bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
G
reek
Authors: Lamp Jeffrey S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Greek is an Indo‐European language with early written attestation dating from the mid 2nd millennium
bce
(known as Linear B). After a period in which written Greek disappeared (11th and 10th centuries
bce
), it reappeared in the 9th century with an alphabet derived from Phoenician script. It existed in several dialects in ancient Greece (Aeolic, Attic, Doric, Ionic). In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, the Koine dialect, derived from Attic, became the lingua franca of the lands conquered by Alexander and later dominated by the Romans. The vernacular Koine and the Atticistic Greek of education, government, and liturgy became the official language of the Byzantine Empire until its fall in the 15th century
ce
, and evolved into the modern Greek of the present day.
G
reene,
G
raham (1904–1991)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Henry Graham Greene was born on October 2, 1904, in Berkhamsted in Hertfordshire in the UK to a prominent family. His father Charles was the second master of the prestigious Berkhamsted boarding school. As a schoolboy, Graham displayed the erratic behavior and suicidal emotions that would plague him for the rest of his life — even after he became one of the 20th century's most prominent Catholic novelists.
Gregory of Nyssa (331/340–c.395)
Authors: Harmon Steven R. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractGregory of Nyssa was born sometime betweenad331 and 340 into a family that included among his nine siblings his elder sister Macrina the Younger (c.327–379); elder brother Basil, later bishop of Caesarea (330–379); and younger brother Peter, later bishop of Sebaste (c.334–c.394). While his family was one of wealth and ecclesiastical importance, he was educated at home primarily by Basil and Macrina instead of at the university in Athens as Basil and their mutual friend and fellow Cappadocian theologian Gregory of Nazianzus (c.329–390) had been. A reference to the nature of married life in his treatiseOn Virginityhas suggested to many scholars that Gregory might have been married, but the evidence for this is uncertain. After aborted careers in the service of the church as a lector and as a teacher of rhetoric, he became bishop of Nyssa in 372, from which see he was temporarily exiled in 375 when Arians came to power; he was allowed to return to his bishopric in 378 by imperial decree. After Basil's death in 379, Gregory took up his brother's role in defending the Nicene faith against the late 4th century resurgence of Arianism, writing a lengthy three‐book treatiseAgainst Eunomiustoward that end and participating prominently in the First Council of Constantinople (381) convened to address the controversy. There is no record of his activities between 385 and 394; in the latter year he participated in a synod in Constantinople and died sometime afterward.
G
regory the Illuminator (257–325)
Authors: Mooradkanian Helen Sybil 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Gregory the Illuminator, an Armenian nobleman, is recognized for evangelizing Armenia so rapidly that Armenia became the first nation to adopt Christianity as the state religion in
ad
301 (some date it at 285). Gregory first converted the king, Trdat III (Tiridates), and with his support led massive “people movements” to Christ. This is the first case where a king's conversion led to the conversion of a nation. It preceded by a dozen years Constantine's edict of 313 whereby Christians were tolerated but paganism not banned, as it was in Armenia.
Guilt
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Guilt is a judicial and legal term that expresses criminality before a court of law and responsibility for actions in order to satisfy the demands of justice. Sin is the fallen state of all humanity, which has resulted in both alienation and separation from God, and is manifested in disobedience to the revealed will of God by either concrete action or thought. The biblical notion of guilt is the relationship of corporate and individual sin (which is an inherent component of the universal human condition) to justice (i.e. the requirement of the law).
Gunton,Colin (1941–2003)
Authors: Green Bradley G. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractColin Gunton will likely be remembered as a key figure in the revival of interest in trinitarian theology in the late 20th century. Colin Ewart Gunton was born on January 19, 1941, and died on May 6, 2003. Raised in Nottingham, England, Gunton studied at Oxford: he read “Greats” at Hertford College (graduating in 1966), received the M.A. from Mansfield College (1967), and the doctorate in 1973, with a dissertation exploring the doctrine of God in Charles Hartshorne and Karl Barth.
G
uyon,
M
adame (1648–1717)
Authors: Smith Steven 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte‐Guyon was born April 13, 1648 in Montargis, France, and died in Blois, June 9, 1717. In early childhood she was placed under the care of the Duchess of Montbason while she was residing with an order of Benedictines. It was here that she showed initial spiritual interest and publicly expressed her complete devotion to Christ.
