bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE)
Authors: Hyland John 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Peloponnesian War was the longest and most destructive conflict in classical Greek history, involving most major cities of the Greek Mediterranean and drawing in neighbors such as Achaemenid Persia. The principal combatants were Athens and Sparta, each at the head of a network of allies. Athens' alliance, often referred to as the Athenian Empire due to its autocratic leadership and extraction of compulsory tribute from members, included most of the Aegean islands and the Greek cities along the coasts of Asia Minor. The Spartan alliance, sometimes known by the modern term the Peloponnesian League, was a looser association between cities of the southern Greek landmass known as the Peloponnese, subject to Spartan political influence, and more distant and autonomous allies such as Thebes in central Greece and Syracuse in Sicily. Thucydides, an Athenian general banished for military failure, wrote the definitive history of the war, which unfortunately ends in an incomplete state while reporting the events of 411. A younger Athenian contemporary, Xenophon, completed the history of the war in his Hellenika. Historians consider the war's most important result the end of Athens' “Golden Age” and the downfall of its efforts at imperial dominance of the Greek world, but it did not transfer long‐term hegemony to the Spartan victors, instead ushering in a period of continued political competition and anarchy in the fourth centuryBCE.
Perry, Commodore Oliver Hazard (1785–1819)
Authors: McLAY K. A. J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Oliver Hazard Perry was born into a naval family on August 23, 1785 at South Kingston, Rhode Island. His father was Captain Christopher Perry, a militiaman and latterly a privateer during the American War of Independence (1775–1783), who, in 1799, was appointed captain and commander of the USS General Greene, a vessel which he had helped build and in which he served until retirement in 1801. Following a childhood education at Newport, it was perhaps unsurprising therefore that Oliver Perry would, like his four brothers, seek service in the United States navy and, although cut tragically short by an early death at the age of 34, his career in many ways set a benchmark for resoluteness and resourcefulness among the officer corps of the young US navy.
Pershing, General John J. (1860–1948)
Authors: Woodward David R. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
John J. Pershing commanded the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) in World War I. He had the distinction of being the only World War I commander in chief to retain his command for the duration of his country's participation in the war. He was the first born of Elizabeth Thompson and John Fletcher Pershing (the great‐grandson of an Alsatian named Frederick Pfoershing who had immigrated to the United States in 1749 as an indentured servant). Born in Laclede, Missouri, on January 13, 1860, he attended West Point (1882–1886). Having earlier taught at a country school, he was older and more mature than most of his fellow cadets. Although not an outstanding student he was chosen president of his class for his leadership qualities. A decorated soldier, his experiences included active service against the Apaches and Sioux in the desert southwest, fighting at San Juan Hill in the Spanish–American War, and a tour of duty in the Philippines against the rebellious Moros. He also taught as an assistant instructor in tactics at West Point, where some cadets considered him a martinet and gave him the nickname “Black Jack,” a derogatory reference to his having once commanded African‐American troopers on the frontier. Prior to America's entry into the war, he led the Punitive Expedition, the US Army's last cavalry campaign, into northern Mexico in an unsuccessful attempt to capture the Mexican leader Francisco (Pancho) Villa.
Pétain, Marshal Philippe (1856–1951)
Authors: Gallaher John G. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Henri Philippe Pétain was born on April 24, 1856 at Cauchy‐à‐la‐Tour in the department of Pas‐de‐Calais. His parents were of peasant stock of moderate means and tied to the land. Through family connections he attended first the Catholic College of SaintBertin in Saint‐Omer, then the College of Albert‐le‐Grand in Arcueil, and finally the prestigious military academy of Saint‐Cyr. Emerging as a second lieutenant in 1878, he began life as a soldier. Promotions were slow in the peace‐time army, but he rose to be a colonel by the beginning of World War I. His pre‐war years were uneventful and without particular distinction. He was preparing to retire with the rank of colonel when World War I changed everything, leading to the rank of general, the title of marshal of France, and eventually to the political head of the country.
