bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Postmortem Toxicology: Artifacts
Authors: Skopp Gisela 
Published: September 2009

AbstractArtifacts (misleading signs) are an inherent part of postmortem toxicology that needs to be assessed and managed, if possible. It is essential to be aware of and be able to identify artifcts. This review attempts to highlight the more important ones as far as known. There are several unique challenges with specimens collected for postmortem toxicology investigation. A major issue is a determination that includes an understanding of the drug use in the immediate antemortem setting and of the medical history contributing to pharmacokinetic variability. Analytical results may be biased by clandestine manufacture of drugs, treatment during resuscitation or hospitalization, as well as by the presence of tolerance. Drug concentration is likely to change already during the prefinal phase. The potential for postmortem alterations must be considered for all but a few drugs. They are likely to depend on a number of variables, including the drug's physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties, and environmental conditions. The extent of these changes varies significantly between drugs. The phenomenon of postmortem redistribution can result in anatomical site differences as well as in changes over time. Body fluids and tissues as well as drugs present in these specimens are severely affected by autolysis (cell disruption) and putrefaction. As a result, degradation as well as formation of new entities as competing processes to postmortem redistribution occurs. Analysis of formalin‐fixed or embalmed samples may create problems with regard to the isolation of a drug along with a substantial loss, decomposition, or methylation of compounds. The main collection artifact is contamination. An appreciation of how contaminants may be introduced is important. Poor sampling will severely affect a case investigation. The use of appropriate specimen containers and preservatives can be critical with regard to ultimately identify a substance in an individual specimen. Fluoride preservation of blood is recommended for ethanol, cocaine, carbon monoxide, and cyanide. Addition of fluoride can, for example, inhibit neoformation of ethanol, whereas degradation of cocaine is only slowed. Precaution taken to preserve drug stability during storage until analysis is largely guided by the current knowledge on degradation mechanisms operating in a particular matrix. Problems may also occur during isolation and identification of a drug. Determination of the parent drug along with major metabolites and potential degradation products seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation.
Amphetamine
Authors: Drummer Olaf H. , Beyer Jochen , Gerostamoulos Dimitri 
Published: September 2009

Abstract

Amphetamines represent a large family of strong stimulants of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The most well known examples are methamphetamine, amphetamine, and 3,4‐methylenedioxy‐methamphetamine (MDMA, also known as
ecstasy
), although there are several others. They are all substituted phenethylalkylamines related to the naturally occurring ephedrine, cathinone (active ingredient in khat), and mescaline (active ingredient in peyote cactus). They act as strong stimulants of the central nervous system (CNS) and many also stimulate the peripheral nervous system as well as increase heart rate and cardiac output. Although there are some minor legal therapeutic uses, they are predominately a drug of abuse administered orally, intravenously, or by smoking. Chronic use can lead to violence and aggressive behavior and in more extreme situations paranoid psychotic behavior.
Benzodiazepines
Authors: Drummer Olaf H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The benzodiazepine family of sedatives and hypnotics are among the most prescribed drugs in the community. These include the diazepam, flunitrazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam, the more potent tri‐ring derivatives alprazolam, midazolam, and triazolam. Some benzodiazepines are also used for posttraumatic stress and obsessive compulsive disorders, alcohol withdrawal, muscle spasm, and seizures. Benzodiazepines are widely abused particularly in drug‐dependent persons using other drugs such as alcohol, cocaine, amphetamines, and opiates. These drugs depress the central nervous system adversely affecting psychomotor and cognitive function and as such cause a range of behavioral changes including disinhibition and increased crash risk of drivers in motorized vehicles. High doses benzodiazepines can cause ataxia, slurred speech, nystagmus, and in susceptible persons paradoxical effects leading to increased aggression.
Cannabis
Authors: Dickson Stuart , Poulsen Helen 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe cultivation of cannabis for its use and abuse has a long history. In recent years, the discovery of receptor sites and endogenous cannabinoids has greatly increased our knowledge of the pharmacology of the drug and reinvigorated the search for medical applications. Modern instrumental techniques enable cannabinoids to be determined in biological specimens at significant concentrations. Maximum concentrations of Δ‐9‐tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in blood are achieved within minutes of commencement of smoking but take 1‐5 h after oral ingestion. Excretion of cannabis metabolites may take up to 12 days after low‐to‐moderate use but up to 77 days after very heavy use. Cannabis abuse adversely affects many behavioral and physiological functions. Legislative efforts have failed to control the increase in cannabis abuse. Oral fluid has emerged as a useful sample for assessing recent cannabis use and may be particularly useful for the roadside testing of drivers.
Alcohol: Analysis
Authors: Jones Alan W. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The determination of alcohol (ethanol) in blood, urine, and other biological media represents the most frequently requested service from forensic science and toxicology laboratories worldwide. Likewise, the analysis of alcohol in expired air is widely performed by traffic police authorities when motorists are breath‐tested as evidence for prosecuting drunken drivers. Although fairly primitive by modern standards, the first practical method for blood‐alcohol analysis with sufficient accuracy and precision for legal purposes was proposed in the 1920s. The gold standard analytical methods today are gas‐liquid chromatography (GC) when dealing with specimens of blood and urine and either infrared spectrometry or electrochemical oxidation for the determination of ethanol in breath.
Reconstruction: Accident
Authors: Christensen Thomas C. , Liptai Laura L. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The objective of automobile accident reconstruction is to determine how a collision occurred, based on the physical evidence. Vehicle speed, direction of travel, and position on the roadway at impact are often the elements of interest. The physical evidence may consist of tire marks on the road, damage to the vehicles, debris patterns, and vehicle rest positions. When a police report is prepared, the scene evidence may be documented or recorded with a varied amount of detail. Vehicles are sometimes moved from their initial rest positions by the driver, or at the direction of law enforcement. Tire marks fade with time, and debris fields are quickly cleaned by rescue crews. Generally, few accident scenes are photographed by law enforcement, witnesses, or independent photographers. Because of these variations, accident reconstruction is necessary to determine the most accurate sequence of events. Classical reconstruction starts with the data postincident and works backward in time to determine the preincident sequence of events. The physical evidence is used to establish the pre‐ and postimpact motion of the vehicles, the impact orientation between the vehicles, and the vehicle impact speeds. The process of analyzing and utilizing the physical evidence to understand how the accident took place is like putting the pieces of a puzzle back together to compose the original image. Ultimately, the quantity and quality of the physical evidence determine what can be learned about how the accident happened.
Image Processing and Analysis
Authors: Geradts Zeno 
Published: September 2009

