bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Latin Trinitarianism: Some Conceptual and Historical Considerations
Authors: Cross Richard 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter explores some relevant historical considerations, arguing that the differences between Latin and Greek thought on the Trinity are not nearly as stark as they have often been thought. On this view, the salient feature of Latin Trinitarianism is that the only features of the divine persons that distinguish them from each other are their mutual relations. It argues that this is a view that was endorsed by Gregory of Nyssa, whose views are normally regarded as the paradigm historical example of Greek Trinitarianism. The chapter presents an account of Latin Trinitarianism, as understood by Leftow, along with some preliminary comments on Gregory's Trinitarianism. It then considers Gregory's views in more detail, focusing on Contra Eunomium, where Gregory makes explicit some of his crucial beliefs about divine simplicity in relation to the Trinity.
The Pandemonium of Nations
Authors: Laitin David D. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter begins with a discussion of the four routes leading national and ethnic groups to violence either against their state or against ethnic/national others: irredentism, secession, sons-of-the-soil, and communalism. Conventional wisdom states that nationalism is dangerous. Indeed, the historical and contemporary evidence showing links between nationalism and violence is impressive. However, quantitative data undermine confidence in theories purporting to show that national aspirations, differences, or demographies are systematically associated with communal violence or civil war. This disconnect is attributed factors such as selection bias and listening too earnestly to the accounts of combatants.
The Cultural Foundations of Nationalism
Authors: Laitin David D. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractIf nations are merely the result of coordination dynamics, as was implied in Chapter 2, do they lack any cultural content? Is the coordination on national membership like coordinating on which side of the road to drive on, or whether it is best to pronounce ‘controversy’ with its accent on the first or second syllable? This chapter attempts to answer these questions by introducing a Janus-faced approach to the study of culture. It argues that coordination issues of language do not rule out that cultural equilibria embed worldviews. Languages (and other cultural categories) reproduce practices that reflect common knowledge beliefs and points of concern. It is for this reason that culture is ‘Janus-faced’. On the one face, culture provides symbolic resources that permit coordination and control; on the other face, culture embeds common knowledge beliefs that are transmitted across generations.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: SIMONS PETER 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis book has shown that mereology was dominated by a single theory: classical extensional mereology (CEM), present in two logical guises — the Calculus of Individuals and Mereology — each in a number of variants. CEM is algebraically neat: only a complete Boolean algebra is neater. It is also strong. CEM is tenseless, non-modal, upholds extensionality of parts, and upholds the conditioned existence of general sums. The first two characteristics are privative, while the last two are positive. Among approaches at variance with CEM, most retain the first three characteristics and drop the last in favour of some weaker conditional existence principle. In the face of apparent temporal and modal variation, two major strategies have been followed. The first ignores modality and attempts to retain the third characteristic by recourse to an ontology of four-dimensional objects. The second strategy, that of Roderick Chisholm, takes both time and modality seriously, but preserves the third characteristic by putting forward an ontology, opposed to common sense, of modally and temporally invariable objects.
Access to Land and Land Policy Reforms
Authors: Janvry Alain De , Platteau Jean-Philippe , Gordillo Gustavo , Sadoulet Elisabeth 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe problem of optimum access to farm land — which involves issues such as who would be given the access and under what conditions this access may be given — continues to receive a great deal of concern in several developing countries as achieving this is not without certain consequences to the environment, efficiency and welfare costs, and varied political implications. It is important to note that land is an often misallocated factor which entails incomplete user or property rights which may bring about disincentives. However, macro-economic reforms to address such issues in terms of structural adjustment policies resulted in a weak supply response particularly in agriculture. This chapter introduces the main issue of access to land and the possible implications of land policy reforms.
The Puzzle of Counterproductive Property Rights Reforms: A Conceptual Analysis
Authors: Ostrom Elinor 
Published: October 2011

