bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Prayer
Authors: Stewart Columba 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Prayer is a universal feature of human religious practice. Among early Christians, it had two broad and frequently overlapping categories. First, and primordially, there was communal or liturgical prayer, consisting largely of conventional words and actions. Second, there was individual or ‘private’ prayer, more variable in form. This article focuses on private prayer, though the language of private prayer often drew from liturgical prayer. Silent prayer, like silent reading, was rare in antiquity. The study of prayer in early Christianity highlights the uneasy position of Christian religion in late antiquity. Oriented toward Judaism by their sacred writings and devotional practices, Christians found themselves in their early years struggling on two fronts to define their distinctive religious identity and to justify their understanding of God as disclosed in Jesus Christ.
Penance
Authors: Fitzgerald, OSA Allan D. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The study of penance in the early church can be challenging because of the variety of opinions among scholars; it can also be difficult because of the apparent diversity in penitential practices among the Christian communities in the first 600 years. Studies of penance have often described it in terms of its severity, rigour, or laxity. Hence, the terminology for this period should stay as close to the texts of that time as possible, so as to allow frameworks and descriptions to be the result of careful study. Some interpretations of the history of penance have presumed an individualistic appreciation of the penitential experience. Liturgy, however, was a significant dimension of the earliest Christian experience, and the communitarian and liturgical contexts for Christian penance need to be given greater importance than they have yet received.
Doctrine of Creation
Authors: Blowers Paul M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
As with other classic themes in early Christian thought, the doctrine of creation was a complex construction. It drew broadly and deeply from the language and imagery of the Bible. Its ultimate contours and coherence were shaped primarily in relation to other major aspects of the Catholic Christian faith: the Trinity, the nature and vocation of the human ‘microcosm’, the Fall, the economy of salvation, the mission of Jesus Christ to usher in the new creation, the final consummation of the world, and so on. It was a doctrine about origins and also a doctrine about grace and nature, about history, about providence and evil, about tragedy and beauty, about corporeality and incarnation, about time and eternity, and about eschatological judgement and perfection.
Feminist Theory and Organization Theory: A Dialogue on New Bases
Authors: Gherardi Silvia 
Published: September 2009

AbstractGender has to do not only with bodies, and power, but also with the politics of knowledge, and therefore with organizations as containers of different bodies and sexualities, as arenas of power/knowledge, and with organization theory as a system of knowledge representation. The contention that the ‘organizational theory’ (OT) is male gendered is too well known to reiterate. This article starts from the premiss that neither feminist theory (FT) nor OT is a homogeneous and unitary body of knowledge. It illustrates the multiple points of view expressed by those involved in this conversation. This article briefly surveys the main theories in gender studies, showing how they represent the relation between gender and organization and contributes to the analysis of organizations and organizational processes. It concludes with a reflection on the politics of knowledge in FT and OT and the — ironic, nomadic, eccentric — knowing subjects.
The Styles and the Stylists of Organization Theory
Authors: Czarniawska Barbara 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Organization theory has many excellent stylists, probably due to its much lamented plurality. This article quotes several exemplars of style-as-theory or perhaps style-as-method, to show that there is a vast repertoire to choose from and to expand. This article adds that this is a posteriori judgment: there are no ‘styles that persuade’, only ‘styles that have persuaded’ — some readers, at a certain place, at a certain time. This article focuses on native English writers, not because they are the only ones to develop a style, but because a rhetorical analysis performed in English on a text written in another language borders on absurdity, and the same analysis applied to a translation from another language raises a host of doubts as to whose style is under description. All analyses are language bound, but a rhetorical one even more so.
Modes of Explanation in Organization Theory
Authors: Scherer Andreas Georg 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Organization theory (OT) is concerned with explaining the genesis, existence, functionality, and the transformation of organizations, and by doing so, it is also concerned with influencing organizational practice. OT knowledge differs from individuals' lay knowledge by its systematic and methodic characteristics. There are many organizational theories in textbooks, scholarly journals, etc., which are entirely different from each other. To deal with this variety of topics, the current literature suggests a categorization of themes at different levels of analysis. Depending on whether theories deal with the behaviour of individuals in organizations, with the behaviour of a whole organization, or with relationships among organizations, they could be distinguished into micro, meso, and macro theories of organization. Two distinctions are important in this respect: the research interest of the researcher and the methods used. These distinctions are important to understand the characteristics of different modes of explanations.