Philippi, Battle of (42 BCE)
Authors: Dart Christopher J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Two battles were fought in October of 42
BCE
between the armies of the triumvirs Octavian and Antony and those of the conspirators Brutus and Cassius near the city of Philippi in eastern Macedonia. The two most detailed ancient accounts of these battles and associated military actions are provided by the histories of Appian and Cassius Dio. Despite Octavian's nominal presence at Philippi it is clear that Antony was the general who was principally responsible for the defeat of Caesar's murderers.
Pisan, Christinede(1363–ca. 1434)
Authors: Icholson Helen J.N 
Published: November 2011

AbstractBorn in Venice in 1363, Christine de Pisan (or de Pizan) became the first known professional woman writer in Europe. Although she drew on classical writings about warfare, she also consulted contemporary military leaders for their advice, and her work reflects contemporary practice at a period when gunpowder artillery was growing in importance.
Punitive Expeditions
Authors: Pizzo David 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

“Punitive expedition” refers to a military operation undertaken to “punish” an enemy, usually for some sort of perceived insult to the honor or reputation of an imperial power. The term was used generally in connection with territories that were already colonies or would soon become colonies. The practice itself is quite old, as there are numerous instances of punitive expeditions launched by the Assyrians, the Roman Empire, and the Mongols. The Romans waged frequent punitive expeditions in response to perceived attacks on or threats to their power. Julius Caesar launched several punitive expeditions during his time in Gaul, one against the Armorica and the Veneti in 56
BCE
, one against the Suebi in 55
BCE
, and one across the English Channel in 55
BCE
. Many of the operations that followed the First Jewish War (66–73
CE
) could also be considered punitive expeditions. An example from the history of Mongol expansion would be their assault on the sultanate of Kwarizm in central Asia in 1219. In that case, a Mongol caravan which had successfully negotiated a treaty with the sultan was attacked on its way back to Mongolia by the local governor. Jack Weatherford quotes a Persian observer, Juvaini, in stating that the attack not only wiped out a Mongol caravan, but it “laid waste a whole world” (2004: 106). Genghis Khan's response was the complete conquest of Kwarizm and the utter annihilation of its forces.
Reparations
Authors: Neff Stephen C. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In international law, the term reparation refers to the duty of a wrongdoer to repair any damage that occurred as a result of that wrongdoing. This is a duty that arises automatically, by operation of law, without need for a judgment by a court or arbitral panel. This general duty of reparation requires, first and foremost, restitution, meaning the restoration of the situation that existed prior to the violation of law. If restitution is not possible (e.g., if the violation of law resulted in the deaths of persons), then the duty of reparation consists of an obligation to pay money damages as compensation. If this is not appropriate (e.g., if no material injury occurred), then reparation can take the form of satisfaction, such as a formal apology, perhaps accompanied by a commitment to refrain from future violations. This general duty of reparation is regarded as compensatory in character, and not as punitive.
Rhys ap Gruffudd (1132–1197)
Authors: Richard Marsden Gideon Brough 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Rhys ap Gruffudd, also known as the Lord Rhys, was a Welsh king and warrior of exceptional abilities. During his reign (1155–1197) he reversed decades of Norman dominance and restored the kingdom of Deheubarth to native rule. This feat was unrivaled in northwestern Europe and made him the most powerful man in Wales. Although also remembered as a patron of culture and a shrewd diplomat, his career was primarily that of a successful soldier.
Richard I, King (of England) (1157–1199)
Authors: Hosler John D. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Richard I “the Lionheart” (Coeur de Lion) was a renowned warrior king of England whose legacy has endured over the centuries since his ten‐year reign. The second Angevin king of England, successor to Henry II and predecessor of King John, Richard spent less than two years of his reign in the Isles, distinguishing himself instead in a series of campaigns on the Continent and the eastern Mediterranean. Generous and merciful but proud and wrathful: such characteristics place Richard firmly in the tradition of his powerful and militaristic family.
