bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Collapse of the Venetian Republic and the Experience of Foreign Domination
Authors: LAVEN DAVID 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the reasons for the fall of the longest-lived republic in history. It stresses that the key was not the decadence or weakness of Venice, but unbridled Napoleonic aggression. It looks at the nature of both Austrian rule from 1798 to 1806, and French control from 1806 to 1813/1814. In particular, it emphasises the deep discontent of Venetians with French domination.
Religious Women in the Conversion Period c.Ad 400–600
Authors: Harrington Christina 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The ideal starting point of a study of religious women in early medieval Ireland is the native society into which Christianity obtruded: the pagan religion, the status of women, and the roles of female religious professionals. Against such a background, the following can be more fully appreciated: the powers religious women enjoyed, the strictures they had to follow, the way secular society regarded them, and how their nunneries were treated. This procedure, which has been extremely valuable in the study of early Christianity in the late antique world and in Germanic areas, is well-nigh impossible for Ireland because the sources are so limited. This chapter discusses Saint Patrick's encouragement of women to contravene social authority and his views on virgins, women in the monastic vocation in the 5th and 6th centuries, the issues of permanence and lapses among women, participation of religious virgins in missionary activities, and widows and deaconesses.
The Virgin Consort in Hagiography
Authors: Harrington Christina 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
If the Irish attitudes were increasingly mixed on the subject of men and women sharing space in the religious life, this ambivalence is nowhere clearer than in one new and most extraordinary type of narrative. It both epitomises the issues and reveals the underlying common lines of thinking and rationalisation. The Irish consort stories have perplexed historians for nearly a hundred years, and the discussions have so far produced no plausible explanation. In 1968, Roger Reynolds suggested that it was likely for female consorts to live with holy men in early medieval Ireland. According to Reynolds, Celtic syneisactism represented one of the most primitive aspects of Christianity to survive in medieval Western Europe. This chapter discusses cohabitation between female consorts and holy men in early medieval Ireland, the crackdown on nicolaitism, and clerical marriage.
Are the Oslo Accords Treaties?
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines whether the Oslo Accords are binding as traditional treaties. It argues that the Oslo Accords are probably not treaties under traditional treaty law, as embodied in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. This counter-intuitive conclusion says something about the narrow scope of the Vienna Convention and, more generally, about the formalism that pervades international law.
Limits on Palestinian Self-Government
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter asks whether the Palestinian Authority (PA) is complying with the limits on Palestinian self-government imposed by the Accords. It argues that the PA appears to have exceeded some of the Accords' restrictions on Palestinian self-government. The size of the Palestinian police force exceeds that permitted by the Interim Agreement, though it remains to be seen whether Israel will vigorously object to this development, which might help the PA abide by its obligation to maintain a ‘strong’ police force. The PA also appears to have exceeded the geographic and functional limits on its governmental activity, in particular at Orient House in East Jerusalem.
Quasiclassical Method for Layered Superconductors
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The quasiclassical scheme is generalized for layered superconductors. The Ginzburg–Landau theory for layered superconductors known as the Lawrence–Doniach model and the expression for supercurrent are derived. Coherence lengths along and perpendicular to the layers as well as the magnetic field penetration lengths for magnetic field parallel and perpendicular to the layers are defined. The upper critical field is calculated for the field direction parallel to the layers. The interaction of vortices with the underlying crystalline structure (intrinsic pinning) is discussed.
Quasiclassical Method for Nonstationary Phenomena
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter applies the quasiclassical approximation to nonstationary problems in the theory of superconductivity. The Eliashberg equations for the quasiclassical Keldysh Green functions are derived. Normalization of the Green functions in nonequilibrium situation is found. The Keldysh function is expressed in terms of a two-component generalized distribution function. The diffusive limit in nonstationary superconductivity is described. An example of stimulated superconductivity due to microwave irradiation is considered: the order parameter becomes enhanced as a result of a depletion of nonequilibrium distribution of excitations in the energy range of the superconducting gap.
Gauge Theory of Spin Glasses
Authors: Nishimori Hidetoshi 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Studying how reliable the predictions of the mean-field theory are in realistic finite-dimensional systems presents an important problem. It is, in general, very difficult to investigate two- and three-dimensional systems by analytical methods, and current studies in this field are predominantly by numerical methods. This chapter presents a unique type of argument — the gauge theory — which uses the symmetry of the system to derive a number of rigorous or exact results. The gauge theory does not directly answer the problem of the existence of the spin glass phase in finite dimensions. Nevertheless, it places strong constraints on the possible structure of the phase diagram. Also, the gauge theory is found to be closely related to the Bayesian method frequently encountered in information processing problems to be discussed in subsequent chapters.
