bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lettow‐Vorbeck, General Paul‐Emil von (1870–1964)
Authors: Moyd Michelle R. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractGeneral Paul‐Emil von Lettow‐Vorbeck commanded the German colonial army, or Schutztruppe, during World War I in East Africa. Military historians have credited him with leading a brilliant unconventional campaign against numerically stronger, better‐supplied Allied forces drawn from across the British Empire, Belgian Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo), Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique), and South Africa. Adoring crowds in Berlin celebrated his return to Germany in March 1919. To them, he represented true German military heroism during a time of generalized humiliation and defeat. He has remained fascinating to military historians and many others interested in his East African experiences. Recent research on his life and his role in the East African campaign, however, has pointed up the devastating toll his ruthless campaign took on East Africa and its peoples. His earlier military assignments in German colonial expeditionary forces that fought in China and southwest Africa (present‐day Namibia) directly contributed to his ability to assume command of the German East African Schutztruppe in 1914, and also shaped his tactics and strategy during the war. Military historians have often celebrated his accomplishments and leadership skills during the East Africa campaign, but his role in violent anticommunist and putschist politics in postwar Weimar Germany complicates his image as a German military hero.
Logistics
Authors: Kane Thomas M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The term military logistics refers to all the activities involved in moving, equipping, and sustaining armed forces. All military operations require some form of material support, and all problems of military theory and practice have a logistical dimension. Thus, strategic thinker Antoine Jomini defined logistics as “nothing more nor less than the science of applying all possible military knowledge” (Jomini 1868: 253). Since military knowledge that cannot be applied is useless, it is easy to see why so many of the most successful commanders in history have viewed logistics as supremely important.
Ludendorff, General Erich (1865–1937)
Authors: Woodward David R. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
As first quarter‐master general of the German army, Ludendorff dominated military affairs during the second half of World War I. In his memoirs he misleadingly characterized his relationship with Field Marshal von Hindenburg as one of “the most perfect harmony,” but he resented the acclaim given his superior, believing with much justification that most of the credit belonged to him. He, however, was not prepared to accept responsibility when things went disastrously wrong during Germany's failed bid to win a victor's peace in 1918. Instead, he blamed the army's defeat on the collapse of the home front and popularized the myth that the soldiers had been “stabbed in the back” by Jews and socialists.
Machiavelli, Niccolò (1469–1527)
Authors: Gallaher John G. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was born on May 3, 1769 in the city of Florence, Italy. He received a good education in the classics, mathematics, and languages (Italian and Latin) and in 1498 was given the middle level position of second chancellor (secretary) in the city government. For the next 14 years, besides his duties as secretary, he was frequently sent on diplomatic missions to cities in Italy, France, and Germany. When his supporters fell from power is 1512, Machiavelli was relieved of his position and retired to his modest estate outside of Florence. He spent his unemployed years writing. Although he is best known for his political and military writing (
The Prince
and
The Art of War
), he was also known in his day for his plays and poetry.
Mao Zedong (Mao Tse‐tung) (1893–1976)
Authors: Waldron Arthur 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Mao Zedong was arguably the most influential Chinese politician of the twentieth century, widely admired at home and abroad as a great revolutionary, and the inspiration of a wave of “Maoist” insurgencies, such as that of the Naxalites in India. He won power as supreme leader of the Chinese Communist Party in 1935 and held it until his death. After a protracted struggle with the man he saw as his arch‐rival, Chiang Kai‐shek (Jiang Jieshi) (1887–1975), Mao also attained power over all the lands of the former Qing Empire (1644–1911) save Mongolia and Taiwan. Although promising a liberal electoral regime of “New Democracy,” Mao in fact ruled the newly proclaimed People's Republic of China as a dictator, albeit one who sought revolutionary transformation. His was the decisive voice in China's decision to enter the Korean War (1949–1953); his forces humiliated India in a border conflict in 1962, while during the Vietnam War (1959–1975) he provided matériel and personnel to the North Vietnamese. As tension rose with the Soviet Union (1969) he joined talks with the United States (starting in 1971) that culminated with diplomatic relations (1979).
Maori Wars (1845–1872)
Authors: Shapiro Stephen 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Also known as the New Zealand Wars or the Land Wars, the Maori Wars were a series of conflicts between the British settlers of New Zealand and various Maori opponents. The wars were concentrated on New Zealand's northern island and fell into three phases: the Northern War of 1845–1846, the 1860s wars against the Maori King movement and its allies, and those against Maori prophetic leaders from 1864 until 1872. The first of these phases took place near the island's northern tip, in the Bay of Islands; the second along the western coast in Waikato and to its south in Taranaki; and the third throughout the island.
