bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reindeer and caribou Rangifer tarandus in the wild and under pastoralism
Authors: Paine Robert 
Published: October 2009

AbstractReindeer and caribou, respectively Old World and New World forms of Rangifer tarandus, live in large groups in the boreal forest and on the Arctic tundra. Many stocks of reindeer are herded by pastoralists. This article reviews the ecology, breeding biology and herding behaviour of both forms, as revealed by recent field studies. It identifies breeding synchrony, dominance and leadership as important aspects of their social organization, mediated by a system of signals that keep the herds together, and discusses the significance of pastoral practices that maintain herd organization and make reindeer herding possible.
The United Nations and Antarctica 1993: continuing controversy about the UN's role in Antarctica
Authors: Beck Peter J. 
Published: October 2009

ABSTRACTThe eleventh successive annual United Nations discussion on the ‘Question of Antarctica’ took place at the close of 1993. In November the UN First Committee, guided by two reports from the UN Secretary-General, adopted a further resolution, which was adopted in December by the General Assembly as resolution A48/80. As usual, UN members, although displaying evidence of a wider international recognition of the regime's merits, proved critical of the Antarctic Treaty System. By contrast, Antarctic Treaty Parties (ATPs) remained reluctant to allow the UN the type of role in Antarctica advocated by their critics. ATPs, following the course adopted in 1985, still refused either to participate in the UN discussions or to vote. As a result, it proved impossible yet again to secure a consensus about either the ‘Question of Antarctica’ in general or the UN's role in Antarctica in particular. One significant advance in 1993 concerned the end of demands advanced since 1985 for South Africa's exclusion from Antarctic meetings, a change prompted by the dismantlement of the apartheid regime. The ‘Question of Antarctica’ is scheduled to be placed on the UN agenda in 1994.
A comparative review of condylobasal lengths and other craniometric characters in 30 species of pinniped
Authors: Cruwys E. , Friday A.E. 
Published: October 2009

ABSTRACTThe condylobasal length (CBL) of skulls from 999 sexually mature seal, sealion, and fur seals of 30 different species was measured. Additional data gathered from previous studies were also included to give an indication of variation within each species, particularly where there is a wide geographical dispersion. Where possible, means and ranges of CBL were given separately for each sex, so that the degree of sexual dimorphism could be assessed. Previous studies have indicated that CBL continues to increase after sexual maturity has been reached. In order to assess this, three species (Mirounga leonina, Otaria byronia (flavescens), andHalichoerus grypus) that contained individuals of known age were included in the study. Other craniometric characters are often expressed as a percentage of CBL when assessing taxonomic relationships. Some of these characters were reassessed using the new data.
Morphology and infraciliature of some soil ciliates (Protozoa, Ciliophora) from continental Antarctica, with notes on the morphogenesis of Sterkiella histriomuscorum
Authors: Petz Wolfgang , Foissner Wilhelm 
Published: October 2009

AbstractThe morphology of seven soil ciliate species from continental Antarctica was investigated using live observation and protargol impregnation. Observations on two populations of Protospathidium serpens corroborate the view that this species usually has a single, more-or-less nodular, macronucleus distinguishing it from P. muscicola, which possesses 10–30 nodules. The Antarctic specimens of Protospathidium terricola differ inconspicuously from the type population in that they are slightly larger, have fewer ciliary rows (17 vs 21), and the fragments of the circumoral kinety are less distinctly separated from each other. Spathidium seppelti nov. spec, resembles 5. bavariense, but has 100–200 macronuclear nodules and a conical depression in the dorsal third of the oral bulge. Odontochlamys wisconsinensis nov. comb, (basionym: Chilodonella wisconsinensis Kahl, 1931) has four right field kineties and an oral basket consisting of 14 rods; the dorsal brush is near the anterior margin and usually consists of four cilia. The Antarctic population of Pseudochilodonopsis mutabilis possesses a regular dorsal hump and only 12–14 (about 15 in Austrian type population) phary ngeal rods. Oxytricha opisthomuscorum has six dorsal kineties with long cilia and a buccal cirrus near the anterior end of the paroral membrane. The Antarctic specimens of Sterkiella histriomuscorum have fïve transverse cirri. Their morphogenesis differs slightly from that of a population having four transverse cirri in that the daughter's anlagen are more distinctly separated and some temporal sequences are different.
The influence of soil microstructure on hydraulic properties of hydrocarbon-contaminated freezing ground
Authors: White T.L. , Williams P.J. 
Published: October 2009