Theories of Molecular Reaction Dynamics
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book deals with a central topic at the interface of chemistry and physics — the understanding of how the transformation of matter takes place at the atomic level. Building on the laws of physics, the book focuses on the theoretical framework for predicting the outcome of chemical reactions. The style is highly systematic with attention to basic concepts and clarity of presentation. Molecular reaction dynamics is about the detailed atomic-level description of chemical reactions. Based on quantum mechanics and statistical mechanics or, as an approximation, classical mechanics, the dynamics of uni- and bi-molecular elementary reactions are described. The first part of the book is on gas-phase dynamics and it features a detailed presentation of reaction cross-sections and their relation to a quasi-classical as well as a quantum mechanical description of the reaction dynamics on a potential energy surface. Direct approaches to the calculation of the rate constant that bypasses the detailed state-to-state reaction cross-sections are presented, including transition-state theory, which plays an important role in practice. The second part gives a comprehensive discussion of basic theories of reaction dynamics in condensed phases, including Kramers and Grote–Hynes theory for dynamical solvent effects. Examples and end-of-chapter problems are included in order to illustrate the theory and its connection to chemical problems. The book has nine appendices with useful details, e.g. on statistical mechanics including the Boltzmann distribution, quantum mechanics, stochastic dynamics and various coordinate transformations including normal-mode and Jacobi coordinates.
From microscopic to macroscopic descriptions
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses bimolecular reactions from both a microscopic and macroscopic point of view. The outcome of an isolated reactive scattering event can be specified in terms of an intrinsic fundamental quantity, the reaction cross-section that can be measured in a molecular beam experiment. It depends on the quantum states of the molecules as well as the relative velocity of reactants and products. The relation between the cross-section and the macroscopic rate constant is derived. The rate constant is a weighted average of the product between the relative speed of the reactants and the reaction cross-section. The chapter concludes with the special case of thermal equilibrium, where the velocity distributions for the molecules are the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. The expression for the rate constant at temperature T is reduced to a one-dimensional integral over the relative speed of the reactants.
Static solvent effects, transition-state theory
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses static solvent effects on the rate constant for chemical reactions in solution. It starts with a brief discussion of the thermodynamic formulation of transition-state theory. The static equilibrium structure of the solvent will modify the potential energy surface for the chemical reaction. This effect is analyzed within the framework of transition-state theory. The rate constant is expressed in terms of the potential of mean force at the activated complex. Various definitions of this potential and their relations to n-particle- and pair-distribution functions are considered. The potential of mean force may, for example, be defined such that the gradient of the potential gives the average force on an atom in the activated complex, Boltzmann averaged over all configurations of the solvent. It concludes with a discussion of a relation between the rate constants in the gas phase and in solution.
The Sequence of Tenses in Archaic Latin
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Latin verbs have three stems: the present stem for simultaneous events; the perfect stem for anterior ones; and the supine stem, which can be used to form periphrastic subjunctives expressing posteriority. From each stem two tenses can be formed. If the main clause verb has present or future meaning and if the subordinate clause is semantically highly dependent on the main clause, the verb in the subordinate clause will be in the present, perfect, or simple periphrastic subjunctive, depending on whether the action is simultaneous with, anterior to, or posterior to the main clause event. If the main clause verb has past meaning, there is backshift of tenses in the subordinate clause, which can now contain the pluperfect, imperfect, or past periphrastic subjunctive. The rules are essentially the same in the early and the classical periods, but the periphrastic subjunctives are still comparatively rare in Plautus and Terence.
The Sigmatic Subjunctive in Archaic Latin
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The sigmatic subjunctive (type faxim ‘I may do’) always has non-past meaning. However, its distribution patterns differ from those of the present subjunctive. While the present subjunctive is not subject to any restrictions, the sigmatic subjunctive is virtually absent in commands and ut-clauses, but unusually frequent in prohibitions and subordinate nē-clauses. The sigmatic subjunctive belongs to an elevated register.
The Sigmatic Infinitives
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Most of the sigmatic infinitives (type impetrāssere ‘to achieve’) occur in accusative and infinitive constructions with future time reference. Since in this constellation they could be replaced not only by future infinitives, but also by present infinitives, their precise meaning remains unclear. There is one instance of a sigmatic infinitive after the modal verb posse (‘to be able to’). While the sigmatic infinitive could only be replaced by a present tense infinitive here, the conclusion cannot be that all sigmatic infinitives are inherently present-tense infinitives; the token, clearly employed to mark a higher register, could be a ‘false archaism’.
