bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Archaeology
Authors: Bartlett John R. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses archaeology's impact on biblical scholarship, especially over the last two centuries. It describes the Christian pilgrims, explorers, travellers, map makers, and military surveyors who paved the way for the archaeologists. It focuses on twentieth-century archaeology in Palestine/Israel, demonstrating archaeology's growing independence as a discipline, and its effect on modern understanding of the Bible's presentation of history.
Ancient Near Eastern Studies: Egypt
Authors: Kitchen Kenneth 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article looks at the impact of ancient Near Eastern studies on biblical scholarship. Before 1800, no accurate first-hand knowledge of Egypt's ancient remains was available to compare with biblical mentions of that land and its ancient civilization. During the nineteenth century, detailed pioneering exploration of Egypt and Nubia led to extensive recording and major publications of the visible monuments and inscriptions, while decipherment of ancient Egypt's hieroglyphic and other scripts, along with their language, finally opened the way towards recovering three millennia of history, literature, and social organization, including religious belief and practice.
Qumran Studies
Authors: Davies Philip 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The Dead Sea Scrolls have undoubtedly provoked biblical scholarship into completely new ways of thinking about the manner in which the biblical literature originated and was transmitted, interpreted, and canonized. In the areas of text and canon, much has been learned, and a good deal of discussion generated; in respect of Hebrew linguistics, the nature and variety of Qumran Hebrew has also been much debated, though with rather less acknowledged impact on other aspects of biblical studies. This article first looks at Qumran evidence for the ‘Bible’ itself, relating to the emergence of a scriptural canon and the textual characteristics of its components. It then considers the way in which the Qumran literature ‘extends’ scripture through rewriting and interpretation, and the broader issues raised by the Scrolls about the nature and function of the Jewish scriptures.
Diaspora and Rabbinic Judaism
Authors: Hezser Catherine 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article discusses how the study of the history, literature, and religious beliefs and practices of ancient Jews in the Land of Israel and the Diaspora provides the proper background and context for the study of the later books of the Hebrew Bible, the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, and the New Testament writings. From the time of the Babylonian exile, and especially from Hellenistic times onwards, a vibrant Jewish Diaspora existed alongside the Jewish community in the Land of Israel. During the time of the Second Temple (520 BCE to 70 CE) and throughout rabbinic times, Israel remained the centre of world Jewry. The books of the Hebrew Bible and the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha were written by Jews who lived in the Diaspora or the Land of Israel; the books of the New Testament were written by Jewish and Gentile Christians in various Diaspora locations that also had Jewish communities. Thus, the direct experience of Jewish life or the indirect knowledge of and interaction with Jews would have had an impact on the literature that the biblical authors created.
Language and Translation of the Old Testament
Authors: Elwolde John 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article begins with a brief linguistic sketch of the Hebrew and Aramaic of the Bible. It then focuses on the inherent difficulty of ascertaining meaning in the Hebrew Bible (or, in the Christian tradition, the Old Testament, without the deutero-canonical, or apocryphal, books), from both a textual and a linguistic perspective. The lens through which the issue is viewed is mainly that of translations, in particular the most important of the ancient versions, the Old Greek (more loosely, the Septuagint, or LXX, much of which was completed in the late third and second centuries BCE), but also other ancient versions and modern translations.
Prophecy
Authors: Rooke Deborah 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
According to Jewish tradition, the canon of the Hebrew Bible, which forms the basis of the Christian Old Testament, is divided into three parts: Law, Prophets, and Writings. The division known as ‘Prophets’ consists of the historical books Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings (also known collectively as the ‘Former Prophets’) as well as the books more commonly recognized as prophetic by Christianity: that is, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the so-called Book of the Twelve, from Hosea to Malachi. These fifteen works from Isaiah to Malachi are also known collectively as the ‘Latter Prophets’. This article focuses on the major prophets, consisting of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, and the twelve minor prophets from Hosea to Malachi. It gives a brief overview of scholarly issues that pertain to the prophetic books in general and highlights issues which are particularly associated with individual books.
