bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Networks
Authors: Axford Barrie 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
A network is an arrangement of nodes tied together by relationships – some instrumental, others affective – that serve as channels of communication, resource pools, and coordinating mechanisms. As Karin Knorr‐Cetina (2007) notes, the ontology of the network consists of cooperation of various kinds, strategic alliances, exchanges, emotional bonds, kinship ties, personal relations, and other forms of grouping and entrenchment. Sociality is thereby instantiated in networks of relationships.
New World Information and Communication Order
Authors: Zehle Soenke 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The controversy around a New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) is a key episode in the emergence of global communications governance. Beginning in the 1960s, US efforts to maintain the “free flow of information” as a core principle in international communications were met with criticism from the Soviet Union and its allies as well as the Non‐Alignment Movement (NAM) of independent states. International arguments within the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the main forum of NWICO‐related debates between 1972 and 1985, led to the creation of a commission mandated to investigate imbalances in global information flows. Documenting the dominance of commercial and military communications infrastructures by industrialized nations, the commission proposed a stronger international regulation of the media system, based on alternative development paradigms that stressed cultural identity, independence, and self‐reliance. Actively promoted by UNESCO until 1983, NWICO contributed to the departure of two of its key members, the United States (1984) and the UK (1985).
Non‐place
Authors: Sam Jillet Sarah 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Non‐Place is a social geographical concept integral to the definition of Place. Consequently, both concepts are visualized as ideal‐typical poles in a continuum. The interpretation of Non‐Place has progressed from an initial association with spaces of difference (de Certeau), to a more critical association with generic spaces (Ritzer 2004; Augé 2008). The latter interpretation is particularly relevant to the discussion of globalization.
North American Free Trade Agreement
Authors: Kay Tamara 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a multilateral agreement signed by the governments of the United States, Mexico, and Canada that eliminates or reduces tariffs on a variety of products and services and went into force on January 1, 1994. Although, as early as the 1980s, President Ronald Reagan called for the creation of a free trade zone extending across the Americas, it did not take shape until the early 1990s under the George H. W. Bush Administration. Mexican officials had opposed creating a free trade zone with the United States for years, but after a series of economic crises in the 1980s and the rise of a new cadre of neoliberal technocrats, the Salinas de Gortari Administration began the process of neutralizing opposition and building support for an agreement (Fairbrother 2007). Initially only the United States and Mexico were parties to the agreement, but Canada joined negotiations in January 1991. Unlike the European Union and the European community that preceded it, NAFTA is strictly a free trade agreement. It did not create a common currency or allow the free movement of people among the three countries.
North–South
Authors: Aulette Judy 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The terms North and South or global North and global South refer to the distinction between those nations that are most wealthy and powerful and those that are poorer and less powerful in the global political economy. The words are based on the observation that the richest and most powerful nations are nearly all located in the Northern Hemisphere, while the Southern Hemisphere is comprised of mostly poorer and less powerful nations. The North includes nations of North America, such as the United States and Canada, and the nations of Europe. The South includes nations in South America, Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia. Although New Zealand and Australia lie below the equator, they are often considered as part of the Global North.
Open‐Sourcing
Authors: Rey P.J. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
In the simplest terms, open‐source software is software whose code is made public. This is in contrast to proprietary software, whose code remains a trade secret. Unlike proprietary software, open‐source software allows any developer, or group of developers, to freely repackage, remix, modify, extend, or augment the software in order to best customize it for their own purposes. The development of open‐source software is closely linked to the phenomenon of crowd‐sourcing, whereby technology enables the distribution of complex tasks formerly done by paid professionals to (usually unpaid) amateurs, consumers, or freelancers. In this case, rather than one set of developers working to produce an ultimate, polished version of a program that is unviewable to the public until its final release, developers across the globe continuously revise the software and offer their own new versions or modifications to the public. Occasionally, these changes become so popular that they are integrated in to the next official release by a company, and the process begins anew. So, while proprietary software is centrally conceived and controlled, rigid, and discrete, open‐source software, like many trends related to globalization, is fluid, ever‐changing, and as localized as it is global.
Orientalism
Authors: Munif Yasser 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
“Orientalism,” broadly defined, refers to two, almost contrary concepts. The first meaning designates, according to European scholars, the activities that revolve around the production of art and knowledge, which have as their object of study the Orient. Orientalism, as a field of inquiry that examines the Orient, appeared in the West, with the emergence of capitalism and modernity. Although some scholars trace its history back to the Roman Empire, its formation as a systematic and lasting field dates back to the early seventeenth century, when several theological centers where created in Rome and elsewhere to study Oriental languages, practices, philosophies, and documents. Its interest in Oriental religions marked merely its early period; it evolved in subsequent centuries to focus its attention on history, arts, archeology, and culture more generally defined.
Outsourcing
Authors: Lair Craig D. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
As it is normally used in the business context, the term outsourcing refers to instances in which a company purchases goods or services, once performed within the organizational structure of a company (i.e., “in house”), from an outside supplier. An example of this would be an automobile manufacturer purchasing the engines it needs for its cars from an outside company instead of building this component itself. Another way of thinking about outsourcing is in terms of the “make vs. buy” decision; that is, does a company make what it needs itself, or does it buy it from others? Though the practice of outsourcing is not new, and one can readily find historical examples of firms choosing to purchase products and services instead of producing them in house, the prevalence of this trend and the fact that it is occurring on a global scale are just two of the factors that distinguish the current wave of outsourcing from previous forms of outsourcing. In fact, outsourcing is so prevalent and so widespread today that it can potentially affect every aspect of the business process. Thus, businesses are no longer just outsourcing specific tasks (e.g., payroll) but entire business divisions (e.g., human resources). Also, some companies (e.g., Nike) have outsourced all of their manufacturing capabilities, leaving some to wonder what exactly it is that they “produce,” and others to characterize them as “hollow” organizations (Jonas 1986). The result of this is that it is no longer the question of what is being outsourced but instead what is not.
Pan American Health Organization
Authors: Collins‐Dogrul Julie 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) is an international public health agency that leads collaborations among member states and other partners to promote health equity, combat disease, and improve the quality and length of the lives of the peoples of the Americas. The organization strives to eliminate health disparities within and between countries by promoting shared interests, responsibilities, and cooperation among members. PAHO's view is that good health is central to the well‐being of families, communities, and the region.
Passports
Authors: Torpey John 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

