bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
11 Restorative Justice and Gendered Violence in New Zealand
Authors: Jülich Shirley 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Chapter Abstract: This chapter investigates whether restorative justice has the potential to not only provide victims of gendered violence with a sense of justice but also whether it can address violence that is power-based and reflective of entrenched societal attitudes and beliefs. Contextualized in the New Zealand environment, the chapter explores victims’ understandings of justice and critiques three fundamental principles of restorative justice: the involvement of victims, the negotiation of a community response, and the transfer of power to the community. Further, it discusses how Project Restore, a restorative justice provider group, uses restorative justice to address gendered violence. The chapter concludes with an analysis of neutrality, impartiality, and confidentiality: practice issues that are particularly relevant when addressing gendered violence.
Patch-Clamp Recording
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon A. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Invented by Bert Sakmann and Erwin Neher during the 1970s, the patch-clamp recording technique aids scientists in examining the functions of individual protein molecules that form ion channels in cell membranes. The importance of this outstanding contribution, which has revolutionized neurophysiology and greatly augmented understanding of cell membranes, is underscored by the fact that Sakmann and Neher received the Nobel Prize in 1991. The fundamental finding arising from patch-clamp experiments is that currents through cell membranes pass through protein channels. This chapter provides a brief introduction to the patch-clamp technique and presents the fundamental equations that govern currents through individual ion channels. The electrophysiology of three types of ion channels is described: nongated chloride channels, voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels, and ligand-gated acetylcholine channels.
Physical Basis for the Resting Potential
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon A. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Thanks to the pioneering experiments of the Italian physician Luigi Galvani, it has long been understood that electricity plays a vital role in the functioning of the nervous system. That these electrical signals are intrinsic to animal tissues was demonstrated by the German electrophysiologist du Bois Reymond, who showed that cells have a “resting” potential, the constant voltage across the cell membrane in the absence of stimulation. This chapter describes the Nernst equation, which predicts the strength of electrical potentials that arise from ionic concentrations differences across membranes. The fundamental role of the Nernst equation for electrophysiology is presented in relationship to the parallel conductance model for the cell membrane potential. Basic equations for resting potential, including the role of the electrogenic membrane ion pump, are presented.
Electrophysiology of Neuronal Interactions
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon A. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Two aspects of electrophysiology are critical for the functioning of the nervous system — the properties of individual neurons and the properties of synaptic interactions. The cell doctrine, that animal tissues are constructed from individual cells, applies fully to neurons as well. Each neuron is an individual unit, separated from other neurons, but linked to them by special points of contact, the synapses, a term coined by Sherrington near the turn of the twentieth century. This chapter presents an introduction to the electrophysiology of neuronal interactions, including both chemical synapses and electrical junctions. The former are sites where unidirectional flow of information occurs, from the pre- to the postsynaptic neuron. Electrical junctions invariably lack amplification, but act as very fast, often bidirectional connections.
Neuronal Oscillators
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon A. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
It is known since the pioneering work of Adrian in the 1931s that the completely isolated nervous system can generate impulse patterns that are correctly structured for commanding meaningful movements. This chapter addresses the question of how neurons form circuits that play specific functional roles in generating animal movements, particularly rhythmic movements. Several mechanisms by which simple circuits can generate rhythmic activity patterns are described. These include reciprocal inhibition in circuits comprising only two neurons, recurrent cyclic inhibition in three-neuron loops, and the basic circuit that generates swimming movements in the sea slug Tritonia.
Patch Model
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon A. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The Patch model simulates the dynamics of a small piece of cell membrane as observed with the patch-clamp technique. Either individual channels in a small patch of membrane or the macroscopic current observed with the whole cell patch clamp may be simulated. Channels are viewed as all-or-none conductances that are gated by voltage (sodium and potassium channels), by a messenger ligand (ACh channel), or not gated (chloride channel). The experimenter can specify the channel type and the number of channels found in the membrane patch. Properties that are simulated include the random opening of channels, the gating of the channels by membrane potential, the voltage dependence of the currents through the channels, the dependence of single channel currents on channel conductance, and the summation of microscopic currents from many individual, randomly gated channels to yield a noisy macroscopic current.
Axon Models
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon A. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The Axon model simulates the equations and parameters derived from experiments by Hodgkin and Huxley on the squid giant axon. Because of the exact correspondence between the equations incorporated into this model and the equations developed in the studies of Hodgkin and Huxley, this model generates graphs that mirror precisely the theoretical curves depicted in the Hodgkin-Huxley papers on the squid axon. Three similar models are included in this chapter: the single space-clamped axon, simultaneous simulations of several spaced-clamped axons to compare model output when parameters are altered, and a simulation of the spatially extended axon to illustrate impulse propagation.