AbstractAlthough various endeavours in improving the ecological and economic performance of several developing countries involves imposing reforms in various property rights systems, such reforms have failed to bring about the expected results and may have even resulted to counterproductive situations. As such, the need arises for examining the multiple failures of such reforms which involve the validity or relevance of the theory informing policy since the accepted theories today are mostly based on idealized models of both government and private property. Private property in conventional theory focuses on the right to alienate property through enforcing that the defining attribute of the private property relies on inheritance or sale and owners are able to realize their financial returns on investments through mechanisms like market institutions. This chapter thus attempts to provide a conceptual analysis of the reform tools on property rights that may result in counterproductivity.
The Changing Role of the State in Latin American Land Reforms
Authors: Janvry Alain De , Sadoulet Elisabeth , Wolford Wendy 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe power of the state — regardless of whether this is practiced over democratic, authoritarian, and other forms of government — has been used by all Latin American governments to impose modifications in the land access of certain household categories in regions that experience population pressure to further the redefinition of land rights for those who already have access. Looking into the history of land reform in Latin America, which can further be divided into three phases, reveals why the eighty years of land reform have only brought on minimal improvements in solving land access problems and in reducing the high inequality which is made evident in land distribution. When taking a social point of view, the skewed distribution may be attributed to land misuse. This chapter examines the state's changing role through assessing the access to land given to minifundists and the landless and the competitiveness of those who are with titles in the reform sector.
The Ministry of Finance
Authors: Wright Maurice 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe Ministry of Finance (MOF) has occupied a commanding and dominating position in fiscal, financial, and economic policy-making in Japan. However, by the end of the 20th century, the MOF's formal powers were being eroded, the reputation of its elite administrators for honest and effective management of the economy tarnished by scandal and ineptitude, and its authority and influence in central government challenged by other organizations. This chapter outlines the structure, functions, and organization of the MOF, its constituent bureaux, and its advisory councils. Particular attention is drawn to the central role of the Budget Bureau and the Minister's Secretariat, and to the processes for the coordination of budgetary and other policy-making through them and other mechanisms. It describes the boundaries of the ministry's supervisory jurisdiction, within which were to be found several of the most important public banks and finance corporations. This chapter argues that in the 1990s, the MOF suffered a crisis of confidence and authority, and traces the origins of the erosion of its formal powers in the reorganization of the central executive in January 2001.
Budget Strategy, Guidelines, and Ceilings
Authors: Wright Maurice 
Published: October 2011

AbstractIn Japan, the processes of budget-making were divided temporally by the submission of the formal budget requests by the Spending Ministries and Agencies on 31 August. Prior to that, the Ministry of Finance had to decide, and Cabinet approve: first, the upper limit on the size of the overall General Account Budget, and the amount and type of government borrowing to finance capital investment programmes, and to cover any deficit on current expenditure; second, the budget guidelines to be used in the preparation of budget requests; and, third, within those guidelines, the upper limit or ceiling for the budget of each ministry and agency. The budget processes of the Fiscal Investment Loan Programme proceeded in parallel and interacted with those of the General Account Budget at several important stages. This chapter examines Japan's budget strategy and guidelines as well as ministerial budget ceilings and the influence of the Liberal Democratic Party in budget-making.
The Budget Bureau's Hearings, Examination, and Negotiations
Authors: Wright Maurice 
Published: October 2011

AbstractAfter Cabinet approved the budget strategy, and ministries and agencies were informed of their ceilings in June or July, the initiative within the Budget Bureau passed to the budget examiners and deputy budget examiners. The broad aim was to deliver by December a draft Ministry of Finance budget within the budget ceiling, and consistent with the guidelines approved by Cabinet for the different categories of expenditure. There were four main stages of compilation following the formal submission of budget requests at the end of August: the hearings, examination, negotiations, and ‘revival negotiations’.
Making the FILP Budget
Authors: Wright Maurice 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe community of organizations whose members contributed to the processes of making and carrying out the Fiscal Investment Loan Programme (FILP) Budget in Japan was extensive. Its membership, drawn from a wide variety of statutory and non-statutory organizations and groups, was broadly of two kinds, distinguished by the concentration of resources of authority, information, and organizational expertise, and the regularity of interaction. Those (parts of) organizations, and groups within them, that interacted on a regular and routine basis in the processes of making and/or carrying out of FILP policy had ‘insider’ status. ‘Outsiders’ had some contact irregularly with other members of the policy community, over some policy issues or problems, but their interactions tended to be formal or ad hoc and non-routinized. This chapter looks at the FILP policy community, the politics of postal savings, how the size of the FILP Budget is determined, the process of allocation of funds to local governments as well as FILP agencies such as the Housing and Urban Development Corporation, in-year budget revisions, and implementation of the FILP Budget.
Who Wins, Who Loses?
Authors: Wright Maurice 
Published: October 2011

