bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The absorption of grave breaches into war crimes law
Authors: Öberg Marko Divac 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article compares the concepts, scopes of application and procedural regimes of war crimes and grave breaches, while considering what role remains for the latter in international criminal law. In addition to their original conception as international obligations to enact and enforce domestic crimes, grave breaches have taken on a new meaning as international crimes, similar to war crimes. Only in few regards does the scope of application of these new grave breaches surpass that of war crimes. The procedural regime of grave breaches differs in theory significantly from that of war crimes, though less so in practice. Although it is too early to discount grave breaches, they are likely to become confined to history.
Classifying the conflict: a soldier's dilemma
Authors: Carswell Andrew J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractModern armed forces are employed in a wide array of operations that range from peacetime riot control to outright international armed conflict. Classifying these various scenarios to determine the applicable international law is rendered difficult by both the lack of clarity inherent in the law and the political factors that tend to enter the decision-making process. The author describes the major challenges of legal classification facing the military leadership, and proposes a solution to ensure that the intended beneficiaries of the law – from soldiers to civilians – do indeed receive its protection.
The impurity of war
Authors: Huyghe François-Bernard 
Published: September 2009

AbstractProgressive democratization, the presence of a military superpower and the dream of an international order maintained by an international authority do not enhance the appearance of conventional armed conflicts. However, the discovery of new frailties that can be exploited by aggressors, the proliferation of motives – including ideological motives – for waging war, and the spread of technologies that can be used in new forms of warfare have led to war and armed conflicts breaking out of their classic mould, becoming hybrid and going beyond their previous boundaries. The author argues for an updated polemology which endeavours to explain the mechanisms of these new types of warfare.
Asymmetrical war and the notion of armed conflict – a tentative conceptualization
Authors: Paulus Andreas , Vashakmadze Mindia 
Published: September 2009

AbstractStates across the globe are increasingly involved in violent conflicts with non-state groups both within and across borders. This new situation challenges the classic distinction in international humanitarian law between international and non-international armed conflicts. However, the changing face of warfare does not diminish the importance of IHL. The essence of this body of law – to protect civilians and personshors de combatand to lessen unnecessary harm during armed conflict – remains the same. The applicability of IHL must therefore be determined according to objective criteria and must not be left to the discretion of the warring parties. This article seeks to conceptualize the notion of armed conflict and examines the extent to which the existing body of humanitarian law applies to the new asymmetrical conflicts. It finds that the definition given by the ICTY Appeals Chamber in itsTadićDecision on Jurisdiction, which was taken up by Article 8(2)(f) of the Rome Statute, is a useful starting point for an analysis of the ‘triggering mechanism’ of international humanitarian law in asymmetrical conflicts.
Meaning and identities: a visual performative pedagogy for socio‐cultural learning
Authors: Grushka Kathryn 
Published: September 2009

In this article I present personalised socio‐cultural inquiry in visual art education as a critical and expressive material praxis. The model of Visual Performative Pedagogy and Communicative Proficiency for the Visual Art Classroom is presented as a legitimate means of manipulating visual codes, communicating meaning and mediating values through imaging technologies. It identifies that visual art studio learning outcomes as exhibition artworks facilitate the mediation and communication of ideas, and support understanding of individual identities, social behaviours, culture and beliefs.A critical phenomenological methodology was used to explore longitudinal and case‐study learning insights about student learning in a post‐compulsory visual art curriculum in New South Wales, Australia. Through analysis of student artworks, reflective journals and post‐schooling case‐study interviews, the research identified that this unique learning environment developed visual communicative proficiency in the students.The findings affirm the significance of personalised imaging inquiry strategies to support understandings about the self, society and culture. The studio pedagogies and visual arts education curriculum in NSW represents an alternative approach to a prescribed and explicit values curriculum. This article will identify the key elements of the model of Visual Performative Pedagogy and Communicative Proficiency for the Visual Art Classroom. It will expand on the aesthetic and critical approach in arts learning as studio pedagogy and the exhibition process that generates public benefits through socially embedded and embodied inquiry.
