bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Hippocampal synaptic plasticity and NMDA receptors: a role in information storage?
Authors: MORRIS R. G. M. , DAVIS S. , BUTCHER S. P. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractOne way of investigating the functional significance of long-term potentiation (LTP) is to use selective antagonists of those excitatory amino acid receptors whose activation is essential for its induction. This chapter discusses various design requirements for such experiments and reviews work indicating that the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist AP5 causes a behaviourally selective learning impairment having certain common features to the behavioural profile seen after hippocampal lesions. Two new studies are described whose results show that AP5 has no effect upon the retrieval of previously established memories, and that the dose–response profile of the impairment of spatial learning occurs across a range of extracellular concentrations in hippocampus for which receptor selectivity exists. These experiments show that activation of NMDA receptors is essential for certain kinds of learning.
The Croonian Lecture, 1990
Authors: HINDE ROBERT A. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThe exponential growth of science, and its magnificent achievements, have been accompanied by its disintegration into a multiplicity of subsciences. It is no longer possible for an individual to be an all-rounder, and that makes it the more important that collectively scientists should not lose sight of the essential unity of the scientific enterprise. This chapter aims to provide a framework to illustrate essential interrelations between the various subsciences that deal with behaviour and its underlying mechanisms, and to emphasize that the research worker must cross and recross the boundaries between them. It argues that full understanding of any one aspect of behaviour requires one to be not merely interdisciplinary, but to move backwards and forwards between disciplines.
Process dissociations versus task dissociations: a controversy in progress
Authors: Reingold Eyal M. , Toth Jeffrey P. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter tackles the controversy over process dissociations against task dissociations, including perception-without-awareness, implicit memory research, process-purity, response bias, involuntary conscious memory, the retrieval intentionality criterion, the process-dissociation approach (PDA) assumptions and contributions, the problem of involuntary conscious memory, and the comparison between task-dissociation approach (TDA) and PDA. Some critiques of the PDA tend to be rather selective and biased which leads to the belief that even as the PDA involves predominantly problematic assumptions, the implicit memory TDA is in some way assumption-free. This chapter argues that this distorted impression is largely attributable to the fact that the assumptions regarding TDA are often tacit, unacknowledged, and unexamined. There was also a controversial explicit assumption included in the PDA regarding the relationship of conscious and unconscious memory processes, which is that of the independence between the two processes. This chapter concludes that the PDA and TDA can, and should coexist, and applying these paradigms and then comparing the results obtained may well be very educational and productive.
Photorefraction for the detection of amblyogenic defects: past and present
Authors: Angi M. R. , Pilotto E. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractAmblyopia is a developmental disorder of binocular vision resulting from an anomalous visual experience early in life. It is the primary cause of monocular vision loss in children and young adults, affecting more than 2% of the population. Many investigators have strongly recommended the screening and correction of amblyogenic factors—such as high refraction errors, strabismus, and dioptric media opacity—at the earliest feasible age (from six months onwards) to improve visual outcome and reduce cases of squint and the progression of myopia. Amblyopia can be screened by subjective or objective testing. From birth, an estimation of visual acuity can be obtained from preferential direction of gaze but this method is unsuitable for large-scale screening because it is time-consuming and relies on the subject's co-operation. Objective refractometry without cycloplegia may represent the ideal method for screening infants for amblyogenic factors because the test is fast, it requires no contact, and it can be performed by non-professional staff. Various improvements have been proposed in an attempt to solve problems such as controlling image quality, accurate fixation, and accommodation, to extend the range of sensitivity to refractive defects and to measure ocular deviation.
MRI findings in children with cerebral visual impairment
Authors: Cioni G. , Ipata A. E. , Canapicchi R. , Fazzi B. , van Hof-van Duin J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThe classical definition of cortical blindness in both adults and children refers to complete loss of vision, including appreciation of light and dark, loss of OKN with preservation of pupillary responses, normal eye motility and normal retina on examination. Cerebral visual impairment (CVI) is now recommended as a better term. Complete blindness is rare in these patients. Most of them have some residual vision, which it is often difficult to test because they show inattention and variability in their visual performance. Secondly, ‘cerebral’ seems to be a more appropriate term than ‘cortical’. Visual impairment is secondary to a cerebral disease from multiple causes (e.g. infection, trauma, cerebrovascular disease, etc.), involving retrochiasmatic visual pathways but not necessarily the visual cortex. According to the timing of the cerebral injury, CVI in children can be classified as congenital or acquired. The latter can be caused by meningitis, encephalitis, head trauma, hydrocephalus, or metabolic derangements. Occipital infarctions are often observed in these cases. Congenital CVI includes visual loss caused by malformations, intrauterine infections or perinatal hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE). HIE is the most common cause of CVI, and is often accompanied by other motor and cognitive impairment owing to the diffuse nature of this pathology.