AbstractForensic image processing is a field that has developed rapidly. The old fashioned analog photography has disappeared for most parts in the last decades, and has been replaced with digital imaging. In analog photo and video, editing methods, such as contrast enhancement and color filtering, are available. However, with digital imaging, these methods and more are available to a much broader user group, who can edit these images, for example, on their mobile phones, or PC's. For forensic science, we see that digital images and closed circuit television (CCTV) streams are used as evidence in court. For this reason, it is important to do a proper forensic investigation. Crime scenes are visualized on CCTV. Forensic evidence image processing is used to visualize the fingerprint, handwriting, or shoe print more clearly. In this article, an overview is given of the methods that are available for digital image processing and some examples with CCTV and fingerprints are shown, with the risks. The risks can be minimized by having a good validation process, in which representative test samples are used.
Electrical Engineering
Authors: Shefchick Thomas P. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract

Forensic electrical engineering is the practical application of electrical engineering knowledge to legal questions about electrical phenomena. Academic departments of electrical engineering emerged during the 1890s as a result of the invention of the telephone (1876), the incandescent light bulb (1878), and development of the first central electrical generating plant in New York (1882). The electrical inventions resulted in many patent disputes and litigation, which required knowledgeable and trained electrical engineers to answer technical questions in a court of law. One of the first electrical engineers to testify in a patent dispute was Lewis Howard Latimer, the son of escaped slaves. However, the first documented trial where an electrical engineer was qualified to testify as an electrical expert occurred in 1926. On May 26, 1926, the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania decided the case of Sinkovich
versus
Bell Telephone Company of Pennsylvania. The case involved a death due to a lightning strike. Today, there are several hundred electrical engineers who answer legal questions as forensic electrical engineers and there are forensic societies and organizations to train them.
Postmortem Interval: Anthropology
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , Gibelli Daniele 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe first step after the recovery of human remains is postmortem interval (PMI) determination—in other words, verification of the time since death. This task becomes very difficult as the body decomposes and is especially complex with skeletal remains. Very general indications may be obtained from the quantity of tissue residues on bone surface, observation of fluorescence of bone by UV analysis and luminol testing, or by the degree of microscopic degradation of bone. All these, however, depend on several variables including temperature, humidity, soil conditions, etc., which make the actual PMI determination subjective and error prone. Recently, radiochemical methods have been tested and seem to give interesting results, such as strontium 90. The forensic anthropologist, however, must always keep in mind that many clues on PMI must be obtained from the context the skeleton is found in and by the surrounding material; therefore, stratigraphy, entomology, and botany may at times be more useful than the study of the skeletonper se.
Sex Determination of Remains
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , Porta Davide 
Published: September 2009