Marshall, General George C. (1880–1959)
Authors: Wells Anne Sharp 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
George Catlett Marshall, a professional army officer, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953 for his role in the reconstruction of western Europe after World War II. As US army chief of staff throughout that conflict, he had overseen the transformation of a small peacetime army to a force of eight million deployed around the world, while he shaped and executed Allied strategy as an influential member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and the Anglo‐American Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS). When Marshall stepped down after the war's end in 1945, the retirement he had planned was delayed by a series of complex assignments from President Harry S. Truman, who first dispatched him to mediate between Mao Zedong (Mao Tse‐tung) and Chiang Kai‐shek (Jiang Jieshi) in the Chinese Civil War (1945–1947), and then appointed him secretary of state (1947–1949), head of the American Red Cross (1949–1950), and secretary of defense (1950–1951).
Mau Mau Emergency (1952–1960)
Authors: Stapleton Timothy J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
During the 1930s and 1940s, white settlers in the central highlands of British colonial Kenya expelled most of the indigenous Kikuyu from their land. The Kikuyu became squatters working for low pay on white owned commercial farms, lived in small, infertile, and overcrowded reserves, or moved to growing slums in Nairobi. A small number of Kikuyu gained land for farming and cultivated ties with the colonial administration. Protest began in the early 1940s with a series of labor strikes, livestock maiming, and burning of farm buildings and crops. By the late 1940s loyalty and unity among rebels was enforced by secret oath ceremonies. Led by Jomo Kenyatta, the moderate Kenya African Union (KAU) failed to win any political reforms from the colonial regime in the early 1950s. Violence escalated in late 1952 with attacks on Kikuyu loyalists and the killing of a Kikuyu chief. Soon after arriving in Kenya the new governor, Sir Evelyn Baring, declared a State of Emergency on October 20, 1952. Beginning on the same day, colonial security forces launched Operation Jock Scott in which a hundred African political leaders, including Kenyatta, and eight thousand others were arrested to remove the leadership of what was now called Mau Mau. In reality, African political leaders had little to do with this grassroots rebellion by mostly illiterate people. Violence against Europeans and loyalist Kikuyu increased with the first killing of settlers in January 1953. Calling themselves the Land and Freedom Army, insurgents organized a “passive wing” of non‐combatants who supplied food, sanctuary, and information to the “active wing,” which amounted to around twelve thousand at the beginning of the conflict. In late March 1953 the insurgents launched their two largest attacks; 80 rebels raided a police station at Naivasha killing two policemen and another group massacred 84 African civilians at Lari. The Land and Freedom Army had few firearms, fought mostly with spears and machetes, and its leaders lacked military experience.
Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821)
Authors: Archer Christon I. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe French invasion and occupation of metropolitan Spain (1808–1814) produced repercussions in New Spain (Mexico) that led to the overthrow of Viceroy José de Iturrigaray on September 16, 1808, and to plots and conspiracies that further destabilized the country. The old divisions between the haughty European‐born Spaniards (calledgachupines) and the much larger population of Mexican‐borncriollos(whites born in Mexico) became more contentious. Racially mixed sectors of mestizos, mulattoes, and othercastas(castes) and the Indigenous peoples hoped to improve their status. With King Fernando VII a prisoner of Napoleon in France, in 1810 the Supreme Council of the Regency, Spain's interim government, recognized the existence of a growing state of crisis in New Spain. After much discussion and debate, the Supreme Council ordered General Francisco Xavier de Venegas who had just arrived at Cartagena to serve as viceroy of New Granada (Colombia and Venezuela) instead to reembark immediately for Veracruz to serve as viceroy of New Spain. He arrived in Mexico City on September 13, 1810, just three days before Father Miguel Hidalgo, curate of the small town of Dolores near the city of Guanajuato, proclaimed the Grito de Dolores that began the Mexican War of Independence. During the first out break of violence, the insurgents massacred some Spaniards and joined Hidalgo on a march toward Mexico City. With some exceptions, the creole officers (mostly whites) and the racially mixed militiamen (creoles, mestizos, and mulattoes) of the provincial army of New Spain overcame their initial shock and largely maintained their loyalty to the existing government. One‐sided royalist army victories in the early battles of Monte de las Cruces, Aculco, Guanajuato, and Puente de Calderón underscored the superiority of good weaponry, military training, and disciplined fire power to overcome the poorly armed and inexperienced insurgent fighters.
