bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Responsibility for Sweatshop Labour
Authors: Müller Mirjam 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
Drawing on Iris Marion Young’s work on responsibility for structural injustice, this chapter argues that (most of) those who are involved in the reproduction of sweatshop labour through their actions are politically responsibility. While individuals are not blameworthy for their implication in structural injustice, they are morally accountable should they fail to take up their political responsibility. This asks individuals to work towards changing the intersecting structures of oppression that make workers vulnerable. The chapter present three considerations of political responsibility: the social position of the agent and the nature of their connection to sweatshop labour exploitation, the link between concrete actions and radical structural change, and the importance of an anti-imperialist stance. The chapter closes by discussing the successful cooperation between a sweatshop workers’ union in Honduras and the US anti-sweatshop movement in 2007.
Intelligent Democracy
Authors: Benson Jonathan 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
Democracy is valuable not only because it treats people equally but because it is intelligent. Democracies can make effective use of knowledge, engage in experimentation, and utilize societal diversity, while also motivating political leaders towards the common good. It is against the emergence of a new democratic scepticism, however, that this book defends the intelligence of democracy. Whether it be due to ignorant voters, irrational public debate, or disconnected politicians, a growing number now argue that democracies are destined to make bad decisions. While these democratic sceptics see epistemic concerns as reasons for giving up on democracy, this book argues they are reasons to embrace it. Intelligent Democracy develops the first systemic account of democracy’s epistemic value. Unlike approaches which focus on single institutions, this view conceptualizes democracy as a network of actors which work together to produce epistemic benefits at the system level. While any one democratic body will be limited, this book analyses the divisions of labour within a broader deliberative system, and how best to combine inclusive elections, deliberative assemblies, random sortition, and the open public sphere. This systemic approach is shown to better explain democracy’s epistemic value, while more adeptly responding to the challenges posed by the new democratic scepticism. It can demonstrate democracy’s intelligence over regimes of epistocracy and political meritocracy which empower only the knowledgeable, but also overlooked proposals for granting greater powers to markets or polycentric governance. The result is a unique epistemic justification of democracy and a robust reply to democracy’s critics.
Polycentricity For and Against Democracy
Authors: Benson Jonathan 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
Chapter 5 replies to polycentric critiques of democracy. Often drawing on the work of Elinor and Vincent Ostrom, a number of authors have argued for breaking democracy’s monopoly on governance in favour of a polycentric system where goods are provided by a range of public, private, and third-sector institutions. While often motivated by a desire to ‘make politics more like the market’, this chapter argues that these views end up replicating the epistemic problems of markets in the political arena. While rejecting the polycentric approach supported by the critics, the chapter also argues that once democracy is understood as a system, it can possess all the defining features of polycentrism as well as its advantages of experimentation and self-regulation. The chapter ends by considering how democratic systems can be arranged to make best use of their polycentric benefits and advocates for greater political decentralization.
Unorthodox Legislating in Trump’s Senate
Authors: Reynolds Molly E. 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
Over the last quarter century, scholars have often described Congress’s approach to legislating as “unorthodox.” President Trump’s approach to working with Congress was often characterized similarly. This chapter explores what happened when those two forces—an unpredictable president and long-standing trends in the legislative process—came together during his four years in office. Examining both the development and management of significant legislation in the Senate, as well as the chamber’s use of expedited procedures, the chapter argues that much of what was on display during Trump’s term represented the continued progression of existing dynamics, but that the president’s actions drove that evolution in certain new ways.
McConnell’s President
Authors: Zelizer Julian E. 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell and the Republican Senate were a bulwark to the Trump presidency. McConnell was one of the Republican leaders who enabled and protected Donald Trump during his rise to power. While the previous generation of Republicans and Democratic leaders had balanced the goals of partisanship, governance, and the preserving democratic institutions, McConnell and his generation of Republicans went all in with the first objective. Every process and every norm could be weaponized. Any candidate who helped solidify power, including Trump, was worth protecting. This chapter explores the seminal role of McConnell between 2017 and 2021 in shaping Republican politics during this critical era.
The Crisis of Senate Legitimacy
Authors: Drutman Lee 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
The US Senate faces a severe legitimacy crisis. The Senate overrepresents low-population, predominantly White states while underrepresenting high-population, more diverse states. In current hyperpartisan US politics, this gives Republicans an advantage, particularly with the continued abuse of the filibuster. This imbalance fuels calls for its abolishment. The Senate does not serve as a “sober second thought” nor as a guarantor of federalism, as its defenders argue. Democracies around the world have curtailed the power of upper chambers, which are widely viewed as vestiges of earlier, less democratic times. While a reduction of the powers of the US Senate seems unlikely, it should not be considered out of the question.