Neuron Model
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon A. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The Neuron model simulates the membrane potentials in vertebrate neurons, which are modeled as three serially connected compartments: dendrite, soma, and axon. The model is designed to simulate the dynamic properties of neurons including electrotonic spread between neuronal compartments (dendrite, soma, and axon).
Circuit Model
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon A. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The Circuit model simulates synaptic interactions among large numbers of neurons and includes many currents and derived values, such as cycle period, that are important for describing neuronal oscillations. This model simulates the membrane potentials of three-compartment invertebrate neurons with a passive soma, a neurite, where all synaptic interactions take place, and the axon, which is the only compartment that can generate an action potential. The Circuit model includes an internal feature whereby neurons are grouped into “segments” allowing for further complex outputs, such as interganglionic (or intersegmental) phase lags. Simulated neuronal interactions can be either of the chemical synaptic variety (excitatory and inhibitory) or electrical (rectifying and nonrectifying).
Equations Underlying the Electricity Model
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon A. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This section provides a detailed description of the differential equations that underlie NeuroDynamix II simulations for the seven models. In addition, the rational behind some of these specific equations is presented. This chapter describes the elementary equations, based on Ohm's law, for simple electrical circuits. Because there are no time-dependent variables, no numerical integration is required.
Equations Underlying the Soma Model
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon A. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The Soma model illustrates the origins of the membrane potential based on the parallel conductance model, with the capacitor not included in the simulation. In addition, none of the membrane conductances are voltage dependent. This chapter describes the equations underlying the resting potential, based on the fundamental Nernst equation, which gives the relationship between ionic concentrations and electrical potential.
Introduction
Authors: Bloom Floyd E. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers the major discoveries in dopamine (DA) research in the central nervous system from the anatomical, synaptic, and neurohistochemical perspectives, in keeping with the author's didactic hypothesis that “the gains in brain are mainly in the stain.” Topics discussed include what DA does, when DA neurons fire, and what DA does to the postsynaptic targets of DA neurons.
2.1 Functional Neuroanatomy of Dopamine in the Striatum
Authors: Gerfen Charles R. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter begins with a discussion of the mesostriatal dopamine system. It then covers striatal patch-matrix compartments, input—output organization of the striatal patch and matrix compartments, D1 and D2 dopamine receptors in direct and indirect striatal projections, and L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease.
4.1 Genetic Control of Meso-diencephalic Dopaminergic Neuron Development in Rodents
Authors: Wurst Wolfgang , Prakash Nilima 
Published: February 2010

AbstractMeso-diencephalic dopaminergic (mdDA) neurons play a key role in several human brain functions and are thus also involved in the pathophysiology of severe neurological and psychiatric disorders. The prospect of regenerative therapies for some of these disorders has fueled the interest of developmental neurobiologists in deciphering the molecular cues and processes controlling the generation of the mdDA neurons in the vertebrate brain. Rodents, in particular the mouse, have served as the classical model organism due to their phylogenetic relationship to humans, their relatively well-characterized mdDA system on both the anatomical and physiological levels, and the propensity of the mouse to undergo genetic manipulation. This chapter focuses on in vivo data obtained from the analyses of mutant mice, as several reports have indicated that cell culture-based in vitro data do not always recapitulate the in vivo situation.
4.4 Genetic Dissection of Dopamine-Mediated Prefrontal-Striatal Mechanisms and Its Relationship to Schizophrenia
Authors: Tan Hao-Yang , Weinberger Daniel R. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines findings through which heritable human neuroimaging intermediate phenotypes could provide a window to examine genetic mechanisms of active prefrontal cognitive processing related to dopamine (DA). Genetic variation influencing task-related prefrontal cortical function was consistent with fundamental predictions based on the biology of DA tuning in cortical microcircuits. These findings also extended the basic biological data to implicate molecules impacting variation in active human brain function, potentially mirroring component disease-related brain processes in schizophrenia. The findings of interacting genetic elements consistent with the cross-talk within and across DA and glutamatergic systems, and their intracellular signaling pathways, arguably contribute further empirical validation to the strategy to identify molecules whose genetic variation could be of substantial combined influence on human brain function at the network or systems level.
