bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Anthropology, Christian
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Christian anthropology (from the Greek words
anthrōpos
[“human being”] and
logos
[“word” or “discourse”]) is the words or teaching concerning humanity from a biblical perspective. The term anthropology can refer generally to any study of the culture and customs of humankind, or it can refer specifically (and theologically) to the biblical teaching concerning humanity as God's creatures. In contrast to any materialistic evolutionary views, which regard chance as the origin of man, Christian anthropology bestows a preeminent foundation for man's dignity as a special creation of God. The relationship of mankind to the Creator is superior since “God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them” (Gen. 1:27). Man is created with a likeness to God; therefore, he possesses an incomparable dignity among creation. Furthermore, only humanity possesses the ability to discern and commune with God, giving humankind purpose as the result of God's remarkable design (cf. Ps. 139:14). Humankind, therefore, is morally accountable and responsible to God. Although Christian anthropology maintains that humanity is created in the image of God (
imago Dei
), the effect of sin on humanity's moral and spiritual being is total depravity. Christian anthropology also explains the nature of humanity, that is, the relationship between the immaterial (soul and/or spirit) and material (body) aspects of humankind.
Antiochene Theology
Authors: Nixon John Ashley 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
By the end of the 4th century a particular way of speaking and thinking about Christ was formed among a group of theologians associated with Asia Minor in general and the city of Antioch in particular. Although some scholars have tried to trace this theology back to Paul of Samosata, it took its shape from the teaching and preaching of Diodore of Tarsus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, and Theodoret of Cyrrhus. Nevertheless, Nestorius of Constantinople is perhaps its most infamous representative. Furthermore, the development of this theology should not be seen as a continuous and consistent effort. It was formed as each of these teachers faced developing questions within the life and practice of the church. In particular, this perspective was clarified in response to Arianism and Apollinarianism and took its definitive form in contrast to what modern scholars have termed “Alexandrian” theology.
Anti‐Semitism
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The name Semite, or Shemite, means a descendant of Shem, one of the sons of Noah, whose ancestors are listed most prominently in the Table of Nations (Gen. 10:21–31). August Ludwig von Schlözer is generally credited with the origin of the name Semite in 1781. Von Schlözer derived the term from Shem, the eldest son of Noah (Gen. 5:32; 6:10; 9:18; 10:1; 1 Chron. 1:4), to describe a family of related languages. Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider coined the word “anti‐Semitism” in 1860. He added the Greek prefix
anti
(“against”) to describe anti‐Jewish sentiment. Steinschneider used the phrase
antisemitische
in a polemic against French philosopher Ernest Renan's perspective that “Semitic races” were inferior to “Aryan races.”
A
phrahat (fl. 337–345)
Authors: Amar Joseph P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Aphrahat (Persian:
Parhat
) (fl. 337–345) is the earliest major Syriac author from whom we possess a significant collection of writings. His 23
Demonstrations
suggest that he occupied a position of leadership in the Christian church of Sasanian Persia. His self‐identification as a “disciple of the holy scriptures” is an apt one: his is a simple, Bible‐based piety. The most characteristic feature of his writing is his familiarity with Scripture and his ability to support his arguments with numerous “demonstrations” or “examples” from both Old and New Testaments. We know from Aphrahat's own dating of his work that the
Demonstrations
were written in three stages, in the years 336, 344, and 345. While he knows of Constantine's conversion to Christianity, Aphrahat betrays no awareness of the Council of Nicaea.
Apocalypticism
Authors: Lineham Peter 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The theme of apocalypticism has been interpreted by various scholars either as a heretical diversion of the Christian community, a central theme in the shaping of theology, a manifestation of sectarian impulses, a sign of social strain within the Christian community, or sometimes a mixture of all of these themes. The term millenarianism or millennialism is often used in connection with these themes, but it only deals with an aspect of the Christian apocalyptic literature, although sometimes “millennialism” is used misleadingly as a term to cover all Christian interest in eschatology (the end‐time). Apocalypticism is a genre of writing and thinking in which a mood of expectation of the end is heightened. It extends beyond those movements and people who have sought to bring about the millennial reign of Christ.
Apologetics, Classical
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractClassical apologetics is the foremost method of apologetics in church history. Although Protestants affirm various apologetic methods, the majority of Roman Catholics affirm this method. Vatican I affirmed “the one true God, our Creator and Lord, can be known with certainty in the natural light of human reason through the things that have been made” (Dei Filius, can. 2.1), and that miracles can be known with certainty, and prove the divine origin of the Christian religion (can. 3.4). Classical apologetics is a method that stresses natural theology to establish the existence of God through theistic verifications. The methodology of classical apologists and evidentialists is similar in many respects, but there is substantial disagreement regarding the necessity of natural theology. Whereas evidentialists employ a “one‐step” process, the classical methodology is a “two‐step” process. As opposed to employing historical arguments, the classicist argues first for the existence of God (the true theistic worldview) and then focuses upon specific historical evidences. Through various theistic arguments, the existence of God is established independent of special revelation, and then emphasis is given to evidential arguments.
