bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Brokerage at the court of Louis XIV
Authors: Kettering Sharon 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTFor a commission brokers negotiated an exchange between those who had patronage to grant and those in need who were willing to give something in return. They received a fee for their help as intermediaries in the search for patronage. Brokerage differed from patronage in that it was a mercenary service which did not by itself create a personal bond. Noble brokers of royal patronage in the provinces and at court were prevalent during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Provincial brokers included the governors, lieutenants general, intendants, clerics, first presidents of the sovereign courts, military commanders, great nobles, and any resident provincials related to, or well-known by, high-ranking court or government personages. Court brokers included all those regularly at court, and ranged from those immediately surrounding the king, as the fount of royal patronage, downward and outward in layers of influence calculated upon their distance from the king. Brokers in the provinces became less important during Louis XIV's reign because the king himself insisted on supervising the distribution of royal patronage at court. Patronage became more easily obtainable at Versailles than in the provinces, and, increasingly, nobles in need of patronage went to court to find it, aided in their search by courtiers acting as brokers. During Louis XIV's reign, an absolute monarchy sought successfully to centralize the brokerage of royal patronage at court, a hitherto unrecognized aspect of the process of social and political centralization known as early modern statebuilding.
Government and ideology during the age of whig supremacy: the political argument of Sir Robert Walpole's newspaper propagandists
Authors: Targett Simon 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTContrary to received historical wisdom, Sir Robert Walpole, the pragmatist par excellence, was diverted by political ideas. Thus he invested time and an unprecedented amount of money in political newspapers. This article investigates the primary pro-government newspapers and, as well as identifying the leading circle of political writers sponsored by Walpole, addresses the varied and complex arguments that appeared in their ‘leading essay’ each week for twenty years. After identifying some common but misleading historical representations of Walpolean political thought, the article examines the treatment of three broad philosophical questions – human nature, the origin, nature and extent of government, and political morality – so demonstrating that Walpole's spokesmen were not narrowly pragmatic. Subsequently, the article focuses upon the careful pro-government response to the common charges that Walpole corrupted the political system and betrayed traditional whig values. In doing so, the article highlights the skills of some underrated eighteenth-century political writers and, more importantly, emphasizes the union of government and ideology in Walpolean political thinking.
The United States and the Schuman Plan. a study in French diplomacy 1950–1952
Authors: Lovett A. W. 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTOn 9 May 1950, Robert Schuman, the French foreign minister, offered to pool the coal and steel resources of France with those of its European neighbours. The proposal was directed principally at Western Germany. After a year of negotiations six western European states agreed to form the European Coal and Steel Community, an organization rightly seen as the beginning of the European Union. However significant at the time and subsequently, this creation resulted from a series of political bargains familiar to any practitioner of traditional politics. France was determined to limit the competitive advantages of German heavy industry to prevent future dominance by the Ruhr industrialists whose unsavoury past was also remembered. Jean Monnet, the head of the French delegation at the talks held in Paris, insisted on the ‘deconcentration’ of the steel and coal industries. Steel companies would be compelled to dispose of the colleries which they owned. To do this, however, Monnet had to invoke the help of the American high commissioner in Germany, John J. McCloy and his expert advisers. In terms of its origins the Coal and Steel Community can be considered the product of a bargain struck between the Federal Republic and America, not France and Western Germany. That the safeguards against vertical combinations and a single sales agency for coal proved unnecessary (and unenforceable) may partly explain the success of the first venture in European integration.
The 1937 census and the limits of Stalinist rule
Authors: Merridale Catherine 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTIn January 1937 the government of the USSR conducted its first population census in eleven years. This article, which is based on the archives of the census organizations and on reports from some local offices for the registration of births, marriages and deaths, describes the campaign of data collection, the questions that were asked (including, for the first and last time, a question about the respondent's religion) and the response which people give to this personal contact with their rulers. The information gathered was exceptionally thorough and complete. Crucially, however, the census was entirely suppressed, and the officials responsible for organizing it promptly arrested and executed. The reasons for doing this – which largely centred on the sensitivity of evidence of high mortality during the famine of 1932–3 – are discussed, as are the potential implications of the suppression of such information. Finally, the article questions how complete any statistics about famine mortality in this period can be, and calls for a discussion of the broader questions of memory and loss which underlie the bare statistics of death.
The Memory of Burke and the Memory of Pitt: English Conservatism Confronts its past, 1806–1829
Authors: Sack J. J. 
Published: June 2009