R
oosevelt,
F
ranklin D. (1882–1945)
Authors: Wells Anne Sharp 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the longestserving president of the United States, was inaugurated in March 1933 and died in office in April 1945. He devoted the first half of his presidency to domestic reforms intended to end the Great Depression and alleviate the suffering it had caused. By 1939 foreign events consumed his attention, as he led the United States from isolationism to full involvement in a global war. At the time of his death, the Allied coalition he had championed was positioned to win that war and create the post‐war organization he had envisioned to settle disputes between nations peacefully. A master politician and a skilled communicator, Roosevelt generated controversy and debate in both peace and war.
Russo‐Polish War (1919–1920)
Authors: Stone David R. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Russo‐Polish War was unleashed by the end of World War I for control of the east European borderlands between Polish and Soviet territory. The war grew out of the collapse of the three empires of eastern Europe at the end of World War I: Russia in 1917, then Germany and Austria–Hungary in 1918. The resulting power vacuum created an opportunity for smaller nations of eastern Europe to create independent states. The new Polish republic emerged from territories and populations previously part of all three empires, with an army cobbled together from multiple sources, including Polish formations of the now‐defunct empires, under the leadership of former socialist, now Polish nationalist, Józef Klemens Písudski (1867–1935). In Russia, the Bolshevik Party under Lenin seized power in late 1917 and then fought a civil war to establish its own authority over what had been the Russian Empire.
Santa Anna, Antonio López de (1794–1876)
Authors: Santoni Pedro 
Published: November 2011

AbstractBorn to a relatively prosperous creole family in Jalapa, Veracruz, Antonio López de Santa Anna became one of early republican Mexico's preeminent figures. While many still regard him as a power‐hungry, opportunistic, and corrupt politician who was responsible for most troubles that befell the nation, recent research asserts that his selfassumed role as an arbitrator who stood above partisan interests, wholly devoted to the national welfare, partly explains his authority and appeal. Santa Anna also held center stage in the civil wars and foreign conflicts that ravaged Mexico at this time. He proved to be both a brave and charismatic commander capable of raising an army from scratch, as well as a chieftain whose battlefield blunders illustrated his limitations as a practitioner of the art of war.
Selim II (1524–1574)
Authors: Baumgartner Frederic J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Eleventh sultan of the Ottomans. Born on May 28, 1524, he was the son of Suleiman I (“the Magnificent”) (r. 1520–1566) and Hürrem Sultan, popularly known as Roxelana. She was a Ukrainian who had been enslaved and wound up in Suleiman's harem. She soon became his favorite and was freed in order to become his legal wife. Roxelana convinced Suleiman that Mustafa, a son from his first legal wife, was plotting to seize the throne, and he ordered Mustafa strangled in 1552. Selim and his brother Bayezid now competed for the right of succession, which he won by defeating Bayezid in the Battle of Konya in 1559, Selim's only command in battle. When Suleiman died while campaigning in Hungary in September 1566, Selim took power unopposed. He had little interest in directing the government and kept Suleiman's officials, including the grand vizier, Mehemed Pasha Sokullu. He also kept on Mimar Sinan, his father's chief architect, whom he commissioned to build the Selimiye Mosque in Edime, Turkey, one of the greatest achievements of Islamic architecture.
Soviet war in Afghanistan (1979–1992)
Authors: Kalinovsky Artemy 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Soviet–Afghan war was one of the bloodiest episodes of the Cold War. In 1979, fearing that the radical Marxist regime of Hafizullah Amin would destabilize the country to the point where it might prove tempting for the United States to infiltrate, Soviet troops entered the country to install a more moderate leader, Babrak Karmal, and to support the Afghan military in its fight against a growing insurgency. The result was a ten‐year war that cost the lives of over 14,000 Soviet soldiers and anywhere between 800,000 and 1.2 million Afghans, a refugee crisis, enormous economic damage, and the long‐term political instability of Afghanistan itself.