Theory and Practice in the Real World
Authors: Weick Karl E. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Theory and practice are qualitatively different. This article first examines the terminology used in discussions of theory-practice and discovers that the word ‘understanding’ is a major source of trouble. It then reviews eight different ways in which people have tried to reconcile theory and practice. It is then argued that theory and practice can be partly reconciled if living forward is differentiated into ready-to-hand living and unready-to-hand living, a distinction first proposed by Heidegger. If theorists and practitioners alike focus on the interruptions of unready-to-hand, then the theorist is forced to sense more of the world as it is experienced by the practitioner and the practitioner is forced to detach from the flow of events, objectify portions of what normally is a flow, and adopt a mindset toward barriers similar to that of the theorist. Finally, this article concludes with an example of unready-to-hand theorizing.
Organization Theory and Ethics: Varieties and Dynamics of Constrained Optimization
Authors: Nielsen Richard P. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Organizational theory and ethics are not only mutually informing and entangled historically, they may also be codependent. A key foundational principle in both organization studies and ethics is ‘constrained optimization’. The operating and at least implicit primary purpose or reason for being of an organization is what is optimized. Optimization is both a normative idea and a descriptive idea. This article focuses on various types of business organization. What is constrained and optimized for government and nonprofit organizations can be very different. It proceeds, analyzes, and compares how key theorists from the time of Adam Smith, who analyze both ethics and business organizational forms, consider varieties of constrained optimization. This article considers six different types of constrained optimization and analyses change processes through which varieties of constrained optimization evolve.
The Future of Organization Theory: Prospects and Limitations
Authors: Burrell Gibson 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Organization theory is largely about management in many of its guises and how this intermediate group relates to both its hierarchical superiors and its subordinates. It involves the careful investigation and critique of knowledge about management that has been developed by a community of scholars, where management is seen as a middle-ranking social grouping within organizational contexts and it is only understood in terms of its relations to its superiors and subordinates. This article talks about the new epistemological and methodological orientations that are to be adopted. The question of what interrelationships within organization theory needs to be rephrased to include the encouragement of neo-disciplinarity, the involvement of the young in the dissemination and creation of newly published material, and closer connections of a non-exploitative kind with other social science disciplines.
The Future of Organization Studies: Beyond the Selection–Adaptation Debate
Authors: Lewin Arie Y. , Volberda Henk W. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article explores the coevolution perspective as a new meta-theoretical lens for research in organization studies and for reintegrating organization theory and strategy. It is believed that coevolution frameworks will inform research in organization studies, that spans levels of analyses and involves adaptation or change over time. This article states that coevolution frameworks could prove especially useful for progress on bridging the adaptation-selection chasm and for developing insights into the mutation process of incumbent organizations. The coevolution meta-theoretical lens has the potential for integrating micro- and macro-level evolution within a unifying framework, incorporating multiple levels of analyses and contingent effects, and leading to new insights, new theories, new empirical methods, and new understanding. In conclusion, this article argues that advances in organization studies require moving beyond the adaptation-selection debate and should emerge from building and testing coevolutionary theories.
Introducing Inter‐organizational Relations
Authors: Cropper Steve , Ebers Mark , Huxham Chris , Ring Peter Smith 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This text draws together a wide variety of research that makes up the study of inter-organizational relations (IOR). It includes many empirical settings and a range of disciplinary and theoretical bases as well as several specific topic areas. It is mainly concerned with representing the state of knowledge in the emerging field of IOR research; in addition, it seeks to suggest fruitful avenues for future research. IOR is concerned with relationships between and among organizations. The study of IOR is concerned with understanding the character and pattern, origins, rationale, and consequences of such relationships. The organizations can be public, business, or non-profit and the relationships can range from dyadic, involving just two organizations, to multiplicitous, involving huge networks of many organizations.
