bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms
Authors: Rogers Richard 
Published: January 2010

AbstractFeigned mental disorders arising from malingering or factitious disorders dramatically influence the clinical presentations of clients. The accurate assessment of feigning, therefore, is a critical issue in many psychological evaluations. Inaccurate determinations of feigning have far‐reaching consequences. When feigning is not detected, individuals can receive unwarranted benefits, avoid responsibilities, and utilize a disproportionate level of health care services. When feigning is misclassified, individuals with genuine mental disorders can suffer greatly by having benefits and services unfairly revoked. In some cases legal sanctions can also be imposed on these individuals.
Subliminal Perception
Authors: Coren Stanley 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Around the end of the 1950s, a great deal of public concern was expressed when it was claimed that a method existed for presenting advertising messages that could influence behavior at an unconscious level. A typical example used at that time was at a movie theater, where the message “BUY POPCORN” might be given during the film, and even though viewers were not consciously aware of its presence, they would still be motivated to purchase popcorn. The procedures involved quickly flashing messages on the screen at a size, speed, or brightness that was too insignificant to produce conscious awareness. Such stimuli are called subliminal, from the Latin for “below” (
sub
) the threshold for “consciousness” (
limen
). Subliminal perception comes about when such stimuli, even though apparently unnoticed, appear to exert an effect on later behavior.
Successive Approximation
Authors: Meador Stephanie K. , Hatfield David B. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The terms
successive approximation
and
shaping
are shorthand for the phrase “successive reinforcement of closer and closer approximations to the target behavior” (Skinner, 1953). This procedure is distinct from other operant reinforcement methods (e.g., chaining), in that it relies on both reinforcement and extinction applied to a changing set of criteria responses (Galbicka, 1994). The target, or terminal response, is either infrequent or novel to the organism (i.e., has never been performed), limiting the utility of direct reinforcement of the response. Shaping, as the name implies, involves slow transformations of the topography (or shape) of the organism's behavior over time, much like the process of shaping clay into a fine piece of pottery. Initially, a gross or distal response approximating the terminal behavior is sufficient for the delivery of reinforcement. In time, a closer approximation to the terminal response is required for reinforcement. This process continues until only the terminal response elicits reinforcement.
Suicidal Behavior Among Youth
Authors: Kaslow Nadine J. , Marshall Lee Erica D. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractAdolescent suicide is a top 10 cause of death, and the number of youth who kill themselves is increasing around the world (Kutcher & Gardner, 2008). In 2006, there were 1,296 deaths due to suicide among individuals 18 and younger in the United States. That same year, suicide was the third leading cause of death among 10‐ to 24‐year‐olds, making it a significant public health problem in these age groups (http://www.cdc.gov). Firearms, hanging, and poisoning are the most common means for suicide completion in youth (Bridge, Goldstein, & Brent, 2006). Close to 10% of adolescents have attempted suicide, and 15–30% report having considered suicide (Bridge et al., 2006). Suicidal ideation and attempts are more common among adolescent females than males; however, the reverse is true for completed suicide (Bridge et al., 2006). Although historically, suicide rates have been lower among African American than Caucasian youth, the gap has narrowed recently (Bridge et al., 2006). The highest youth suicide rate is among Native Americans. Latino youth do not appear to be overrepresented among completed suicides. Rates among Asian American youth are the lowest.
Sullivan's Interpersonal Theory
Authors: Enfield Roger E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Interpersonal theory is a theory of interpersonal relations developed, largely in the 1930s and 1940s, by Harry Stack Sullivan, an American psychiatrist, who died before his major works were published. Interpersonal theory emphasizes the social nature of the human condition and defines psychiatry, personality, mental illness, and key assessment and treatment concepts in interpersonal rather than intrapsychic terms.
Superego
Authors: Hart Anton H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Freud's term
Superego
(1923) is best articulated in plain English as the “Above‐I.” It comprises the aspect of the mind that is the judge, censor, or conscience. Freud described the agencies of the conscious and unconscious mind as consisting of three: the Id or “the it,” the Ego or “the I,” and the Superego or Above‐I. This use of the Latin for new terms was not original, but rather was introduced by Freud's English translator, James Strachey. Freud's original German choices of das Es, das Ich, and das Uber‐ich were intended to be experientially accessible (Bettelheim, 1983), even as Freud sought to delve beneath the surface of conscious experience.