H
agia
S
ophia
Authors: Gallagher Robert L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Emperor Justinian I rebuilt (532–537) Constantine's Church of Holy Wisdom (dedicated to Christ in 360) destroyed by fire in the Nika revolt of 532. In 538 Justinian dedicated this work of the architects Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, and proclaimed that the achievement of Hagia Sophia (Greek) or Sancta Sopia (Latin) was greater than that of Solomon's temple.
H
agiographa
Authors: Pannell Randall J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The term “Hagiographa” (hǎgē‐ǒg'ra‐fa) is derived from the Greek, meaning “sacred writings,” and was given by the Greek church fathers to the third section of the Hebrew Bible (
Tanakh
),
Ketubim
(“Writings”), which follows the
Torah
and the Prophets.
Hamartiology
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Hamartiology (from the Greek words
hamartia
, “sin,” and
logos
, “word” or “discourse”) is doctrine or teaching concerning sin. God created man in his image, and in the beginning he was good and upright (Gen. 1:31; Eccles. 7:29). God placed man in Eden “to cultivate and keep it” (Gen. 2:15). According to Genesis 2:16–17, there was an immediate prohibition not to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Since the moral nature of man was innocent and uncorrupted, he was able to make moral choices. Satan, however, appeared in the form of a serpent, and tempted Eve to eat from the tree, and she then gave Adam fruit from the tree to eat. Although both deliberately rebelled against God (Gen. 3:1–13), only Eve was deceived (1 Tim. 2:14) in a threefold manner, concerning the physical, material, and intellectual aspects of human need (Gen. 3:1–6; cf. 1 John 2:16). Personal awareness of their sin confirmed the presence of a conscience in their spiritual nature; sin awakened the conscience (Gen. 3:7). The immediate result of the Fall of man was both spiritual and physical death. To dramatize the separation from fellowship with God, Adam and Eve were expelled from Eden (3:23; cf. 2 Cor. 5:17–21). God subsequently pronounced a curse upon Adam and Eve that included the woman's heaviness in childbirth, and the man's heaviness in labor (3:16–19). As a result of sin, the sorrow involved in those blessed privileges and responsibilities was increased. Although headship and hierarchy was an aspect of the original creation, sin would introduce an element of discord in the relationship between husband and wife that would often be manifested in an inappropriate subjection of the wife by the husband. The Fall brought mankind from his original estate into sin and misery. Original sin affects humanity in terms of the corruption of his entire nature. However, man's depravity does not mean that every human being is as morally bad as they could be; the potential, however, is such that sin is comprehensive and pervasive in all humanity, so that every part of the human person is completely affected by sin.
H
aydn,
J
ohann
M
ichael (1737–1806)
Authors: Hettrick Jane Schatkin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Johann Michael Haydn was born in Rohrau, Lower Austria, and died in Salzburg. Probably no 18th century composer contributed more consistently to sacred music than Michael Haydn. Like his famous elder brother Franz Joseph, Michael received his musical training as a choirboy in St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna (1745–c.1757), where he sang and heard works by the leading composers of the time. In 1763 he became
Hofmusicus und Concertmeister
to the Prince‐Archbishop Sigismund Graf Schratten‐bach in Salzburg, where he remained until his death. He succeeded Anton Adlgasser as organist in the Dreifaltigkeitskirche (1777) and Mozart as court and cathedral organist (1782). From the beginning, Haydn was renowned for his church music. A writer in the
Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung
(November 1801) noted: “on the basis of his sacred music, and precisely in the pure church style, [Haydn] certainly has very few among his contemporaries who could claim honorably to be his rivals.”
H
owells,
H
erbert (1892–1983)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
English composer considered one of the best 20th century liturgical composers in the English cathedral tradition. He taught composition for more than 60 years at the Royal College of Music. From 1936 he served as music director of St. Paul's Girls School. He also produced a corpus of secular works as keyboard pieces, chamber music, and orchestral works.