The Growth of the Apocrypha
Authors: Salvesen Alison G. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Both apocryphal and pseudepigraphical works are increasingly studied at an academic level for what they reveal of the religious preoccupations of their writers and the communities that first received them. The apocryphal writings in particular are a valuable witness to the many strands of Judaism during the period when the Second Temple stood in Jerusalem, spanning roughly the time period between the composition of the Hebrew Bible and the writings of the New Testament. This article discusses apocryphal writings covering several different genres, sometimes even within the same book. These include wisdom literature, which gives advice for right conduct and a successful life, linked to a religious outlook; apocalyptic writing, offering hope of momentous supernatural intervention at the end of history in order to save the people of God, sometimes through the agency of an anointed one or ‘Messiah’; historiography or writing that purports to be history; edifying stories, which are essentially folk tales with a religious message; rewritten Bible, where a familiar story from Scripture is retold with different emphases; and prayers and psalms that may have had a liturgical or devotional function.
The Growth of the New Testament
Authors: Court John M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article surveys the growth of the New Testament. The story of the movement in the first centuries towards the canon of the New Testament has three particularly significant historical features, or catalysts, and three literary aspects. The historical catalysts are, first, the existence in the first centuries of groups with alternative Christian philosophies, often labelled ‘Gnostic’; if their rationale is too different, they need to be held at a distance. Second, there is the influence, in the mid-second century, of Marcion, whose programme was to exclude both the Old Testament texts and any elements that echoed the Old within the New Testament. And third, there was a second-century movement, known as Montanism, which emphasized the elements of prophecy, continuing charismatic inspiration, and a revolutionary view of the future. The three significant literary aspects concern the gospels, the epistles, and the other texts with apostolic associations. Revelation is the culmination of the church's self-understanding and the climax of the process of growth of the New Testament.
Archaeology
Authors: Bartlett John R. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses the contributions of archaeology to biblical scholarship. Biblical scholarship needs the archaeologist as it needs the anthropologist, the epigraphist, the philologist, the Assyriologist, the classical scholar, the student of Qumran, the rabbinic scholar, and others for the interpretation of the biblical writings. Archaeology is not so much a method of biblical scholarship as an intellectual discipline and practice, incorporating many methods and subject to many methodologies, assisting the modern interpretation of the Bible.
Form, Source, and Redaction Criticism
Authors: Floss Johannes P. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article looks at form criticism, source/literary criticism, and redaction criticism. Form criticism, like source criticism, literary criticism, and redaction criticism, is a scientific method of interpreting the texts of the Old Testament. Literary criticism constitutes the first methodological step on the path to seeking the origin and provenance of a text. Further steps (including form criticism and redaction criticism) must follow later, in order to place a stratum or source in its proper place within a larger textual whole where possible. Here, the term ‘literary criticism’ is used rather than ‘source criticism’. Redaction criticism concerns itself with form and not with content. Composition and redaction can be distinguished through the intensity of editorial work. Composition can be recognized by a more intensive engagement with the units and the way that they are fitted together and built into episodes to achieve a desired end. Redaction tends to put the individual texts next to each other, but in an uncoordinated way.
Rhetorical and New Literary Criticism
Authors: Mitchell Margaret M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article provides a sketch of some historically significant moments in the emergence of rhetorical and literary-critical approaches to biblical texts, and gives some methodological pointers and resources for those who seek to comprehend and exercise them. Rhetorical criticism understands a text as dynamic in the sense that it is an instance of communicative persuasion, ‘a set of means chosen and organized with an eye to an audience rather than to self-expression or pure making’. Literary criticism involves a close reading of precise details of the text viewed as a unity (deflecting overemphasis on historical context or the historical information to be gained from it when treated it as a source) and appreciates especially the dynamism of the world inside the text, as a system of complex and meaningful interactions among its constituent parts.
Feminist Criticism and Related Aspects
Authors: Wacker Marie-Theres 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Christian feminist exegesis has other procedures and thematic concerns compared with a Jewish feminist engagement with the Bible; and criticism of society, politics, and the economy is not carried out with the same sharpness by all of these. Lesbian and queer (gender-confusing) exegetical approaches bring in yet other perspectives. The designation ‘queer’ indicates in addition the debate about the deconstruction of ‘gender’ which, from its side, also brings pressure to define afresh the contours of ‘feminist’ theology and exegesis. This article deals first with basic hermeneutical questions, and then turns to methodological perspectives.