Militia
Authors: Stentiford Barry M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Militia consists of the collective manpower of a society with an obligation and ability to perform temporary military service. Until the modern era, few societies developed a militia system because the existence of militia inferred that commoners were participants in society rather than simply subjects of the government, and made government dependent on the loyalty and goodwill of the masses. Egypt during the Old Kingdom (2650–2150
BCE
) and Middle Kingdom (2130–1640
BCE
), Greece in the later Lyric Age (800–500
BCE
) and Classical Age (500–338
BCE
), and the Roman Republic until the Second Punic War (509–218
BCE
) depended largely on militia systems, although all eventually abandoned the institution as those societies expanded and grew more complex. Most societies have instead depended on longterm professional soldiers for maintaining internal order and fighting wars.
Mines (land and sea)
Authors: Estes Kenneth W. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Explosive devices and their placement on land and in the sea to destroy or disable persons, vehicles, ships, and other equipment, date from the mid‐nineteenth century. Apart from inflicting such damage, the emplacement of an array of mines, called a minefield, plays a tactical role in battle by denying an enemy use or access to a particular area, thus restricting the actions or routes that the enemy can use. Mine warfare thus describes the tactics, techniques, and procedures for using one's own mines and clearing enemy minefields as a component of military operations.
Mongol invasions of Russia
Authors: Lind John 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Ever since the Scandinavians known as Rus' among Finnic, Baltic, and Slavic peoples in eastern Europe established themselves along the river system between the Baltic and Black Seas in the ninth century and subsequently created the Rus' polity, they had formed numerous links to nomadic peoples in the steppe region like the Pechenegs and Cumans (or Polovtsy), who traditionally crossed this river system south of Kiev. Therefore, they became familiar with and—to a certain extent—adopted their form of steppe warfare, which was dominated by swift‐moving mounted archers. Nevertheless, the first encounter with the Mongols or Tatars, as they are invariably called in Russian sources, came as a shock both to them and their neighbors on the steppe, and, as it turned out throughout the Mongol onslaught, it proved as difficult for the Russians as for the Mongols' other opponents to match the invaders, who thanks to strict chains of command and good communications were able to move their forces around quickly and surprise their enemies.
Muhammad Ali (Kavalah Mehmet Ali Pasa) (ca. 1769–1849)
Authors: Simpson George L. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Muhammad Ali (Kavalah Mehmet Ali Pasa) rose from humble origins to become the ruler of Egypt and to create a powerful state that twice defeated the Ottoman Empire in war before the European powers forced his submission. Although he was Albanian and never spoke Arabic, historians sometimes refer to him as the founder of modern Egypt. As a young man he found his fortune in the military after Sultan Mahmud II decided to expel the French from Egypt. Napoléon Bonaparte had captured the Ottoman province in 1798, and Muhammad Ali joined a combined AngloOttoman force that defeated Egypt's invaders.
Njinga Mbande, Queen of Ndongo and Matamba (ca. 1583–1663)
Authors: Stapleton Timothy J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Late sixteenth‐ and seventeenth‐century Angola was a place of increasing warfare, slave trading, and proliferation of firearms. Njinga Mbande was the eldest daughter of King Mbande of Ndongo, a state organized by Mbundu people, who resisted Portuguese invasion in the last part of the 1500s. Based at their slaving port of Luanda on the coast, the Portuguese had invaded Ndongo in 1575 to gain greater control over the interior, though into the 1580s they were halted by tropical disease and African resistance. At the time her brother came to power in 1617, Ndongo was defeated by a Portuguese army employing Imbangala mercenaries. Taking an active role in the slave trade, a number of Imbangala raiding groups incorporated captive young men into their ranks and were greatly feared because of their physical agility in combat and reputation for ritual cannibalism and child‐killing. After a failed Portuguese campaign in 1622, Njinga was sent to Luanda to negotiate a settlement between Ndongo and Portugal. At this meeting Njinga famously refused to squat on the floor and instead sat on the back of a kneeling servant to be at eye level and hence on equal terms with the Portuguese governor, Joao Correira de Sousa, who had a chair. In order to solidify the peace treaty, she accepted Christianity and was baptized Ana de Sousa.