Hugh of
S
aint
V
ictor (
d
. 1141)
Authors: Condict Ellen 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Hugh of Saint Victor was a leading medieval theologian, biblical interpreter, philosopher, and mystical writer, appointed head of the school of the abbey of Saint Victor in Paris in the early 12th century. Under his direction the school became the center of the mystical movement, and went on to produce pioneering spiritual and exegetical writers, including Richard and Andrew of Saint Victor. Employing the rule of St. Augustine, the canons of Saint Victor chose to live in closer communion with those outside their walls, emphasizing the importance of spiritual renewal for all people (who would be assisted by the edifying example of those within the cloister) and bridging the gap between the intellectual pursuit of scholars and the religious pursuit of the cloistered.
Human Rights
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The modern human rights movement is generally considered to have arisen following the Nuremberg war crimes trials at the end of World War II. The horrors of the Nazi atrocities led to the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the creation of the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, France, to implement the European Declaration of Human Rights; the latter became the model for the American Convention on Human Rights and the corresponding American system of human rights protection with its Inter‐American Court sitting in Costa Rica.
Christianity in
I
celand
Authors: Symeon Magnússon Ágúst 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christianity has been a part of Iceland's culture since the beginning of human habitation on the island. Irish monks came to Iceland sometime in the 6th or 7th century, 150 years before the Norse settled the island in the 870s. Their purpose was probably either to proselytize the native population — they didn't know it was nonexistent — or to continue the tradition of the Egyptian desert fathers, to disappear into an unforgiving wilderness to engage in spiritual warfare. When the Norse settlers started arriving on the island the monks quickly disappeared, most likely because they did not want to engage with the emerging pagan culture.
Iconoclasm
Authors: Allen Michael 
Published: January 2012

AbstractIconoclasm refers to the intentional removal of religious icons. Between the years 726 and 843cethe imperial and clerical powers debated the place of images within the life of the church. The iconoclasts believed that the use of images within the liturgy and devotion of the church involved idolatrous practice, whereas the iconodules supported the use of icons. The Roman, Eastern, and Lutheran Churches follow iconodule practice to this day, as do most evangelical and nondenominational churches. The Eastern churches continue to allow only two‐dimensional images of God, suggesting that the third dimension represents divine transcendence and cannot appear within the creaturely realm. The Reformed churches revived the iconoclastic movement within the 16th century in opposition to both Roman Catholic liturgy and Lutheran christology.
Ignatius of Antioch (
c
.35–
c
.112)
Authors: Culpepper Scott 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Ignatius was the third bishop of Antioch and a Christian martyr whose correspondence revealed the depth of Christian reverence for the martyr's calling. Ignatius' early life and training are shrouded in mystery and legend. One early Christian tradition asserted that Ignatius was the child held by Jesus in Mark 9:35. He was also believed to have heard the Apostle John teach. Theodoret of Cyrus wrote that Ignatius was appointed to serve at Antioch by St. Peter. Eusebius of Caesarea was responsible for recording that Ignatius was the third bishop to serve at Antioch. While Ignatius apparently served his flock with distinction, he became the first of many Christian martyrs better known for the manner of his death than the course of his life.
Ignatius of Loyola, Saint (1491–1556)
Authors: S.J. Harvey D. Egan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
St. Ignatius of Loyola was born Iñigo López de Oñaz y Loyola to parents of minor nobility in the Basque region of Spain. When Iñigo was 14 years old, he was sent to a relative who was chief treasurer at the royal court. There he received the basic education of a Spanish gentleman and courtier but later changed his profession to soldiering. Women, gambling, dueling, and a tremendous desire for glory soon dominated his life, until he received a disabling leg wound at the battle of Pamplona in 1521. During his long convalescence at Loyola, he experienced a conversion in which God opened his eyes to the “different spirits” that were moving him: God, the “good angels,” and “the enemy of our human nature.” From this seed grew his famous rules for the discernment of spirits.