Taxometric Methods
Authors: Beauchaine Theodore P. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Scientists who study psychopathology have long debated whether mental disorders are best characterized as discrete categories or as extreme expressions of continuously distributed personality traits (Meehl, 1995). Although the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(American Psychiatric Association, 2000) exemplifies the categorical perspective, it is widely recognized that diagnostic syndromes affect people to varying degrees, and that some people exhibit clear signs of psychopathology without debilitating impairment. Accordingly, many who study psychopathology now prefer dimensional models over categorical models (Krueger, Watson, & Barlow, 2005).
Temperament
Authors: Windle Michael 
Published: January 2010

AbstractTemperament refers to biogenetic dispositions that influence individual variation in emotional and behavioral styles. There is general agreement that temperament is manifested early in life, is highly heritable, and displays at least moderate stability over the life course. The study of temperament has a venerable history, dating from Greco‐Roman times, with scholars such as Hippocrates and Galen, through nineteenth‐ and early‐twentieth‐century contributions by Pavlov and others, to early‐ to middle‐twentieth‐century representations in many of the grand trait theories of temperament and personality, such as those of Eysenck and Cattell. Nevertheless, the revival or resurgence of temperament in the 1960s is typically credited to Thomas, Chess, Birch, Hertzig, and Korn (1963) in their highly influential New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS). The NYLS investigated 133 children and their families from childhood to adulthood with respect to causes and consequences of normal development and of behavioral and emotional problems. Of importance, Thomas and colleagues identified and labeled an individual difference variable, temperament, as critical in understanding the development of behavioral and emotional problems.
T
erman,
L
ewis
M
adison (1877–1956)
Authors: Staff  
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Lewis Madison Terman received a B.A. and M.A. (1903) from Indiana University and then enrolled at Clark University, from which he received his doctorate in 1905 under C. Stanford. In 1906, he held a position at Los Angeles State Normal School. From 1910 to 1943, he was at Stanford University; for 20 years, he served as head of the Psychology Department there.
Terror Management Theory
Authors: Maxfield Molly , Pyszczynski Tom 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Terror management theory (TMT) is a social psychological theory of attitudinal and behavioral responses to humans' awareness of their mortality (Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986; Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 1991). The theory posits that possessing an awareness of one's own inescapable death creates a uniquely human psychological problem, consequently impacting myriad attitudes and behaviors. Although there are many potential causes of anxiety in the world, the theory suggests that this existential concern differs from other anxiety‐provoking events or thoughts in that it is absolutely certain to occur and ultimately entails the end to all other human motives. This makes the management of death‐related psychological terror an especially important task for maintaining psychological equanimity.
Test Standardization
Authors: Geisinger Kurt F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The standardization of a test is the establishment of uniform procedures for the administration and scoring of the instrument. If psychological measurement is defined as the use of rules assigning numbers to relative “quantities” of psychological constructs associated with persons, then test standardization is determining and explicating those rules. Without standardization, measurement is only an informal process that varies from examiner to examiner. Historical impetus for the concern with control on the part of examiners arose from the nineteenth‐century experimental psychologists from Leipzig, where work demonstrated that minor variations in giving instructions and making observations resulted in behavioral differences (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997). The first standardized tests appeared in the beginning of the twentieth century, when E. L. Thorndike, an experimental psychologist, and others extended the principles learned in a laboratory to psychological measurement. The history of standardized testing may be found in Dubois (1970).
Testing Bias
Authors: Gregory Robert J. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe claim that some psychological tests are biased is a familiar criticism, and almost everyone has an opinion about it. Typically, skeptics assert that, because of the content or the approach of certain tests, cultural minorities encounter unfair discrimination, and therefore they obtain lower scores on cognitive tests or receive more pathological scores on personality tests than majority populations. The most common basis for the argument of test bias is a subjective one, namely, that certain items or particular subtests just look, appear, or feel unfair to specific subgroups. For example, critics argue that poor performance of some minority groups on cognitive tests is because the test material is drawn from outside the cultural experience of these minorities.