As nation‐states – states of and for particular “peoples” defined as more or less mutually exclusive groups of citizens – modern states have typically been eager to regulate the movements of persons within and across their borders when they wish to do so. Their efforts to implement such regulation have driven them toward the creation of the means uniquely and unambiguously to identify individual persons, whether “their own” or others. In order to effect this regulation, states and the international state system have been compelled to define who belongs and who does not, who may come and go and who may not, and to make these distinctions intelligible and enforceable. Beyond simply enunciating definitions and categories concerning identity, states must
give effect to
these distinctions, and they require documents in order to do so in individual cases. Although passports are not the only documents that may be used for these purposes, passports have played a decisive role in achieving these aims.
Peace
Authors: Lynch Cecelia 
Published: March 2012

AbstractPeace is a composite term that connotes a range of political conditions from the absence of war to the institutionalization of social justice and/or cosmopolitan ethics. Peace is theorized primarily as the absence of war between political units in international relations and diplomatic studies, whereas philosophers and social theorists debate the social, economic, and ethical prerequisites for lasting conditions of peace. Social and economic prerequisites may be conceptualized as forms of wealth distribution that result in economic justice. Ethical prerequisites are often conceptualized as necessitating one of many forms of cosmopolitanism, such as respect for human rights. These prerequisites are extremely difficult to achieve in a pluralist world. While peace defined as the absence of war frequently occurs, most theorists and observers would not claim that the conditions of lasting peace, including social justice and agreement on ethics, has ever been achieved.
Place
Authors: Puleo Thomas J. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Place is a specific engagement with space.Where space is general, place is particular. Where space is objective, place is subjective. Where space is abstract, place is experienced. Place is material
and
cognitive. Old places are remembered and new places are imagined even as they occupy the same space as the present place. Place, real
and
imagined, exists at multiple scales, including the globe, the nation, the city, the body, and all points beyond or in between. The world is a place, as is Mars, ancient Rome, Camelot, or one's backyard.
Policing
Authors: Deflem Mathieu 
Published: March 2012