6. Assessment of food consumption and nutrient intake
Authors: Nelson Michael , Bingham Sheila A. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter takes a comprehensive look at the techniques, strengths, and weaknesses of approaches to estimating food consumption and nutrient intake at the household and individual level. At the household level, it provides a detailed description of the methods available and the ways in which the data can be interpreted for epidemiological purposes, including techniques for estimating the distribution of food consumption and nutrient intake in individuals when data are collected at the household level. Similarly, it describes in detail the techniques for estimating food consumption and nutrient intake at the individual level, and focuses strongly on the repeatability and validity of measures, including an analysis of the sources of error such as portion size estimation, day-to-day variations in diet, estimates of the frequency of consumption, and the determination of current and past (relevant) diet. It addresses issues of under-reporting and energy adjustment, and concludes with an analysis of the effects of measurement error on validity.
7. Biochemical markers of nutrient intake
Authors: Bates Chris J. , Thurnham David I. , Bingham Sheila A. , Margetts Barrie M. , Nelson Michael 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter takes a look at the utility of biochemical measurements in different body tissues for estimating dietary exposures (as opposed to the determination of nutritional status). Validity (accuracy) and reproducibility (precision) are defined in relation to biomarkers in light of natural variations in physiological levels within and between individuals. Definitions are given of measures of nutrients in blood, urine, and other tissues, and compartments (e.g., hair, saliva, adipose tissue, finger nails, toe nails), and the feasibility of predicting intake from each measure. The chapter then describes relevant measures, nutrient by nutrient, for vitamins, minerals, lipids, protein, and energy, and the problems relating to dietary fibre.
8. The validation of dietary assessment
Authors: Nelson Michael 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Validation considers the context within which measures are being made (national, household, individual) and helps to describe the extent to which observed values differ from the truth. This chapter outlines the general principles that should be applied in the design of validation studies of dietary measurements, and considers some of the statistical techniques that have been developed to overcome the problems which arise from the absence of a reference measure of ‘true’ dietary intakes. The concepts of validity and reproducibility are reviewed. The context of validation is considered (current or past intake; food consumption or nutrient intake; absolute or relative intakes; group versus individual intakes). Validation techniques, including the identification of relevant reference measures, validation procedures, and factors affecting the design of validation studies are considered. Statistical techniques for interpreting findings from validation studies are described in detail.
15. Case-control studies
Authors: Inskip Hazel , Coggon David 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Case-control (or case-referent) studies compare patients with a disease or health outcome of interest (a case) with controls who do not have the disease or outcome. Their relevant past exposures are assessed retrospectively, and an estimate of relative risk (odds ratio) determined. This chapter describes the choice of study population, and the key features of selection of cases and determination of their relevant exposures. Selection of controls is a vexed subject, and the chapter considers in detail the associated issues, including matching, loss of controls from the study, and controls who go on to become cases. The chapter concludes with a discussion of study size and statistical power, and the appropriate statistical techniques for estimating and interpreting odds ratio, attributable risk percent, and population attributable risk percent. The problem of interpreting an association as evidence of causation is discussed.
Down’s syndrome
Authors: Wald Nicholas 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses screening and diagnosis for Down's syndrome. Down's syndrome is the most common cause of severe mental retardation. The disorder can be diagnosed antenatally by examining the chromosomes in fetal cells from amniotic fluid or the placenta. The birth prevalence of Down's syndrome is associated with maternal age and various biochemical and ultrasound markers. Screening methods based on maternal age and these markers can be used to identify women with a high enough risk of having an affected pregnancy to be offered a diagnostic amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling.
X-linked disorders
Authors: Bundey Sarah 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes the screening for three X-linked disorders: Duchenne muscular dystrophy, the Fragile X syndrome, and X-linked retinitis pigmentosa. The primary screening test for these disorders is the family history, which is followed when positive by molecular studies, or by retinal function assessment if these is a history of X-linked retinitis pigmentosa. Only minorities of fetuses with the three diseases are detected by this approach.
Tay–Sachs disease
Authors: Kaplan Feige , Scriver Charles R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes screening for Tay–Sachs disease (TSD) in pregnancy. TSD is an example of a fatal metabolic genetic disease which is rare but for which it is realistic to screen because cases occur primarily within a well-defined subpopulation on which biochemical testing can be focused. The primary screening test for TSD is to ask an individual whether he or she is Jewish or has a Jewish parent. The second screening test involves the measurement of heat-labile Hex A activity, from which carrier status can be inferred.
