bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Entomology
Authors: Merritt Richard W. , Benbow M. Eric 
Published: September 2009

AbstractForensic entomology is the use of arthropod evidence in legal investigations. Most often, forensic entomologists assist homicide investigations by estimating the time of death using information on the biology and ecology of arthropods. Insects play an important role in the natural decomposition process of carrion, and therefore are inherently attracted to a decomposing body. Because of this, a decaying body is naturally colonized by a predictable succession of arthropod species, and their developmental rates can be used to make estimates of the postmortem interval, or the time between death and corpse discovery. Blow flies are generally the most important group of insects in this process, for they complete their life cycle on a decomposing corpse. By examining insect life stages and using temperature data for the time period preceding corpse discovery, a forensic entomologist back‐calculates to the time when a body was initially colonized by insects. Because colonization usually occurs shortly after death, this may be a close approximation of the time of death. Environmental factors that may delay insect colonization, such as cold temperatures, darkness, rain, burial, etc., will affect the estimate of the postmortem interval. Insects also can be useful in providing toxicological and pathological information in an investigation.
Histology
Authors: Saukko Pekka J. , Pollak Stefan 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Forensic histology deals with the assessment of histopathology in any forensically‐pertinent context and the significance of a given finding as forensic evidence. It deals with basic phenomena such as postmortem changes in cells and tissues, with vitality, timing, and causes of injuries, whether of mechanical or physicochemical origin, as well as exclusion or confirmation of any pathological changes in establishing the cause of death.
Complete histological examination of all major organs is an essential part of every postmortem be it a hospital (clinical) or a medicolegal autopsy. In a medicolegal context, in particular, it should be obvious that omission of any pertinent ancillary investigation may decrease the level of certainty of the results of the investigation and endanger the individual rights of the parties involved.
This short introduction aims to deal with the principal aspects of forensic histology and how it may differ from general histopathology. Some methods are mentioned as examples, as detailed and extensive coverage would be beyond the scope of this article. Answers to specific questions should be sought for in textbooks of forensic pathology, histology, and histological techniques.
Botany
Authors: Robertson James , Fiddian Susan 
Published: September 2009

AbstractWe live in a world surrounded by plants of all different shapes, sizes, and form. There is almost no environment in which plants are not present. Plants, or plant parts, also end up in food, in clothing, and a multitude of end uses. Hence, it is inevitable that plants will end up on items being examined in a forensic context. In this article, the scope of what is possible from a forensic examination of botanical material is described. Specific issues confronting the forensic botanist are considered. Examples are given to demonstrate the types of questions to which forensic botany may provide answers. Finally, the emerging role of DNA analysis is considered.
Missing Persons and Paternity:
DNA
Authors: Weir Bruce S. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
If a perpetrator leaves biological tissue at the scene of a crime, then the DNA profile of the tissue should match the profile of the perpetrator. Matching DNA profiles are therefore used to associate suspects with crime scenes. Because DNA profiles have a genetic basis they are similar when they are taken from related people. Similarity of profiles from relatives is less stringent than complete matching and the quantification of the degree of similarity is used in parentage and missing person situations. In a case of disputed paternity, the probability of the DNA profiles from mother, child, and alleged father are calculated under the alternative hypotheses that the alleged father is or is not the true father. In a case of a missing person where some remains are available, the probability of the profiles of the remains and of family members of the missing person are calculated under the alternative hypotheses that the remains are or are not those of the missing person. In all these situations, relatedness may refer to membership of the same family or membership of the same population.
Earprints: Interpretation of
Authors: Meijerman L. , Thean A. , Maat G.J.R. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
We aim at providing an overview of the theoretical and practical issues concerning the use of earprints in forensic research. A limited account of the history of earprints in forensic investigations and their use as evidence in the court is provided. Criticism of the use of earprints for individualization is addressed and fundamental questions that require further attention are summarized. Approaches to automatic classification and matching are discussed. Finally, we summarize the results of various studies that we have performed on earprint variation.
Glass Evidence:
B
ayesian Approach to
Authors: Curran James M. , Hicks Tacha N. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
When examining glass evidence, forensic scientists can be asked to reconstruct a course of events (modus operandi) or to associate broken glass found at a crime scene with material recovered from a victim or a suspect. We will show how glass evidence has been assessed and interpreted. First, we will discuss the preassessment of the case and the importance of establishing working propositions before looking at the physical evidence. Second, we will continue with the comparison of measurements (refractive index and elemental analysis) and the interpretation of the results. We will cover the likelihood ratio approach and others. Surveys on parameters such as transfer, persistence and glass recovered as background will be presented. We will conclude with a brief presentation of the software available.
Handwriting and Signatures, Interpretation of Comparison Results
Authors: Day Stephen P. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractHandwriting comparison has been used as a means of identification for centuries but it has recently come under scientific scrutiny because of the advent of more robust methods of interpretation used in DNA and challenges made to its expert status in US courts. Application of a logical approach using likelihood ratios to handwriting and signature comparisons helps the practitioner to explain the scientific logic behind the interpretation of the observations made. However, a particular difficulty in handwriting is caused because it can be deliberately altered (disguised) or simulated (copied). To be able to arrive at a useful estimate of the likelihood ratio, it is necessary to adopt a two‐stage process in the interpretation of handwriting. The examiner must first act as an investigator before moving on to the role of evaluator. The result is an assessment of the likelihood ratio, but without numbers—the values of the denominator and the numerator both depend on the experience and skill of the examiner. However, the approach provides a more robust interpretation of the evidence, a common language for handwriting examiners to discuss the strength of a conclusion and places handwriting interpretation on a more scientific footing.
Identification and Individualization
Authors: Champod Christophe 
Published: September 2009