On 27 January 1806, in a house of commons newly integrating the momentous events of Trafalgar, Nelson's death, and Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz, the obsequies of William Pitt commenced. Lord Lascelles proposed that the late prime minister be honoured as had been his father twenty-eight years before, with a public funeral. The motion eventually passed but the inter-party wrangle that it caused was unseemly. William Windham, who had served as Pitt's Secretary at War between 1794 and 1801, wondered why such unusual honours were proposed for Pitt, given both the precarious situation of the current war (so unlike the Great Commoner's contribution to British glory) and the fact that Edmund Burke's death in 1797 had elicited no such designs. ‘In every point of comparison that could be made,’ said Windham, ‘Mr Burke stood upon the same level with Mr Pitt, and I do not see the reason for the difference.’ In retrospect, it may appear odd that any leading politician thought Burke was entitled to a state funeral. He had been neither war leader nor prime minister, the usual recipients of public funerals. Few others in the political nation in 1797, whig or Pittite, shared Windham's judgement on this matter. That Windham thought the Pittitesshouldhave shared his judgement was the source of his bitterness in his speech to the House. If Burke's acknowledged enemies, the Foxite whigs, had opposed public honours for Burke, Windham would not have been surprised,But that was not the case; it was not from them that the objection came, but from gentlemen on the other side of the house [Pittites], who took Mr Burke as the leader of their opinions, who cried him up to the skies, who founded themselves upon what he had done, but who were afraid, that if they consented to such honours, it would appear as if they approved of all the sentiments of that great man some of which were, perhaps, of too high a tone for them to relish.
Condorcet and the conflict of values
Authors: Rothschild Emma 
Published: June 2009

ABSTRACTCondorcet has been seen since the 1790s as the embodiment of the cold, rational Enlightenment. The paper explores his writings on economic policy, voting, and public instruction, and suggests different views both of Condorcet and of the Enlightenment. Condorcet was concerned with individual diversity; he was opposed to proto-utilitarian theories; he considered individual independence, which he described as the characteristic liberty of the moderns, to be of central political importance; and he opposed the imposition of universal and eternal principles. His efforts to reconcile the universality of some values with the diversity of individual opinions are of continuing interest. He emphasizes the institutions of civilized or constitutional conflict, recognizes conflicts or inconsistencies within individuals, and sees moral sentiments as the foundation of universal values. His difficulties call into question some familiar distinctions, for example between French, German, and English/Scottish thought, and between the Enlightenment and the ‘counter-Enlightenment’. There is substantial continuity, it is suggested, between Condorcet's criticism of the economic ideas of the 1760s (of Tocqueville's ‘first’ French revolution) and the liberal thought of the early nineteenth century.
Pasteurised Milk for Cheddar Cheese-Making. I: A Preliminary Chemical Investigation
Authors: Moir George M. 
Published: June 2009

Summary1. With a view to a chemical study of the ripening of cheese made from raw and from pasteurised milk, two sets of three loaf Cheddar cheese were made from clean milk and from market milk respectively, so that in each set there was one cheese made from raw milk, one from milk flash-pasteurised at 165° F., and one from milk flash-pasteurised at 185° F.2. Analyses of the whey drawn from each cheese showed a tendency, especially with market milk of lower hygienic quality, for pasteurisation to cause more of the soluble milk proteins to be incorporated in the cheese.3. When acidity developed rapidly in the whey after cutting, the resulting cheese was depleted of a proportion of its mineral constituents.4. The cheese made from pasteurised milk developed a bitter flavour, which was very pronounced in those made from the milk heated to the higher temperature.5. The chemical analyses showed that in both sets, pasteurisation reduced the quantity of ultimate decomposition products which were formed during the process of ripening.The experiments recorded here were carried out at the National Institute for Research in Dairying, Shinfield, Reading. The author desires to express his appreciation of the facilities which have been placed at his disposal and of the interest that has been taken in the work by various members of the staff, in particular by Miss D. V. Dearden (who was responsible for the making of the cheese), Capt. J. Golding, and Dr R. Stenhouse Williams. Acknowledgment is also due to Prof. Wm Riddet, Dairy Research Institute, New Zealand, who suggested the desirability of an investigation of this nature.
12. The Mineral Requirements of Dairy Cattle
Authors: Crichton J. A. 
Published: June 2009

The most important fact brought out by a review of the present position of our knowledge of mineral metabolism and the mineral requirements in the dairy cow is, that, in spite of the amount of work which has been done on the subject, our information is exceedingly scanty. We know that deficiency of calcium or phosphorus may affect rate of growth, milk yield, breeding capacity, and in all probability susceptibility to certain diseases. We know also that even on what are counted good rations, depletion of the tissues, especially of calcium, in heavy milking cows during lactation is common. In some districts deficiency of iodine causes pathological conditions, and it is common knowledge based on practical observations that even on pasture there is liable to be a deficiency of chlorine. With regard to the possibility of deficiencies of other mineral elements and the effect of such deficiencies on the health and milk production of cows, we have not yet even begun to accumulate knowledge. It is thus impossible to make a final pronouncement with regard to any of the main problems. We need many more data on the metabolism of minerals in the lactating animal and on feeding experiments of long duration with rations of different mineral content. Such information as we have, however, suggests that the subject is one of great potential practical importance, and that if the necessary information were available it might be applied to the more economical production of milk, both by increasing milk yield and by reducing mortality from disease.With regard to the information we do possess, much of it is not immediately applicable in practice because the data have been accumulated with diets and under conditions which have no parallel in practice. The following conclusions sum up in a general way the practical bearing of our present knowledge.
26. The Effect of Night on Milk Production
Authors: Campbell K. W. D. 
Published: June 2009