AbstractThe significance of the thermodynamic relations of ice and water within the paniculate and porous soil medium has been widely demonstrated in recent decades. The existence of unfrozen water along with ice at temperatures below 0°C, because of capillary and mineral surface forces, is responsible for the specific thermal, mechanical, and hydraulic properties of soils exposed to seasonal or perennial freezing. The introduction of a hydrocarbon contaminant into this dynamic porous medium has significant consequences for the thermodynamics of the unfrozen water–ice interactions. Techniques recently developed have allowed examination of microstructures of soils exposed to freezing. It has been shown that freeze–thaw cycles produce complex changes in particle aggregation and pore space distribution, which in turn affect soil water energy. An examination of the microstructure of a hydrocarbon-contaminated, frostaffected soil revealed differences in morphology from that of similar but uncontaminated samples. These differences are in turn responsible for differences in hydraulic conductivity between uncontaminated and contaminated freezing soils.
Factors affecting spreadability and transportation of oil in regions of frozen ground
Authors: Chuvilin E.M. , Naletova N.S. , Miklyaeva E.C. , Kozlova E.V. , Instanes A. 
Published: October 2009

AbstractThe physical behaviour of oil interacting with soils subjected to seasonal frost or permafrost was investigated. An experimental programme was carried out to investigate the transportation and spreading of oil on a frozen surface, and transportation and accumulation of oil into freezing or frozen soils. The results show that spreading of oil at the surface at air temperatures below freezing depends on oil composition, soil temperature, and the type of mineral surface. It was observed that an ice surface has the least spreading and the greatest wetting angle of the surfaces studied. The oil penetration into frozen soils depends on soil and oil composition and temperature conditions. It was observed, as expected, that oil accumulation in frozen soils decreases with increasing ice content in the pores. However, penetration of oil components is observed even in completely ice-saturated soils. Freezing of oil-saturated soils causes a redistribution of the oil components. In sandy soils, the oil concentrates in a thawed zone in front of the freezing front; in clay soils, the oil can accumulate in the frozen zone under certain temperature conditions. A summary of the influence of various factors affecting oil behaviour in frozen and freezing soils is presented based on the experimental data and published data from other authors.
William Speirs Bruce: Scottish nationalist and polar explorer
Authors: Speak Peter 
Published: October 2009

ABSTRACTWilliam Speirs Bruce (1867–1921) had two consuming passions throughout almost the whole of his life: Scottish nationalism and polar science. His early life in London and Edinburgh is seen as a prelude to polar oceanographic exploration, culminating in the success of the Scotia Antarctic expedition, 1902–04. His later life was frustrated by the limited achievements of the Scottish Spitsbergen Syndicate (which was founded to exploit the mineral resources of Svalbard), by a perceived prejudice against him in government and professional societies in London, and by the lack of support for his Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory.
Wettertrupp Haudegen: the last German Arctic weather station of World War II. Part 1
Authors: Barr William 
Published: October 2009

