bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
William James
Authors: Carrette Jeremy 
Published: September 2009

AbstractWilliam James's 1884 theory of emotion is perhaps the most well known of all his psychological ideas, particularly as it forms a key historical landmark in the history of the concept. His notion of “religious emotion” is perhaps one of the most important in shaping the subject in the twentieth century. The complex history of James's theory of emotion begins when he and the Danish physician Karl Georg Lange established a post-Darwinian, organic theory of emotions, in what became known as the James-Lange theory. This view of emotion went against the grain of contemporary theories of emotion in the new psychology, particularly that put forward by Wilhelm Wundt, who argued for a theory of “apperception”—the process by which a state of mind (the affect or emotion) produces bodily effects. This article examines James's theory of emotion and religious emotion, focusing on his views about mind and body. It also discusses three theories of emotion, namely, organic theory, cognitive theory, and social theory. Finally, it considers pluralism, mystical emotions, metaphysical emotions, and the reflex circuit of emotion.
Testing Adaptive Hypotheses, Optimality Models, and Adaptationism
Authors: Orzack Steven Hecht 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses three claims about natural selection. The first claim is that natural selection played some role in the evolution of traits. The second claim is that natural selection played an important role in the evolution of traits. The third claim is that natural selection was a sufficient explanation of traits and that traits are locally optimal. An optimality mode was created for the generation of a prediction as to what a trait should be. By comparison, the testing and assessment of the predictions of optimality models have advanced. A related attempt is the testing of adaptive hypotheses with comparative data which are observations typically gathered from multiple species, and this provides an insight into an evolutionary trend.
Teleology
Authors: Walsh D.M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Teleology is a mode of explanation in which the presence, occurrence, or nature of some phenomenon is explained by the end to which it contributes. The model of explanation is “pure mechanism” which holds that there is a single kind of stuff in the world-”matter” that exhibits a single kind of change, motion. It falls into three classes: the argument from nonactuality, the argument from intentionality, and the argument from normativity. These objections are because of early modern thinking about the natural world. These arguments rely on the Platonic model of transcendent teleology. Aristotelian teleology complements our current understanding of goal-directed, self-organizing, adaptive systems. The success of development can be explained by plasticity which is a goal-directed capacity of organisms to produce and maintain a stable, well-functioning living thing. The understanding of how evolution can be adaptive requires us to incorporate teleology.
Species and Taxonomy
Authors: Richards Richard A. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article deals with biological systematics including ontological and taxonomic questions. Ontological questions are concerned with the nature of species and the taxonomic question is about how we should classify biodiversity. Evolutionary taxonomists determine homology through the use of process assumptions in functional analysis but cladistic phylogeneticists reject the use of such assumptions, arguing that theoretical assumptions can only be confirmed by evolutionary history. The species problem that arises is about the basic entities in organic nature. First, there are different theoretical concepts that make inconsistent assertions about the nature of species. Second, there are different and inconsistent operational grouping rules. Apparent intractability of the species problem leads philosophers to turn to pluralism which provides two ideas. The first idea is the division of conceptual labor and the second idea is the thesis that species are individuals.
Macroevolution
Authors: Sepkoski David 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article draws out the major philosophical issues that underlie macroevolution. This term means evolution that takes place at or above the level of the species. On the basis of the observation of fossil records, the history of life, and current biological populations scientists have concluded that organisms and taxa are unevenly distributed in space and time. Steven Stanley proposed the principle of species selection which states that species-level evolution occurs via a process on a different hierarchical level than microevolution and may or may not involve characteristics that are emergent. Many implications are drawn from the relation of extinction to macroevolution. Firstly, extinction alters the normal course of evolution not determined by previous selective criteria. Secondly, mass extinction can rapidly introduce new environmental conditions and thus new selective criteria. Finally, extinction theory implies that macroevolution may not be related to the biological processes of microevolution.
Sociobiology, Evolutionary Psychology, and Cultural Evolution
Authors: Mameli Matteo 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses evolutionary approaches to the study of human minds. Humans are evolved organisms. Thus, studying the evolutionary process helps us to understand human behavior. This assumes that a mechanistic explanation of every aspect of human behavior is possible and human minds are collections of mechanisms. These mechanisms are supposed to be physically implemented. It is indicated in this article that in the relationship between the mind of current humans and the evolutionary process, evolution has generated only a small set of basic innate mental abilities in humans. According to Wilson many human behaviors are genetic adaptations and environmental variation affects behavioral adaptations. According to Tooby and Cosmides psychological mechanisms produce different behavioral outputs in response to different inputs from experience. Thus even if there are some behavioral differences between populations that have a genetic origin, most of the variation is at the population level.