Curves are produced to show the proportions between morning and evening yield of milk, yield of fat, and fat per cent, in the case of individual cows milked alternatively at 6 a.m. and 9 p.m. and again at 6·30 a.m. and 3·30 p.m. In each case the intervals between milkings were 15 and 9 hours.It is seen that when the 15-hour interval is between night and morning milkings as specified, a bigger proportion of milk is produced at the morning milking than is produced at night when the same interval is between morning and night milkings. The curves and Tables I and II show that this is quite clearly the case with the six cows in the trial.It is apparent that, as far as winter conditions are concerned, night itself, or factors operating at night tend to high milk production of low fat content.
28. The Autoxidation of Butterfat: II. Comparison of Tests for Detecting Oxidation Changes
Authors: Briggs Lindsay Heathcote 
Published: June 2009

In Part I(1) the influence of a number of factors on the autoxidation of butterfat was investigated. It was considered of interest, however, to study the oxidation itself more fully to gain some idea of the changes taking place, and also to study certain reactions for detecting such changes.In tallowy butter as the result of oxidation, the following differences in properties can be observed: (1) the amount of unsaturated compounds is decreased; (2) the peroxide content is increased; (3) the amount of free acid is increased; (4) the colour is bleached. Secondary changes occur simultaneously and result in the formation of aldehydes, ketones, etc.
60. Discoloration in New Zealand Cheddar Cheese. Muddy, Pink and Bleached Defects. I. Bacteriological Investigations
Authors: Morgan G. F. V. 
Published: June 2009

During the past two years, discoloration, owing to its prevalence in Cheddar cheese, has been the subject of much investigation by the New Zealand Dairy Division, and in the present paper are incorporated details of the observations made in this laboratory and in cheese stores in New Zealand and England, together with short reports on the same subject from English laboratories.To avoid confusion it must be emphasised that the defects dealt with are “bleached,” “pink” and “muddy” discolorations only. The observations do not apply to “black spot” (due to lead or other metallic contamination), nor to “red spots” (due to faulty annatto), nor to “acid cut” bleaching which seems to follow the outline of the original pieces of curd. Muddy or dark discoloration occurs in white and in coloured cheese, but the bleaching and pink discoloration dealt with here are confined to coloured cheese.
67. The Nutritive Value of Proteins for Milk Production. II. A Comparison of the Proteins of Blood Meal, Pea Meal, Decorticated Earth-Nut Cake, and a Mixture of Decorticated Earth-Nut Cake and Flaked Maize
Authors: Morris Samuel , Wright Norman C. 
Published: June 2009

The results of the present experiments and of those reported in the previous paper(1) may be summarised as follows:1. When minimal quantities of protein are fed in the production rations of milking cows, a deficiency of either lysine or tryptophane will lead to a marked reduction in milk yield. There is, however, some evidence of the storage of reserve N, which can be utilised when the food protein is inadequate.2. The feeding of a lysine- or tryptophane-deficient ration causes a marked increase in urinary N, indicating a poor utilisation of food protein. On the other hand, the feeding of a ration containing adequate quantities of these essential amino acids reduces the urinary N, indicating efficient protein utilisation.3. The utilisation of body tissue in an attempt to maintain normal milk production on a deficient protein ration is shown by the high creatine excretion. The fact that the S: N ratio of the excess sulphur and nitrogen excreted during the deficient protein periods approximates that of body tissue (circa 1: 15·7) confirms this conclusion.
122. The Function of Pepsin and Rennet in the Ripening of Cheddar Cheese
Authors: Sherwood I. R. 
Published: June 2009

The coagulating enzymes employed in the manufacture of Cheddar cheese were varied in the following ways:(1) Pepsin was substituted for rennet; two samples of somewhat different proteolytic action were used.(2) The proportion of rennet normally employed for coagulating the milkwas doubled.The use of pepsin resulted in cheeses in which the extent of protein degradationwas considerably smaller than in rennet control cheeses. The type of nitrogen partition observed was influenced to some extent by the proteolyticaction characteristic of the particular enzyme employed. The use of an increase dproportion of rennet led to the anticipated greater extent of protein breakdown, the type of nitrogen partition not being appreciably affected. Nodirect correlation was observed between the commercial quality of these cheeses and the extent or type of protein degradation which occurred.
132. The Nutritive Value of Proteins for Milk Production
Authors: Morris Samuel , Wright Norman C. , Fowler Alexander B. 
Published: June 2009