ABSTRACTDuring World War II the German Navy, trying to compensate for the loss of meteorological data from stations in Greenland, Iceland and other areas of the northwestern Atlantic Ocean, established automatic weather stations, weather ships and manned weather stations in a zone stretching from Labrador to Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa. In summer 1944 one of the last of the manned stations (code-named Haudegen) was established on Svalbard at Wordiebukta, Rijpfjorden, Nordaustlandet. A party of 11, led by geographer Dr Wilhelm Dege, collected and transmitted weather data from 14 September 1944 to 5 September 1945; the party also explored and mapped the ice-free corridor extending south across Nordaustlandet to the head of Wahlenbergfjorden and much of the north coast from Kapp Loven east to Finn Malmgrenfjorden. After the German surrender in May 1945 the men of Haudegen found themselves apparently forgotten by Allied authorities in Norway, and began preparing for a second winter. They surrendered ultimately to the captain of the Norwegian sealer Blaasel on 4 September 1945, and were thus the last members of the German armed forces to surrender at the end of World War II.
Research and management of polar bearsUrsus maritimus
Authors: Stirling Ian 
Published: October 2009

AbstractThrough the 1950s and 1960s there was a marked increase in recorded numbers of polar bears being killed for their hides, giving rise to world-wide concern that the species might be endangered. At a meeting in Fairbanks, Alaska 1965, representatives of circumpolar arctic nations discussed conservation of polar bears and concluded that international coordination of research and management efforts was essential. Subsequent meetings of scientists engaged in polar bear research were organized every two years by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, facilitating exchanges of views and cooperation; as a result, in 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears and their Habitats was signed in Oslo, Norway. This paper describes some of the research and management undertaken in the years leading up to the agreement, and initiatives that are continuing because of it.
Sledge Dogs on Amundsen's South Polar Journey
Authors: Hanssen Captain Helmer 
Published: October 2009

When I was asked by the Editor of The Polar Record to write a short note about sledge dogs, I did so, sensible of the appropriateness of the request, in that the year 1936 marks the twenty-fifth anniversary of Roald Amundsen's journey to the South Pole.A sledge dog seems, to have been made by nature for travelling in snow and ice, like the camel for the desert, the horse for the open land and the goat for the mountain. He sleeps comfortably in all kinds of weather, without shelter other than the snow; and when hungry, will eat any kind of food, as he needs must in barren countries, where food is scarce. I have known dogs enjoy a meal of bamboo sticks.
The trapping and study of Polar Bears, Spitsbergen, 1966
Authors: Larsen T. 
Published: October 2009

Plans for a long-term study of Polar Bears (Ursus maritimus) in Spitsbergen were initiated in Norway in 1964. The programme is a joint operation between the University of Oslo and Norsk Polarinstitutt. It is divided in two-main projects:1. Ecological investigations under T. Larsen, Institutt for Marin Biologi Avd A [Institute of Marine Biology AJ], University of Oslo.2. Physiological investigations under N. A. Øritsland, Zoofysiologisk Institutt [Zoophysiological Institute], University of Oslo.A third project, ecological and ornithological studies is under M. Norderhaug, Zoologisk Laboratorium [Zoological Laboratory], University of Oslo.The preliminary plan for the biological programme in Spitsbergen was presented at the First International Scientific Meeting on the Polar Bear in Fairbanks, Alaska, in 1965.
Early photographers of the Arctic
Authors: Wamsley Douglas , Barr William 
Published: October 2009

ABSTRACTBy the early 1840s photographers were travelling widely to obtain photographic images of remote and interesting areas. Attempts at photography in the Arctic lagged slightly at the start, but these attempts were no less determined than elsewhere, despite the additional problems that the Arctic environment presented. The first Arctic expedition on which photographic equipment is believed to have been taken was Sir John Franklin's ill-fated expedition of 1845–1848. However, the first Arctic expedition from which photographic images have survived was Sir Edward Belcher's expedition (1852–1854) in search of the missing Franklin expedition; these were calotypes taken by Dr William Domville of HMS Resolute in West Greenland in the spring of 1852, and by Captain Francis Leopold McClintock of HMS Intrepid at Beechey Island in August 1854. This article examines all the expeditions that are believed to have attempted photography in the Arctic from the Franklin expedition to the British Arctic Expedition of 1875–1876, in terms of their equipment, problems, and degree of success. During this period, Arctic expeditions were sufficiently innovative to utilize the latest available technology, and, in many cases, successful results were achieved under difficult circumstances. The results of these early efforts at photography in the Arctic provide an extremely valuable record of the exploration vessels, crews, and equipment, and of Greenlanders and Greenland settlements.
Universals in cognitive theories of language
Authors: Smolensky Paul , Dupoux Emmanuel 
Published: October 2009