5.3 Dopamine’s Influence on Prefrontal Cortical Cognition: Actions and Circuits in Behaving Primates
Authors: Arnsten Amy F.T. , Vijayraghavan Susheel , Wang Min , Gamo Nao J. , Paspalas Constantinos D. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter summarizes current knowledge of dopamine (DA) and DA receptor localization in primate prefrontal cortex (PFC), and the powerful influences of DA on PFC physiology and cognitive function. It begins with an overview of PFC function, physiology, and circuitry. It then discusses the anatomy of DA and its receptors in the primate PFC, the effects of DA on PFC physiology and function, and the role of changes in DA transmission in PFC in several neuropsychiatric disorders.
6.1 Dopamine and Motor Function in Rat and Mouse Models of Parkinson’s Disease
Authors: Schallert Timothy , Fleming Sheila M. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractIn Parkinson's disease (PD), dopamine (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) progressively degenerate. This disruption in nigrostriatal DA transmission results in many motor abnormalities. A number of neurotoxins have been used to induce DA cell loss to model PD, with the most extensively studied models being 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) in the rat and 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) in the mouse. More recently, the discovery of genetic forms of PD has led to the development of genetic mouse models of parkinsonism. In all models, sensorimotor tests that are sensitive to dysfunction and loss of nigrostriatal DA neurons have been developed to provide important endpoint measures for preclinical testing of potential therapeutic treatments for PD. This chapter reviews many of the tests used in the unilateral 6-OHDA rat and in mice with mutations associated with PD and/or the development of DA neurons.
6.3 Functional Heterogeneity in Striatal Subregions and Neurotransmitter Systems: Implications for Understanding the Neural Substrates Underlying Appetitive Motivation and Learning
Authors: Baldo Brian A. , Andrzejewski Matthew E. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter focuses on how advances in the study of striatal anatomy and physiology have informed our appreciation of dopamine's role in appetitive motivation, with an emphasis on studies of feeding behavior, food-reinforced operant behavior, and striatal gene expression, under different motivational conditions. It outlines the position that striatal dopamine plays a dual role in augmenting the various types of motor output associated with appetitively motivated behavior, by modulating information flow through functionally differentiable corticostriatal circuits, and in selecting/strengthening reinforced behavior by regulating intracellular plasticity within a corticostriatal network. Evidence indicates that while these functions are expressed throughout the striatum, the behavioral domains that are affected depend upon the unique information-processing roles of anatomically distinct striatal territories. Finally, the chapter discusses the additional layer of complexity conferred by the heterogeneous functions of discrete neurochemical systems within a given striatal territory.
9.2 Pathophysiology of L-DOPA-Induced Dyskinesia in Parkinson's Disease
Authors: Angela Cenci M. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter begins with a discussion of motor complications of L-DOPA pharmacotherapy. It then discusses animal models of treatment-induced motor complications and the multilayered pathophysiology of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia, presynaptic changes in DA release and clearance, imbalance in the activity of striatal efferent pathways, altered plasticity of corticostriatal synapses, altered activity in peptidergic and GABAergic pathways to the basal ganglia output nuclei, and system-level changes in cortico-basal ganglionic circuits.
9.3 Progression of Parkinson’s Disease Revealed by Imaging Studies
Authors: Brooks David J. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter discusses imaging studies of Parkinson's disease (PD). Imaging dopaminergic function with positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon computed emission tomography (SPECT) or changes in the expression of a PD-related profile (PDRP) with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) PET currently remain the best biomarkers for monitoring disease progression. These measurements correlate significantly with clinical disability in PD and are able to detect preclinical dysfunction. However, the modalities cannot be regarded as surrogate markers as they do not correlate well with clinical outcome in practice, and may well be directly influenced by medication changes. While structural changes in PD substantia nigra can be detected with transcranial sonograpy (TCS), the associated hyperechogenicity does not appear to alter as patients clinically deteriorate. Volumetric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is valuable for detecting progressive brain atrophy in PD patients who developed later dementia, but currently is unable to detect nigral volume changes.
9.4 Transplantation of Dopamine Neurons: Extent and Mechanisms of Functional Recovery in Rodent Models of Parkinson's Disease
Authors: Dunnett Stephen B. , Björklund Anders 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter reviews the transplantation of dopamine (DA) neurons as a powerful model for understanding the basic neurobiology and methods for achieving viable cell transplantation in the brain. Analysis of the mechanisms involved in structural repair and functional recovery indicates that there are particular requirements for the implanted cells to differentiate into specific brainstem phenotypes for effective integration into the host brain and broad functionally efficacy. Cell implantation into DA-denervated rats and mice has provided effective animal models for the preclinical analyses required for translating novel cell therapies into applications in human neurodegenerative disease and for resolving specific issues, such as potential dyskinetic side effects, that have been raised in the course of the pilot clinical trials.