Apologetics, Cumulative Case
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Cumulative case apologetics is a method that argues for the existence of God (or another complex truth claim) by demonstrating that it is the more reasonable view in correspondence with all obtainable evidence than some alternate hypothesis. As an argumentative methodology, the cumulative case would employ various arguments but none would be regarded resolutely. Each argument, however, results in clear and definite conclusions evidentially, which assert the probability of the existence of God. Various theistic arguments are intended as proofs that assert the probability of belief in the existence of God. For instance, arguments for the existence of God are not entirely formulated definitively; rather the argumentation is developed progressively, according to conditions of probability, until theism explains natural theology better than any alternative hypothesis and becomes more probable as truth than it not being true. The cumulative case is not as evidential (nor anti‐evidential) as other apologetic methods. For example, Richard Swinburne argued for the reasonableness of belief in the existence of God (i.e. “significantly more probable than not”) from the evidence of religious experience and miracles (in addition to traditional arguments).
Aquinas,Thomas
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThomas Aquinas was born at Roccasecca, Italy, of the Aquino family, in about 1225 and died in 1274. His early education took place at the Benedictine abbey of Monte Cassino and he acquired additional education at the University of Naples. At Naples, he joined the Dominican order as a friar in 1243. In 1248, he was appointed instructor at Cologne, assistant to his master Albert the Great. After assuming this position, he began to write his philosophical and theological thoughts. Since he was greatly influenced by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, his writings reflected considerable vestiges of Aristotelian philosophy. In addition, he was influenced by St. Augustine, Dionysius the Areopagite, and Avicenna (Ibn Sina), the Islamic scholar.
Christian Archaeology in
A
sia Minor and
G
reece
Authors: Haralampidou Dimitra 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christian archaeology is a branch of the science of archaeology that examines in a systematic way works of architecture and Christian painting in order to comprehend their historical development and meaning as determined by the Christian doctrine. Christian archaeology interprets the monuments from a religious, historical, and artistic perspective. The areas of Asia Minor, Greece, and countries of the Mediterranean, such as Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, have provided the most important examples of archaeological findings of this historical period.
Armenian Christianity
Authors: Steeves Paul D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Armenians constitute an ethnic group whose ancestral homeland lies in a largely mountainous area between the Black and Caspian seas. In the 1,700 years of the existence of Armenian Christianity, Armenians seldom have enjoyed political independence, so the national church, to which over 90 percent of Armenians, whether in the homeland or the worldwide diaspora claim adherence, regularly has united and represented the Armenian people.
Art (Sculpture)
Authors: Crabtree Mara Lief 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Throughout the history of the Christian faith, various art forms have developed and continue to exist in the contemporary era. One of the most prominent of all the forms common to artistic expression in Christian‐themed works is sculpture. Sculpture is defined as artistic work in three dimensions. Works of art in sculpture are created using diverse materials, including, but not limited to, various forms of stone, metals — including precious metals — clay, plaster, animal bone, and ivory. Contemporarily, materials such as steel, aluminum, glass, plastic, acrylic, polymer, paper and certain fabrics have been used to create three‐dimensional artistic works.
A
sbury,
F
rancis (1745–1816)
Authors: Loyer Kenneth M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Francis Asbury, Methodist preacher and bishop, played a crucial role in the development of American Methodism, the largest popular religious movement in America between the Revolution and the Civil War. The first bishop in American Methodism, Asbury oversaw the movement during a period of remarkable growth, from several thousand members to more than 200,000. Throughout his 45 years of leadership, he labored tirelessly in traveling, preaching, and supervising the work of Methodist preachers in America, where he arrived in 1771 after having been commissioned by John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, from his home country, England.
Ascetical Theology
Authors: Peters Greg 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Ascetical theology is the branch of theology that studies the nature of Christian asceticism and Christian perfection. “Asceticism” comes from the Greek
askēsis
and literally means exercise, practice, or training. In the early Christian church
askēsis
referred to the study of the sacred scriptures (Origen,
Contra Celsus
7.60) and bodily discipline (Basil of Caesarea,
Ep.