AbstractGenerative linguistics' search for linguistic universals (1) is not comparable to the vague explanatory suggestions of the article; (2) clearly merits a more central place than linguistic typology in cognitive science; (3) is fundamentally untouched by the article's empirical arguments; (4) best explains the important facts of linguistic diversity; and (5) illuminates the dominant component of language's “biocultural” nature: biology.
If language is a jungle, why are we all cultivating the same plot?
Authors: Tallerman Maggie 
Published: October 2009

AbstractEvans & Levinson (E&L) focus on differences between languages at a superficial level, rather than examining common processes. Their emphasis on trivial details conceals uniform design features and universally shared strategies. Lexical category distinctions between nouns and verbs are probably universal. Non-local dependencies are a general property of languages, not merely non-configurational languages. Even the latter class exhibits constituency.
Syntax is more diverse, and evolutionary linguistics is already here
Authors: Croft William 
Published: October 2009

AbstractEvans & Levinson (E&L) perform a major service for cognitive science. The assumption of Chomskyan generative linguistics – that there are absolute unrestricted universals of grammatical structure – is empirically untenable. However, E&L are too reluctant to abandon word classes and grammatical relations in syntax. Also, a cognitive scientist can already draw on a substantial linguistics literature on variationist, evolutionary models of language.
The best-supported language universals refer to scalar patterns deriving from processing cost
Authors: Haspelmath Martin 
Published: October 2009

AbstractConditional universals have always interested linguists more than unrestricted universals, which are often impossible to demonstrate empirically because categories cannot be defined in a cross-linguistically meaningful way. But deep dependencies have not been confirmed by more recent empirical research, and those universals with solid empirical support mostly relate to scalar patterns that can plausibly be related to processing cost.
Universal grammar and mental continuity: Two modern myths
Authors: Penn Derek C. , Holyoak Keith J. , Povinelli Daniel J. 
Published: October 2009

AbstractIn our opinion, the discontinuity between extant human and nonhuman minds is much broader and deeper than most researchers admit. We are happy to report that Evans & Levinson's (E&L's) target article strongly corroborates our unpopular hypothesis, and that the comparative evidence, in turn, bolsters E&L's provocative argument. Both a Universal Grammar and the “mental continuity” between human and nonhuman minds turn out to be modern myths.
The universal basis of local linguistic exceptionality
Authors: Harbour Daniel 
Published: October 2009

AbstractEvans & Levinson (E&L) claim Kiowa number as a prime example of the semantically unexpected, threatening both Universal Grammar and Linguistic Universals. This commentary, besides correcting factual errors, shows that the primitives required for Kiowa also explain two unrelated semantically unexpected patterns and derive two robust Linguistic Universals. Consequently, such apparent exceptionality argues strongly for Universal Grammar and against E&L.
Soviet reform and the end of the Cold War: explaining large-scale historical change
Authors: Deudney Daniel , Ikenberry G. John 
Published: October 2009

IntroductionAfter years of retirement in the academy, macro’historical commentary on contemporary events has returned to fashion. Radical domestic changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe and new patterns ofEast’West relations-in short, the collapse of communism and the end othe Cold War’mark the end of an era and present an invitation to international theorizing.1Few would deny that these changes are momentous, but there is little consensus concerning their origins, trajectory, and implications. Explaining these events will necessitate a reweighing of fundamental theoretical issues. Thesize and speed of these changes were largely unexpected,reminding us how primitive our theories really are and encouraging us to broaden our theoretical perspective. To capture these events, theorists must reach across the disciplinary divides of Sovietology, international relations theory political economy, and political sociology.
The character of the history of the philosophy of international relations and the case of Edmund Burke
Authors: Boucher David 
Published: October 2009