AbstractIn Japan, fiscal (and other) policies were used by the government to influence the supply and demand for goods and services in the economy, through changes in corporate and personal taxation, public investment, subsidies, and welfare payments. Both then and more generally, through the annual General Account and Fiscal Investment Loan Programme Budgets, it distributed benefits and imposed burdens differentially on economic and social groups, clienteles, and individuals. Who and what won and lost in the central budgetary processes were determined mainly by the size, composition, and distribution of the mandatory and discretionary expenditures in the General Account and Supplementary Budgets. This chapter evaluates the Ministry of Finance's performance in delivering a budget total of general expenditures in December within the ceiling prescribed six months earlier—in short, the extent to which it won or lost in the autumnal bilateral negotiations with Spending Ministries and Agencies. It also looks at the changes in the distribution of current and capital spending as the policies of fiscal reconstruction, consolidation, and expansion were implemented.
The unity of thought
Authors: Priest Graham 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter examines the role of language theory and unity of thought on the contradictions in the limits of thought. It is natural for a theory of language to have implications about what can and what cannot be expressed, and modern theories of language always seem to render important things beyond the limit of expression. This chapter analyses philosopher Gottlob Frege's postulates on the existence of concepts, and suggests that his claims about them are beyond the limit of the expressible. It also evaluates Ludwig Wittgenstein's notion of form, and suggests that his account for unity of thought is beyond the expressible.
Translation, reference, and truth
Authors: Priest Graham 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter discusses the contradictions in the limit of thoughts in theories which postulate that semantic correlates must be avoided in giving an account for meaning. It examines the views and works of philosophers Willard Van Orman Quine and Donald Davidson on the theory of meaning. The findings reveal that the Quine/Davidson theory gives rise to contradictions at the limits of expression because of the indeterminacy of sense and reference, and in an attempt to avoid contradictions at the limits of cognition.
Industry and Market Analysis
Authors: Dowling Grahame R. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter introduces some structural frameworks and market-sensing principles. This knowledge is a crucial element in marketing planning and in defining the terrain on which companies compete — the opportunities and threats in a SWOT analysis. It draws attention to the environment in which organizations operate and compete, analysing it from two complementary perspectives. Part A of the chapter considers industry dynamics, focusing on understanding the nature of competition and cooperation in markets. Using price wars, it illustrates some of the triggers that initiate competition and the dynamics involved. The second part examines market evolution. There are two complementary reasons for examining the broad patterns of change in a market. One is that successful organizations take an outside-inside view of their business. The second reason is that many customer needs emerge from changes in the social environment.
Epilogue
Authors: Dowling Grahame R. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter reflects on the lessons relearned in the process of creating the book. Some of these lessons were: Do not get captured by every marketing fad. Most of them have appeared before using a different name. Do the planning, simply because its value lies in the discipline of the process. Develop an organizational culture that understands and respects the role of marketing. Create a supportive organizational infrastructure. Strive to quantify the impact of marketing programmes, but be careful how things are measured and how measures can take on a life of their own. Understanding customers is good marketing practice. Tactical segmentation is the key to unlocking this insight.
Set Theory and its Philosophy
Authors: Potter Michael 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis book presents a philosophical introduction to set theory. Anyone wishing to work on the logical foundations of mathematics must understand set theory, which lies at its heart. The book offers an account of cardinal and ordinal arithmetic, and the various axiom candidates. It discusses in detail the project of set-theoretic reduction, which aims to interpret the rest of mathematics in terms of set theory. The key question here is how to deal with the paradoxes that bedevil set theory. The book offers a simple version of the most widely accepted response to the paradoxes, which classifies sets by means of a hierarchy of levels. The book interweaves a presentation of the technical material with a philosophical critique. The book does not merely expound the theory dogmatically but at every stage discusses in detail the reasons that can be offered for believing it to be true.
Circumstances and Aim
Authors: Buckle Stephen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractFrom its opening section, the first Enquiry signals that it has a polemical purpose. It is not merely a polemic, of course, but identifying the work's apparent and real targets assists in bringing out the underlying unity of its argument; and that argument, once its outlines have been sketched in, also illustrates the connections David Hume discerns between experimentalism and scepticism. The immediate task, then, is to emphasise the significance of the Enquiry's distinctively sharp edge, and to identify its primary targets. Attending to the particular circumstances in which the work was produced will be a useful preparation. Essentially, Hume published the Philosophical Essays concerning Human Understanding, which was the Enquiry's first title, in 1748, at the end of one of the most eventful periods of his life, events that are played down in the autobiography.
Experimentalism and Scepticism
Authors: Buckle Stephen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractTo cast David Hume as a player in the major drama of the new philosophy against the old may appear to make him Newtonian to a degree no longer seriously defensible. To qualify this view by adding that he is seeking to purify the new philosophy, even against some of its most notable defenders and interpreters, may seem only to ease the problem, and not to remove it. This is because some significant modern studies have challenged the validity of Hume's Newtonian credentials. The opponents of this carefully qualified, undeniably realist outlook are the Pyrrhonians and the philosophical dogmatists. So the task of the Enquiry is to show that the experimental philosophy, properly understood, has skeptical implications that undercut all the dogmatists, old and new, secular and not religious, and the body of the work is structured accordingly.
Of the Association of Ideas
Authors: Buckle Stephen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractDavid Hume opens the section with a claim he treats as unproblematic. He simply offers a few supporting reminders: at one extreme, errant thoughts are immediately ejected when they intrude into disciplined thinking; at the other, even in the wildest and most wandering reveries, a closer scrutiny will reveal that the imagination ran not altogether at adventures, but that principles of connection were in play. No philosopher has yet sought to classify these principles of association, so Hume volunteers to fill the gap: there are three, and they are resemblance, contiguity, and cause and effect. Nothing much is said of these principles here: their importance lies in the work they will be made to do in later sections. He is sufficiently confident that the list is complete to invite the reader, after examples of each kind have been provided, to try to think of others that have not made it into his trio.
Sceptical Doubts concerning the Operations of the Understanding
Authors: Buckle Stephen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis section presents David Hume's argument, the thoroughly Lockean argument that a properly experimental philosophy undermines the dogmatist's belief in the capacities of human reason to discern the underlying nature of reality. He rejects the dogmatic claims of philosophies that seek to ground the rational grasp of essences of things in conclusions drawn from immediate acquaintance with the object's perceptible properties. Without experience of the object's behaviour in the world, rational comprehension of the object is impossible. To this point, the argument could be defending an Aristotelian position. However, the Aristotelian alternative is rejected as Hume denies that experience provides any further information about the world, and so leaves people no better off than in the first case.
Compositionality
Authors: Forbes Graeme 
Published: October 2011