Alliances and Joint Ventures
Authors: Dacin Tina , Reid Douglas , Ring Peter Smith 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article defines collaborations between firms that involve the creation of a separate, autonomous, and legally recognized firm — a ‘newco’ — as a joint venture. Joint ventures usually, but not always, involve parties who have contributed equity in creating the ‘newco’, so the term joint venture in this article refers to equity joint ventures. Joint ventures typically involve collaborations between two parties, but there can be more. This article defines an alliance as a cooperative agreement between at least two firms. These firms combine their resources and capabilities in the pursuit of collective and individual strategic objectives. This article begins with a discussion of the frequency with which firms rely on joint ventures and alliances and the motivations that lead economic actors to develop joint ventures and/or alliances. It provides a detailed discussion of the theory underlying partner selection in joint ventures and alliances.
Policy and Implementation Networks
Authors: Klijn Erik-Hans 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article gives an overview of the research using the network concept to analyse policy-making and implementation. It discusses the three main research traditions that have used the network concept as a tool for analysing policy-making and implementation. The range of network types that have been studied from a network perspective is enormous and recently there seems to be a global explosion of research on policy and implementation networks. This article only presents a brief overview of some main findings and trends using a classification of the research on policy formation and implementation. Then, its focus shifts to what the literature has to tell about managing networks and the complex decision-making processes that take place within them. Furthermore, it considers the question of how to research networks of policy-making and implementation. Finally, it concludes with some observations about the future of this research tradition.
Inter‐organizational Relationships in Local and Regional Development Partnerships
Authors: Geddes Mike 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article reviews the relationships between institutionalized actors in local and regional development partnerships. Its main focus is on partnerships in the UK, Europe, and the USA, but attention is also given to other parts of the world. Local and regional development partnerships frequently include actors from the community and civil society as well as from formal organizations in the public, for profit, and not for profit sectors, and in this respect, this article is likely to share some concerns with a number of other works, from those on policy and implementation networks and on public service partnerships to those on community and voluntary sector partnerships. This article also discusses the policy and practitioner-oriented literature about the strengths and weaknesses of partnership as a way of pursuing local and regional development and regeneration. Finally, it concludes with an assessment of the possible future of partnership for local and regional development.
Technology Service Inter‐organizational Relationships
Authors: Hui Pamsy P. , Fonstad Nils O. , Beath Cynthia M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article identifies four dimensions that set technology services fundamentally apart from the commodities-like products theorized and studied in the literature on firm boundaries. Specifically, it argues that: technology services often require capabilities that are specialized and heterogeneously distributed across organizational boundaries; technology services are highly uncertain by nature; the value of a technology service cannot be evaluated by the tangible assets acquired; and the feasibility of a technology service depends on the technology and related capabilities in place in an organization. Different technology services vary along these four dimensions, but they are all substantially different from other products and services on all four dimensions. This article illustrates how inadequate consideration of one or more of these features of technology services contributes to the equivocal character of research.
Perspectives on Inter‐organizational Relations in Economic Geography
Authors: Yeung Henry Wai‐chung 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines how inter-organizational relations (IORs) have been developed and analysed in economic geography during the past two decades. To make apparent the different perspectives in economic geography that are linked directly to IORs as a field of study, this article reviews and evaluates two major strands of the literature: inter-organizational networks and spatial development; and relational networks and global production networks (GPNs). Whereas the first strand of geographical perspectives deploys inter-organizational networks to explain the nature and characteristics of economic development on local and regional scales, the second body of work focuses primarily on relational networks in GPNs and places a great deal of emphasis on how inter-organizational relations are mediated through complex power relations constituted at multiple geographical scales, particularly at the global scale.
Inter‐organizational Power
Authors: Huxham Chris , Beech Nic 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Researchers view the significance of power in a variety of ways. Some see this as vested in organizations' need for control in their relationships with others. Others regard power — the power to achieve ends more effectively through joint action — as an important positive outcome from a productive relationship between organizations. For a third group, the significance of power is embodied in the term ‘empowerment’. The perspectives on power in the inter-organizational relationship (IOR) literature also vary across many other dimensions. This article identifies, compares, and integrates views across several of these. Its overall perspective is on what research says about the operation of power in IOR settings: the processes through which things are influenced, what power is used for, and how it can be appropriated. Before introducing these dimensions, however, this article provides a brief overview of some of the IOR contexts in which power issues are raised.