Abstract

After defining the commonly used terms
identity, identification,
and
individualization
, the article focuses on the individualization of sources. First, it shows that the commonly accepted definition invokes the exclusion of all other potential sources systematically. This is named the
Earth population
paradigm. Within that paradigm, the probabilities involved for a conclusion regarding individualization are explored to conclude that realistically no sets of features will ever allow such a level of discrimination. Hence, individualization conclusions are out of reach and cannot be easily substantiated, either in the classic identification fields (such as fingerprint evidence) or in DNA profiling. The scales of conclusions commonly proposed and used are criticized because of their lack of logical foundation, and a method for reporting all identification evidence using a likelihood ratio (LR) framework is suggested.
Paint: Interpretation
Authors: Massonnet Geneviev̀e , Monnard Florence 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article concerns the interpretation of paint evidence, both automotive and domestic. Paint interpretation is mostly based on the frequency of occurrence of different measured characteristics. Very common paint types will have less evidential value than very rare paints. Thus, an estimate of the frequency of occurrence of the different characteristics measured for each paint type is very important. The article is mostly a review of the different existing surveys that may help the expert to evaluate his or her evidence based on frequency of occurence. Paint found at random and surveys on paint traces are also described, as well as transfer and persistence phenomenon. Finally, an example of a likelihood ratio approach is presented within a hierarchy of propositions.
Sampling and Estimation of Quantities
Authors: Aitken Colin G. G. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractCriteria for the determination of the sizes of samples from populations of discrete units are described. These include Bayesian and frequentist approaches and methods for small samples where exact approaches are needed and large samples where approximate methods may be used. Frequentist and Bayesian approaches to the estimation from samples of quantities of drugs in consignments are also described.
Speaker Recognition
Authors: Meuwly Didier 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The aim of forensic speaker recognition is to establish links between individuals and criminal activities, through audio speech recordings. This field is a multidisciplinary area combining predominantly phonetics, linguistics, speech signal processing, and forensic statistics. On the basis of these, expert‐based and automatic approaches have been developed to analyze the recordings, normally coming from anonymous calls or wiretapping procedures. Most of the forensic laboratories still opt for one of these two approaches, even if, in many respects, they appear to be complementary. The main requirements for these methods are to be independent of the text, able to handle minimal length recordings and to have a superior robustness regarding noise, channels, and variations in recording conditions. Forensic speaker recognition can be considered as a forerunner in the implementation of a logical inference framework to estimate the value of the evidence from the analytical results. The principal limits of forensic speaker recognition are the absence of display of highly discriminatory features in speech yet, the limited quality of the audio recordings captured in forensic conditions and to apply recognition approaches in the absence of any known underlying model to symbolically describe the speaker‐dependent information.
Sampling Trace Evidence
Authors: Giblin Mary 
Published: September 2009

AbstractSampling occurs throughout the forensic process from the crime scene to the laboratory. Sampling of trace evidence includes selection, recovery, and removal of trace material. Trace evidence types covered include paint, glass fibres, hairs, soil, and particulates.This review discusses the principals of sampling trace evidence, population determination, sampling plans used for trace evidence, sampling questions, and methods of trace evidence sample recovery.
Particles: Form
Authors: Schneck William M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract

Form refers to the external three‐dimensional outline, appearance, or configuration of a particle. The study of form and shape is known as
morphology
. The descriptive morphology of a particle is vital in making a correct identification and determining its source and history. The majority of particle forms can be classified using microscopy. Each scientific discipline has specific nomenclature in describing particle form. Many common attributes used in describing particle form include size, roundness, angularity, crystallinity, ductile
versus
brittle, fibrous
versus
nonfibrous, and glassy state.
Fire: Scene Investigation
Authors: Lentini John J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article describes the basic steps to be followed in carrying out a fire investigation. Fire investigators need to understand why they have been asked to investigate a particular fire. They need to approach the fire with an open mind, and a presumption that the fire, like most fires, was the result of an accident. The investigation needs to be carefully planned, and safety of the investigator is of prime importance. The scene must be documented, reconstructed, and documented again before a credible origin hypothesis can be put forward. Origin determination is difficult and error prone. Artifacts that tend to validate an origin hypothesis include finding evidence of electrical damage near the origin, and ultimately identifying a cause within that area. During the processing of the scene, investigators need to be mindful of the fact that other parties may have an interest in viewing the evidence. Care should be taken in documenting and collecting any evidence removed from the scene. Finally, a general reporting procedure, compliant with ASTM E 620 that is theStandard Practice for Reporting Opinions of Technical Experts, is described.
Fire: Chemistry of
Authors: Lentini John J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The behavior of fire determines the postfire artifacts that the fire investigator will observe. Knowledge of the chemistry and physics of fire will allow for a more valid interpretation of the evidence.
To correctly interpret the meaning of postfire artifacts, it is necessary that the field fire investigator possess a basic understanding of the fundamental behaviors of materials exposed to fire, and the interaction of a fire with its surroundings. A rudimentary grasp of the processes involved in the production of fire artifacts may be obtained through training, but a basic education in chemistry and physics is a prerequisite for a true understanding of fire behavior. This article describes the basic chemical reactions taking place in a fire.
Explosion Debris: Laboratory Analysis of
Authors: Lancaster Sarah L. , Marshall Maurice , Oxley Jimmie C. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe forensic scientist investigating the scene of an explosion must start with the determination of whether a bomb or some mishap caused the event. Locating pieces of the explosive device or explosive residue aids in fixing the event as a bombing. The investigator is advised that proper evidence collection requires preparation before the bombing as to how to locate the most useful evidence, how to avoid contamination, how to sift explosion debris, how to conduct the chemical analyses, and what questions he must answer in a court of law. Examples from actual bombings are given and a compendium of literature references is offered.
Fire Investigator: Standardization, Accreditation, and Certification
Authors: Lentini John J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
As with many forensic disciplines, standardization is an evolving process. Standard methodologies exist for both laboratory analysis of fire debris and field investigation of fires. Accreditation exists for forensic laboratories that carry out chemical analyses, but there is no accreditation of fire or explosion investigative agencies. In the United States, certification programs are available for both laboratory fire debris analysts and fire investigators. Despite the existence of these programs, there is no requirement that the individuals who investigate fires and explosions be certified, or that they work for an accredited institution. Even though compliance with the available consensus standards is voluntary, case law in the United States has developed to the point where investigators or analysts who do not use the available standard methodologies are likely to have their opinion excluded. The consumers of forensic services, represented by the American Bar Association House of Delegates, have resolved that all forensic science activities be conducted according to standard methodologies by certified individuals working in accredited facilities. Implementation of this resolution may take some time, but it is likely to happen in the near future.
Child Sexual Abuse
Authors: Bernet William , Ray Neelanjan 
Published: September 2009

