bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cardiac and Natural Causes of Sudden Death
Authors: Karch Steven B. , Fineschi Vittorio , Riezzo Irene 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn most jurisdictions of Western societies, sudden and unexpected deaths are mainly due to natural causes linked with heart diseases by an initiating factor triggering cardiac arrest. The aim is to provide a background of facts currently known or believed with a critical review to aid the reader in resolving cases for which he or she is responsible. In other words, we revisit pathologic findings versus etiopathogenetic hypotheses and theories and propose new ones substantiated by previously misinterpreted or ignored facts. In this article, detailed findings are presented along with overall interpretations in order to help the forensic pathologist in a court of law to act as interpreter of the sequence of events leading to death. Sudden death due to cardiovascular causes is uncommon among the young, yet we provide insight as to cause. The incidence of cardiovascular disease increases with increasing age, and, as indicated above, it is now the leading cause of morbidity and death in Western societies. In reaching conclusions, a forensic pathologist must correlate and discriminate between terminal events and pathological findings that denote preexisting cardiac disease. It is insufficient to rely upon the tendency to believe (erroneously) that current clinical imaging techniques are alone sufficient to provide evidence of the cause of a disease. Advances in technology will procure a histo‐ultrastructural view in living people. At present, however, the autopsy remains the gold standard, with the proviso that the diminishing requests for postmortem examination by clinicians may, in the future, confine autopsy investigation to forensic institutions. There is, therefore, a need to establish strict collaboration between clinicians and pathologists.
Assault: Sexually Motivated
Authors: Payne‐James Jason 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe investigation of allegations of sexual assault requires appropriate medical examinations and forensic sampling of both complainant and the alleged perpetrator. Such examinations require knowledge of normal human anatomy and physiology, principles of appropriate examination, appropriate methods of assessment and forensic sampling, appropriate means of documentation, and a full awareness of the possible clinical findings following sexual assault. The interpretation of findings will also require an awareness of law in the relevant jurisdiction. This chapter addresses these issues from the perspective of the England & Wales jurisdiction, but the broad medical principles of history taking, clinical examination and forensic sampling are applicable worldwide.
Policing and Critical Incident Teams
Authors: Gallo Frank J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractPolice calls for service occasionally require the police to resolve high‐threat or special‐threat situations such as barricaded suspects, hostage situations, drug raids, or warrant services. The need for police special weapons and tactics (SWAT) teams to use special weapons and force tactics to handle these dangerous police callouts has become popular among American law enforcement agencies. This article discusses some common legal risks associated with deploying SWAT teams to handle particular police calls for service. The adequacy of a SWAT team and its training in particular uses of special weapons and tactics may give rise to a legal action when the team fails to train in the proper use of issued equipment and use of force tactics. When a SWAT team uses force, its choices must be “objectively reasonable.” In cases of alleged use of excessive force, criminal and civil liability can attach itself in the form of a team's wrongful actions under Titles 18 and 42 of the US Code, respectively. There are legal risks surrounding the intervention of a SWAT team to control and overcome hostage takers where the main concern is the protection of human life and the avoidance of hostage and bystander injuries. As when there is a need to determine “reasonableness” in other police use of force litigation, forensic experts, experienced law enforcement officers with leadership and experience credentials, are often needed to provide opinion testimony.
Drug Analysis
Authors: Chung Heesun , Han Eunyoung , Lee Sooyeun , Choi Sangkil , Lee Juseon , Choi Hyeyoung , Park Yonghoon , Kim Eunmi , Lim Miae 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Drug abuse and trafficking of controlled substances is a global problem. The seized drugs may be in several forms: powders, tablets and capsules, plants or dried vegetable materials, and liquids. There are a number of steps involved in the analysis of illicit drugs including preliminary tests as well as confirmatory methods. The first step in drug analyses is to conduct one or more tests to identify the possible drug class. These include color tests, precipitation reactions, and microscopic examination. The second step is performed using thin layer chromatography (TLC) to tentatively identify the actual substance. Finally, a confirmatory test is performed using a validated instrumental method. The third step also quantifies the amount of illicit substances present in the sample. Techniques used in the screening and confirmation of illicit substances are described. The drugs most commonly found include cannabis, amphetamine, methamphetamine, opium alkaloids, other opiates, cocaine, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), phenethylamines, and indoleamines (psilocybin).