Nomadic warfare
Authors: May Timothy 
Published: November 2011

AbstractFrom approximately 500BCEto 1500CE, pastoral nomads from the Eurasian steppes were perhaps the most dreaded warriors in the world. Consisting primarily of lightly armored horse archers, the nomads swooped down on villages and towns only to retreat with their plunder before a pursuit could be mounted. Against sedentary infantry armies, they avoided engaging with dense formations but showered them with arrows from a distance. Against heavy cavalry, the lightly armored archers shot at them and retreated before knights, cataphracts, or other heavy cavalry could engage them. These retreats often lured their opponents into ambushes, or simply left the heavy cavalry in broken formations and on exhausted horses, thus leaving them vulnerable to counterattacks. Not until the advent of easily mobile artillery were the nomads bested on a routine basis. Even then, it was not until 1757 that fears of nomads fully subsided from the minds of sedentary powers.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
Authors: Hallams Ellen 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance, with its political headquarters in Brussels, Belgium, and its military headquarters, the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), in Mons, Belgium. It is headed by a Secretary General, who is appointed by the member states. The Secretary General chairs NATO's principal decision‐making body, the North Atlantic Council (NAC), which consists of permanent representatives of each member state and meets once every week. It provides a political forum for member states to discuss security matters and also provides guidance to NATO's military authorities. The Military Committee (MC) is the principal military body in the alliance, providing military advice to the NAC and NATO's two military commands, Allied Command Operations (ACO) and Allied Command Transformation (ACT). ACO is located at SHAPE and is responsible for all of NATO's operations. It is commanded by the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) and has two standing joint force commands, based in Brunssum, the Netherlands, and Naples, Italy, capable of deploying a land‐based Combined Joint Task Force (CJTF). It also has a standing joint force headquarters in Lisbon, Portugal, that can deploy a sea‐based CJTF. ACT is based in Norfolk, Virginia, and is responsible for the transformation of NATO's structures forces, capabilities, and doctrine. It is commanded by the Supreme Allied Commander Transformation (SACT) and is the only permanent NATO headquarters outside of Europe and the only NATO command located in North America.
Nuclear weapons
Authors: Munton Don 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Weapons are the physical means with which humankind engages in collective violence, and thus have an intrinsic and intricate relationship with warfare. Weaponry has determined the nature of wars as well as their outcomes. Machine guns facilitated the sorry process of European colonization, but also turned World War I into a stalemate and the European countryside into killing fields. Tanks, aircraft, carriers, and submarines made most battles of World War II ones of mobility and maneuver, and greatly increased casualties.
Ottoman military organization (up to 1800)
Authors: áGoston GáBor 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Ottoman Turks, who emerged in western Asia Minor in the late thirteenth century, built one of the longest‐lived empires in history, a multi‐ethnic state that influenced the lives of millions in Europe and Asia for six centuries until the empire's demise in World War I. In addition to its pragmatic policies and flexible governance, the Ottoman military played a crucial role in the expansion of Ottoman realms. The Ottomans were among the first to create a standing military force, the Janissary corps, which was established as early as the late fourteenth century. Until the late seventeenth century, the army and logistical system proved superior to those of their European and Asian rivals. However, economic and social upheavals in the empire in the seventeenth century, together with the growing military threat of the Ottomans' foes, Austria and especially Russia from the mid‐eighteenth century onward, resulted in major changes in the Ottoman military forces and their financing.
Ottoman military organization (1800–1918)
Authors: Yildiz GüLtekin 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe long nineteenth century was an age of reorganization for the Ottoman military. Many European and American observers at the time glorified this process as a reform that signified the “westernization” of the military. This attitude was reproduced in the twentieth century by scholars of Middle Eastern and Ottoman history in the context of “modernization.” In a rather Orientalist approach, they constructed a linear, progressive story about the so called modernization of Turkey, which seemed designed to justify the emergence of a secularist and westernist regime in postOttoman Turkey founded and monitored by praetorian generals. According to this version, lateOttoman history from the middle of the eighteenth century to the first quarter of the twentieth had represented a confrontation between the so‐called reformist/progressive statesmen in favor of westernization and their conservative/traditionalist opponents. It was argued that as a consequence of successive defeats against non‐Muslim/European forces the “progressive party” in the Ottoman bureaucracy had finally discovered Europe and came to believe that the state could be saved only if the Ottoman military was reorganized in the fashion of its non‐Muslim adversaries.
Patton, General George
S
. (1885–1945)
Authors: Wells Anne Sharp 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
George Smith Patton was one of the most colorful and well‐known US Army generals in World War II. A cavalryman throughout most of his career and an early advocate of tanks, Patton valued speed and mobility in his forces. The Germans respected his reputation as a fierce combat leader so highly that the Allies used him to mislead Germany about the Normandy invasion in 1944. Patton headed a task force in the first Anglo‐American ground offensive against the European Axis in North Africa (November 1942), rejuvenated a corps in Tunisia (March–April 1943), commanded an army in Sicily (1943), and led an army across northwestern Europe (1944–1945). Flamboyant and impulsive, he nearly derailed his own career several times.
Peace and Truce of God
Authors: Jones Robert 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The Peace and Truce of God are terms used to describe a range of measures developed by church authorities in France between the tenth and thirteenth centuries, the aim of which was to protect the church and the defenseless (or
inermes
), and limit feud and private war. The movements directly involved the church in the conduct of war and were influential in the development of concepts of chivalric behavior and the laws governing war in western Europe.