bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Biological warfare: past, present, and future
Authors: Avery Donald 
Published: November 2011

AbstractBiological warfare can be defined as a form of warfare that uses living organisms and natural poisons (toxins) to produce death and debilitation in humans, animals, or plants. While biological weapons (BWs) are often equated with nuclear and chemical weapons (CWs), in reality they are quite different since they are composed of, or derived from, living organisms, which can replicate themselves inside the host, thereby allowing an attacker “to use a small amount of a biological weapon to inflict mass casualties” (Koblenz 2009: 5). Another major difference is the diversity of pathogenic micro‐organisms and toxins that can be used as biological weapons, particularly given the enormous advances in the biosciences during the past forty years. As a result, there has been a major change in the concept of bioweapons, which traditionally meant “a warhead with massive quantities of refined agents that were specificallydesigned for instant and catastrophic release … [while] now a biological weapon might be merely a test tube of pathogens that are capable of wide replication or a tiny device that can carry a pathogen through the body” (Kellman 2007: 208)
Bismarck, Ottovon(1815–1898)
Authors: Seligmann Matthew S. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractOtto von Bismarck was the leading German statesman of the nineteenth century; he was also the guiding spirit behind the foundation in 1871 of the German Empire, a complex political unit which he then proceeded to lead for nineteen years as its first, most successful, and longest‐serving chancellor. Bismarck was born into a protestant Prussian land‐owning noble family and, as such, was a member of the Junker class. The stereotypical Junker, then as now, was of a deeply conservative, even reactionary, disposition. Wedded to the ideal of “Throne and Altar,” he wanted to preserve Prussia's traditional hierarchical society, in which his class, as hereditary titled landowners, were the dominant group in the localities, at court, and in the government and army. In reality, the Junkers, like any social group, were a diverse body of people that had many different attributes. Recent research has shown them to be more modern and more complicated than the caricature would suggest. Nevertheless, to many of his contemporaries, Bismarck seemed to fit the stereotype of a Junker perfectly and, in the earlypart of his career, when serving as Prussia's representative to the German Confederation in Frankfurt and then as ambassador to Russia, he gained a reputation as a staunch conservative and as an unbending opponent of the progressive forces in Europe. In reality, this reputation as an unthinking reactionary hid considerable political talents. Bismarck did, indeed, possess conservative views and wanted to see the preservation of the old order in Prussia; however, he was also a realist and was well aware that such goals could not be achieved by blindly standing in the way of inevitable developments. Consequently, he believed that the aim of a true conservative should not be to oppose modernity, a futile stance destined ultimately to fail, but rather to manage the forces of change and thereby channel them down more acceptable paths. This far‐sighted and most uncommonly perceptive attitude has led at least one historian to label Bismarck a “white revolutionary” (Gall 1990), someone who was willing to use new and seemingly progressive methods for traditional ends. To his intense frustration, however, for the first four decades of his life there seemed little prospect that he would ever be in a position to put these advanced ideas into practice. Hated by progressives and distrusted by the leading figures at the Prussian court, who did not share his unorthodox views, he did not seem destined for high office. However, when a lack of suitable alternative candidates led a reluctant King Wilhelm I to appoint Bismarck as minister‐president of Prussia in 1862, he finally got the opportunity to demonstrate his acumen for leadership.
Bloch, Jean
de
(1836–1902)
Authors: Murray Nicholas 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Born into a Jewish family in Radom, Poland, Ivan Stanislavovic Bloch eventually emerged as one of the most famous civilian writers on military matters. At 14, he was an apprentice in a bank in Warsaw, and by 1860 he had become a successful businessman. Bloch married well, taking Emilia Kronenberg as his wife: she was the niece of a wealthy Russian industrialist and the daughter of a prominent Moscow doctor. At some stage, he converted to Calvinism and he later appears to have practiced Catholicism—almost certainly to increase his business opportunities. In 1863 Ivan traveled to Berlin to avoid taking sides during the Polish uprising. By this time he was the owner of various businesses, including a banking house. Bloch continued to enjoy success, and in 1878 he published his first book,
The Impact of Railways on the Economic Conditions of Russia.