Impanation
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Latin
impanare
means “to impane, that is, to enclose in bread.” As a doctrine, impanation states that Christ's body and blood are enclosed, but are not changed, in the elements of bread and wine in the Lord's Supper. The concept harks back to the Middle Ages when Guitmund of Aversa (d. c.1090) first introduced the term. Later, Ruprecht von Deutz (d. 1129) explained its meaning, saying that with the elements of bread and wine there was the local inclusion of Christ's body and blood. An analogy would be meat enclosed in a sandwich. The doctrine of impanation arose in opposition to the doctrine of transubstantiation. Impanation differs from transubstantiation. The latter asserts that the priest in the act of consecrating the bread and wine changes them into the body and blood of Christ. Impanation does not imply changes in the bread and wine.
I
ndonesian Christianity
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Comprising 13,000 islands located on both sides of the Equator and stretching from southeast Asia to Australia, Indonesia has 235 million people, 80 percent of whom live on Java, Sumatra, and Kalimantan. The islands have a diverse religious history. In the 1st century
ad
Hinduism became the dominant religion besides the animist religions practiced by many of the tribes. Around 1300 Islam arrived and gradually gained ground in eastern Sumatra, Java, and the North Moluccas (Maluku). From 1525 to 1527 the Hindu kingdoms in the interior of Java all collapsed and became Muslim. Up till the 18th century Indonesia was Muslim, with the exception of the interior of Bali, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Irian. Even today this Muslim majority holds many animistic ideas, and approximately 80 percent of Indonesian Muslims hold to the Javanese kebatinan mysticism. This is why many Muslims in Indonesia do not favor an Arabic form of Islam or an Islamic theocracy.
Intercession
Authors: Lamport Philip Bustrum and Mark A. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Prayer is the act of attempting to communicate with God for the purpose of worshiping, requesting guidance, confessing sin, or to express one's thoughts and emotions. Intercession is a form of prayer making an urgent request or emotional appeal on behalf of another in the hope that God will miraculously intercede. The words of this prayer may be a hymn, an incantation, or a spontaneous utterance. Intercessory prayer is to be distinguished from those requesting favor for oneself (petition) or acknowledgment of personal inadequacy (confession).
J
amaican Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The earliest Christian missionaries in Jamaica were the Quakers in 1791. The first Baptist missionary was George Lisle, a freed slave from Virginia, who arrived in Kingston in 1783. His congregation evolved into the Jamaica Baptist Union. British Baptists came in 1813. By the latter part of the 19th century, Baptist missionaries were sent from Jamaica to Africa. Jamaican missionaries also helped to evangelize Cameroon. The Jamaica Baptist Missionary Society sent its missionaries to Fernando Po off the coast of Equatorial Guinea in 1884. Baptists make up one of the three leading denominations on the island along with the Anglicans and the Seventh‐Day Adventists. A number of Baptist missionary societies from the United States are also active. British Methodists arrived in 1789 and the Moravians in 1764. The Congregationalists and the Presbyterians have merged since 1965 as the United Church of Jamaica and Grand Cayman. However, the predominant Protestant tradition in numerical terms is Pentecostalism. The first Pentecostal mission was the Church of God (Cleveland) in 1917, and its daughter church, the New Testament Church of God, remains the largest Pentecostal denomination followed by the Church of God of Prophecy and 11 other Pentecostal groups.
J
enson,
R
obert W. (
b
. 1930)
Authors: García Alberto L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Robert W. Jenson was born on August 2, 1930, at Eau Claire, Wisconsin. He is considered one of the most prominent and creative systematic theologians in the world. His work on the Holy Trinity is particularly important for the proclamation of the Gospel in the 21st century (Jenson 1997, 1999). The proclamation of the Gospel as the word of promise to the world and as a doxology to God is what drives his theology.