Human Nature and the Social Basis for Communities
Authors: Zhao Jingyi Jenny 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
This chapter deals with a complex set of questions relating to human nature in Aristotle and Xunzi. It investigates in turn Aristotle’s and Xunzi’s taxonomies in which humans, animals, and other living things are defined, paying particular attention to how human and animal characteristics are set apart in the two philosophers’ discussions of different types of ‘courage’, which suggest that a sense of shame is unique to humans. It then explores Aristotle’s and Xunzi’s points of commonality and difference by focusing the discussion on their definitions of humans as social beings. This is done through a comparison of the ideas of logos in Aristotle and bian 辨/辯 (differentiation, argumentation) in Xunzi, both of which involve discriminating between sets of opposite values so as to enable members of society to communicate and collectively strive for what is good.
Shame and the Path to Moral Goodness
Authors: Zhao Jingyi Jenny 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
This chapter addresses the issue of the relationship between shame and morality, illustrating the crucial role that Aristotle and Xunzi attribute to ‘shame’ in an individual’s moral education and showing how ancient discourses can provoke fresh ways of thinking about the relevance of shame in a person’s upbringing. It outlines the different ways in which Aristotle and Xunzi use shame-related ideas to ‘rank’ the position of the various goods in life and place an unmistakable emphasis on the moral disposition of the individual over concerns about external judgment. Both philosophers illustrate in their own distinct ways how the morally mature person not only conducts himself in the right way, but also desires to behave in such a way on the basis of his moral disposition.
Soft Law
Authors: Meier Michael W. 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
International law is increasingly using quasi-legal documents, such as political declarations, guidelines, manuals, and codes of conduct instead of legally binding instruments. These “soft law” instruments, which possess no legal force and do not contain a coercive mechanism, are nevertheless implemented and gain acceptance by international law actors. This chapter looks at the role of soft law and explains how it has the power to impact international humanitarian law. It addresses how soft law is defined and viewed by those who work in international law. It explores why States and other actors use soft law studying three examples, namely, the Montreux Document and Code of Conduct to address private military contractors; the Tallinn Manual, which addresses cyber issues; and the Political Declaration on the use of explosive weapons in populated area to address civilian harm. Finally, this chapter discusses a way to measure the effectiveness of soft law instruments.
Expert Manuals
Authors: Schmitt Michael N. 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the place of expert manuals in the making and shaping of international law, with particular emphasis on international humanitarian law. It draws on the author’s experience as a participant in four manual projects—the Non-International Armed Conflict Manual, the Air and Missile Warfare Manual, and both Tallinn Manuals. The chapter begins with a discussion of the de jure status of expert manuals under international law. As will be explained, the work of scholars and other international law experts exerts particular influence on the interpretation of international law rules. It then examines how manuals can influence international law in practice, drawing in particular on how the Tallinn Manuals (especially 2.0) have affected discourse among States regarding the application of international law to cyber operations. The chapter concludes with reflections on why Tallinn Manual 2.0 has proven more influential than other manuals.
Non-State Armed Groups, Law-Making, and the Shaping of International Law in Armed Conflict
Authors: Heffes Ezequiel 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines certain non-State armed groups’ (NSAGs’) law-making activities to understand how these entities are shaping the international law applicable in non-international armed conflict. It explores the various forms these activities can take, proposing a differentiation between “domestic” law-making activities, which include NSAGs’ codes of conduct and laws, and “quasi-international” ones, comprising special agreements under Common Article 3 to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, UN Action Plans, and Geneva Call’s Deeds of Commitment. Based on their, the chapter submits that NSAGs shape the legal landscape in two ways: (1) by agreeing to bring into force international obligations that may not otherwise be applicable, thereby modifying the regulatory framework of specific conflicts; and (2) by influencing the (growing) view that international human rights law is applicable to NSAGs’ actions. This chapter also shows that some international institutions, and even States, have supported the adoption of various documents containing international law provisions.
The Entrenchment of Two-Party Competition
Authors: Foley Edward B. 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
The 1830s saw the development of partisan conflict between the Democrats and the Whigs. Some of this conflict resulted in violence or the serious threat of it, as in Pennsylvania’s “Buckshot War” of 1838. At the same time, the “Broad Seal War” over New Jersey’s congressional elections caused the House of Representatives to be unable to organize itself or elect a Speaker, until ex-president John Quincy Adams took matters into his own hands by declaring himself the “chair” of the House and forced a resolution of the logjam. In 1856, Wisconsin showed how a state’s supreme court could thwart an attempt by an incumbent governor to steal himself another term that he did not win, producing a major victory for the rule of law and electoral fairness.