Biblical Theology
Authors: Janowski Bernd 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article gives an overview of the basic problems in biblical theology from the point of view of how they have developed since the beginnings of biblical theological work in the seventeenth century and how they appear today. This sketch of the problems will therefore concern itself less with a discussion of details than with major trends and contexts. After a definition of the term ‘biblical theology’ and a brief outline of the history of interpretation, there follows a sketch of those problems that are at present most intensively discussed. The main emphasis will be on the Old Testament and its significance for a theology of the whole Bible.
Introduction
Authors: McLaughlin Brian P. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The philosophy of mind is a core area of philosophy. It has roots tracing back to ancient Greece, where the idea that the soul is distinct from the body originated. Philosophy of mind flourished during much of the period from the publication in the seventeenth century of René Descartes's magnificent works on the mind to the first quarter of the twentieth century, which closed with the publication of C. D. Broad's The Mind and Its Place in Nature. With the rise of behaviourism in the second quarter of that century, however, philosophical interest in the mind waned. Still, some mid-twentieth-century work stands out. With the fall of behaviourism in the late 1950s and early 1960s and the rise of cognitive science, interest in the mind and in its place in nature was renewed — and with enormous vigour. Since then research in the philosophy of mind has been booming.
Dualism
Authors: Lowe E. J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Dualism in contemporary philosophy of mind comes in many different varieties, but following long-standing tradition is normally divided into two main kinds: substance dualism and property dualism, the former maintaining the distinctness of mental and physical substances and the latter maintaining the distinctness of mental and physical properties. By a substance, in this context, is standardly meant an individual object, or bearer of properties, not a kind of stuff. However, much of the contemporary debate concerning dualism in fact focuses on the relationship between mental and physical events or states, largely because it is these that are commonly supposed to be the relata of causal relations and causal considerations play a very important role in that debate. This might lead one to suppose that a third main kind of dualism should be recognized, namely event or state dualism, maintaining the distinctness of mental and physical events or states.
Epiphenomenalism
Authors: Walter Sven 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Epiphenomenalism is not only at odds with our intuitive conception of ourselves as autonomous agents. It also faces a whole series of theoretical difficulties. Among other things, it appears to undermine freedom of the will, the possibility of an evolutionary account of the mind, our conviction that others enjoy a mental life similar to ours, the application of epistemic norms like justification, warrant, or reasonableness to processes of belief formation, the distinction between reasons for an action and the reasons for which it was performed, and our ability to refer to, have knowledge of, and have memories about mental states. This article briefly sketches two of the most important of them, saying why the epiphenomenalist's standard response to them appears unsatisfactory. Then it considers an issue that has so far been mostly neglected; namely, the question of which account of causation would allow for a coherent formulation of the epiphenomenalist's position. Finally, it suggests an alternative version of epiphenomenalism, which, though not free from problems, may be superior to the traditional version.
What is Property Physicalism?
Authors: Beckermann Ansgar 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Since the days of Democritus, Plato, and Aristotle the main concern of philosophers of mind has been whether there is an independent realm of the mental beyond the realm of the physical. This question has mainly been understood as that of whether there are independent mental substances — souls or selves. Most of what has been written in the philosophy of mind during the last seventy to eighty years, however, has instead been concerned with the question of whether there are independent or irreducible mental properties. To many it has seemed obviously true that there are no mental substances, but with properties things are different. The history of answers to questions such as ‘Is being in pain or thinking about Paris really something physical?’ (including the answers associated with logical behaviourism, the identity theory, functionalism, and supervenience theories) has been told time and again. Nonetheless, it is worth taking a new look at it.
Thinking
Authors: Antony Louise 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Human language is not the only naturally occurring symbol system. There are many animals other than human beings that communicate by means of signs or signals; vervet monkeys, for example, have specialized warning cries for different kinds of predators. And some animal-communication systems even have a rudimentary syntax: the dances performed by certain honey bees have structural elements that tell other bees the direction and distance from the hive of a nectar source. But what's distinctive of human language — and the feature that Descartes was highlighting — is that the syntax of human language permits us to take parts of signs and recombine them with parts of other signs.
Other Minds
Authors: Avramides Anita 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
It is a serious question both in philosophy and the history of ideas just how our conception of mind has evolved. There is something of a consensus that Descartes introduced a particular conception and one, interestingly, that can be seen to take shape against the backdrop of an evolving scientific conception of the world. This scientific account of the world had no room for mind, and Descartes helped things along by hiving off the mind, so to speak, into its own realm. In Descartes's world-view mind and body are distinct, and distinct substances.