This was followed up, in 1882, with
Finances of Russia.
These two books brought him a great deal of attention, which he used to influence the government to assist Jews during the pogroms of the 1880s. This took great moral courage and Bloch was savagely attacked in print for his‐troubles. Increasingly, he became concerned with the growing threat of war, and the immense damage conflict would bring to Poland. This fear caused him to research military matters, ultimately leading to his most famous work,
Future War in its Technical and Political Relations,
published in 1899.
Boeotian War (378–371BCE)
Authors: Sage Michael 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe defeat of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War (431–404BCE) marked the emergence of Sparta as the dominant power in Greece. The remnants of Athens' Aegean empire passed to her, resulting in four years (400–396) of indecisive conflict with the Persians, who laid claim to Greek cities of Asia Minor.
Bonaparte, Charles‐Louis‐Napoléon (Napoleon
III
) (1808–1873)
Authors: Bonura Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte, Charles‐Louis‐Napoléon Bonaparte, better known as Napoleon III, became president of the Second Republic in 1848, and subsequently emperor of the Second Empire in 1852. He created a sustainable empire from Africa to Asia, maintained a close alliance with Britain, and reasserted French power across the globe.
Bouvines, Battle of (1214)
Authors: DeVries Kelly 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Except for the battles of the Crusades, no medieval conflict can compare with the Battle of Bouvines, fought on July 27, 1214, for its pan‐European scope and participation. But it was not a battle fought for a single purpose. Emperor Otto IV was there because Pope Innocent III supported an alternative candidate as Holy Roman Emperor, Philip, Duke of Swabia. In support of him were a number of German barons: Willem, Count of Holland; Hendrik I, Duke of Brabant; and the counts of Limburg, Lorraine, Tecklemburg, Katzenellenboge, and Dortmund. King Philip II Augustus of France faced them, both as the defender and as a king who had made a career in cracking down against rebellious lords whom he believed owed him royal fealty. A number of these lords were also allied with Otto, including the king of England, John, whose predecessor, Richard the Lionheart, his brother, died in 1099 defending his lands in southern France; Ferrand of Portugal, Count of Flanders and Hainault; Reginald of Dammartin, Count of Boulogne; and Hugo, Baron of Boves. All of these kings and princes fought personally in the battle with their armies, except for John, whose English soldiers were led by his half‐brother William Longsword, Earl of Salisbury. They were “bellicose men, expert in military matters,” claims English chronicler Roger of Wendover.
Boyne, Battle of the (1690)
Authors: Lenihan Pádraig 
Published: November 2011

AbstractWilliam of Orange invaded and seized Britain from James II in 1688. The “Glorious Revolution” was relatively bloodless in Britain, but subduing James's Irish supporters, who were backed by Louis XIV of France, took from 1689 to 1691. This was a sideshow in the Nine Years' War (1688–1697) between a “Grand Alliance” of many European states and the “Sun King.”
Brusilov, General Aleksei Alekseevich (1853–1926)
Authors: Cockfield Jamie H. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Russian general who served both the tsarist and Soviet armies; arguably Russia's greatest general. Born in Tiflis, Georgia, in 1853, of aristocratic parents, Brusilov and his siblings were orphaned young and reared by his aunt and uncle. He entered the Imperial Corps des Pages where, after an inconsistent start, he graduated having mastered mathematics, foreign languages, and military science. He first saw action in the Russo‐Turkish War of 1877–1878, in which he served with distinction, receiving the Cross of St. George, third class, the first of many career medals. In 1881 he entered the Officers' Cavalry School in St. Petersburg, and on graduating in 1883, he joined the teaching staff and became post commandant in 1902.