Deception: Detection of
Authors: Honts Charles R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractDeception detection is an important task in forensics and security. Criminals and terrorists are highly motivated to deceive and humans are not good in detecting deception without technical assistance. Traditional approaches to assist in the deception detection task have made use of physiological cues that a suspect may give off to detect deception. To date, only the polygraph has achieved widespread application in forensics. Although there is controversy, research suggests that in forensic settings the polygraph is about 90% accurate in discriminating truth‐tellers from deceivers. This is a considerable improvement over naïve deception detection. A second technology, voice stress analysis, has also been studied. The scientific research strongly indicates that voice stress analysis cannot discriminate truth‐tellers from deceivers.
Police Use of Force
Authors: Gallo Frank J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractTraditionally, the hallmarks of policing involve officers responding to criminal and noncriminal calls for police service, detecting and preventing criminal activity, investigating past crimes, and enforcing laws. To carry out these activities, the police have institutional authority to use force. Such authority, power, or legal right comes from rules of law, which recognize that the police must sometimes use coercive action against law‐violating citizens to accomplish legal objectives. Whenever the police invoke their legal right to use force against citizens, courts in the United States generally apply three major legal decisions that clarify standards surrounding the appropriateness of police use of force:West v. Atkins, Graham v. Connor, andTennessee v. Garner. Under the umbrella ofWest v. Atkins, the police must act under color of law to be liable for use‐of‐force actions against citizens that amount to violations of police authority. Police must make objectively reasonable use‐of‐force choices under theGrahamrules, which include a balancing test, subjective, objective, hindsight, and totality of circumstances tests. If the police decide to use deadly force against law‐violators, then theGarnerrules highlight three conditions in which deadly force may be reasonable: deadly force is necessary, suspects are dangerous, and police are able to warn suspects. Expert testimony by other experienced law enforcement officials is often required to determine and express an opinion on whether the officers acted reasonably in a particular case.In other accusatory system jurisdictions as in civil law jurisdictions, the use of force by the police is regulated primarily by legislative acts, rules, and custom. The use of expert witnesses has somewhat less importance in those jurisdictions.
Evil: Illusion of
Authors: Knoll James L. , Resnick Phillip J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractOver the past several decades, there has been an increased interest in the concept of “evil” in the fields of psychiatry and psychology. This interest has included efforts to “define” evil, and even testify about “evil” in the courtroom. Such efforts are ill‐advised, as it can be argued that evil can never be scientifically or reliably defined. This is because “evil” (i) is an illusory moral concept, (ii) it does not exist in nature, and (iii) its origins and connotations are inextricably linked to religion and mythology. Mental health professionals cannot claim any special expertise in matters of religion or morality. Any attempt to study violent or deviant behavior under the rubric of “evil” will be fraught with bias and moralistic judgments. Further, embracing the termevilinto the lexicon and practice of mental health will contribute to the stigmatization of mental illness, diminish the credibility of the mental health profession, and corrupt forensic treatment efforts.
Homosexual Panic
Authors: Thomas Tracy A. , Fremouw William J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The concept of “homosexual rage”, also referred to as “gay panic” or “homosexual panic”, has been used within legal contexts to describe an acute onset of rage and violent behavior directed towards a homosexual individual. This occurs when an individual perceives that his or her heterosexuality is being “threatened” by another's homosexual advances. Homosexual rage has been used as a legal defense in cases of violence against homosexuals, both successfully and unsuccessfully. Because homosexual rage lacks definitional specificity, extant research, or widespread acceptance within the psychological community, it is highly questionable whether it meets the Daubert standard for admissibility in legal proceedings. This article summarizes the history, theory, and controversy regarding homosexual rage.