Introspection
Authors: Macdonald Cynthia 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
‘Introspection’ is a term used by philosophers to refer to a special method or means by which one comes to know certain of one's own mental states; specifically, one's current conscious states. It derives from the Latin ‘spicere’, meaning ‘look’, and ‘intra’, meaning ‘within’; introspection is a process of looking inward. Introspectionist accounts of self-knowledge fall within the broader domain of theories of self-knowledge, understood as views about the nature of and basis for one's knowledge of one's own mental states, including one's beliefs, desires, conscious thinkings, and sensations. Theories of self-knowledge are motivated by the apparent need to account for a number of striking features of at least some such knowledge, which ordinary empirical knowledge, including knowledge of the mental states of others, is typically thought to lack.
Economic Theory and Business History
Authors: Lamoreaux Naomi R. , Raff Daniel M. G. , Temin Peter 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article emphasizes the uneasy and sometimes tension-filled relationship that has long existed between business history and mainstream economic theorists. Since business history first emerged as a distinct field of research in the early twentieth century, most practitioners have made little use of economics in their work and some have been downright hostile to the idea that economic theory could improve the writing of business history. The development of new bodies of theory in the last several decades, particularly the economics of asymmetric information, transaction-cost economics, and game theory, has changed the situation to a considerable extent. Over the last couple of decades, scholars have used economic theory to forge new links between business history and developments in the other social-science disciplines. They have revisited in illuminating ways topics ranging from early trading companies to modern financial institutions.
Business History and Economic Development
Authors: Lazonick William 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
An innovative enterprise develops productive resources to differentiate itself from its rivals, and utilizes the productive resources which it has developed to generate the higher-quality, lower-cost products that are the source of its competitive advantage. Government investments in education and research form indispensable foundations for business investments in innovation. Governments may also seek to ensure that the outcome of innovative enterprise is indeed economic development. This article presents a summary of the “historical experience” that is deemed to be relevant to a theory of innovative enterprise. Given space constraints, it is confined, historically and comparatively, to the cases of Japan and the United States. In conclusion, the article indicates the importance of a theory of innovative enterprise for understanding the role of the state in economic development.
Business History and Management Studie
Authors: Kipping Matthias , Üsdiken Behlül 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The purpose of this article is to give an overview of the changing relationship between business history and management studies since the 1950s, with a particular focus on the contributions made by business historians to management research. It also assesses the potential for future collaboration among scholars from the two fields. The article's main argument is that while both were close at the beginning of the period, they subsequently moved apart. Most business historians are working in history or, less frequently, in economic-history departments rather than business schools or management departments. Business historians have their own academic associations, which are not affiliated with the major learned societies in the management field, such as the Academy of Management. The same is true for publications in academic journals, where there has been little crossover.
Globalization
Authors: Jones Geoffrey 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Globalization is a central issue in business history. The radical shrinking of distance that began in the nineteenth century, but which had a much-longer history, transformed the business of firms and entrepreneurs, and the world in which they operated. By the twenty-first century, few firms anywhere in the world, even small enterprises, were unaffected by some aspect of globalization, while large corporations were at the heart of the process. Until recently, much of the business-history literature on globalization was focused on the history of multinationals. There are many literature reviews on this domain. This literature is now being explicitly integrated within the history of globalization. This article extends this approach by focusing on the contribution of business historians to understanding the history of globalization. It suggests that as global perspectives progressively replace national ones, new research agendas and methodologies will need to be employed.
Cartels
Authors: Fear Jeffrey 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe strategy of most major business firms has to take into consideration cartels. This article discusses how firms can expect to behave inside cartels (firms as unitary actors), and how cartels altered corporate strategy and organizational development (decision making and internal processes). It offers an array of different cartel types that blur the distinction between legitimate cooperation and illegitimate collusion. It is actually difficult to decide when a cartel is a cartel and what cartel success means, let alone if it acts inefficiently or destructively. The article argues that the voluminous scale and scope of cartels before 1939, together with lingering cartelization after 1945 in Europe and Japan, means that any analysis of entrepreneurship, corporate strategy, and organization, as well as national economic development, must incorporate the impact of cartels. It also discusses the impact of cartels on economic and corporate development.