AbstractCompositionality can be understood to say that the meaning of a complex expression is a function of its syntax and the meanings of its immediate constituents. A function is a black box which operates on inputs to produce an output. The workings of the box are such that different inputs may produce the same output, but the same inputs never produce different outputs (thus functions are said to be deterministic). This chapter discusses the age of the universe, extensionalism, problems for extensionalism, intensionalism, and hyperintensional logic.
Overview
Authors: Layard Richard , Nickell Stephen , Jackman Richard 
Published: October 2011

AbstractUnemployment is in balance when it is high enough to avoid the fluctuation of wages over each other and to make the planned mark-up of wages over prices (target real wage) uniform with the planned mark-up of prices over wages (feasible real wage). In the steady state, lower unemployment rates mandates lower real labour costs but not necessarily a lower real take-home pay. The unemployment rate is raised by adverse demand fluctuations and adverse supply fluctuations. But in the very long run, unemployment is independent of productivity, taxes, and prices. Unemployment rates are above average for less skilled labourers, young people, and people from disadvantaged regions.
The Macroeconomics of Unemployment
Authors: Layard Richard , Nickell Stephen , Jackman Richard 
Published: October 2011

AbstractIn a closed economy with competitive corporations and non-competitive wage determination, there is a balance level of unemployment in which expectations are met. Derivations from equilibrium can arise via demand shocks or real shocks, the most significant of which are technology shocks and wage pressure shocks. Expansionary aggregate demand shocks can produce real wage movements on either side, whereas favourable technology shocks lead to real wage increases. Decreases in wage pressure normally lead to decreases in real wages, on the other hand. Therefore, there is an ‘equilibrium’ level of unemployment uniform with both stable inflation and balanced trading.
Relevant Logic
Authors: Beall JC 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe Generalised Tarski Thesis (GTT) yields classical consequence when its cases are taken to be possible worlds, where possible worlds are complete and consistent with respect to negation. That (classical) precisification of ‘follows from’ is familiar and useful, however, it is not the only sense of ‘follows from’ apparent in English. Another strongly apparent sense of ‘follows from’ takes ‘from’ seriously. There is a sense of ‘follows from’ that is more restrictive than the classical sense; it demands that premises be ‘relevant’ to conclusions. That sense of ‘follows from’ is more restrictive than the classical one: it imposes constraints that go beyond truth-preservation over possible worlds. The constraints, in effect, concern the behaviour of negation. What is required is not only truth-preservation over possible worlds, but truth-preservation over cases that go beyond the constraints of worlds, beyond the constraints of completeness and consistency. The task is to specify such cases, thereby cashing out relevant consequence.