Occlusion therapy for childhood amblyopia: current concepts in treatment evaluation
Authors: Moseley Merrick J. , Fielder Alistair R. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter, as its title suggests, is concerned primarily with practical issues surrounding amblyopia therapy. Imprecise or inappropriate measurement techniques have limited understandings of occlusion therapy. To examine these issues the chapter draws upon observations made in the literature and on some techniques recently developed in the laboratory. Finally, experimental data that indicate how proposals work in practice are presented. The discussions are necessarily restricted in scope and do not address the many neuroscientific contributions that have increased the understandings of this curious condition. Throughout this chapter the attention is focused on the amblyopic child as opposed to the infant and the chapter defines the former as being of an age at which a visual task involving ‘linear’ optotypes can be performed, either by the elicitation of a verbal response or by the child indicating the target seen at distance on a hand-held key card. Also, it makes no specific reference to the taxonomy of amblyopia although it acknowledge this to be an obvious factor likely to influence treatment outcome. At the beginning of this chapter, attention is drawn to the lack of empirical (as opposed to clinical, anecdotal) support for the use of occlusion therapy. It is suggested that this arose because of inadequate or inappropriate measurement of compliance and visual outcome.
Visual development in children with congenital cataract
Authors: Sjöströtm A. , Abrahamssom M. , Byhr E. , Sjöstrand j. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractVisual−deprivation experiments on cats and monkeys have showed that complete unilateral eye occlusion of these animals until twelve weeks of age can produce a permanent amblyopia and a decrease in cell density along the geniculocortical pathway. Reversal of the amblyopia was possible if the occlusion was removed before eight weeks of age in monkeys. Although this critical age is established for animals, the exact critical period has not been determined for humans, partly because of the problem with assessment of infant vision. This chapter focuses on the relationship between visual development and age at surgery for patients with total congenital cataract. In patients with total congenital cataract, retinal image formation is severely degraded from birth until the lens is removed by surgery and the optics is restored by a contact lens.
Models of invariant object recognition
Authors: Rolls Edmund T. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines neural network approaches to invariant pattern recognition. It describes different computational approaches that have been taken both in artificial vision systems and as suggestions for how the brain performs invariant object recognition, including feature spaces, structural descriptions, and syntactic pattern recognition. The chapter evaluates the hypotheses about the computational mechanisms in the visual cortex for object recognition and discusses the computational issues associated with the feature hierarchy approach to invariant object recognition.
Outputs of visual processing
Authors: Rolls Edmund T. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines the outputs of the ventral visual processing stream, from the inferior temporal visual cortical areas in particular. It explains that neuronal outputs provide a distributed representation of ‘what’ object or face is being viewed, while specialized subregions, such as the cortex in the superior temporal sulcus, provide evidence about face expression and about movements of objects and people. The chapter describes how attentional bias could be implemented by the operation of short-term-memory systems, explains why short-term memory must be separate from the temporal lobe and parietal lobe perceptual systems, and proposes a theory on how these short-term-memory systems work.
Methodological issues in evaluating the effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation
Authors: Cicerone Keith D. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter addresses methodological issues in evaluating the effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation. The development of cognitive rehabilitation has been accompanied by increased demands that cognitive rehabilitation demonstrate its maturity, and expectations that the field evaluate itself and provide scientifically sound evidence of its clinical effectiveness. In the absence of scientific evidence, claims for the effectiveness of any medical or rehabilitation practice rely upon clinical ‘expert opinion’, typically reflecting the judgments and beliefs acquired by individual clinicians through their professional experience and clinical practice. As a field matures, utilizing evidence from systematic research to inform clinical practice should become more common. The practice of evidence-based rehabilitation is based on the integration of individual clinical experience with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research.