4 Theoretical Background: Splitting Up CP
Authors: Craenenbroeck Jeroen van 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter contains the theoretical background for the analysis of English swiping and dialect Dutch spading. It introduces and discusses a specific incarnation of the split CP-hypothesis and its interaction with the syntax of wh-movement. While simple wh-phrases move from their IP-internal base position through a lower specCP onto the higher specCP, complex wh-phrases are base-generated in the high specCP and involve empty operator movement to the lower one. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of D-linking and connectivity effects.
11 The Data
Authors: Craenenbroeck Jeroen van 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter contains a detailed empirical study of Short Do Replies. The construction is first compared to English VP-ellipsis and then to Dutch periphrastic constructions with doen ‘do’ and an overt demonstrative proform. In both cases the differences are substantial. Unlike VP-ellipsis, Short Do Replies are shown to contain a null, structureless proform, and unlike periphrastic constructions, this proform pronominalizes a larger part of the clausal structure than merely VP. The appendix to this chapter examines in detail the interaction between Short Do Replies on the one hand and ja ‘yes’ and other discourse particles on the other.
Chapter Two From Roman toroman
Authors: Sachs Jonathan 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter evaluates the contours of republican poetics in the English Jacobin novels of Godwin, Holcroft, Hays, and Inchbald. Focusing on the invocation of classical texts and Roman historical models, it reveals how Jacobin fiction attempts to replace the pedagogical lessons drawn from the exemplary heroes of classical history while reproducing a “Plutarchian” mode of exemplarity, one which suggests that novels, in a manner similar to a traditional understanding of classical history, enable a better understanding of society through knowledge of the individual and that novels can therefore supplement or replace classical history as a means of promoting virtue. One of the ways Jacobin novels underscore this potential of the novel form is through their self‐reflexive representation of discursive processes like writing, revision, and, especially, reading, which then becomes an index of how these novels imagine their impact upon a reader.
DEMOCRATIC QUALITY IN AMERICA AND EUROPE
Authors: Ringen Stein 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter evaluates democratic quality in the United States and Europe. Eleven democracies are compared using the following indicators: consolidated democracy; freedom of the press; government effectiveness; economic transgression; child poverty; public health care; trust in state institutions; and trust in future freedom pre-government. It is shown that even among leading democracies, the quality of democracy differs greatly, not only in how they do democracy, but also in how good they are.
LIBERALISM AND DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA TODAY
Authors: Samples John 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter examines two models of politics: the American and the European. In theory and practice, these models share some features. Both more or less protect private property and more or less rely on market prices to guide economic life. But the two models also differ. The American model developed historically as a strong exemplar of the modern idea of politics and liberty. Apart from the United Kingdom, Europeans value government and collective choice much more than the Americans. What are the goals by which the New European should judge these models? Normative answers to that question compose much of the Western philosophical tradition. Instead of trying to add to that tradition, the chapter seeks to explicate the primary goals governments actually pursue: liberty, equality, and welfare.
EDUCATION IN EUROPE AND THE LISBON BENCHMARKS
Authors: Allmendinger Jutta , Ebner Christian , Nikolai Rita 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter discusses how important the EU's involvement in education has been. It outlines Europe's demographic development, the change in labor markets and human resources. The interaction of these three areas of society points to an enormous need for action. It then discusses how to gauge the level of education in a population, and what absolute and relative measures of educational achievement could look like. It examines the educational policy objectives formulated by the EU, and describes to what extent the European countries have already accomplished them. The chapter discusses two fundamental questions: first, how coherent are the individual goal dimensions of the Lisbon strategy and what can we learn from the degree of their correlation for future empirical research on education? Second, what do the indicators allow us to say about issues of equal opportunity and social exclusion in European countries, and how much diversity is there within Europe in this respect? It concludes with a summary illustrating the analytical potential of the indicators and showing that purportedly simple measures have more to them than first meets the eye.
DIFFERENT COUNTRIES, DIFFERENT GROUPS, SAME MECHANISMS? THE STRUCTURAL ASSIMILATION OF THE SECOND GENERATION IN EUROPE (D, F, GB) AND THE UNITED STATES
Authors: Kalter Frank , Granato Nadia 
Published: February 2010

AbstractImmigration has become an important phenomenon in virtually every member state of the European Union. Rising shares of the immigrant populations are accompanied by growing concerns about the consequences of failing integration. This chapter considers labor market integration as the most important subdimension of assimilation. It compares ethnic groups within Germany, France, and Great Britain, which represent the three largest EU countries with considerable shares of the population belonging to the second generation. The chapter compares these countries to the United States as the allegory for a classic immigration country.