Florida 2000
Authors: Foley Edward B. 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
Al Gore’s decision to accept the US Supreme Court’s ruling against him in Bush v. Gore prevented the possibility that Congress would become engulfed by the disputed 2000 presidential election, as it had been by the 1876 race and as it would again by Trump’s assault on the 2020 outcome. The Supreme Court’s decision in Bush v. Gore has two components: (1) finding an equal protection violation in Florida’s disparate treatment of identical ballots, a 7-2 verdict that in hindsight seems sensible given the state’s mistreatment of votes; and (2) the refusal to permit the state to rectify the problem, a 5-4 fiat that remains indefensible given the Court’s role in reviewing state court cases. While the equal protection principle may prove salutary in future cases, Bush v. Gore is a reminder that resolving a dispute pursuant to the law does not guarantee an outcome consistent with the electorate’s preferences.
Applications of the Discrete Symmetries
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
We present in this chapter some elementary applications of the discrete symmetries P, C, and T. These examples are extracted from the realms of nuclear physics and of low-energy particle physics. For more details, the reader is advised to consult the books that we have used in preparing this brief account (Sakurai 1964; Perkins 1987; Lee 1990; Burcham and Jobes 1995). In a first reading, this chapter may be skipped without inconvenience.a state with an odd number of photons (and no other particles) cannot scatter into a state with an even number of photons, or vice versa.
Moduli of the CKM Matrix Elements
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
Experimentally, the rephasing-invariant functions of the CKM matrix to which one has most direct access are the moduli of its matrix elements. The relevant processes are semileptonic production and decay rates which are, under very broad assumptions about possible physics beyond the SM, gather from the analysis of the mass difference and of CP violation in neutralmeson systems-as we shall be doing in Chapter 18-is much more sensitive to the possible presence of new heavy particles in the theory. The matrix element only involves the first-generation quarks, and is for this reason the one which can be determined with best precision. Three different methods have been used in its determination.
Parametrizations of the CKM Matrix
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
The CKM matrix is usually parametrized in some specific way. The purpose of the parametrizations is to incorporate the constraints of 3 x 3 unitarity. Some parametrizations also incorporate experimental information, in particular the pattern of moduli in eqn (13.47); this is the case of the Wolfenstein parametrization and of related parametrizations, which in practice are the ones most often used.
Spontaneous CP Violation
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
Spontaneous CP violation (SCPV), also termed spontaneous CP breaking, occurs when CP is a symmetry of the original Lagrangian but, after spontaneous symmetry breaking, no CP symmetry remains. This means the following: There is a transformation that may be physically interpreted as CP under which the Lagrangian is invariant. There is no transformation that may be physically interpreted as CP under which both the Lagrangian and the vacuum are invariant.
Models with Vector-Like Quarks
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
There are many extensions of the standard model in which fermions with nonstandard SU(2)©U(l) quantum numbers-’exotic fermions’-naturally occur.The 27 contains, apart from the fifteen usual chiral fields in the first line of eqn (24.1)-the doublet of quarks, the up antiquark, the down antiquark, the doublet of leptons, and the positron-, a vector-like isosinglet quark of charge In this chapter we concentrate our attention on vector-like isosinglet quarks. Our interest in extensions of the SM with those exotic fermions is justified for the following reasons: They provide a framework for having a naturally small violation of the 3 x 3 unitarity of the CKM matrix. This leads to non-vanishing, but naturally suppressed, flavour-changing neutral currents (FCNC). The presence of FCNC opens up many interesting possibilities for rare Kand B decays, as well as for CP asymmetries in neutral-B decays.
Massive Neutrinos and CP Violation in the Leptonic Sector
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
Neutrinos are fascinating particles which have played an important role in the understanding of the structure of both the charged- and neutral-weak-current interactions. They may also play an important role in astrophysics and cosmology. A complete treatment of all aspects of neutrino physics is beyond the scope of this book; there are excellent books and review articles on the subject (Bilenky and Petcov 1987; Kayser et al.1989; Mohapatra and Pal 1991; Boehm and Vogel 1992; Kim and Pevsner 1993). Our emphasis here will be on those aspects of neutrino physics having to do with CP violation. First we shall describe some of the motivations for considering massive neutrinos.