AbstractGlobal policing activities involving criminal law enforcement agencies have in recent years increased in kind and evolved into a wide variety of forms. Yet, global policing is not a recent phenomenon but has a long history dating back to at least the early nineteenth century when national states, especially in Europe, sought to strengthen control over political dissidents and relied on police institutions to track down opponents of established regimes across state borders. From these early political origins, global policing gradually transformed in kind and objectives to become more permanently structured in international police organizations and to focus on more distinctly criminal, rather than political, enforcement objectives.
Population
Authors: Sowers Elizabeth 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Population refers to the size of the group of people living in a particular area, which is impacted by the number of births, deaths, and migratory actions that occur. Studying populations, including their growth and decline, is the province of demography, or the scientific study of population. Demographers study populations at a variety of geographical levels, large and small. One could study the population of a particular neighborhood; a city, like Mexico City; a nation‐state, like China; regional groupings of countries, like the European Union; and metropolitan areas within one country, like the San Francisco Bay Area (to name only a few examples).
Postcolonialism
Authors: Ashcroft Bill 
Published: March 2012

AbstractPostcolonialism (or often post‐colonialism) deals with the effects of colonization on cultures and societies. Unlike “colonialism,” this term is of much more recent provenance, emerging in the late 1970s to describe a range of literary and cultural analysis of colonized and formerly colonized societies. As originally used by historians after World War II in terms such as the post‐colonial state, “post‐colonial” had a chronological meaning, designating the post‐independence period. However, from the late 1970s, the term has been used by cultural critics to discuss the various social, political and cultural effects of colonization. It now describes neither a historical period nor a fixed range of societies but is best understood as a discourse generating a specific reading practice.
Postcommunism
Authors: Ray Larry 
Published: March 2012

Abstract“Postcommunism” eludes simple definition. It can be a geographical reference to those countries of former Soviet systems in which communist governments were overthrown or abdicated in 1989–1991. However, it also invokes a “postcommunist condition” following the end of the Cold War (Sakwa 1999). The end of the bipolar world has been accompanied by a new but increasingly fragile US hegemony along with the emergence of civilizational conflict and global terrors that, in contrast to the territorially based divisions of the Cold War are partially “de‐territorialized.” This constitutes a radical departure from the emergent social processes of the previous two centuries. For most of the nineteenth century, socialism developed as a diverse body of ideas and political movements that presented an alternative to capitalism and colonialism. During the first half of the twentieth century, it was possible to imagine or indeed expect that capitalism would be superseded by socialism in some form or another – a possibility that Weber and, following him, Schumpter noted with dismay. Socialist parties were attracting mass working‐class following and extensive support among intellectuals. As well as growing support in the industrialized countries, socialism became increasingly influential among anti‐colonial liberation movements such as the Indian Congress and the African National Congress. Socialist and communist movements remained powerful forces in much of the non‐communist as well as the Soviet world during the twentieth century. Indeed, ironically, the Communist Party of Great Britain, which had never been a significant force in British politics, gained hitherto unprecedented influence on the mainstream intellectual Left through the journalMarxism Todayduring the 1980s. By the end of 1991, all this had gone along with the Soviet Union – communist and, increasingly, socialist ideologies, Eurocommunism, and the project of a post‐capitalist order based on social justice and equality all consigned to history. With this, passed an epoch in social and political thought and practice.
Poverty
Authors: Veltmeyer Henry 
Published: March 2012