AbstractDiagnosis of sex from the skeleton, when the genitalia are no longer visible, can be performed with good degrees of accuracy only on adult bones and is based mainly on the macroscopic observation of cranium and pelvis shape. In the cranium, areas such as the glabella, orbital margin, zygomatic arch, mastoid processes, nuchal crest, and the mandible are usually considered. Analysis of pelvic morphology usually shows a higher precision, in particular, observation of the sciatic notch and the subpubic angle. However, the size of many bones (such as the head of the radius, femur, and humerus) may also be useful in sexing and several regression equations have been developed for this specific function. DNA analysis also can be performed; however, it has higher costs and limits related to degradation and contamination.
Anthropology: Ancestry and Stature Determination
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina 
Published: September 2009

AbstractOnce post mortem interval (PMI), sex, and age have been determined, then one must complete the biological profile by integrating the description of that specific person, which is represented only by a skeleton. This extra information consists of ancestry, stature, the presence of skeletal anomalies, and gross pathology visible on the skeleton—in other words, anything which may have been specific to that particular individual. Ancestry is usually assessed by the observation of cranial morphology and by the metric traits of the entire skeleton; stature by measuring long bones on an osteometric table and then inserting such measurements in equations; pathology and bony anomalies are interpreted according to indications of clinical medicine and paleopathology, and thus one should look for signs of healed trauma, infections, degenerative disease, and dental work. These data will provide a complete biological profile and elements useful for personal identification.
Facial Reconstruction
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , Porta Davide 
Published: September 2009

AbstractWhere there is no suspicion of identity and therefore no one to compare to the final biological profile built from the skeletal remains, one may try to perform facial reconstruction or approximation from the cranium. This usually involves producing a plaster cast of the skeleton and then step‐by‐step, according to anatomical and anthropological indications, building a plasticine face on top of it, which hopefully reflects the real face the cranium had in life. Computer methods also exist nowadays, which give similar results to manual reconstruction. Various indications exist from different authors; however, the basic principle underlying this activity is that tissue depths are set at different landmarks of the cranium and then the consequent construction of muscles and soft tissues is guided by these tissue depths. Nose shape and mouth dimensions are determined according to specific anatomical rules, but these are also the more tricky areas as it is very difficult to accurately predict the shape of the soft tissues overlying the bony structures. Facial reconstruction should not be used as a method for positive identification; it is merely a way of triggering, once the reconstruction is published, the memory of the people, so that one may reach a suspicion of identity if the face looks familiar to someone.
Capacity to Consent to Medical Treatment
Authors: Edelstein Barry A. , Gould Christine E. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe number of older adults is growing rapidly. Most adults aged 65 and older suffer from at least one chronic disease, and many suffer from several medical conditions. With increasing age come more opportunities to make medical decisions. A variety of disorders that can compromise cognitive functioning and threaten medical decision‐making capacity become more likely with increasing age (e.g., Alzheimer's disease). In addition, there are several age‐related changes in cognitive skills that can impair decision making. This article considers the assessment of the capacity to consent to medical treatment, with a focus on medical decision making by older adults. A brief history of the doctrine of informed consent is presented as context for appreciating the challenge of performing a clinical assessment of consent capacity that is informed by law. Guidelines for assessment and a clinical model for guiding assessment are presented, followed by a brief discussion of assessment instruments.
Eyewitness Lineups: Identification from
Authors: Wells Gary L. , Hasel Lisa E. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractMistaken eyewitness identification is the primary cause of the conviction of innocent people. Psychological scientists have accumulated considerable knowledge of the factors contributing to mistaken identification. Particular interest has been directed at police lineups. Lineups are sometimes in‐person (live lineups) but much more commonly are photographic lineups, composed of six to eight photos. Errors can occur with surprising frequency when the culprit is not in the lineup. The dominant explanation for this problem is that people tend to select the person who looks most like their memory of the culprit, even if none of the lineup members is the actual culprit. Hence, psychological scientists have made numerous recommendations such as warning eyewitnesses that the culprit might not be in the lineup, using lineup fillers who all fit the description of the culprit, and not conducting a lineup until there is reasonable evidence against the suspect. In addition, research shows that eyewitnesses will develop a false sense of certainty about their identification if the lineup administrator shows approval of their choice. Hence, psychological scientists recommend that lineups be conducted using double‐blind procedures and that a statement of witness certainty be collected immediately following any identification.
Mitigation Testimony
Authors: Salekin Karen L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe presentation of mitigating factors is critical to effective representation of defendants charged with capital murder. Since 1972 the United States Supreme Court (USSC) has clearly indicated that triers of fact must be provided the opportunity to consider all mitigating factors before determining the sentence. InLockett v. Ohiothe USSC unequivocally stated that mitigating factors include “any aspect of character or record, and any circumstance of the offense that might serve as a basis for a sentence less than death” and are not limited to those defined by statute. The decision inLockettopened up the floor for the presentation of numerous factors, among the many is an evaluation of the risk and protective factors that influenced the life course of the defendant. This article stresses the importance of a comprehensive investigation of the developmental trajectory of the defendant, and provides data regarding the impact of expert testimony on the jury, and the importance of effective communication with the triers of fact.
Northwest Juvenile Project
Authors: Washburn Jason J. , Teplin Linda A. , Abram Karen M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe Northwestern Juvenile Project (NJP) is the first large‐scale, prospective longitudinal study of alcohol, drug, and mental (ADM) disorders in juvenile detainees. The NJP examines (i) changes in ADM disorders and comorbidity as youth age; (ii) patterns of mental health service use over time; and (iii) pathways and patterns of drug use, violence, and risk behaviors for Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) over time. The methodology of the NJP is an advancement over earlier studies on juvenile detainees. Participants were randomly sampled at intake to detention. To obtain enough data to compare key subgroups, the sample was stratified on the following variables: age (10–13 years or ≥ 14 years), gender, race/ethnicity (African‐American, non‐Hispanic white, and Hispanic), and legal status (processed as a juvenile or an adult). The final sample includes 1829 participants, a sample size large enough to allow for reliable estimates of uncommon disorders, comorbidity of disorders, and high‐risk behaviors. The longitudinal design of the NJP spans three critical developmental periods: adolescence, emerging adulthood, and young adulthood. Published results from the NJP indicate the substantial need for ADM disorder services and HIV/AIDS prevention among juvenile detainees. Data from projects such as the NJP are essential to policy makers addressing the many needs of juvenile detainees.
Disaster Mental Health
Authors: Bulling Denise , Abdel‐Monem Tarik 
Published: September 2009