Thematic Apperception Test
Authors: Teglasi Hedwig 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a set of pictures and standard instructions for telling stories about them, but methods of analyzing these stories vary widely. Although Murray (1938) introduced the TAT in the context of a particular theory of personality, the technique did not become wedded to the theory from which it sprang. The TAT pictures and instructions are commercially available (see Murray, 1943) and remain in common use, although Murray's interpretive system is not, having been supplanted by a plethora of analytic methods for clinical use and for the study of personality. In line with its original intent, the TAT continues to be valued for revealing aspects of the personality that are outside of conscious awareness.
Therapeutic Alliance
Authors: Safran Jeremy D. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe therapeutic alliance is one of the best‐researched variables in the psychotherapy literature. Several meta‐analytic reviews have provided evidence linking the quality of the alliance to treatment outcome. Most recently, Horvath and Bedi (2002), in a review of 89 studies, found a median effect size of .25 Although as Horvath and Bedi point out, the magnitude of this relation may not appear very impressive, the impact of the alliance across studies is far in excess of the outcome variance that can be accounted for by techniques.
Therapeutic Assessment
Authors: Finn Stephen E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Therapeutic assessment is a paradigm in which psychological testing is used to help people understand themselves better and find solutions to their persistent problems. Therapeutic assessment differs from traditional psychological assessment, in which the main goal is to diagnose disorders, plan treatments, and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions. Therapeutic assessment can serve all these purposes as well, but its primary goal is to facilitate positive changes in clients (Finn & Tonsager, 1997).
T
horndike,
E
dward
L
ee (1874–1949)
Authors: Staff  
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Edward Lee Thorndike was an undergraduate at Wesleyan University (B.S. in 1895) and then studied under William James at Harvard University (M.A. in 1897), where he began animal research in psychology. He moved to Columbia University to work with J. M. Cattell and continued his research with dogs, cats, and chicks. He created puzzle boxes with which he studied animal intelligence, and his work was published in a monograph, “Animal Intelligence.” He received his doctorate from Columbia University in 1898. He was President of APA in 1912.
Time‐Series Analysis
Authors: Huitema Bradley E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The statistical analysis of data that have been collected on a single unit (e.g., a person, a family, or an organization) at equally spaced time intervals (or in a continuous form) is a time‐series analysis. Time‐series methods are employed to describe the relationship between variables (e.g., biochemical measures in person A and the behavior of person A), to predict future behavior, to describe the statistical nature of a process, and to estimate intervention effects. Hence the applications for time‐series analysis have much in common with the applications for conventional data analytic methods.
Toilet Training
Authors: Christophersen Edward R. , Vanscoyoc Susan M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Toilet training is a routine developmental topic of discussion with health care providers. Very few empirical data are available for providing guidance to parents about toilet training. A report from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (2006) reviewed outcome studies for 26 observational studies and 8 controlled trials that they were able to identify on toilet‐training procedures. The authors reported no comparison studies in peer‐reviewed journals of different approaches to toilet training, including the two most popular approaches: the structured behavioral approach of Foxx and Azrin (1973) and Brazelton's child‐oriented approach (1962).
Tolman,EdwardChase (1886–1959)
Authors: Staff  
Published: January 2010

AbstractEdward Chase Tolman received his first degree, in engineering, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. However, he later changed to psychology and was awarded the PhD degree by Harvard in 1915. He taught for a while at Northwestern University, but he spent most of his career (1918–1954) at the University of California at Berkeley, where he established his rat laboratory.
Torture
Authors: Dutton Donald G. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
According to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, torture is “any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person for such purposes as obtaining from him or a third person information or a confession, punishing him for an act he or a third person has committed or is suspected of having committed, or intimidating or coercing him or a third person, or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind, when such pain or suffering is inflicted by or at the instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence of a public official or other person acting in an official capacity. It does not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in or incidental to lawful sanctions” (United Nations, 1984). Motives for torture range from sadistic sexual gratification by individuals to the extraction of information by states or religious authorities. The Catholic Church practiced torture officially from the twelfth century until it was outlawed in 1834 (Peters, 1999).
Tower of Hanoi Problem
Authors: Schmidtke Klaus 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The Tower of Hanoi is a classical puzzle applied in the psychology of problem solving and skill learning. In the standard wooden version, it consists of three vertical pegs and a variable number of disks, usually three to five, with increasing diameter. The disks have a hole in the middle and are stacked on the left peg in the order of the diameter. The task is to transfer the stack of disks to the right peg with a minimum of moves. Disks are moved from one peg to another, one at a time. Each peg can serve as a temporary target for any disk. Larger disks must not be placed above smaller ones. Performance is measured by the number of moves and/or the time required to complete the task. False moves can also be assessed and classified. The minimum number of moves is 2

n

− 1, where
n
is the number of disks (e.g., 31 for the five‐disk version). Approximate mean performances on the first attempt are 22 moves in 2 minutes for the four‐disk version and 64 moves in 10 minutes for the five‐disk version. In aged subjects, mean baseline performance declines.