J
erusalem
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Jerusalem is a holy city to the three monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Scripture refers to it as “the Holy City” (Neh. 11:1, 18; Isa. 48:2; 52:1; Dan. 9:16–19; Matt. 4:5; 27:53; “Moriah,” Gen. 22:2; 2 Chron. 3:1; “Ariel,” Isa. 29:1). Since ancient times the city has been inhabited continuously. Primary evidence of fortification is during the Middle Bronze period. According to 1 Chronicles 11:4 (cf. 2 Sam. 5:7), it was originally a Jebusite (a Canaanite people who were descendants of Amorites and Hittites, Gen. 10:15–16; cf. Ezek. 16:3) settlement known as Jebus at the time of the Conquest (Josh. 18:28; Judg. 19:10–11; 1 Chron. 11:4). Jerusalem is mentioned in the Egyptian Execration Texts as “Urushalim,” the Tell el‐Amarna tablets as “Urusalim,” and in later Akkadian texts as “Urusilimmu.” Some scholars believe the name may mean “the city of Shalem” or “founded by Shalem,” an Amorite god (Ezek. 16:2–3). Psalm 76:2 connected “Salem” with the name “Zion.” The prophet Isaiah declared, “the LORD has founded Zion” (14:32; cf. Pss. 48:8; 87:1). It is thought that the king of Jerusalem was called the king of Shalem, since an ancient abbreviated form of the name “Jerusalem” was “Salem.” Melchizedek's title was “king of Salem,” which was certainly an early name of Jerusalem appearing as early as 1400
bc
in the Tell el‐Amarna letters. As a type of Christ (Heb. 7:1–10), Melchizedek was not only king, but also “priest of the Most High God.” From the beginning of its history, Jerusalem has belonged to God. The first boundaries of the Promised Land included Jerusalem (Gen. 13:14–17; and reaffirmed in 15:18–21). Prior to the Amorites establishing worship of Baal‐hadad in place of El as the chief god of the Canaanites, the king‐priest of Salem (Jerusalem) was a true worshipper of Yahweh.
J
esus Christ
Authors: Bertone John A. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Jesus Christ is the central figure in Christianity. The title “Jesus Christ” is a composite made up of the personal name “Jesus” (from the Greek
I
ē
sous
, which translates the Hebrew name
Y
ē
shûa
, “Yahweh is salvation” or “Yahweh saves/has saved”) and “Christ” (from the Greek
Christos
, which translates the Hebrew
Māshîah
, “anointed one,” indicating a future son from the royal line of King David who fulfills pro‐phecies and who will rule on the throne of David his father forever; see Ps. 2:2; 2 Sam. 7:12–16). The name “Jesus Christ” combines the historic figure Jesus with the messianic status that the early Christian movement attributed to him. Most often Jesus was also referred to as “Jesus the Galilean” (Matt. 26:69) or “Jesus of Nazareth” (Matt. 21:11).
J
esus People
Authors: Fulkerson Randal C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

During the 1960s youth revolt diverse Christian groups, known as Jesus People, developed on the West coast of the United States. Hollywood, California served as a magnet for disenchanted youth. Here the flamboyant Baptist Arthur Blessitt opened a Sunset Strip coffee house for street people and former talent agent Tony Alamo transported street youths to his Saugus, California ranch for emotional revivals. Blessitt left the Strip when police and local businessmen forced street freaks to Hollywood Boulevard where former nightclub magician Duane Peterson, publisher of the
Hollywood Free Paper
, witnessed to youth. Similar youth‐oriented street ministries formed in Berkeley and Seattle simultaneously.
J
ews for
J
esus
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Jews for Jesus is a Christian missionary organ‐ization with international headquarters located in San Francisco, California. The plaque at the headquarters reads “Jews for Jesus: EST. 32 A.D. Give or Take a Year.” Martin “Moishe” Rosen founded the organization officially in September 1973. Recognizing the divergence among Jews as to what it means to “be Jewish” and “live Jewishly,” Jews for Jesus are com‐mitted to living their Jewishness actively and view that life, as a whole, in light of belief in Jesus as Messiah. Jews for Jesus defines Jewishness in terms of birthright and inheritance from parents. Although nearly all denominations of Judaism insist that Jews for Jesus is not Jewish, the organization insists that Jews are who they are by birth, and the designation of being Christian designates whom they follow. Nevertheless, Jews for Jesus and other Messianic Jewish groups are thought to be antithetical to Judaism and the majority of Jews.
Joachim ofFiore (c.1132–1202)
Authors: Jordan Jessy 
Published: January 2012

AbstractJoachim of Fiore (or Flora), was born c.1132 in the small town of Celico, located in Cosenza within the Calabrian region of southern Italy, and died at San Giovanni in Fiore in 1202. He was a Cistercian abbot, apocalyptic theologian, and scriptural commentator, best known for his spiritual interpretation of history based on the Trinity.