Genes and Society
Authors: Gannett Lisa 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article emphasizes various ways in which the connection of relationships has been framed conceptually over the course of Western philosophy by Plato, Aristotle, and more recently by contemporary philosophers of science. This discussion cites examples with the help of cases taken from contemporary genetics that have significant social ramifications: eugenics, the Human Genome Project, the tractability of genes, behavioral genetics, pharmacogenetics, and the development of “ethnic drugs.” There are continuities between the eugenics of the past and the human genetics of today. Theoretical knowledge in genetics provides justification for practical interventions directed at the level of the genome. Recent research in genomics and the development of “ethnic drugs” provides a case study for analyzing the ways in which theoretical and practical considerations intersect and moral and social values are implicated in molecular biology. The goal is to begin to develop an improved conceptual framework for understanding genes and society.
Satire
Authors: Branham R. Bracht 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article describes the relation of satire to philosophy. It explains that while satire and philosophy may seem at first glance to be fundamentally distinct forms of discourse, they are in fact fratricidal siblings and that they are destined to be forever at odds but ultimately inseparable. It explains that philosophy and satire also share a common cultural genealogy and they both claim the same high ground: the right to determine what is to be taken seriously and what is to be laughed out of court. It also highlights the differences between satire and comedy.
Romanticism
Authors: Kompridis Nikolas 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article looks at Romantic literature. It discusses flaws and criticisms of Romanticism and highlights the resurgent of interest in German and American Romanticism. It evaluates whether Romanticism can redeem modernism and whether Romanticism is still needed today. It describes the prose of Romanticism and the idea that poetry and prose determines the whole of the Romantic philosophy of art. It also argues that the critical interanimation and contamination of languages in Romanticism takes place at the level of everyday life and language and that the prose of Romanticism is the prose of the everyday world from which we derive meaning and intelligibility.
Plato's Ways of Writing
Authors: McCabe Mary Margaret 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article deals with Plato's ways of writing. Plato's writing scintillates, most of them, if not all. However, this depends on whether we take the letters to be genuine—of what comes down to us from Plato's hand is in the dialogue form, somehow or other. But should we speak of “the” Platonic dialogue form? After all, the dialogues come in all sorts of different forms: some are dramatic, others merely formalized discussion; some are in direct speech, others narrated (compare the Gorgias and the Symposium); some seem to have a beginning, a middle, and an end, whereas others begin, or end, in the middle of things. In almost all the dialogues, people talk about big abstract questions: the nature of reality, truth, virtue and knowledge. These conversations come in all sorts of shapes and sizes, but they are often conducted by question and answer, by one-person asking questions to one another.
TheRepublic
Authors: Scott Dominic 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe Republic happens to be Plato's most important work. The article throws light on Plato's Magnum Opus. The debate rages over the idea of a city; rather an ideal city state comprising three classes—producers, auxiliaries, and guardians. The first to provide for the material needs of the state, the second for its defence, and the third to rule. Each has a specific function of its own, and none is to interfere with the others. Above all, the just city will be unified, ordered, and harmonious. The rulers and auxiliaries, the two classes Socrates discusses at most length, will be dedicated to protecting the good of the state as a whole, and every aspect of their education, as well as the conditions, under which they live, will be minutely engineered to ensure they fulfil their roles as best they can. In a particularly famous passage, Socrates devotes considerable attention to the arts, proposing radical censorship of the kinds of poetry and music to which will be applicable in the city-state or the Republic that Plato has idealized.
Wittgenstein on Certainty
Authors: McGinn Marie 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article examines philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein's view on skepticism based on his book On Certainty. It explains that Wittgenstein has variously been held to refute skepticism by showing that it is self-defeating to reveal the truth in skepticism and to offer an accommodation with it and to diagnose the misconceptions that underlie skeptical doubt. It suggests that the account of cognitive achievement that C. Wright attributes to Wittgenstein does not amount to an intelligible conception of us as knowing about the world and to question whether his account of the central insight of On Certainty is correct.