Infections
Authors: Peckham Catherine S. , Newell Marie-Louise 
Published: September 2009

AbstractAlthough the majority of infections in pregnancy have no effect on the developing fetus, some can lead to severe damage and disability. This chapter discsses screening for infections: rubella, syphilis, human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B, cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis, herpes simplex virus, chlamydia, and group B streptococcal infection.
Congenital dislocation of the hip
Authors: Leck Ian 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes screening for congenital dislocation of the hip. The aim of screening is to prevent persistent hip dislocation (PHD). In PHD, the head of the femur remains located either totally outside the acetabulum or only partially within in. This causes increasing disability once the child begins to walk. Neonatal screening and treatment of those who test positive is widely practised but has been poorly evaluated. Its value remains uncertain, although observational studies suggest that it reduces the incidence of PHD when competently performed.
Ethics of antenatal and neonatal screening
Authors: Wald Nicholas , Leck Ian , Gray J. A. Muir 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter reflects on the ethics of antenatal and neonatal screening, concluding that they are not fundamentally different from ethics in other areas of medicine. Topics covered include the benefits and hazards of screening and the rights of those offered screening to be appropriately informed and counselled about the services provided, to choose whether to use these services, and to receive on-going support regardless of their choice. The need for equity is also discussed, as are other implications that providing screening services has for the community.
Rose's Strategy of Preventive Medicine
Authors: Rose Geoffrey , Khaw Kay-Tee , Marmot Michael 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe Strategy of Preventive Medicine, by Geoffrey Rose, first published in 1993 remains a key text for anyone involved in preventive medicine. Rose's insights into the inextricable relationship between ill health, or deviance, in individuals and populations they come from, have transformed our whole approach to strategies for improving health. His personal and unique book, based on many years of research, sets out the case that the essential determinants of the health of society are to be found in its mass characteristics. The deviant minority can only be understood when seen in its societal context, and effective prevention requires changes which involve the population as a whole. Rose's book explores the options for prevention, considering them from various viewpoints — theoretical and scientific, sociological and political, practical, and ethical. The applications of Rose's book's ideas are illustrated by a variety of examples ranging from heart disease to alcoholism to road accidents. The book's pioneering work focused on a population wide approach to the prevention of common medical and behavioural disorders has become the classic text on the subject. This reissue of that text brings the original book to a new generation. This book retains the original text intact, but it includes new perspectives on the work. It examines what relevance Rose's ideas might have in the era of the human genome project and other major scientific advances, it considers examples of how the theory might be applied and generalized in medicine and beyond, and discusses what implications it holds for the future. There is also an explanation of the population perspective, clarifying the often confused thinking and arguments about determinants of individual cases and determinants of population incidence.
The relation of risk to exposure
Authors: Rose Geoffrey 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses the dose-effect relationship. It identifies two issues concerning the shape of the dose-effect relationship that are critical for preventive policy: How much of the burden of ill health is compressed within an identifiable group where high exposure carries a high personal risk? Is there an exposure threshold below which risk is negligible and can be ignored? Both these questions require us to look at the whole ranges of both exposure to causes and health outcomes.
Some implications of population change
Authors: Rose Geoffrey 
Published: September 2009

AbstractSociety seeks to distance itself from its deviants, either physically (as by segregating those with mental illness or AIDS), or by categorizing them (‘hypertensives’, ‘depressives’, ‘hooligans’), or by denying responsibility for their problems (such as obesity, poverty-related illness, alcoholism, or violence). Yet in truth the deviants are simply the tail of the population's own distribution; they belong to each other and society is one, whether it likes it or not. This chapter explains the interrelations between the population and its deviants, and the health implications for the deviants of changes in the population. It then considers the health implications of such changes for the population as a whole.
Psychiatric Epidemiology
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Searching for the causes of mental disorders is as exciting as it is complex. The relationship between pathophysiology and its overt manifestations is exceedingly intricate, and often the causes of a disorder are elusive at best. This book provides a resource for anyone trying to track these causes. Uniting theory and practice and rather than attempting to review the descriptive epidemiology of mental disorders, this book gives a dynamic exposition of the thinking and techniques used to establish it. The book starts out by tracing the brief history of psychiatric epidemiology, then describes the study of risk factors as causes of mental disorders. Subsequent sections discuss approaches to investigation of biologic, genetic, or social causes and the statistical analysis of study results. The book concludes by following some of the problems involved in the search for genetic causes of mental disorders, and more complex casual relationships.