AbstractChild sexual abuse is an important medical, psychological, social, and legal topic. It affects young people of all ages and families of all colors, ethnic groups, and social classes. This article discusses the epidemiology of child sexual abuse, intrafamilial and extrafamilial patterns of abuse, clinical features of child abuse victims, the physical examination, and the forensic psychiatric and psychological evaluation of children who may have been abused. The forensic evaluator should follow a standardized process for interviewing the alleged victim in order to collect accurate data. The forensic evaluator should consider the various reasons why a child might make false allegations of abuse as well as false denials of abuse.
Child Sexual Abuse Accommodation
Authors: Smarty Sylvester 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The child sexual accommodation syndrome was introduced as a clinical concept by Ronald C. Summit in 1983. His aim was to assist mental health practitioners to better understand the abnormal behavioral characteristics of some children who have been the victims of sexual abuse. Over the years, the syndrome has been misunderstood especially in the legal arena. This has led to some cynicism about the scientific authenticity of the syndrome. This article reviews the major clinical characteristics of the syndrome and its legal applications.
Children: As Defendants
Authors: Thompson Christopher , Kenan Joseph 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
In response to an increase in juvenile violent crime in the late 1980s, most jurisdictions in the United States have adopted a more punitive stance toward juvenile offenders. Juveniles face increasing sanctions in juvenile court and are being transferred to adult criminal court in greater numbers, where they face serious penalties. Unfortunately, policymakers often failed to consider that certain characteristics of juveniles (e.g., psychosocial/developmental immaturity) may affect their adjudicative competence and culpability. Additionally, minors likely to become involved in the juvenile justice system have additional characteristics (e.g., higher rates of mental illness and substance abuse, lower IQs) that might further compromise or affect these domains. Fairly recent research has helped provide evidence that juveniles with particular characteristics, such as young age and low IQ, may be at increased risk of having their legal rights violated at numerous points in the adjudicative process, thereby undermining the fundamental fairness of the juvenile and adult criminal justice systems. Other research has shown that adolescents' psychosocial immaturity significantly affects their criminal decision making. Neuroimaging has proved a powerful tool in helping elucidate a potential neuroanatomical basis for poor decision making in adolescents. Because adolescents are likely somewhat less culpable than adults for similar criminal acts and because most individuals limit their antisocial behavior to adolescence, the wisdom of indiscriminately giving minors (or even young adults) long prison sentences is questionable.
Children: As Witnesses
Authors: Perry Sylvia , York Catherine , Bottoms Bette L. , Block Stephanie , Goodman Gail S. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Child witness accuracy is of great concern to psychologists, legal and social service authorities, attorneys, judges, and society as a whole. In this article, we summarize scientific research on children's eyewitness testimony, including child factors, social circumstances, and interview characteristics that affect children's memory and suggestibility; interview techniques that encourage accurate eyewitness reports; courtroom accommodations to reduce stress and increase accuracy for child witnesses; jurors' reactions to children's testimony; and future directions in child witness research.
Confessions: Evidentiary Reliability of
Authors: Kassin Saul 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Contradicting the commonsense belief that “I'd never confess to a crime I did not commit”, false confessions are a contributing factor in roughly one quarter of all post‐conviction DNA exonerations. Voluntary, compliant, and internalized false confessions are distinguished and a sequence of three processes is articulated as responsible for these confessions and the adverse legal consequences that follow. First, police often target innocent people for interrogation on the basis of confident but erroneous judgments of truth and deception made in a preinterrogation interview. Second, innocent people sometimes confess during interrogation as a result of certain dispositional vulnerabilities (such as compliant and suggestible personalities, mental illness and retardation, adolescence, and the phenomenology of innocence) and/or the use of certain coercive tactics (prolonged isolation, the false evidence ploy, and minimization). Third, people cannot accurately distinguish between true and false confessions, and jurors fail to discount even those confessions they see as coerced. As a matter of policy, it is suggested that police should videotape entire interrogations using a neutral, “equal focus” camera perspective and that psychological experts can help to educate judges and juries about the various risk factors.
Hallucinations
Authors: Leong Gregory B. , Silva J. Arturo , Weinstock Robert 
Published: September 2009

AbstractHallucinations involve perceptions generally involving the primary senses of hearing, vision, smell, taste, and touch in the absence of actual external sensory stimuli. Hallucinations are symptoms of underlying psychiatric or medical conditions. In a variety of clinical and forensic contexts, the presence of hallucinations may be particularly relevant. In addition, malingering of hallucinations as well as denial of actual hallucinations may complicate clinical or forensic assessment.
Insanity: Defense
Authors: Scott Charles L. , Pinals Debra A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe insanity defense is based on the premise that some mentally ill individuals are not legally culpable due to their underlying illness and therefore should not be criminally punished. Tests of insanity have evolved over time and vary significantly by jurisdiction. Evaluators must conduct a careful retrospective analysis of the defendant's mental state at the time of the offense and use available collateral data to determine whether or not the defendant meets the specific test of insanity.
Jury Dynamics
Authors: Greene Edie , Studebaker Christina 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn most cases, jury verdicts are related to the strength of the evidence; whichever side has the more compelling evidence is likely to prevail. In addition, judges tend to agree with the verdict that a jury returns. These two empirical findings suggest that jury verdicts are usually defensible and reasonable. On occasion, though, jurors' decisions are influenced by personal biases and predilections, and jurors can have difficulty in understanding complicated evidence and applying abstract legal concepts. Various reforms of trial procedures, such as giving pretrial instructions, allowing jurors to take notes, and presenting jury instructions in simpler language, enhance jurors' abilities to return fair and predictable verdicts.