Extracting CKM Phases with Bs0 Decays
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
In this chapter we shall discuss some methods available to extract CKM phases with the help of B decays. In the near future, B -B pairs will only be produced at DESY, Fermilab, and LHC. In all these cases, the B -B pairs are created in uncorrelated initial states. Moreover, they are produced together with a large number of other states originating in bb quark pairs, such as B B- x+,these facilities, but that such studies must face a daunting background. As happens with B studies at the T (4S), full reconstruction of the events is extremely inefficient, and one usually looks for the semileptonic decay of one b-hadron (the tagging decay), only tracing the time dependence of the other bhadron. procedure still requires the reconstruction of the exclusive channel of interest. There is, however, a very big difference with respect to experiments performed at the T (4S). There, the anti-correlated nature of the initial state guarantees that the semileptonic decay in one side of the detector does tag the flavour of the meson on the opposite side at the same instant.
Discrete Ambiguities
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
In this chapter we follow closely the analysis of Grossman et al. (1997a), Grossman and Quinn (1997), and Wolfenstein (1997b) on the removal of the discrete ambiguities associated with the extraction of the CKM angles from the cor¬responding CP-asymmetry measurements. There has been renewed interest on this subject and further developments are likely. We neglect the phases and c1 throughout. Clean measurements of CKM phases must be unhindered by hadronic uncertainties. This is the case of CP asymmetries in B decays into CP eigenstates in which the amplitude is dominated by a single weak phase. These cases involve the ratio of an amplitude and its complex conjugate and, hence, twice the relevant CKM phase.
Making, Finding, Applying, and Justifying
Authors: Lundmark Thomas 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
This chapter defines three categories of law-making: politicians making statutory law, judges pronouncing rules that concretize statutes, and judges declaring rules without accrediting a statute (termed ‘pure’ common law in these pages). Rulings resulting from this last process are referred to here as judicial ‘glosses’ on the statutes. The making of statutory law by politicians entails legal reasoning in a broad sense, requiring consideration of the purposes of the proposed legislation, the appropriateness of the means chosen to serve those purposes, the authority to enact the chosen means, and the consideration of conflicts with other laws. When judges pronounce rules that concretize statutes, and when they declare rules without citing a statute (pure common law), they enjoy less access than politicians to relevant information. Judges possess less democratic legitimacy, meaning that they must consider the separation of powers. The process of finding both statute law and case law entails the recognition of rules and insights drawn from the factual scenarios (i.e. the stories) enshrined in the rules that might conceivably be applied, which involves legal reasoning. Judges often employ ‘hunches’ to arrive at the ‘correct’ result. Judges call upon their training, experience, and ingenuity to tell a story that convinces others that the result is rooted in law, not in whim. Friedrich Carl von Savigny (1779–1861) referred to these stories as ‘elements’ but described them differently from how they are employed in this book, although the categories into which justificatory arguments are organized here substantially correspond to Savigny’s elements.
Celtic and English language contact and scholarly attitudes
Authors: Ahlqvist Anders 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
There are obvious geographical reasons for entertaining the possibility that the Celtic languages have influenced the English language over the centuries since it became established in England and in the areas where Celtic languages have survived to the present day. Yet such influence is often claimed to be quite minimal. Nevertheless, it is also obvious that English differs in a number of ways from the other Germanic languages and that there must be reasons behind such differences. This chapter looks at the history of scholarship into the question and tries to isolate factors that may have contributed to certain scholars adopting their particular views. It is argued that some of these factors are more ideological than purely scholarly, reflecting stances that depend more on national origin and similar criteria than ones based on an objective examination of the facts, and further, that such factors are still behind some present-day judgments.
The origin of Afrikaans
Authors: Hamans Camiel 
Published: May 2024

Abstract
This chapter addresses the discussion about the origin of Afrikaans and the political context of this discussion. It focuses on the way settlers introduced Dutch at the Cape and how their descendants later forged the national language Afrikaans from the meanwhile changed language. It also discusses the long-denied influence of the so-called Coloured People on Afrikaans. Two views opposed each other. The first claims that Afrikaans is a European language and invokes, through careful philological research, similar phenomena in Dutch, Dutch dialects, or other Germanic languages and is therefore called the Philological School. The other emphasizes influences from native languages spoken at the Cape and from languages of imported slaves and could therefore be called the Creole School. The Philological School reached its peak during Apartheid. The Creole School only managed to gain the upper hand in the aftermath of Apartheid and initially especially outside South Africa. Finally, three examples are presented that illustrate how the discussion was conducted.