bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Great Agent
Authors: Penner Hans H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter restores a very important mythical figure to his rightful place alongside the legends of the Buddha. They are both called “Great Agents,” great conquerors and renouncers. They both have the thirty-two marks of a “Great Agent.” They come together in a unique appearance as Sandha and Metteyya at the end of our age. Emphasis on literal meaning prevents us from making the mistake of translating the meaning of Universal Monarchs and other Great Agents as symbolic representations of “real” kings and persons. As Davidson put it,“nothing, no thing, makes sentences and theories true [i.e., meaningful].” A comparison of the Great Agents demonstrates that it is the oppositions that reveal the differences between them. The one, a renouncer, the other a conqueror, both share an ascetic liminality. The chapter closes with the suggestion that the Bodhisattva, another great mythical figure of Mahayana Buddhism, may bring about a unity or synthesis of the two figures.
The use of fluorescent probes in cell-counting procedures
Authors: Peterson Daniel A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes the use of fluorescent probes in cell-counting procedures. The theoretical and practical considerations for using fluorescent probes in quantitative analysis are presented along with a worked example using the optical fractionator procedure. It demonstrates the advantages of fluorescent probes for optical sectioning and the preservation of section thickness that results from the preparative methodology making staining with fluorescent probes particularly useful for the implementation of the optical fractionator procedure. It also describes the limitations of fluorescent probes and cautions about their analysis. The chapter concludes with a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of using fluorescent probes for quantitative stereology. When properly applied, fluorescent probes are ideally suited to the three-dimensional sampling requirements of the optical fractionator procedure.
Number in electron microscopy: estimation of total number of synapses in the main regions of human neocortex
Authors: Nyengaard Jens R. , Dorph-Petersen Karl-Anton , Tang Yong 
Published: September 2009

AbstractSignificant disagreements exist among previous morphometric studies of synapse number in relation to memory deficits associated with aging and diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. There may be a number of methodological reasons for these conflicting results including lack of unbiased sampling design; use of two-dimensional sampling and model-based methods; reporting of densities; and ignorance of postmortem changes. This chapter describes a design-based stereological approach that can overcome these problems.
The number of microvessels estimated by an unbiased stereological method applied in a brain region
Authors: Løkkegaard Annemette 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The microvascular network provides the means by which tissues exchange nutrients and are supplied with oxygen. The microvascular network is crucial for the function of tissues and organs, and the structure and density of the microvascular network is closely related to the metabolic demand and function of the tissue. This chapter presents a stereological description of the structure of vascular networks. It discusses the estimation of the number of microvessels using a disector/Cavalieri type sampling scheme.
Virtual test systems for estimation of orientation-dependent parameters in thick, arbitrarily orientated sections exemplified by length quantification of regenerating axons in spinal cord lesions using isotropic, virtual planes
Authors: Larsen Jytte Overgaard , Voneuler Mia , Janson Annmarie 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Global spatial sampling is a sine qua non for design-based estimation of surface area and curve length and local spatial sampling is required for design-based estimation of particle surface and volume as well as for estimation of spatial distribution. Virtual test systems — where the random rotation of the stereological probe is made within volume probes of thick physical sections after sectioning by the use of computer-assisted microscopy — ensure correct spatial sampling in a uniform sample of tissue sectioned in the most convenient sectioning direction. This chapter describes the basic principles governing virtual test systems. The concept is completely general and all kinds of test probes suited for their intended purposes can be implemented. It provides an in-depth description of length estimation using virtual test systems, and a worked example of length quantification of regenerating axons in rat spinal cord lesions using isotropic, virtual planes.
Spatial distribution
Authors: Evans Stephen M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe human brain is made up of an ordered three-dimensional array of smaller units, for example, the vertical and horizontal organization of neurons in the cerebral cortex. Knowledge of the structural relationship of these small units should provide more insight into brain function as a whole and how it doesn't function in pathological states. This chapter describes a method that can directly measure three-dimensional point patterns from measurements done on one section. The method is based on the nucleator principle where the probability that a point in three-dimensional space is hit by the probe is known. One of the unique features of the nucleator is that in one section the three-dimensional distance can be measured from a typical point to everything else that is observable in the section. That is to say, it is possible to estimate the variation of events, in this case the number of points, as a function of distance, that is, the three-dimensional spatial distribution of the points.