Addictions
Authors: Gitlow Stuart 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article reviews medical issues related to addictive disease. Many studies of legal issues associated with substance use focus upon whether the subjects were intoxicated, in withdrawal, had been using an illicit substance, or had been using intoxicants on a regular basis, rather than upon whether subjects suffered from addictive disease specifically. From a forensic perspective, it is critical to properly determine whether an individual is using addictive substances as a social activity, in which a majority of our population participate on at least an occasional basis, or as a manifestation of a disease state. The first represents a lifestyle choice, one fraught with the possibility of hardship—medical sequelae of addictive substance use, accidents, and functional impairment can all take place without a disease being present. The second represents a medical illness with known epidemiology, characteristic disease course, and appropriate and effective forms of treatment. Naturally, the disease state, because it involves the use of substances, also involves the morbidity and mortality directly associated with use in addition to the morbidity directly associated with the disease state itself. The analysis of a forensic scenario in which substance use is material requires an understanding of the differences between lifestyle choice and disease state.
Parenting: Assessment of Capacity
Authors: Andrews Paul 
Published: September 2009

AbstractParenting evaluations have traditionally been associated with custody and divorce matters, but assessment to help address “best interest of the child” is also applicable to child protection or child‐dependency cases. Unlike custody evaluations, which compare one parent with another, this type of evaluation seeks to determine if a parent is capable of parenting at even a minimal level. Important to this type evaluation are determination of level of parenting skills, delineation of significant or uncontrolled risk factors associated with abuse, and evaluation of parent‐child fit and level of bonding.
Microscopy: Scanning Electron Microscopy
Authors: Khanmy‐Vital Aita 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe invention of the electron microscope allowed us to enter into the world of the nanometer. The infinite little became visible with the technology that produced resolution up to a few nanometers and a depth of field hundreds of times greater than what had been possible with conventional optical microscopes. The use of such an instrument for forensic investigations was quickly established and this technique is now widely applied. With the development of environmental scanning electronmicroscopes, the application range has no limits and almost every forensic sample, even liquids, can be visualized. Associated with analytical devices, the scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) become an interesting tool allowing both visualization and compositional analysis. To appreciate the power and use of the SEM, it is necessary to know and understand the functioning of such instruments to appreciate their use in forensic matters. The operation ease of the actual SEMs makes them a very powerful tool for forensic investigations.
Poisons: Detection of Naturally Occurring Poisons
Authors: Beyer Jochen 
Published: September 2009

AbstractMany plants and mushrooms contain toxic compounds that may be dangerous for humans. Despite the large number of poisonous plants, cases of fatal plant poisonings are relatively rare. The frequencies and the plants involved in poisonings are often regionally specific. Worldwide, the number of plants causing severe or fatal poisonings is relatively low. Plant poisonings can be aggregated into three categories: unintended ingestions, intended ingestions, and poisoning due to abuse of plant material. Unintended ingestions often occur in children or from a mix‐up of plants and mushrooms in adults. Intended ingestions are common in homicides and suicides. The abuse of plants and mushrooms for hallucinogenic reasons is increasingly common. The following article describes plants and fungi (e.g., mushrooms) often involved in poisonings, the symptoms of the intoxications, and briefly the method of detection of their toxic compounds in biological fluids.
DNA: Sources of
Authors: Harbison Sally‐Ann 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe sources of DNA evidence are many and varied. It is now well recognized that DNA profiles can be obtained from samples that are too small to be seen and sometimes difficult or impossible to attribute to a particular cell type. Thus, the ability to obtain a DNA profile is limited more by the ability to locate and identify potential evidence than it is by the evidence itself.DNAcan be obtained from traces of sweat left on touched items, from saliva deposited on the backs of stamps, and from pollen transferred from one location to another, as well as from blood splashed and smeared at a crime scene. In this article, by reference to case reports and articles published over the last 20 years and by drawing on this author's personal experiences and those of others as practicing forensic scientists, attempts have been made to convey the huge variety of sources of DNA evidence that can be encountered, recognizing the infinite variety of samples, substrates, and case circumstances that exist.
Microsatellites
Authors: Bright Jo‐Anne 
Published: September 2009

Abstract

Microsatellites are short tandemly repeated sequences of DNA (commonly referred to as
short tandem repeats, STRs
) that are found throughout the genome. They are analyzed by forensic biology laboratories throughout the world as they are highly polymorphic and are amenable to PCR and automation. Microsatellites superseded minisatellites, which are larger repeated units of DNA interspersed throughout the genome and were previously used for forensic DNA analysis.