The Role of Social Capital in Inter‐organizational Relationships
Authors: Nahapiet Janine 
Published: September 2009

AbstractA central challenge in the study of inter-organizational relationships (IORs) is to explain why and how organizations connect effectively, work cooperatively, and coordinate their activities to achieve superior performance. The strategic logic and motives underpinning the increased move to IORs in western economies include access to key resources, particularly information, markets, and technologies, advantages from knowledge and learning, scale and scope economies, as well as risk sharing. Such benefits can be viewed as both inducements and opportunities for firms. This article sets out and explores the proposition that research on social capital provides a valuable answer to the question of why some people and some organizations do better in the sphere of IORs. Specifically, scholars of social capital argue that those who do better do so because, through their connections and relationships, they are better able to access and benefit from a range of opportunities and resources that impact performance.
The Evolving Influence of Psychometrics in Political Science
Authors: Poole Keith T. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article outlines how the measurement of political issue spaces has developed in the past eighty years through borrowings from psychometrics (scaling, factor analysis, and unfolding), additions from political science theories (the spatial theory of voting and ideal points), and confronting the special problems of political survey, roll-call, and interest-group ratings data. Psychometrics is a subfield of psychology devoted to the development, evaluation, and application of mental tests of various kinds. In the 1980s, political scientists began combining techniques from econometrics and statistics with approaches developed by psychometricians. The effect of psychometrics displays no sign of abating in political science. The level of sophistication of psychometric applications in political science has steadily increased in the past twenty years.
On Types of Scientific Enquiry: the Role of Qualitative Reasoning
Authors: Freedman David A. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article argues that ‘substantial progress derives from informal reasoning and qualitative insights’. It shows the role played by causal process observations (CPOs), and qualitative reasoning more generally, in a series of well-known episodes drawn from the history of medicine. Edward Jenner published twenty-three case studies to demonstrate the safety and efficacy of ‘vaccination’. Ignac Semmelweis discovered the cause of puerperal fever. John Snow revealed that cholera was a water-borne infectious disease, which could be prevented by cleaning up the water supply. Christiaan Eijkman's research plan was to use Koch's methods, and show that beriberi was an infectious disease. Joseph Goldberger believed that pellagra was a deficiency disease. Frederick McKay and his connection with fluoridation, and the discovery of Alexander Fleming to penicillin, are discussed. In addition, the breakthrough of German measles by Norman Gregg is reported. Finally, Arthur Herbst offers the association between diethylstibestrol and adenocarcinoma of the vagina.
Studying Mechanisms To Strengthen Causal Inferences In Quantitative Research
Authors: Hedström Peter 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article emphasizes various ways by which the study of mechanisms can make quantitative research more useful for causal inference. It concentrates on three aspects of the role of mechanisms in causal and statistical inference: how an understanding of the mechanisms at work can improve statistical inference by guiding the specification of the statistical models to be estimated; how mechanisms can strengthen causal inferences by improving our understanding of why individuals do what they do; and how mechanism-based models can strengthen causal inferences by showing why, acting as they do, individuals bring about the social outcomes they do. There has been a surge of interest in mechanism-based explanations, in political science as well as in sociology. Most of this work has been vital and valuable in that it has sought to clarify the distinctiveness of the approach and to apply it empirically.
Survey Methodology
Authors: Johnston Richard 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article addresses three dimensions for data collection: mode, space, and time. It considers the problems of adequately representing persons by ensuring high response rates and measuring opinions validly and reliably through the design of high-quality questions. The advent of the internet and the World Wide Web is dramatically expanding the repertoire for survey research. The evidence suggests that the forces driving response rate down are largely orthogonal to substantive political choices. Surveys overrepresent political interest and its correlates and so may replicate class and other barriers to political participation.
Bayesian Analysis
Authors: Martin Andrew D. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article surveys modern Bayesian methods of estimating statistical models. It first provides an introduction to the Bayesian approach for statistical inference, contrasting it with more conventional approaches. It then explains the Monte Carlo principle and reviews commonly used Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods. This is followed by a practical justification for the use of Bayesian methods in the social sciences, and a number of examples from the literature where Bayesian methods have proven useful are shown. The article finally provides a review of modern software for Bayesian inference, and a discussion of the future of Bayesian methods in political science. One area ripe for research is the use of prior information in statistical analyses. Mixture models and those with discrete parameters (such as change point models in the time-series context) are completely underutilized in political science.