81.1); it was also used as a technical term for the monastic life (Athanasius,
Life of Anthony
, Prologue). Jordan Aumann writes that “a Polish Franciscan named Dobrosielski introduced the word
ascetical
into the Latin usage of western theology in 1655” (Aumann 1980, 14). Roman Catholic theologians of the early 19th century began in earnest to make a distinction between ascetical theology and other areas of theology. For example, according to Adolphe Tanquerey, ascetical theology is one of the three parts of theology, the other two fields being dogmatic and moral. For Tanquerey, ascetical theology has its foundation in dogma that depends upon and completes moral theology — ascetical theology directs dogmatic truths toward practice and moves beyond moral theology in that it insists “on a higher degree of virtue than strictly obligatory. Ascetical Theology, then, is truly
the science of Christian perfection
” (Tanquerey 1932, 5). According to ascetical theology, the Christian life is often divided into three stages: the purgative, the illuminative, and the unitive. The purgative way stresses cleansing from sin, the illuminative way is growth in Christian virtue, and the unitive way focuses on union with God. In a most general sense, ascetical theology is the study of Christian discipline and the spiritual life, rooted in the study of the sacred scriptures and Christian tradition. In 1910 Pope Benedict XV established the first academic chairs in ascetical theology at the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas (the Angelicum) and the Pontifical University Gregoriana, both in Rome.
A
sian Christianity to 1500
ce
Authors: Knowles Brett 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The “hidden history” of Asian Christianity up to 1500 encompasses an area bounded by Mesopotamia, Japan, and the Javanese kingdom of Majapahit. It has often been ignored, due initially to a perception that Christianity east of Antioch was heretical and — in the modern era — to a pervasive Eurocentrism. However, the oftenvigorous expansion of the Asian church prior to the arrival of European explorers in the 16th century demonstrates that it had a life of its own and that Asian materials can be neither disregarded nor dissolved within European categories.
B
abai the Great (c.551–628)
Authors: Amar Joseph P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Babai is considered to be one of the most eminent scholars of the Syriac Church of the East, also known as the Assyrian Church. Born into a wealthy Persian family c.551, he received primary education in the Persian classics before distinguishing himself at the theological school of Nisibis. He eventually entered the monastery founded by Abraham of Kashkar on Mount Izla near Nisibis. In 604 he became the monastery's third abbot, undertaking an extensive reform of monastic life. The monastic Canons he established survive. When the patriarch, known as Catholicos of the Assyrian Church, died in 608, the Persian Shah, Khosro II, attempted to impose his own candidate. When the candidate was refused, the Shah did not allow the bishops to gather to elect a successor of their own. During this period, leadership of the church was shared by Babai, under the title “visitor of monasteries” and the deacon Aba.
Babalola, Joseph Ayodele (Apostle) (1904–1959)
Authors: Samson Adetunji Fatokun  
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Apostle Joseph Ayodele Babalola is one of the great African church leaders in contemporary times. He was a great prophet, evangelist, and miracle worker in African Pentecostal history. He (together with Pastors D. O. Odubanjo and J. A. Akinyele) co‐founded Christ Apostolic Church (worldwide) — one of the world's leading African independent Pentecostal churches. He was born on April 25, 1904 into a Christian family. His father was David Rotimi (the Lay President of the Anglican church in his hometown) and his mother was Marta Talabi. He hailed from Odo‐Owa, a village near Ilofa, in the present Kwara State of Nigeria, West Africa. He was a semi‐literate man — he had a primary school education (what was then called Nigerian Reader V), after which he trained as a motor mechanic and roller driver under the then Public Works Department (PWD).
Babylon asMetaphor
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe origins of Babylon (Babel) are with Nimrod, “a mighty one [viz. ‘one who magnified himself’] on the earth” (Gen. 10:8). The beginning of Nimrod's kingdom was the establishing of Babel. The city founded by Nimrod was renowned for its pride and rebellion; its pagan worship of false gods was the beginning of the degeneration from monotheism to polytheism (Rom. 1:18–32), and reached a climax when its inhabitants sought equality with God (Gen. 11:1–9). God turned human ambition and ingenuity against him at Babel into chaos and confusion. Babylon is depicted as a mighty city throughout Scripture, and was frequently used by God in judgment upon other nations (Ps. 137:1, 8; Isa. 47:6; Jer. 21:2–10; 25:8–11; 27:1–12; 28:1–17; 51:7, 20–23; Ezek. 19:9; 23:11–35; 24:1–14). Although used by God in his sovereignty, Babylon will not be exempt from divine judgment for her immorality, pride, and wickedness. The city is both a prophecy and type of a religious system destroyed by God (Isa. 21:9; Jer. 50:24; 51:64; Rev. 16:19; 17:5; 18:2–3). Although the name “Babylon” is derived from the Akkadian wordbabilumeaning “gate of god,” it is an evident counterfeit of God's eternal city. The opposition to the rule of God by world powers or the exile of God's people from the land of blessing is conveyed properly through the metaphor of Babylon.