Extra-Paradigmatic Forms in Classical and Later Latin
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The extra-paradigmatic forms were already undergoing a restriction process in the early period. Yet some of them continued to be used throughout the classical era and later. The forms that survived better were either those which were relatively frequent in early literature or those whose morphology was not overly opaque. Typically, archaic forms became restricted to certain contexts or collocations. Occasionally we find ‘false archaisms’, that is, usages of essentially dead forms in ways that were not possible in the pre-classical period.
Quantum Probability
Authors: Breuer Heinz-Peter , Petruccione Francesco 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter develops the fundamental notions and concepts of the probabilistic and statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics. It begins with a brief review of the mathematical structure given by a Hilbert space of state vectors and an algebra of observables represented by selfadjoint operators. Special emphasis is laid on the connection between the spectral representation of a selfadjoint operator and a corresponding random variable that describes the possible measurement outcomes. The chapter further introduces the concepts of a composite quantum system, of the reduced density matrix, and of entangled quantum states. A section on quantum entropies is included, as well as the mathematical formulation of the generalized theory of quantum measurements in terms of completely positive quantum operations and effects.
Quantum Master Equations
Authors: Breuer Heinz-Peter , Petruccione Francesco 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter introduces the fundamentals of the description of the quantum dynamics of open systems in terms of quantum master equations, together with its most important applications. Special emphasis is laid on the theory of completely positive quantum dynamical semigroups, which leads to the concept of a quantum Markov process. It discusses the relaxation to equilibrium and the multi-time structure of quantum Markov processes, as well as their irreversible nature which is characterized by an appropriate entropy functional. Microscopic derivations for various quantum master equations are presented, such as the quantum optical master equation and the master equation for quantum Brownian motion. As a further application, the master equation describing continuous measurements is derived and used to study the quantum Zeno effect. The chapter also contains a treatment of non-linear, mean field quantum master equations together with applications to laser theory and super-radiance.
Applications to Quantum Optical Systems
Authors: Breuer Heinz-Peter , Petruccione Francesco 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter deals with a presentation of continuous measurement theory on the basis of the microscopic equations of quantum electrodynamics. The emphasis lies on the derivation of the quantum operations and the corresponding stochastic processes for various detection schemes directly from the Hamiltonian, which describes the interaction of the matter degrees of freedom with the quantized electromagnetic field. The chapter treats many examples and applications to atomic physics and quantum optics, such as dark state resonances and laser cooling of atoms. This example illustrates the interplay between incoherent processes and quantum interference effects which leads to the emergence of Lévy-type distributions for the atomic waiting time. Finally, dissipative phenomena in the dynamics of open quantum systems in strong driving fields are studied, for which appropriate master equations and stochastic wave function methods can be derived by employing a representation in terms of Floquet states.
Measurements in Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
Authors: Breuer Heinz-Peter , Petruccione Francesco 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter develops the theory of measurements in relativistic quantum mechanics. The presentation is based on the idea to consider the state of a relativistic quantum system as a functional on the set of space-like hypersurfaces in Minkowski space. This idea leads to a manifest covariant time-evolution equation, known as Schwinger–Tomonaga equation, and allows a relativistic formulation of the projection postulate of quantum measurement theory. This postulate is used to study a number of applications to local and non-local measurements, to the erasing of local information, and to the restrictions on the measurability of non-local quantities imposed by the causality principle. The relativistic projection postulate further enables the discussion of many important problems from a unified perspective, such as EPR-type experiments, measurements of Bell state operators, exchange measurements, and quantum teleportation.
Open Quantum Electrodynamics
Authors: Breuer Heinz-Peter , Petruccione Francesco 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In quantum electrodynamics, the matter degrees of freedom are coupled to the radiation field through a local, gauge-invariant interaction density. Due to the linear structure of this coupling, the problem of constructing a complete formal representation of the reduced matter dynamics can be solved exactly if the electromagnetic radiation field is initially in a Gaussian state. This chapter combines field theoretical methods with superoperator and influence functional techniques to derive an exact, relativistic representation for the reduced density matrix of the matter degrees of freedom which completely describes the influence of the electromagnetic radiation field on the matter dynamics. Several applications are treated, such as the suppression of the quantum coherence of charged particles caused by the emission of bremsstrahlung and the decoherence of many-particle states.