Sexual health interventions should be subject to experimental evaluation
Authors: Bonell Chris , Bennett Rebecca , Oakley Ann 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter argues that evaluating the effectiveness of sexual health promotion is necessary to promote the use of beneficial interventions, to prevent the deployment of harmful interventions, and to maximize the cost-effectiveness of programmes of sexual health promotion. Experimental evaluations of sexual health promotion should include process evaluations, and allocation may often be of clusters rather than individuals. Sexual health promotion interventions that are not amenable to experimental evaluation, because of political or practical problems, should not be totally ignored by researchers and policy-makers. Where experimental designs cannot be used, other evaluation methods must suffice.
The role of randomized controlled trials in assessing sexual health interventions
Authors: Ross David A. , Wight Daniel 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the role of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of behavioural sexual health interventions in developing countries. It argues that, whenever feasible, well-conducted RCTs are the best method to evaluate the health and behavioural effects of such interventions. The appropriate use of designs such as cluster randomized trials makes it feasible to use experimental methods in the evaluation of a wide variety of sexual health interventions. The dichotomy between advocates and detractors of experimental evaluation designs has often stemmed from both groups ignoring the simple fact that both RCTs and non-RCTs can provide useful and valid information.
Using theories of behaviour change to develop and evaluate sexual health interventions
Authors: Sutton Stephen 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses the role of theory in the development and evaluation of health behaviour interventions, focusing on sexually transmitted infection (STI). First, it outlines the rationale for using theories of behaviour change. It then describes one theoretical approach — the theory of reasoned action — and shows how the theory can be used to guide the development of an intervention. Although the discussion focuses on this particular theory, most of the comments are also applicable to other theories of behaviour change. Finally, the chapter provides a detailed discussion of a number of problems and issues that arise when using theories of behaviour change as the basis for behavioural interventions.
Stages in the development and evaluation of complex interventions
Authors: Nazareth Irwin 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter explores a framework for the design and evaluation of complex interventions for sexual health. It includes a detailed description of the sequential phases for the development of a randomized controlled trial (RCT), using a model that, until recently, was only applied to drug evaluations. The use of such an approach to the evaluation of interventions in sexual health is discussed, with special reference to an RCT of a behavioural intervention to prevent sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among minority ethnic women from Texas, USA. The approach is also illustrated by a hypothetical intervention to involve general practice nurses in the management of chlamydia trachomatis. Finally, some of the practical difficulties encountered in following this phased approach to the development of complex intervention trials are discussed.
Choice of experimental design
Authors: Bird Sheila 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter considers the strengths and limitations of a range of evaluation study designs, focusing on the consumer principle of randomization. Although much of the chapter is devoted to randomized controlled trials (RCTs), non-randomized studies such as disease registries and cohort studies are included because of their importance in the evaluation of cost-effectiveness. The chapter also considers issues of informed consent that are relevant to choice of experimental design, and the need for database linkage to overcome informative loss to follow-up that might otherwise undermine randomized allocation.
Cluster randomized trials of sexual health interventions
Authors: Hayes Richard 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The randomized controlled trial (RCT) has become one of the fundamental tools of medical research. In particular, evidence from RCTs is now recognized as a ‘gold standard’ for the evaluation of new health interventions. In RCTs of drugs and vaccines, the products to be compared are usually allocated randomly to individual subjects. Individual randomization may also be appropriate for some RCTs of sexual health interventions. In many cases, however, it may be more appropriate to allocate randomly entire clusters of individuals to each condition. For example, depending on the design of the intervention, trials of behavioural programmes could employ randomization of schools, villages, or entire districts. Such trials are referred to as cluster randomized trials (CRTs). This chapter begins by discussing the rationale for employing the CRT design to evaluate sexual health interventions. Such trials require special methods for their design and analysis that differ from those used in standard individually randomized trials, and these methods are briefly discussed. Finally, the chapter considers some of the limitations and disadvantages of this study design.
Biological, behavioural and pyschological outcome measures
Authors: Cowan Frances M. , Plummer Mary 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses the general points to consider when selecting outcomes for determining sexual risk reduction. It considers the attributes, limitations, measurement, and interpretation of various biological, behavioural, psychological, and other outcome measures of sexual risk reduction. The choice of outcome measures used to assess intervention effectiveness will depend on logistical as well as scientific factors. Biological outcome measures have several advantages over behavioural and cognitive measures. Biological measures are not prone to reporting bias, and thus may provide more valid data than self-reported measures. In addition, interventions that have been shown to reduce rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or unintended pregnancy are likely to carry more weight with policy-makers than those that have only been shown to change sexual behaviour or cognitions.