Sensitivity, Safety, and Antiluck Epistemology
Authors: Pritchard Duncan 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article analyses antiluck epistemology, and sensitivity-based and safety-based theories of knowledge in relation to skepticism. It suggests that the main motivation for sensitivity-based theories of knowledge is that they seem to offer a very neat resolution of at least one form of the skeptical problem. The problem with the use of sensitivity-based theories in responding to radical skepticism is that the closure principle is highly intuitive, intuitive that many feel that rejecting closure is too costly a price to pay for a resolution of the skeptical challenge.
A Priori Knowledge
Authors: Casullo Albert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article addresses the question of whether a priori knowledge exists. Since one cannot determine whether such knowledge exists without knowing what such knowledge is, it begins by providing an analysis of the concept a priori knowledge. It utilizes that analysis to show that the traditional arguments, both for and against, the a priori are not convincing. It concludes by offering an alternative strategy for defending the existence of a priori knowledge. Although the questions about the relationship between the a priori and the nonepistemic concepts of necessity and analyticity are not the primary targets of this article, they are addressed here as they are relevant to analyzing the concept of a priori knowledge or to determining whether such knowledge exists.
Explanation and Epistemology
Authors: Lycan William G. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article proposes that explanation and epistemology are related in at least three ways. First, “to explain something is an epistemic act and to have something explained is to learn.” This article begins its account of explanation by drawing out several paradigms for scientific explanation, but it finds it unlikely that scientific explanation is captured by a single set of necessary and sufficient conditions. Noting, however, that scientific explanation does not exhaust an account of explanation in general, it moves on to a second way in which explanation is related to epistemology: by the idea of explanatory inference. To account for a hypothesis' being “the best,” this article introduces “pragmatic virtues” that can increase the value of a hypothesis. The third way in which explanation relates to epistemology claims that a belief can be justified if it is arrived at by explanatory inference.
Biological Clocks: Explaining with Models of Mechanisms
Authors: Robins Sarah K. , Craver Carl F. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines the concept of mechanistic explanation by considering the mechanism of circadian rhythm or biological clocks. It provides an account of mechanistic explanation and some common failures of mechanistic explanation and discusses the sense in which mechanistic explanations typically span multiple levels. The article suggests that models that describe mechanisms are more useful for the purposes of manipulation and control than are scientific models that do not describe mechanisms. It comments on the criticism that the mechanistic explanation is far too simple to fully express the complexity of real explanations in neuroscience and that neuroscientific explanations require emergent properties that cannot be explained by decomposition into the parts, activities, and organizational features that constitute the mechanism.
Emergentism at the Crossroads of Philosophy, Neurotechnology, and the Enhancement Debate
Authors: Racine Eric , Illes Judy 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article examines the implications of emergentism for research in philosophy and neurotechnology and evaluates the capabilities of brain-machine interfaces (BMI) to enhance brain function. It argues that the emergentist approach, for which reduction is necessary but insufficient to understand the higher level properties of the self, provides the strongest option for guiding the present ethical debate concerning BMI. The article suggests that BMI constitutes groundbreaking therapeutic interventions because it leads to a more complete ethical analysis that includes scientific, normative, and cultural considerations.
What's “Neu” in Neuroethics?
Authors: Roskies Adina L. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article highlights some of the more exciting ethical issues raised by neuroscience and shows how some philosophical issues are framed by neuroethics. It suggests that despite the significant areas of overlap between questions raised by genetics and those raised by neuroscience, there are areas in which the ethical issues raised by the two diverge. The article discusses the ability of neuroscience to illuminate issues involving consciousness, the self, personhood, decision making, and the freedom of will and moral cognition. It concludes that even if it is admitted that the questions in neuroethics and genethics were not distinct, it would be a fallacy to conclude that there is no need for neuroethics.
Confabulations about People and Their Limbs, Present or Absent
Authors: Hirstein William 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines the neurobiological aspects of confabulations. It explains that confabulation is a false memory report and that to confabulate is to make unintentionally an ill-grounded, and hence probably false, claim that one should know is ill-grounded. Confabulation is caused by damage to some perceptual or mnemonic process in the posterior of the brain and damage to some prefrontal process that monitors and can manipulate and/or correct the output of that perceptual or mnemonic process. This article evaluates the application of this two-factor theory to the analysis of Capgras syndrome and anosognosia, the two oddest members of the family of confabulation syndromes.
Delusional Experience
Authors: Mundale Jennifer , Gallagher Shaun 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article presents a model of delusional experience which provides an integrated approach in which aberrations at the neurological level are directly related to a disorder of experience. It argues that higher order cognitive effects are not the proper locus for the explanation of the delusional experience itself. Through following out the neurological and phenomenological underpinnings of misattribution, this article provides a bottom-up account of the genesis of schizophrenic delusions, particularly those involving the misattributions of agency.