B
ach,
J
ohann
S
ebastian (1685–1750)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Johann Sebastian Bach was born on March 21, 1685 in Eisenach, Germany into a family of highly talented musicians. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was the Duke of Eisenach's court trumpeter and taught him to play the violin and the harpsichord early. His uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, organist at St. George's Lutheran Church in Eisenach and the father of five musically gifted sons, taught him to play the organ. Music was thus a highly significant part of the Bachs' family life.
B
acon,
F
rancis (1561–1626)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Francis Bacon, who was born in 1561 in London, England, and died in 1626, did much to advance the modern scientific method. Although he is usually listed as the son of Nicolas Bacon, the Lord Keeper of the Seal of Queen Elizabeth I, some historians have argued with rather plausible evidence that he was the son of Queen Elizabeth and Robert Dudley (later Earl of Leicester) who had a secret marriage.
Baradeus,Jacob (c.500–578)
Authors: Childers J. W. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractMonk, missionary, and nonresident bishop of Edessa, Jacob Baradeus was credited with organizing the Syrian Orthodox (“Jacobite”) Church. The traditional picture of Jacob as the indefatigable consolidator of the henophysite (wrongly, “monophysite”) Syrian Orthodox ecclesial establishment may be received with some tentativeness. Jacob was born near Tella (i.e. Constantina; modern Viransehir in south‐east Turkey) and as a young man entered the monastery of Fesiltha at Mount Izla near Nisibis (Nusaybin). In about 527 he and fellow monk Sergius began a lengthy sojourn in Constantinople as advocates for the oppressed henophysite churches in Syria. Importuned by the Ghassanid Arab King Harith from eastern Syria, who was seeking missionary bishops for his Christian kingdom, the henophysite sympathizer Empress Theodora (c.500–548) arranged to have Jacob ordained along with a certain Theodore. The two were consecrated in Constantinople in 542–543 by Theodosius, the exiled Patriarch of Alexandria. Theodore worked mainly in Arabia but Jacob labored throughout Asia. Although the titular bishop of Edessa (modern Urfa), Jacob never settled there but traveled instead throughout Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia, Arabia, Sinai, Cappadocia, and many other countries, ordaining numerous bishops and priests and generally encouraging the struggling and often persecuted network of henophysite churches. He was thereby instrumental in effecting their recovery from the debilitating effects of imperial attacks on their hierarchy following the exile of Severus from Antioch in 519. He reportedly was fluent in Syriac, Greek, and Arabic. Observing austere ascetic discipline, Jacob wore ragged patchwork clothing that earned him the nicknameburd'aya(from “horse‐cloth” or “rags”; Greekbaradaios). This manner of attire was also an effective disguise enabling Jacob to evade imperial agents who were sent by Justinian to capture the resourceful bishop. Always on the move, he tended to stay in one place only a day or so before setting off again on foot to minister elsewhere, out of the reach of agents who were in hot pursuit. The last years of his life were consumed by efforts to establish peaceful relations between the rival great henophysite churches of Antioch and Alexandria. He died en route to Alexandria in 578.
B
ardaisan (152–222)
Authors: Amar Joseph P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Bardaisan belonged to the court of King Abgar VIII of Edessa and was a friend of Julius Africanus. He is an early representative of the fact that Syriac‐speaking Christianity enjoyed a prestige that rivaled that of the dominant Greek literary culture. Although Bardaisan had a Hellenistic education (he was known in Greek as “the Aramaean philosopher”), he wrote both poetry and prose exclusively in Syriac. His association with the composition of doctrinal hymns (Syr.
madrashê
) is an indication that Syriac had established itself as a liturgical language at an early date in Edessa.
Baroque
Authors: Quantz Amanda D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The word “Baroque” is a nebulous term derived from the Portuguese term
barroco
, which denotes the type of oddly shaped pearl discarded by fishermen. Historically it refers to the art, architecture, literature, and music of Europe that began to evolve around the year 1600 in the context of the Counter‐Reformation and which continued in several manifestations throughout the 18th century. The style developed partly in conjunction with several important decrees of the Council of Trent (1545–1563). These encouraged an affective form of devotion (13th Session, “The Holy Eucharist”), “pious, prudent catechesis” (24th Session, “Reform” c.7), and respect for the sacred in the realm of art (25th Session, “Invocation of the saints”). Its development was also dependent on the new form of popular piety promulgated by the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556), which aimed at perfecting one's devotion for the greater glory of God.
Barth,Karl (1886–1968)
Authors: Johnson Keith L. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Swiss Reformed theologian Karl Barth was arguably the most influential theologian of the 20th century. After studying in Germany with many of the leading figures in Protestant liberalism of the day, Barth began his career as a pastor in Switzerland. The outbreak of World War I shortly afterwards led him to a personal crisis, when many of his former teachers endorsed the war policies of the German Kaiser Wilhelm. Barth responded by moving away from his teachers and rediscovering the “strange, new world” of the Bible.