The value of systematic reviews of the effectiveness of sexual health interventions
Authors: Shepherd Jonathan , Harden Angela 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter brings together the results of experimental evaluations of sexual health intervention in the form of systematic reviews. It explores the extent to which systematic reviews are reliable and useful, and their relevance to the field of sexual health. The chapter makes extensive use of examples from a programme of work on evidence-based health promotion undertaken at the Evidence Informed Policy and Practice Information and Coordinating Centre (EPPI-Centre) at the Social Science Research Unit, University of London Institute of Education. It concludes with a subjective summary of the value of systematic reviews of sexual health promotion, and outlines some recommendations for the conduct of systematic reviews of the promotion of sexual health and health promotion in general.
Cell-mediated delivery systems
Authors: Dobrenis Kostantin 
Published: September 2009

AbstractDiseases that involve the central nervous system (CNS) pose one of the most difficult challenges in human therapy. Cell-mediated therapy (CMT) is a uniquely complex and powerful approach that offers an unparalleled advantage. This chapter reviews work in the area of CMT with a bias towards understanding the critical mechanisms that underlie successful CMT for CNS storage disease. It highlights the advantages offered by employing cells as the therapeutic agent.
Clinical aspects and diagnosis
Authors: Wraith J. Edmond 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe lysosomal storage disorders, like many other metabolic and genetic diseases, show a remarkably variable clinical phenotype. In some patients, the presentation may be in the neonatal period with hydrops fetalis, whereas in others, even with the same enzyme deficiency, onset may be late into adult life. This chapter describes the clinical signs and symptoms in general, and then concentrates on a few selected disorders that illustrate more specific modes of presentation.
Defects in transmembrane proteins
Authors: Ioannou Yiannis A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses defects in transmembrane proteins. Topics covered include the endosomal/lysosomal v-ATPase, Niemann–Pick C disease, Batten disease, Salla disease, Danon disease, cystinosis, and mucolipidosis type IV. A theme beginning to emerge from studies of transmembrane proteins is the apparent complexity of their regulation and function(s). Disease pathogenesis is not caused simply by abnormal accumulation of metabolites. A fact that is often overlooked is that these proteins exhibit a symport or antiport activity in order to power transport. The importance of this activity and the consequences of disrupting it have not been addressed. However, these activities almost certainly balance and regulate the activity of the v-ATPase to maintain the delicate electrochemical gradient across the endosomal/lysosomal membranes.
Health event data
Authors: Staines A. , Järup L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter serves as guide to those setting out to analyze large health-related datasets. It focuses on European systems, especially in the UK and the Scandinavian countries, although many of the issues are applicable to other industrialized countries. A wide range of spatial data sources are available for epidemiological analysis. New and powerful methods of handling spatial data, including GIS and Bayesian multi-level modelling, have made sophisticated and complex analyses possible. To make effective use of these approaches, epidemiologists must be aware of the details of the data with which they propose to work, and of the specific problems and limitations of routinely collected health data, which often form the core of spatial analysis.
The use of population data in spatial epidemiology
Authors: Arnold R. A. , Diamond I. D. , Wakefield J. C. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter considers the use of population counts in spatial epidemiological studies. The chapter proceeds as follows. Section 3.2 reviews data available for estimating the populations of small areas. Section 3.3 describes a number of estimation methods. Section 3.4 considers the implications of inadequacies in population estimates under various models describing the relationship between ‘true’ and estimated counts. Section 3.5 presents an example that illustrates both the sensitivity of inference to the choice of counts and a method by which inter-censual counts may be estimated.
Socio-economic factors at areal level and their relationship with health
Authors: Carstairs V. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the development and application of area methods to examine socio-economic differentials and their effects on health in the UK. Individual socio-economic variables and deprivation indices at area level have proven their value in allowing a socio-economic dimension to emerge from a range of routine databases over the past two decades. However, as social climate changes, it is likely that the constituent variables in the indices will require review.