Spanish Armada (1588)
Authors: Tenace Edward 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The decision of Philip II to send the Spanish Armada had been long in coming. For decades England and Spain had engaged in hostile actions against each other. Religious differences fostered a climate of hostility and paranoia about the other. Philip II, who was once king‐consort of England, saw himself as the protector of English Catholics, and had long sought the restoration of Catholicism on the island. Many of Queen Elizabeth's advisors were imbued with the notion of a Catholic “world conspiracy” led by none other than Philip himself. However, religious differences were not strong enough to erode the traditional policy of amity and cooperation between the two kingdoms. By the 1580s, however, growing English attacks on the high seas and Spanish outposts in the New World could no longer be ignored, leading the Spanish monarch to retaliate with embargoes and impressments of English shipping and sailors. These measures, coupled with the growing English interference in the Netherlands, helped to magnify long‐standing religious tensions, especially after Queen Elizabeth signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the Dutch rebels. By this England pledged to provide over six thousand troops and to pay a quarter of the costs of the war against Spain. In return, the Dutch relinquished the ports of Flushing, Brill, and Ostend as sureties for the repayment of the queen's expenses. Yet it was the attacks of Francis Drake on Vigo and Bayona in October 1585 that finally pushed Philip II to retaliate. He came to the realization that the only way to defend his global empire was to attack the problem at its source. By early 1586 planning for an invasion of England had begun.
Stalin, Joseph (1878–1953)
Authors: Kangas Roger 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
A central figure in the history of the Soviet Union, Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili—known better as Joseph Stalin—was integral to that country's military history and the overall development of the Red Army. Such influences were both positive and negative, for many of his actions adversely affected the fighting capabilities and preparedness of the Soviet forces. Yet, at the same time, his obsession with certain technologies ensured that the Soviet Union became a nuclear power by the time of his death in 1953.
State of war
Authors: Neff Stephen C. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In its most succinct form, a state of war may be defined as a situation in which it is lawful for two states to employ armed force against one another. As a result, such acts as the launching of armed attacks, the taking of prisoners, and the occupation of territory become lawful acts, which they would not be in time of peace. Central to the concept of a state of war is that the contending parties have equal and reciprocal rights to engage in these actions.
Stern Gang (Lohamei Herut Yisrael, LEHI)
Authors: Green Dominic 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Formed in 1940 after splitting from the Irgun Zevai Leumi, the Lohamei Herut Yisrael (LEHI; Israel Freedom Fighters) was a right‐wing Zionist paramilitary organization active in British‐controlled Palestine between 1940 and 1948. Known pejoratively to the British as the “Stern Gang,” it was often called the “Stern Group,” after its founder, Polish‐born Avraham “Yair” Stern (1907–1942).
Stuart, Charles Edward (“Bonnie Prince Charlie”) (1720–1788)
Authors: Marsden Richard 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Charles Edward Stuart, also known as “Bonnie Prince Charlie” and “the Young Pretender,” was the grandson of James II, who had been deposed in the “Glorious Revolution” of 1688. Through the 1740s and 1750s, Charles was the focal point of Jacobite attempts to return the Stuart dynasty to the British throne. It was in this capacity that he led a daring insurrection that took him from Scotland into northern England in 1745–1746 before it was finally defeated.
Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864)
Authors: Reist Katherine 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Taiping Rebellion began in the Canton delta region of China and spread from there through sixteen (of eighteen) provinces. Problems leading to the rebellion involved demographic and economic pressures, including a rapid and dramatic growth in population, with neither the opening of new land for agriculture nor the industrialization of the economy relieving pressure on the land. In addition high rates of unemployment, the pressures of tenant farming, and the prevalence of banditry increased social and economic tensions. The effects of the First Opium War increased the socioeconomic dislocation as much of the western trade moved to the newly opened ports.