Cadorna, Luigi (1850–1928)
Authors: Vandervort Bruce 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
One of the Italian army's most controversial generals, Cadorna was the army's chief of staff during the greater part of World War I, from July 20, 1914, until November 9, 1917, when he was relieved of command for his alleged role in Italy's epic defeat at Caporetto. Although born into one of his country's most prominent military families—his father, General Raffaele Cadorna, had brought the Italian wars of unification to a close by seizing what was left of the Papal States in Rome in September 1870—his career was dogged by periodic crises, largely of his own making. Headstrong and convinced of his own rectitude, Cadorna found it hard to conceal his contempt for civilian control of the military. An early partisan of the belief in the superiority of shock over firepower in modern warfare, he kept faith with this view long after the vicissitudes of trench warfare should have shown him the error of his ways. Finally, Cadorna showed aristocratic disdain for the common soldiers under his command, not the best outlook for the head of a mass conscript army and one that contributed to the blame heaped upon him for the disaster at Caporetto.
Calleja del Rey, Félix María, 1st Count of Calderón (1753–1828)
Authors: England Shawn 
Published: November 2011

AbstractFélix María Calleja del Rey was born in Medina del Campo, Spain, on November 1, 1753. He served Bourbon Spain's imperial army in Algeria and Gibraltar before being promoted to captain and deployed to New Spain in 1789. That year coincided with the outbreak of revolution in France, a critical watershed that precipitated the 1793 execution of Louis XVI and the resulting split between Spain and its former French ally.
Charlemagne (
ca
. 747–814;
r
. 768–814)
Authors: Bachrach David Stewart 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

In the first years of his reign, Charlemagne deployed his armies to finish the task of reuniting the
Regnum Francorum
, which had been begun by his grandfather, Charles Martel (714–741), and carried on by his father, Pippin III. To this end, Charlemagne renewed in 769 the campaign in Aquitaine when Duke Hunoald rebelled, seeking to overturn the surrender agreement reached the previous year with Pippin. Charlemagne crushed this revolt after mobilizing a substantial army for military operations.
C
harles
X
G
ustav (1622–1660)
Authors: Ailes Mary Elizabeth 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Charles X Gustav was king of Sweden during the height of the Swedish Baltic Empire. He was born in 1622 to Johan Kasimir, count palatine of Zweibrücken, and Katarina Vasa, the half‐sister of King Gustavus Adolphus. He came into the line of succession in 1650, when he was named heir to his cousin Christina. Despite not being raised as a royal prince, Charles Gustav was groomed to play an influential role in Swedish society. He was educated at the University of Uppsala and went on a grand tour of Europe. In 1640 he returned to Sweden and became a commander in Lennart Torstennson's army that was fighting in the Thirty Years' War. In 1648 he was named generalissimo of the Swedish army in the Holy Roman Empire. He became king of Sweden in 1654, one day after Queen Christina's abdication.
C
harles
XII
(1682–1718)
Authors: McLay K.A.J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The second of seven children, and the only surviving son of Charles XI and Ulrika Eleonora of Denmark, Charles was born on June 17, 1682, in Stockholm. Although possessing a rather unremarkable physique and having developed aesthetic interests, a military education proved the mainstay of Charles's upbringing. At his father's side, Charles imbibed both the theory and practice of early modern warfare as pursued by the Swedish military. This training proved both first rate and essential: the former because in the late seventeenth century, Sweden, the principal European power in the Baltic and northern Europe, was an expert exponent of warfare founded upon the reforms of the Military Revolution, and the latter because Charles's entire reign was consumed by participation in the Great Northern War (1699–1721).
Chemical Warfare
Authors: Avery Donald 
Published: November 2011

AbstractChemical warfare involves the use of chemical agents to kill or incapacitate, either on the battlefield, or within a civilian context. Because of their diversity, chemical weapons (CW) are usually described by their physical properties or how they affect humans. During World War I, for example, the warring nations developed and used different categories of choking gases (chlorine, phosgene), blood gases (hydrogen cyanide), persistent blister agents (HS mustard gas and lewisite), and non‐lethal irritating gases such as CS tear gas. These remained the standard CW munitions until World War II when the Germans secretly developed three deadly, non‐persistent nerve agents (tabun, sarin, soman), which greatly expanded the strategic importance of chemical warfare. During the 1950s another generation of nerve gases emerged with the British discovery of VX, which was both more toxic than the G‐agents and relatively persistent, meaning that it could contaminate the battlefield for an extended period of time. Another category of gas weapon of this era was nonlethal “psycho‐chemicals” such as BZ and LSD, which could cause serious psychological disorientation among enemy troops, although these agents proved difficult to use within a battlefield context. Toxin weapons, defined as toxic substances derived from living organisms, were another promising field, with most of the attention being devoted to the weaponization of Ricin (plant), Staphyloccal enterotoxin (bacterium), Botulinum toxin (bacterium), and trichothecene mycotoxins (fungi).