Geographical analysis of communicable disease data
Authors: Atkinson P. , Molesworth A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents methods to map and analyze communicable disease data. It discusses their limitations and proposes possible solutions or alternative approaches to minimize some of these problems. The discussion is based on experience of the surveillance of communicable diseases in England and Wales. It argues that the quality and availability of georeferenced information is improving, but the nature of surveillance systems designed to provide timely data to inform intervention means that complete data are unlikely to be achieved. Thus, geographical analysis of communicable disease data will require ongoing development of robust spatial analysis techniques that can cope with clustered patterns, minimize the impact of missing data, and incorporate mixed resolution data.
Geographical variations in childhood leukaemia incidence
Authors: Bithell J. F. , Vincent T. J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines geographical variations in the incidence of childhood leukaemia. It shows there is more variation of incidence at the international level than at smaller geographical scales of study. Geographical variations in childhood leukaemia incidence are generally not as great as is sometimes supposed, and that such as do occur may be due as much to genetic differences as to environmental ones.
Personal exposure monitoring in environmental epidemiology
Authors: Nieuwenhuijsen M.J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe exposure to any pollutant is determined by the concentration of the pollutant in the environment, its specific character, and the duration and frequency of contact. Estimates of these characteristics can be obtained instrumentally (i.e., using a monitoring device), via questionnaires, through direct observation, or through the use of biomarkers. This chapter focuses on the measurement of personal exposure with instruments or biomarkers. Although personal monitoring is labour-intensive and expensive, it remain a valuable technique because it can dramatically improve exposure assessment in epidemiological studies, thus adding to the scientific credibility of the studies.
The role of geographical studies in risk assessment
Authors: Järup L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter evaluates the use of geographical information systems (GIS) in risk assessment. It shows that the use of GIS at all stages of the risk assessment process has both strengths and weaknesses. In the case of exposure assessment, one of its main advantages is the possibility of modelling exposure geographically so that individual exposure may be estimated without costly and cumbersome measurements. However, misuse of GIS for exposure estimation may lead to completely erroneous risk assessment.
Climate change and human health: mapping and modelling potential impacts
Authors: McMichael A. J. , Martens P. , Kovats R. S. , Lele S. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the methods used to describe and forecast the health impacts of climate change. It considers the research methods applicable to assessing the potential impacts of climate change, including empirical studies of climate/health relationships, predictive modelling, and general assessments of health consequences of complex demographic, social, and economic disruptions.
Established major coronary risk factors: historical overview
Authors: Stamler J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents a historical overview of research on the six established major risk factors for coronary heart disease: adverse diet, diet-related above-optimal levels of serum total cholesterol (TC), blood pressure (BP), overweight/obesity, diabetes mellitus (DM), and cigarette smoking. These have been shown to be centrally involved in the multifactorial causation of severe atherosclerotic disease, its complications, and its multiple clinical manifestations — first and foremost the epidemic of CHD in Western industrialized countries.
Trends in Asia
Authors: Ueshima H. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses trends in coronary heart disease (CHD) in Asia. Conventional risk factors for CHD in Asian countries are similar to those of Western countries. The major determinant of CHD mortality and morbidity among populations is the population level of serum TC, which is related to the levels of fat intake, Keys score, and BMI in populations. CHD mortality and morbidity have started to decline or have levelled off after the early phase of increase in Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Korea due to declining trends in smoking and the prevalence of hypertension and/or blood pressure levels.
Coronary heart disease burden among persons of African origin
Authors: Cooper R. S. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the burden of cardiovascular disease for the US black population, while noting the contrasts with West Africa and the Caribbean. For all forms of heart disease, combined death rates are 50% higher in US blacks compared to whites. The risk factor pattern that underlies this differential has evolved over the course of the African diaspora and reflects the severe social and economic disadvantage currently experienced by US blacks. The classic finding of a positive association of CVD and economic development across countries, with a negative association between socio-economic strata and risk within industrialized countries, is apparent in this sample of populations.
Coronary heart disease mortality attributable to smoking: global and regional estimates for 2000
Authors: Ezzati M. , Lopez A. D. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter employs the indirect smoking impact ratio method (Peto et al. 1992), which uses absolute lung cancer mortality in a population as a marker for accumulated hazards of smoking, to estimate the global impact of smoking on coronary heart disease (CHD) mortality. In 2000, an estimated 873,000 people died from CHD in the world due to smoking, accounting for 15% of global adult CHD mortality. This figure represents a significant proportion of the more than 4.8 million smoking-attributable deaths in 2000. Of these deaths, 359,000 were in developing countries, marking a transition to an era in which smoking kills a comparable number of people from CHD in developing countries as in industrialized nations.