1. As regards their nutritive value for milk production, the proteins of spring grass are markedly superior to those of autumn grass. This is shown not only from a study of milk yield, but from the increased excretion of N and S in the urine, the increased creatine excretion, and the lower biological value given by autumn grass.2. A study of the N and S metabolism of cows receiving fresh and artificially dried grass fails to reveal any significant differences in the nutritive value as a result of artificial drying. There are no significant differences between the biological values of the proteins of fresh and of artificially dried autumn grass. A comparison of the mean biological values of the proteins of fresh and of artificially dried spring grass indicates that the latter has an inferior value for milk production, but the differences largely disappear when the biological values are calculated to a common standard.
146. The heat denaturation of albumin and globulin in milk. II. Denaturation and degradation of protein at temperatures of 75–120° C
Authors: Rowland Samuel J. 
Published: June 2009

1. The denaturation of albumin and globulin took place rapidly in samples of milk heated at temperatures of 75°C. and above, and was complete in approximately 60, 30, 10–15, and 5–10 min. at 80, 90, 95, and 100°C. respectively.2. There was no change in the non-protein nitrogen content of milk on heating at temperatures up to 100°C.; on continued heating at 95 and 100°C. extremely small amounts of proteose were produced by hydrolysis of protein.3. In milk heated at 115 and 120°C. the denaturation of albumin and globulin was followed by appreciable hydrolysis of protein, which resulted in considerable increases in the proteose and in the non-protein nitrogen contents.
160. Lactic bacteria in relation to cheese flavour. I
Authors: Sherwood I. R. 
Published: June 2009

Various strains of lactobacilli isolated from Cheddar cheese were added to the milk employed in cheese manufacture. Different strains of these organisms were found to impart specifically characteristic flavours to the cheese. The range of flavours developed included both desirable and objectionable types, many of which are commonly encountered in commercial cheese, e.g. “pleasant aromatic”, “diacetyl-like”, “metallic”, “bitter”, “unclean” and “fermented”.The inoculation of cheese-milk with natural mixtures of lactobacilli from mature cheeses led almost always to the development of unclean “fermented” flavours. The causative strains of lactobacilli were isolated and shown to be of frequent occurrence in normal mature cheeses but under ordinary circumstances the actual numbers of these bacilli present in most cheeses were too small to spoil the flavour.
162. The rheology of cheese, butter and other milk products. (The measurement of “body” and “texture”)
Authors: Davis J. G. 
Published: June 2009

Rheology is denned as the science of the deformation of matter. It includes the study of all deformations, recoverable (elastic) and non-recoverable (plastic). In this paper cheese is primarily considered although the fundamental principles apply to all materials.The elastic and plastic properties of cheese exercise a great influence in the ripening processes and the incidence of faults. Although much progress has been made in the bacteriological and chemical investigations of cheese ripening, little fundamental work on the nature of and the factors controlling the physical properties of curd and cheese has been carried out.
173. The effect of commercial sterilization on the nutritive value of milk. III. Effect on the vitamin A and carotene content of milk
Authors: Gillam A. E. , Henry K. M. , Kon S. K. , White P. 
Published: June 2009

1. The vitamin A and carotene content of raw milk have been compared with that of milk from the same bulk after it had been commercially sterilized.2. For this purpose the fat was obtained by ether extraction from eleven samples of raw milk and from eleven corresponding samples of sterilized milk. As the sterilized milk had been previously homogenized it was not possible to churn it.3. The vitamin A and carotene content was estimated by colorimetric (Lovibond tintometer) and by spectrophotometric tests.3. The vitamin A and carotene content was estimated by colorimetric (Lovibond tintometer) and by spectrophotometric tests.4. The results showed that the efiect of the heat treatment was negligible, neither method demonstrating a loss in vitamin A, while for carotene only the colorimetric method indicated a loss of about 2 %.5. The vitamin A and carotene contents of sterilized milk were not decreased after storage for several weeks in a cool dark place.
188. The effect of commercial sterilization on the nutritive value of milk. V. The effect of commercial sterilization on the vitamin C of milk
Authors: Henry K. M. , Kon S. K. 
Published: June 2009

1. Fifteen samples of raw and fifteen samples of commercially sterilized milk from the same bulk were analysed for vitamin C by the chemical method (titration with dichlorophenol-indophenol).2. The raw milk contained on an average 1·83 mg./100 ml. of total (reduced and reversibly oxidized) ascorbic acid. The corresponding figure for sterilized milk was 1·03 mg./100 ml., a loss of 43% of the original value.3. Storage of the sterilized milk for a period of 4·6 weeks resulted in a further reduction equivalent to about 30%.