AbstractDisaster mental health is an evolving field of clinical practice that is carried out by a combination of clinicians and indigenous workers. It is typically a set of interventions for use after a disaster or humanitarian emergency that normalize the responses people have to the event. Situations in which disaster mental health interventions may be offered include natural disasters (e.g., tornadoes, floods, etc.), human‐caused disasters (e.g., technological disasters, terrorism, etc.), school and workplace shootings or suicides, or any situation in which groups of people are believed to have been subjected to danger or exploitation (e.g., civil or human rights abridgments or cultural dislocations associated with community or “compound” legal interventions). The philosophy behind disaster mental health is that most people experience normal or common reactions to the event and only a few will develop pathological symptoms that require extensive treatment. The set of interventions employed by disaster mental health practitioners usually consists of outreach, public education, and screening for more problematic reactions to the event. People who may show symptoms of major psychological disorders (like depression, anxiety, or posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)) are referred to clinicians offering longer term treatment services. There are legal protections in place for disaster mental health practitioners who are part of a larger disaster response.
Sentencing: Demographic Factors in
Authors: Kehn Andre , Nunez Narina L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractDemographic characteristics of defendants are considered extralegal factors because they are not characteristics of the crime and therefore should not influence jurors' verdicts or sentencing decisions. However, ample evidence exists that jurors do consider extralegal factors when rendering verdicts and deciding on sentencing judgments for a defendant. This article reviews the literature on demographic characteristics of the defendant and how these factors influence jurors' judgments. Particularly, the impacts of race, age, and gender on jurors sentencing decisions are reviewed. This article addresses how these demographic characteristics can create biases that will influence jurors' decisions in a case. Relevant theoretical explanations are discussed to explain the findings from field studies as well as experimental studies.
Psychopathy Checklists
Authors: Hart Stephen D. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractTheHare Psychopathy Checklist‐Revisedor PCL‐R and theScreening Version of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist‐Revisedor PCL:SV are observer ratings scales designed to assess the lifetime presence and severity of a wide range of symptoms of psychopathy in adults. PCL‐R is intended specifically for use in correctional offenders and forensic psychiatric patients, whereas PCL:SV is also intended for use in civil psychiatric patients and community residents. Research indicates PCL‐R and PCL:SV have good psychometric properties, including inter‐rater, structural, and test‐retest reliabilities. The tests have good concurrent validity with respect to other procedures for assessing psychopathy and robust predictive validity with respect to serious antisocial behavior, including violence. PCL‐R and PCL:SV are often used by forensic mental health professionals as part of comprehensive risk assessments, although evaluators should be aware of some important limitations of the tests.