsible for the faster rate of cure of stocks containing reclaimed rubber as compared with those containing new rubber only. Reclaim prepared in water can be made to cure as fast as alkali reclaim by the addition of sodium hydroxide to the extent that this is present in the alkali reclaim. The determination of residual alkali requires a very long extraction, in this case approximately 60 days. Of five possible theories accounting for the rapid rate of cure of reclaim, only that of residual alkali is tenable. There still remains in certain cases, however, a difference in rate of cure between stocks containing new rubber and those containing water-cooked reclaim for which no explanation has been found. Sodium hydroxide of itself is not deleterious to rubber compounds, for, in addition to its value as an accelerator in certain cases, it tends to improve physical properties and aging resistance, as judged by the Geer oven test.
Estimation of the Degree of Penetration of Rubber into Fabrics
Authors: Dieterich E. O. 
Published: February 2011

Abstract
IT IS frequently important to know to what extent fabrics are impregnated with rubber in the course of manufacture of various fabric-rubber combinations, such as tires, belts, footwear, etc. Such information is of value in answering questions relative to fabric fatigue in service, adhesion, resistance to corrosion, and others. Direct microscopic examination of thin sections of fabric-rubber structures presents mechanical and optical difficulties, chief of which is the practical impossibility of cutting perfect sections. The lack of optical contrast between textile fibers and many rubber compounds is another objection to this method which differential staining has not successfully overcome. Etching the surfaces of thick sections and examination by reflected light are only partially successful in securing the requisite detail. The method described has been used in this company's laboratories for several years with considerable success. It is simple, relatively rapid, demands no equipment beyond that found in the average laboratory, and requires no unusual degree of skill.