I doubt whether the history of mankind is yet complete enough, if ever it can be so, to furnish grounds for a sure theory on the internal causes which necessarily affect the fortune of a state. I am far from denying the operation of such causes: but they are infinitely uncertain, and much more obscure, and much more difficult to trace, than the foreign causes that tend to raise, to depress, and sometimes to overwhelm a community.Edmund Burke
Resolutions and vetoes in the UN Security Council: their relevance and significance
Authors: Morphet Sally 
Published: October 2009

IntroductionThe aim of this paper is to look at the United Nations Security Council and certain of the 646 resolutions and 232 public vetoes (vetoing 192 draft resolutions) cast between 1946 and the end of 1989, and to discover in what ways both it and they have been legally and politically relevant and significant. Security Council resolutions are, of course, passed by majority vote. This had to be 7 out of 11 votes until the end of 1965 when the Council was enlarged from 11 to 15. Security Council resolutions have had since then to be passed by at least 9 votes: these can only be vetoed by the five Permanent Members (the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France and China) if the resolution would otherwise have been passed. By the end of 1989 the veto total for each Permanent Member (the Peoples Republic of China took over the China seat in 1971) was as follows: Soviet Union 114; United States 67; United Kingdom 30; France 18 and China 3.
The elusive explanation: balance of power ‘theory’ and the origins of World War I
Authors: Gellman Peter 
Published: October 2009

Martin Wight once asked why the balance of power ‘has inspired no great political writer to analysis and reflection’?Looking back in 1923, Winston Churchill wrote:One rises from the study of the causes of the Great War with a prevailing sense of the defective control of individuals upon world fortunes. It has been well said, ‘there is always more error than design in human affairs’. The limited minds even of the ablest men, their disputed authority, the climate of opinion in which they dwell, their transient and partial contributions to the mighty problem, that problem itself so far beyond their compass, so vast in scale and detail, so changing in its aspect—all this must surely be considered before the complete condemnation of the vanquished or the complete acquittal of the victors can be pronounced.
A note on the origin of the word ‘International’
Authors: Suganami Hidemi 
Published: October 2009

According to Professor Northedge,It is well known that the expression ‘international’ came into use through the famous mistake made by Jeremy Bentham when he coined it to describe the system of law between sovereign states as a translation of the term ius gentium, which the Romans used to refer to the corpus of rules, controlled, of course, by Rome itself, between themselves and the tribes of Italy and later the various parts of the Roman Empire.
Academic dispositions and international studies: the Birmingham experience
Authors: Wightman David 
Published: October 2009

Man was not born to solve the problems of the universe, but to put his finger on the problem and then to keep within the limits of the comprehensible. GoetheNEW fields of academic study often appear to develop along the lines of Rostow's stages of economic growth. The preconditions for take-off are established by isolated pioneers who see the emergence of trends and opportunities before they have captured public attention. With public recognition of the need for greater understanding and a more informed basis for action, the new field is given a powerful shove into the take-off stage. Academic investment in it rises, constituent firms publish their prospectuses and set about attracting customers. If the investment effort is widespread and substantial, a minor boom may occur and leave in its wake some excess capacity.
The development of international environmental law
Authors: Birnie Patricia 
Published: October 2009

The first principle adopted by the United Nations Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment in 1972 (hereafter referred to as UNCHE) proclaimed that “Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of quality which permits a life of dignity and well-being and bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations”.If international society sets as its objective the protection, preservation and even the enhancement of the existing global environment then the development of laws and standards ensuring the acceptance of the necessary obligations and their enforcement is the sine qua non of their achievement.