Treating attention impairments
Authors: Park Norman W. , Barbuto Erica 
Published: April 2012

AbstractTreating attention impairments has received more systematic study than most other cognitive impairments because attention is frequently impaired after neurological damage, and is important in a wide variety of tasks. Results of a meta-analysis show that treatments aimed at restoring attention directly after an acquired brain injury improved performance to a limited degree, whereas treatments aimed at teaching individuals functionally important skills had large effect sizes. This chapter shows that the processes mediating conceptual aspects of action and conscious aspects of attention are separable from the system responsible for timing and executing actions. Restoration-based treatments may be more effective for the treatment of motor impairments whereas treatments that focus on the treatment of functionally important skills are more effective for the treatment of consciously accessible cognitive processes. The chapter suggests the use of a deficit-based approach to treatment.
Tried, tested and trusted?
Authors: Nickels Lyndsey 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter provides a critical review of clinical assessments used to evaluate acquired language impairments. It reviews assessments aimed at examining both language functions (‘impairment’-based approaches), and language activities (‘functional’ measures). In particular, it discusses the adequacy of these assessments as tools in the rehabilitation process. The chapter concludes that rehabilitation focused assessment should be hypothesis-driven and goal-focused, and that broad-ranging, comprehensive assessments are inappropriate.
Language deficits
Authors: Basso Anna 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines the efficacy of aphasia therapy, regrouped according to how the problem was dealt with: studies on spontaneous recovery from aphasia, on recovery in treated chronic aphasic patients, studies comparing treated and untreated groups of patients, and studies comparing patients treated by speech therapists and volunteers. Results of these studies are conflicting and do not allow any firm conclusion about aphasia therapy efficacy, but they strongly suggest that long-lasting treatments are efficacious. The results of studies on the effect of duration and intensity of treatment clearly indicate that length significantly affects recovery. In the last ten years, meta-analyses have repeatedly been applied to aphasia therapy studies. They confirm the efficacy of aphasia therapy.
Economic Analysis of Regional Trade Agreements
Authors: Do Viet D. , Watson William 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter discusses the results of economic analyses of regional trade agreements (RTA). The recent proliferation of RTA poses a number of interesting and difficult questions for economists. These questions are concerned with the reasons and motivations for the increasing number of RTA and whether it is welfare-improving. The analyses reveal that RTA are often not long term, most RTA are mainly in free trade areas, and the World Trade Organization (WTO) is implicated in the growth of RTA.
Services Liberalization in Regional Trade Agreements: Lessons for GATS ‘Unfinished Business’?
Authors: Krajewski Markus 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines regional and multilateral liberalization of services in regional trade agreements (RTA). It explores four specific elements of services agreement including domestic regulation, government procurement, subsidies, and emergency safeguard measures. It analyses the treatment of these four issues in different RTA. The main aspects of the general relationship between regional and multilateral services trade liberalization as shaped by Article V of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) are also discussed.
Dispute Settlement in the WTO and RTAs: A Comment
Authors: Davey William J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter compares the dispute settlement of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and regional trade agreements (RTA). It outlines the operation of the WTO's Dispute Settlement Understanding and evaluates the results it has produced in its first decade of operation. It compares these results with the operation of RTA dispute settlement systems. This chapter concludes that RTA cannot supplant the WTO's role as a forum for trade negotiations because the existing regional agreements do not include enough major trading nations to enable deals to be struck on key global issues involving a broad range of nations with disparate interests.
What Role is there for Regional International Law in the Interpretation of the WTO Agreements?
Authors: Damme Isabelle Van 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines the potential application of regional international law in interpreting World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements. It describes the treaty interpretation practice of WTO panels and the Appellate Body and analyses the legal basis for the reliance on norms of other sub-systems of international law and general international law for treaty interpretation in light of the Article 31(3)(c) of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT). It considers the relationship between regionalism and international law in the context of the interpretation of the WTO covered agreements.
Pseudocontingencies—A key paradigm for understanding adaptive cognition
Authors: Fiedler Klaus 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the complexity and subtlety of inferences from data, and how the cognitive system does not always negotiate these subtleties consistently. It observes that many important areas of cognitive and social psychology focus on problems in which different levels of analysis can yield different results. The important concept of pseudocontingency is described as an illusory relationship between variables, which is induced by connections with a third variable (a phenomenon closely related to Simpson's Paradox, Simpson, 1951). The concept of pseudocontingency is shown to play a crucial role in explaining a wide range of classical psychological phenomena, especially in social cognition.