Chosroes/KhusrauII, King ofPersia (590–628)
Authors: Mikaberidze Alexander 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe last of the “great kings” of Sasanian Iran, Chosroes or Khusrau II Parvēz (“the victorious”) was the son of Hurmazd IV (579–590) and grandson of Khusrau I (531–579). He ascended to power in the midst of domestic turmoil caused by a rebellion of Bahrām Chōbīn against his father Hurmazd (Hormizd) IV. As a result of a palace coup, Hurmazd was deposed and blinded, while his son Chosroes was crowned as the king at Ctesiphon. The new ruler tried to deal with Bahrām and invited him to assume the second position in the empire, which the general declined. In the ensuing conflict, Bahrām initially held the upper hand and, after defeating Chosroes' army, captured Ctesiphon in the spring of 590 and proclaimed himself king. Chosroes fled to Byzantine territory, where he appealed for help to Emperor Maurice. In return, he agreed to recognize Byzantine influence in southern Caucasia and surrender Martyropolis, Dara, and part of Armenia and Iberia. With Byzantine financial and military help, Chosroes was able to defeat Bahrām at Ganzak (modern Takht‐i‐Suleiman, Azerbaijan) in 591 and recover his throne.
C
hurchill, Sir
W
inston
S
. (1874–1965)
Authors: Woodward David R. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Winston Churchill is viewed by many as Britain's greatest political leader of the twentieth century. He was twice prime minister (1940–1945 and 1951–1955) and also played an important role during World War I, especially during the controversial Dardanelles campaign in 1915. He had an extraordinarily productive literary career, winning the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953.
Clausewitz, Carl Philipp Gottlieb von (1780–1831)
Authors: Echevarria Antulio J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Carl von Clausewitz was a Prussian military thinker who wrote what is probably the first corpus of military theories based on a combination of rigorous logical analysis and practical experience. His principal ideas and concepts are captured in
On War
(
Vom Kriege
), the first edition of which was published posthumously between 1832 and 1834. Although contemporary technology and the seemingly unprecedented power of terrorist groups and other criminal organizations have clearly changed warfare from what it was in Clausewitz's day, many of his theories are still considered valid.
Clisson,OlivierVde(1336–1407)
Authors: Jones Michael C. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractClisson was the last direct male descendant of an important marcher family of Breton lords dating back to the eleventh century. As both soldier and councillor, he shaped events not only in his native Brittany, but also nationally under Charles V and Charles VI of France. He also became immensely wealthy. At his death on April 23, 1407, his 71st birthday, he was probably the richest non‐royal French noble of his generation. Few could have envisaged this when his father, Olivier IV, was executed by Philip VI in 1343 for treason early in the Breton War of Succession (1341–1365) and Olivier's mother, Jeanne de Belleville, a great Poitevin heiress, and her young family took refuge with Edward III of England.
Combat film
Authors: Chapman James 
Published: November 2011

AbstractWhat is a “war film”? In the film industry the term was first used to describe films set during the American Civil War such asThe Birth of a Nation(dir. D. W. Griffith, 1915) and reflects the fact that this was the first major war to be the subject of dramatic representation in film. (For a critical taxonomy of “war films,” see Neale 2000: 125–133.) The term also came to be applied to actuality films of World War I, such as The Battle of the Somme (dir. Geoffrey Malins and J. B. McDowell, 1916), and later to fiction films, such asAll Quiet on the Western Front(dir. Lewis Milestone, 1930), that presented a harrowing account of the experience of the trenches. In fact the war film—like other genres such as film noir or melodrama—is one that has no fixed boundaries. Film critics and historians disagree on the parameters of the genre. R. E. Shain, for example, avers that war films “do not have to be situated in combat zones” and that they may deal “with the roles of civilians, espionage agents, and soldiers in any of the aspects of war (i.e. preparation, cause, prevention, conduct, daily life, and consequences or aftermath)” (Shain 1976: 20). Under this definition we would include films about the experiences of prisoners of war such asLa Grande Illusion(dir. Jean Renoir, 1937) and homefront dramas such asMrs Miniver(dir. William Wyler, 1942) andMillions Like Us(dir. Frank Launder and Sidney Gilliat, 1943).