Structuralism Reconsidered
Authors: MacBride Fraser 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The properties and relations that perform a role in mathematical reasoning arise from the basic relations that obtain among mathematical objects. It is in terms of these basic relations that mathematicians identify the objects they intend to study. The way in which mathematicians identify these objects has led some philosophers to draw metaphysical conclusions about their nature. These philosophers have been led to claim that mathematical objects are positions in structures or akin to positions in patterns. This article retraces their route from (relatively uncontroversial) facts about the identification of mathematical objects to high metaphysical conclusions. Beginning with the natural numbers, how are they identified? The mathematically significant properties and relations of natural numbers arise from the successor function that orders them; the natural numbers are identified simply as the objects that answer to this basic function. But the relations (or functions) that are used to identify a class of mathematical objects may often be defined over what appear to be different kinds of objects.
The Ontological Argument
Authors: Leftow Brian 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The term “ontological argument” was Kant's name for one member of a family of arguments that began with Anselm of Canterbury. These arguments all try to prove God's existence a priori, via reasoning about the entailments of a particular description of God. The description almost always involves God's greatness or perfection. Where it does not, the argument has a premise justified by God's greatness or perfection. So these arguments might better be called arguments from perfection. This article deals with the main arguments from perfection and criticisms thereof in historical order. It first explicates Anselm's key phrase “something than which no greater can be thought” and then takes up his reasoning, then the question of whether its premises are true.
The Problem of Evil
Authors: van Inwagen Peter 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
There are many ways to understand the phrase “the problem of evil.” This article conceives this phrase as a label for a certain purely intellectual problem—as opposed to an emotional, spiritual, pastoral, or theological problem (and as opposed to a good many other possible categories of problem as well). The fact that there is much evil in the world (that is to say, the fact that many bad things happen) can be the basis for an argument for the nonexistence of God (that is, of an omnipotent and morally perfect God). But this article takes these qualifications to be redundant: It takes the phrases “a less than omnipotent God” and “a God who sometimes does wrong” to be self-contradictory, like “a round square” or “a perfectly transparent object that casts a shadow.”) Here is a simple formulation of this argument: If God existed, he would be all-powerful and morally perfect. An all-powerful and morally perfect being would not allow evil to exist.
Virtually Religious
Authors: Cowan Douglas E. , Hadden Jeffrey K. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article begins with a review of the current research into new or controversial religious movements and the Internet. It then explores three aspects of the intersection between these movements and the constantly evolving virtual world: (a) the Internet as a medium for the emergence and evolution of new religions; (b) the Internet as a stage for the virtual practice of online religion; and (c) the Internet as a platform for conflict over religious lineage and authority. It examines the issue of online rituals through case studies of the Temple of Duality and of competing branches of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.
The Study of Law and Politics
Authors: Whittington Keith E. , Kelemen R. Daniel , Caldeira Gregory A. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This book deals with the interdisciplinary connections of the study of law and politics. It discusses jurisprudence and the philosophy of law, constitutional law, politics and theory, judicial politics, and law and society. The book reviews three prominent traditions in the empirical analysis of law and politics and, indeed, politics more broadly: judicial behavior, strategic action, and historical institutionalism. It also focuses on questions of law and courts in a global context and on how law constitutes and orders political and social relationships. Moreover, the book: examines how courts, politics, and society have intersected in the United States; reviews several recent interdisciplinary movements in the study of law and politics and how they intersect with and are of interest to political science; and offers personal perspectives on how the study of law and politics has developed over the past generation, and where it might be headed in the next.
Judicial Behavior
Authors: Segal Jeffrey A. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Judicial behavior refers to what courts and judges do. The extent to which judges choose to move beyond their policy preferences divides the field of law and politics. Normatively, influences over what judges ought to do include evaluating legal rules such as precedent or legislative intent in an attempt to find the best answers to cases before them. Thus, in addition to the judges' own preferences, legal influences should be useful in explaining judicial behavior, though the extent to which it does undoubtedly varies throughout the judicial system. Judicial politics can be law or politics, but frequently it is both, with the mixture dependent on the type of court and the context of the case. This article examines judicial behavior, stare decisis, text and intent, judges' attitudes, the behaviour of the U.S. Supreme Court, judicial decisions in the lower courts, and separation of powers.