The Plain Man's Pathways to Heaven
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
What did ordinary people believe in post-Reformation England, and what did they do about it? This book looks at religious belief and practice through the eyes of five sorts of people: godly Protestant ministers, zealous Protestant laypeople, the ignorant, those who complained about the burdens of religion, and the Catholics. Based on 600 court and visitation books from three national and twelve local archives, it cites what people had to say about themselves, their religion, and the religions of others. How did people behave in church? What did they think of church rituals? What did they do on Sundays? What did they think of people of other faiths? How did they get along together, and what sort of issues produced tensions between them? What did parishioners think of their priests and what did the clergy think of their people? Was everyone seriously religious, or did some people mock or doubt religion? If these questions have been tackled before, it has usually been by way of claims about what the common people believed in books written by members of the educated ranks about their contemporaries. In contrast, by going directly to other sources of evidence such court records and parish complaints, this book illuminates what ordinary people actually said and did.
Philagathus: Godly Living
Authors: HAIGH CHRISTOPHER 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on godly living. Theologus advises those who wish to follow Christ to ‘Keep company with the godly, and avoid the society of the wicked’. This was the conventional counsel of godly preachers. The godly knew how to distinguish between ‘us’ and ‘them’. Those who took communion with Master Luddington in 1585 were ‘rotten members and rotten sheep’, thought William Leyden of Hempsted, Essex, and in 1587 Robert Hamon of Bobbingworth declared that Master Glascock ‘is a blind guide, and all that follow him shall go to the devil’.
The Papist: Outside the Church, Inside the Community
Authors: HAIGH CHRISTOPHER 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on papists. ‘Church papists’ went to church to avoid trouble: they usually kept their heads down, and their opinions to themselves. Catholics who stayed away from church — the recusants (or ‘refusers’) — denied the legitimacy and authority of the Church of England, and so rarely bothered to appear before its courts. When recusants were indicted at quarter sessions or assizes, certified absence was enough to convict them, and their reasons hardly mattered. So historians have found it difficult to write about grass-roots Catholic opinion — what ordinary Catholics thought of their own religion and of the religion of Protestants.
Early Solutions: Timber Deck Bridges and Causeways
Authors: HARRISON DAVID 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter looks at timber deck bridges and causeways built by the Romans in England during the medieval period. Remains of timber bridges of the type depicted on Trajan's column were found at Aldwincle, Northamptonshire, across the Nene. It measured about twenty-five metres long, and the largest timbers were roughly five metres in length and between 0.4 and 0.5 metres in section. Trestles or piles supported horizontal girders, and on this structure the cross planking of the timber deck was laid. This supported a metalled road which was possibly laid on sand, matting, or clay, rather than directly onto the planks. Causeways were constructed across marshy land. On the Somerset levels, a well-made structure was found with vertical piles and wooden sleepers. Another causeway at Strood, near Rochester in Kent, consisted of layers of flints, chalk, pebble-gravel, and Kentish Rag, which rested on piles and a framework of timber ‘cells’.
Conclusions: Bridges, Transport, and Pre-industrial Society
Authors: HARRISON DAVID 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book has traced the history of bridges and other river crossings in England over the last 2,000 years. It began with the impressive programme of construction undertaken by the Romans. The remnants of a few of their finest structures can still be seen. The history of bridges has very important implications for our understanding of transport and, more generally, of society in pre-industrial England. It provided insights into many subjects: the road system, the amount of traffic using it, the extent of internal trade, the development of the economy, and even the nature of the state. It has also highlighted the problems caused by historians' specialisation in relatively narrow periods, giving insights on how to overcome the drawback that most works on road transport and internal trade in pre-industrial England have encountered.
Uncertain Future
Authors: Hinton James 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In 1945 most WVS members expected the organization to close down, and when it did not do so, they left. At the same time the national leadership of the established women's organizations which had provided much of the local leadership for the WVS since 1938 pressed the Attlee government to put an end to Lady Reading's fiefdom which they regarded as an alien, state-subsidised wartime growth, offensive to principles both of democracy and of voluntarism. How did the WVS survive? This chapter examines attitudes among the WVS membership at the end of the war, and the strategy of ‘mission creep’ employed by Lady Reading to make WVS indispensable to Whitehall by finding new work for tired hands. Her success in persuading the surviving members, many of them Tories, to collaborate with the Labour Government's management of austerity — notably in food education and fuel economy — testifies to the continuing appeal of non-partisanship among middle-class social leaders.