Combined arms
Authors: Ankersen Christopher 
Published: November 2011

AbstractCombined arms warfare is an approach to land warfare defined as “the synchronized and simultaneous application of the elements of combat power to achieve an effect greater than if each element of combat power was used separately or sequentially” (Department of the Army 2010: 12). This is achieved by integrating forces and effects from the various “arms,” such as infantry, armored, artillery, engineers, close air support, tactical aviation, and others. The reasoning behind this integration is straightforward: “No matter how powerful a single arm—tanks, attack helicopters, or whatever—may be, that arm has many of the same strengths and weaknesses as its counterpart in the opposing army. As a practical matter, therefore, a carefully adjusted mixture of different weapons will almost always prove superior to a single type of weapon” (House 1984: 1). Developed following World War I, it remains an important aspect of contemporary land warfare.
Comnenus, Manuel
I
(1118–1180)
Authors: Kyriakidis Savvas 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Manuel I Comnenus (or Komnenos) ruled the Byzantine Empire from 1143 until 1180. An energetic emperor who saw possibilities everywhere, he was an indefatigable and daring soldier who led military campaigns in person and won the affection of his troops by sharing their dangers and discomforts. Manuel I used the wealth, military machine, and internal stability constructed by his grandfather, Alexius I (1081–1118), and his father, John II (1118–1143). He inherited an empire much stronger than at any time for a century.
Condé, Louis
II
of Bourbon, 4th Prince of (“the Great”) (1621–1686)
Authors: Bonney Richard 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Holding the title of duc d'Enghien until his father's death on December 26, 1646, the fourth prince of Condé exceeded his illustrious forbears in the prowess of arms by winning the great Battle of Rocroi against the battle‐hardened Spanish army on May 19, 1643 at the age of just 22 years.
Conquistadors
Authors: Restall Matthew 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Spaniards who invaded the Americas in the sixteenth century—known then and since aslos conquistadores,“the conquerors” — were “bad” and “cruel,” led by “great tyrants.” Encountering Native Americans, who were “gentle lambs and sheep,” the conquistadors became “like fierce wolves and tigers and lions.” Or such was their characterization by the Dominican firebrand fray Bartolomé de Las Casas. His imagery caught on: he had the ear of the Spanish king, Emperor Charles V, who in 1542 approved sweeping new laws to protect his Native American subjects. Denunciations of conquistador methods were penned by others (a 1557 play by Michael de Carvajal called conquistadors “marauding wolves” and “human beasts of prey”), and anti‐conquistador tales became so commonplace in the rest of Europe that the phenomenon acquired a name, the Black Legend (Las Casas 2003; Jáuregui 2008).
Conscription
Authors: Alexandra Andrew 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Conscription, as the term is used in this entry, refers to an organized system of compulsory military service by citizens of a state. Since its inception in its modern form in Revolutionary France, conscription has been a significant military and political force. Militarily, it was a central element in the mobilization of all the resources of a nation, which led to the vast increase in the scale and power of armies in the nineteenth century and made possible the “total wars” of the twentieth. Politically, conscription has been important in building and reinforcing national identities, and in helping to break down entrenched social divisions, with all (male) members of the nation regarded as “citizen‐soldiers,” duty bound to serve in an army which functioned as an instrument of national defense rather than as the preserve of a military caste beholden to the powers that be. All modern states claim the right to conscript their citizens, and from the late nineteenth century till the late twentieth, most enforced that right. As military, political, and social realities have changed over the past few decades, however, an increasing number of states have abolished conscription.