Timur (“the Lame”) (1336–1405)
Authors: May Timothy 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Timur, often referred to as Tamerlane, attempted to resurrect the Mongol Empire in the late fourteenth century. His career is remarkable in that he almost accomplished this, since he conquered an empire stretching from the Syr Darya to the Mediterranean while defeating the major powers of his day: the Mamluks, Ottomans, the Sultanate of Delhi, and the Golden Horde. Most impressively, he achieved this despite an arrow wound early in his career that made him lame on the right side of his body, thus earning him the sobriquet from his detractors Timur‐i Leng (Timur the Lame or Tamerlane as it evolved in the English language).
Tirpitz, Admiral Alfred von (1849–1930)
Authors: Seligmann Matthew S. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractGrand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz was a distinguished German naval officer. His early career was as a torpedo specialist, in which capacity he served in both the torpedo research establishment and the torpedo boat service. This was followed by the command of several major warships, after which he was appointed to a succession of ever more important executive positions. He was progressively Chief of Staff of the Baltic Naval Station, Chief of Staff of the High Command, Commander of the East Asian Cruiser Squadron, and ultimately secretary of state at the Imperial Naval Office. He held this post for nearly 19 years, during which time he presided over a massive expansion of the German fleet. For this reason, Tirpitz has frequently been hailed as “the architect” of the German High Seas Fleet, even of modern German naval power. It is often the case that such eulogistic epithets prove upon closer inspection to be gross hyperboles, if not actually distortions. However, in Tirpitz's case such designations are entirely justified, although one might add the important rider that, as well as being the creator of the modern German navy, Tirpitz was also the man who did most to ensure its ultimate failure when the test of war came in 1914.
Total war
Authors: David Silbey 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In total war, combatants mobilize the entirety of their society's resources in order to wage the conflict. Civilians, as part of that effort, are considered legitimate targets. The war finishes with unconditional surrender and the utter capitulation of one side. So is total war usually defined. This definition contrasts with the idea of limited war, in which the war‐fighting abilities of the combatants are constrained by external, usually non‐military, factors.
Tukhachevskii, Marshal Mikhail Nikolaevich (1893–1937)
Authors: Stone David R. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractLeading Soviet commander and military theorist. Born into a Russian noble family, Tukhachevskii had a cultured upbringing before graduating from Moscow's Aleksandrov Military School in 1914. He fought in World War I until his capture by the Germans in 1915. Upon returning to Russia after the Revolution, he volunteered in 1918 to serve in the newly created Red Army. His skills for organization and tactics were soon noticed, and with a shortage of trained officers possessing revolutionary sympathies, his career advanced quickly. By the summer of 1918, he was commanding an army on the Soviet Eastern Front (i.e., in the Volga River–Ural Mountains theater) at the age of only 25. By the next year, he was commander of the entire Soviet Southern Front.
US
Interventions in
L
atin
A
merica (1900–1935)
Authors: Herrera José María 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
United States intervention in Latin America was extensive during the first third of the twentieth century. The worldwide drive for consolidated empires in the decades prior to World War I prompted American policy‐makers to develop a proactive approach toward protecting American economic and military strategic interests in the western hemisphere. The Spanish–American War and the construction of the Panama Canal reflected America's response to the dangerous escalation of global rivalries prompted by the colonialist impulse of the era. Measures like Theodore Roosevelt's Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine and the implementation of “Dollar Diplomacy” underscored American efforts to gain preponderance in the strategic fate of its hemispheric neighbors. The addition of Woodrow Wilson's ethnocentric morality gave a new dimension to American policy by including nation‐building as a rationale for American policy in the region. An anti‐American backlash and the changing post‐World War I political climate prompted a gradual reversal of policy under Presidents Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover. Finally, the initiation of Franklin Roosevelt's Good Neighbor Policy in 1934 marked a firm commitment toward the use of diplomatic, economic, and less overt military means to support American political interest, as the realities of the Great Depression curbed the viability of engaging in armed interventions or supporting long‐term occupations.