AbstractIt is estimated that from 950 million to 1.3 billion people across the world live in conditions of extreme poverty, on less than a dollar a day and unable to meet their basic human needs, and at least another billion (depending on how poverty is understood) live in “relative” poverty. This means that nearly 800 million people do not get enough food, and about 500 million people are chronically malnourished. In fact, more than a third of the children of this world are malnourished. More than 840 million adults, of whom 538 million are women, are illiterate – and 1200 million people live without access to safe drinking water. These are some of the basic facts and figures on poverty, according to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
Primary Education
Authors: Ritzer George 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThere has been a phenomenal growth of education, especially higher education, in many countries and much of it can be attributed to various global processes (Manicas 2007). A good deal of the initial impetus for the expansion of education around the world emanated from national governments that not only accepted the importance of economic growth, but also the idea that education was critical to such growth (Blackman 2007). This was especially relevant to those nation‐states that took as their goal the development of a “knowledge economy.” The idea here is that while in the past brawn may have been the key to economic development, in the “post‐industrial” society it is much more knowledge and information that is needed for such development (Bell 2006). Knowledge, information, and the like are seen as “human capital” that is to be acquired by future employees primarily through involvement in the educational system. It also has tended to mean a commitment to lifelong education and to participation in educational systems throughout the life course.
Professions
Authors: Faulconbridge James R. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The professions, in the strictest scholarly definition of the term, are an exclusive group of occupations that have a state‐granted monopoly over the provision of a particular service. Monopoly rights are upheld by restricting the production and delivery of services to individuals who hold a qualification that is used to grant access to the profession – usually a university degree. Abel (1988) refers to this as a closure system that regulates “the production of producers” and which forms the basis of a professional project. Historically, accountants, architects, the clergy, doctors and lawyers have been the principal professions focused on in work by academics. However, because of the way the status of a profession is defined by the nation‐state and its granting of monopoly rights to a group, variations between countries in terms of which occupations can claim the title of a profession render a universal list of professions that deserve study difficult to construct.
Quotas
Authors: Skully David 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
A quota is quantitative restriction. Quotas are usually imposed by governments and other organizations to influence the composition of something. When a high volume of imports threatens a domestic industry, governments can limit imports by imposing an import quota. Similarly, a legislature or governing board might impose a quota mandating that at least half of its members be women, if women are historically underrepresented. By setting maximum volumes or minimum or maximum proportions, quotas can remedy the perceived problem of too much or too little of something. This entry focuses on quotas in international trade, their international governance, and on their use in environmental and resource management.
Race
Authors: Law Ian 
Published: March 2012

AbstractAcross the world as civilizations and societies emerged, ideas of race have had practical adequacy for people in helping them make sense of their social and cultural position. The history and origins of the notion of race reveals a wealth of differing meanings from which emerged the central understanding that it refers to a rhetoric of descent. The concept of race can be defined as the social and cultural significance assigned to a group of people who are recognized as sharing common physical or physiognomic characteristics and/or a common lineage of descent, hence for Goldberg (1993) race refers to a “rhetoric of descent” resulting from cultural choices in naming a set of markers of difference between human beings.
Realism, Political
Authors: Pumar Enrique 
Published: March 2012

AbstractPolitical realism examines politics as an arena for power contestation and attainment. Regardless of whether the focus is the domestic or international sphere, the realist perspective assumes that political actors behave in ways to maximize, or at least, satisfy their self‐interests. This implies that actors are capable of making rational calculations when it is in their best interest and will determine what types of political opportunities should be capitalized. A point of contention among proponents of this perspective is the degree to which power is fungible; that is to say, to what extent the power and prestige accumulated in one issue‐area is actually transferable to another. Finally, there has been a great deal of theorizing among political realists regarding whether power is a means to an end, a mean, an end, or both.
Reflexivity
Authors: Beck Ulrich , Zhang Joy Yueyue 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

There is a beautiful image for the intellectual metaphor of reflection, which has been so central ever since the Enlightenment:
thinking with an added eye
(Johann Gottlieb Fichte). It is definitely in accordance with this when Alvin Gouldner speaks of “reflexive sociology” and Jürgen Habermas of the “communicative society.” In talk of the “self‐referentiality of the systems” (Luhmann), on the other hand, the different aspect of the relationship to the “self” occupies the center of attention. On this contrast between knowledge and not‐knowing, consciousness and non‐consciousness, Bourdieu occupies a mediating position. He conceives of reflexivity as systematic reflection on the unconscious presuppositions (categories) of our knowledge.
Relativization
Authors: Robertson Roland 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Relativization is a crucial concept in the study of globalization. Relativization occurs when a group has beliefs and values and feels challenged by virtue of another group having different beliefs and values. In an increasingly compressed and interdependent world relativization is a particularly significant process. An excellent example of relativization is provided by the origins of Protestant fundamentalism in the United States at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries. The saying that sums up the situation confronting dedicated Protestants of that time is that they came to believe that they were strangers in their own country. In other words, they felt like immigrants, in the sense that they were being inundated by what they perceived to be alien doctrines and ways of life.