The game of life:
Authors: Hertwig Ralph , Pleskac Timothy J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter highlights the importance of simplicity, but in a different way — it argues that, where people sample statistical information from experience, they tend to rely on surprisingly small samples (e.g. focusing on a few recent events). It presents a formal analysis of possible reasons behind this reliance on small samples. Three key results emerge. First, small samples amplify the difference between the average earnings associated with the payoff distributions, thus rendering choices simpler. Second, people who use a simple choice heuristic or choose in accordance with prospect theory benefit from this amplification effect, whereas Bayesian updates do not. Third, although not providing a strictly veridical portrayal of the world, small samples can give rise to surprisingly competitive choices.
ESDP in Practice: Increasingly Varied and Ambitious EU Security and Defence Operations
Authors: Naert Frederik 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter analyses the main legal aspects of European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) operations launched since 2003. These operations are addressed in chronological order, starting with a general overview and followed by an analysis of their international mandate, the legal status of the force/mission, and the applicable law and the participation of third States in the operation. The chapter focuses on common elements on the one hand and on peculiar aspects on the other.
Distinguishing the reflective, algorithmic, and autonomous minds: Is it time for a tri-process theory?
Authors: Stanovich Keith E. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractBuilding upon work which considers the implications dual-process theory for the great rationality debate in cognitive science, this chapter advances that discussion, first by discussing additions and complications to dual-process theory and then by working through the implications of these ideas for our view of human rationality. It argues that System 2 needs to be understood in terms of two levels of processing: the algorithmic and the reflective.
An architecture for dual reasoning
Authors: Carruthers Peter 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter takes for granted the existence of some sort of real distinction between System 1 and System 2 reasoning processes, and asks how they are realized in the human mind-brain. In contrast with the usual view of the two systems as distinct from one another, it argues that System 2 is partly realized in cycles of operation of System 1. But System 2 is also distinctive in being action based. It is mental rehearsals of action that generate and sustain the cycles of operation of System 1 which constitute System 2. The chapter details a number of advantages of the proposed account, together with some implications for future research.
Thinking across cultures: Implications for dual processes
Authors: Buchtel Emma E. , Norenzayan Ara 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines how analytic and holistic thinking have been defined by cultural psychologists, and briefly reviews the studies in this new tradition. It suggests that holistic and analytic thinking are in many ways very similar to the dual-process theories that have been described by Western cognitive psychologists, and in fact the cross-cultural evidence supports the plausibility of this distinction. However, the emphasis on holistic thinking that has occurred in East Asian societies may also have led to the development of a more sophisticated kind of non-analytic thinking than in the West. In particular, different cultural norms for thinking may have encouraged explicit, contextualized thinking in a way that is less common in the West, and in a way which is not fully captured by some aspects of popular dual-process theories.
Prisoners in a Constitutional State
Authors: Lazarus Liora 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of Germany's Basic Law. It then turns to the constitutional foundations of the Prison Act and the prisoner's legal status. The German Prison Act of 1976 was to be infused with the ideals of the Constitution from start to finish. It had to deliver a constitutionally legitimate, coherent legislative basis for state limitation and protection of prisoners' basic rights at the ‘administrative level’. The protection and limitation of these rights had to be commensurate with the constitutional ideal of resocialization.
The German Prison Act: Principles and Special Provisions
Authors: Lazarus Liora 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter unravels the network of extra-legal, legal, and institutional factors that affect the way the German Prison Act is interpreted and applied. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 4.2 addresses the substantial principles of the Act and the interpretative conflicts surrounding them. Section 4.3 deals with the special provisions of the Act and the concerns raised with respect to the enforcement of substantive prisoners' rights. Section 4.4 outlines recent jurisprudence of the Federal Constitutional Court (FCC), which has attempted to remedy the various weaknesses of the Prison Act and address the concerns of the penal academy.
Pre-accession
Authors: Maresceau Marc 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The expression ‘pre-accession’, formally appearing for the first time in the Conclusions of the Essen European Council of December 1994, is now firmly established in the terminological practice of the EU enlargement discourse, and is generally used as an adjective and occasionally even as a noun. Since 1994 ‘pre-accession strategies’, ‘pre-accession instruments’, ‘enhanced pre-accession strategies’, and so on and so forth have been developed. In the current EU enlargement scenario ‘pre-accession’ policies indeed play a much more predominant role than in previous enlargements of the European Community. In past enlargement practice, pre-accession strategies, as such, were virtually or even completely lacking.