Trail‐Making Test
Authors: Allen Daniel N. , Haderlie Michael M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Trail‐Making Test (TMT) is a measure of visual scanning, complex attention, psychomotor speed, and mental flexibility. The TMT is an adaptation of John E. Partington's Test of Distributed Attribution, which was originally developed in 1938 to assess intellectual function. It was later renamed Partington's Pathways Test and was used to examine the effects of opiate use on brain function (Partington & Leiter, 1949). Subsequently, it was incorporated into the Army Individual Test Battery in 1944, where it received its current name. It was incorporated into the Halstead‐Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery (HRNB) with minor modifications, and it remains one of the most frequently used neuropsychological tests in research and clinical practice (Rabin, Barr, & Burton, 2005).
Trait Psychology
Authors: Farmer Richard F. , Sundberg Norman D. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractTrait psychology is an approach to the theory and measurement of personality that has the concept oftraitas a central organizing feature and fundamental unit of analysis. Traits have been generally defined in one of two ways: (1) as descriptions of stable behavior patterns or (2) as internal dispositions to behave in particular ways. When used descriptively, trait labels denote patterns of thoughts, emotions, or actions that are consistent over time and across situations. When viewed as internal dispositions that influence or cause behavior, traits are usually regarded as direct expressions or products of biological entities (e.g., genes) or organismic processes influenced by biological endowments (e.g., patterns of brain activation, neurochemical or hormone regulation). With either position, there are limits to the explanatory power of traits. Most notably, trait concepts are unable to explain behavior with reference to questions such as “Why this specific behavior, and why now?” (Funder, 1994). Trait psychology, therefore, is a framework for organizing, assessing, classifying, and predicting behavior; it does not currently, however, provide a conceptual foundation for fully explaining, influencing, or modifying behavior.
Transpersonal Psychology
Authors: Hartelius Glenn , Friedman Harris 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Transpersonal psychology (TP) emerged in the United States during the 1960s, a turbulent time when psychedelic experimentation and the rediscovery of mysticism, primarily from Eastern and indigenous traditions, caused much deep reflection. It grew from the growing discontent by some humanistic psychologists who questioned the limitations of a solely human‐based psychology that paid scant attention to consciousness and spirituality. Although TP had many earlier roots, its formal birth is generally linked to the debut of the
Journal of Transpersonal Psychology
. The lead article in this journal's first issue was written by one of TP's founders, Abraham Maslow (1969), who had played a key role in developing humanistic psychology and then refocused his attention on developing a psychology centered on human connections to the cosmos. Among other notable TP founding figures are Stanislav Grof (1985) and Charles Tart (1975).
Tricyclic Antidepressants
Authors: Rutherford Bret R. , Roose Steven P. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Following their introduction in the 1960s, the tricyclic antidepressants soon became widely used for the treatment of depression. Along with phenothiazine antipsychotic medications for the treatment of schizophrenia and lithium for the treatment of bipolar disorder, tricyclic antidepressants ushered in the modern era of psychopharmacology. Today, the established efficacy of the tricyclics must be balanced against their problematic side effects, and they have been supplanted by serotonin reuptake inhibitors and other agents as first‐line treatment for depression. However, tricyclics continue to be effective options for patients with treatment‐resistant depression, as well as a range of other psychiatric and nonpsychiatric disorders.
Turkey, Psychology in
Authors: Boratav Hale Bolak 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Turkey is often seen as a cultural as well as a geographical bridge between the East and the West. Bearing the legacies of great civilizations in Anatolia, the country has a rich cultural heritage. Previously, issues of psychological relevance were largely relegated to the mystic and religious realms. The fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I and the founding of the Turkish Republic in 1923, accompanied by the introduction of secular reforms, provided a context within which Western scientific ideas emerged as an alternative to and challenged traditional systems of knowledge and belief (Bolak‐Boratav, 2004).