The Burden of Mental Illness
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter traces the roots of psychiatric epidemiology in medical sociology and the emergence of the community survey as its predominant research design, especially in the United States. It also follows the steps taken in psychiatric epidemiology to document the burden of disease due to mental disorders. Over a fifty-year period, psychiatric morbidity surveys have brought remarkable advances in knowledge. Ultimately, these studies helped to fulfill an overarching mission of psychiatric epidemiology: to bring about the recognition of mental disorders in public health.
The Arc of Epidemiology
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the evolution of causal research in epidemiology and how it influenced and was influenced by studies of psychiatric disorders. It discusses the three broad eras comprising the past evolution of epidemiology, spanning the period from the beginning of the 19th to the close of the 20th century (Sanitary Era, Infectious Disease Era, and Risk Factor Era). Each era lasted about fifty–seventy-five years and introduced a distinctive way of thinking about the causes of disease. The transition from one era to the next brought a powerful new strategy for finding causes and improving public health, but also led to the neglect of approaches developed in the previous eras, so that the field took ‘three steps forward and one step back.’ A fourth era is emerging, although its shape is not yet clear.
Study Designs
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes different risk factor study designs. Study designs can be viewed as techniques for organizing observations in ways that can reveal the causes of disease. The risk factor study designs attempt to do this by mimicking the counterfactual, which is the true test of causal effects. When the mimicry is successful, studies isolate the effects of the exposure on the disease. In regard to this mimicry, the randomized controlled trial is the simplest and most direct, but practical for only a small number of exposures. The cohort study is much more widely applicable, but selection into exposure is not random. The case-control study is more complex and indirect but often the most useful. Although the specific techniques differ among designs, the underlying strategy is the same—the examination of fully comparable groups of exposed and unexposed individuals to isolate the effects of specific risk factors. The chapter illustrates how each study was used to investigate the causal effect of low prenatal folate intake on neural tube defects (NTDs).
Relationships among Causes
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractOver the past fifty years, epidemiologists have refined the methods for isolating risk factors and put them to extremely good use. By examining one risk factor at a time, however, we cannot fully understand the etiology of a disease. Causes interact with one another and change one another in a dynamic process. This chapter presents and illustrates an elementary framework for translating ideas about disease causation into a set of predicted relationships among several variables in the web of causation, rather than merely into a predicted relationship between the exposure and the disease.
Diversity of Cohort Studies
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe previous chapter described a prospective population cohort study as a prototype. By modifying one or another element of this prototype, this chapter constructs natural experiments, historical cohorts, and special exposure cohorts. To these three major variants a fourth is added—the clinical cohort—the purpose of which is to discover the determinants of the course and outcome of a disorder. This variant, close kin to the etiologic cohort, has been prominent in psychiatric epidemiology. The chapter gives an account of a cohort study that has evolved over a period of more than fifty years. Finally, it introduces a data set, the Prenatal Determinants of Schizophrenia Example (PDSE) study, for illustration in this and other parts of the book.
Causal Inference: A Thought Experiment
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractA cohort study is always a kind of ‘thought experiment’. One needs to imagine what results ‘would have been’ if the exposed and the unexposed groups had in fact been fully comparable. This chapter sets up a framework for conducting this thought experiment in a systematic way. The exposed and unexposed may differ on (1) other causes of the disease (confounding); (2) the length of time over which they are observed (unequal attrition); and (3) the accuracy with which cases are ascertained (differential misclassification). Each of these factors may account for part, or even all, of an apparent association between the exposure and the disease. They can also suppress an association or reverse it. The process of causal inference depends upon the identification and evaluation of these alternative explanations for results. This chapter shows how confounding, unequal attrition, and differential misclassification can produce an association between exposure and disease.
Confounding: What It Is and What Can Be Done
Authors: Susser Ezra , Schwartz Sharon , Morabia Alfredo , Bromet Evelyn J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe first part of this chapter discusses the conditions under which a factor can confound the association between exposure and disease, and the conditions under which this cannot occur. It also differentiates confounders from antecedents or mediators. The next part discusses methods devised to neutralize the effects of confounders. Two standard methods are presented: matching to prevent confounding in the data by equalizing the exposed and the unexposed on a potential confounder, and statistical adjustment to compensate for confounding in the data by separating the effects of the exposure from the effects of the confounder.