Extraction
Authors: Harbison Sally‐Ann 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe extraction of DNA from forensic samples is a crucial step in the DNA analysis process. There are many different ways to extract DNA in a manner that results in DNA that is relatively free of inhibitors and concentrated enough for further processing. In this article, the most common methods in use in forensic science are described. These include organic extraction using proteinase K and phenol/chloroform, the differential extraction of semen, Chelex®methods, solid phase methods such as DNA IQ™, and Charge Switch™ extraction. In addition, methods appropriate for specific, more difficult sample types such as feces, bones, and teeth are described. Recent advances in forensic science require new methods to be developed such as those for the coextraction of DNA and RNA and for the extraction of DNA from plant material. These methods are also briefly discussed.
Phenotype
Authors: Frudakis Tony 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The recent completion of the human genome draft has enabled the discovery of markers and development of methods for inferring phenotype from DNA. The indirect method relies on an assessment of individual genomic ancestry admixture, the correlation between elements of population structure and phenotype in populations as well as individuals, and the use of databases relating phenotype to admixture profile in an objective, quantitative, and falsifiable manner. The direct method relies on an assessment of variants in genes that underlie a specific phenotype, and a similar use of databases to relate the variants to specific trait values. More accurate direct methods require considerably greater R&D investment and have so far only been possible with an aspect of hair color and, recently, the gross aspects of iris color (eumelanin content and resulting lightness/darkness). Research enabling the inference self‐described “race”, gross aspects of morphology, and skin, iris, and hair pigmentation from crime‐scene DNA is discussed along with a synopsis on the first applications of these methods and the major ethical and procedural issues.
Accreditation: Organizational
Authors: Schiffer Beatrice , Stauffer Eric 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Over the years, the topic of crime laboratory accreditation has gained wide acceptance in the forensic community. Accreditation is a process through which an organization becomes formally recognized to perform specific services. The laboratory seeking accreditation has to establish a structure with aims/goals, a management system, and technical facilities. All of this information is then documented in a laboratory internal quality manual.
To date, there are two main accreditation norms through which forensic laboratories are accredited around the world: The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board Legacy program and the International Organization for Standardization/International Electrotechnical Commission standard 17025 designed for testing and calibration laboratories.
The accreditation of a laboratory is conducted by a national institution that is duly authorized. The accreditation process is composed of three stages. First, the organization prepares for accreditation, then obtains it, and finally maintains it. The exact process then varies based on the accrediting body. However, the organization must undergo a thorough assessment conducted by a team of experts. During this assessment, the laboratory procedures and facilities are reviewed and checked against written protocols to determine compliance and noncompliance. Crime laboratory accreditation presents several advantages and drawbacks, and it is one part of creating and maintaining a comprehensive quality system.
Sex Offenders: Treatment of
Authors: Sorrentino Renee 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe psychiatric treatment of sex offenders is distinct from other clinical populations. The efficacy of sex offender treatment is unknown. Although studies comparing treated and untreated sex offenders have been done, measurement of outcome is flawed. The methodological challenges inherent in the study of sex offender treatment, the treatability of sex offenders, biological and psychological modalities of treatment, and the legal and ethical issues surrounding the treatment, of sex offenders are reviewed in this article.
Quality Systems: Toxicology
Authors: Flanagan Robert J. , Whelpton Robin 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Quality management (QM) is important in all aspects of laboratory operation including laboratory accreditation. ISO/IEC 17025:2005 is the main standard used by testing and reference laboratories to implement a QM system. Laboratory accreditation procedures and conformity assessment bodies are assessed against ISO/IEC 17011:2004. Key elements are the Quality Policy, a statement of the quality aims of the organization, and the Quality Manual, which defines the organization's QM system.

Laboratory operations can be divided into preanalytical, analytical, and postanalytical phases. Written procedures, usually known as
standard operating procedures
(
SOPs
), should describe all aspects of laboratory operation, including management and health and safety aspects. Internal quality control (IQC), external quality assessment (EQA), staff training and development, and recording and reporting results are important aspects of QM. Internal audit is also an important component of this process. Clinical or operational audit is important in the accreditation process, as is the documentation and resolution of “quality queries”.

Batch‐assay calibration should normally be by analysis of standard solutions (six to eight concentrations across the calibration range) prepared in the appropriate matrix (e.g., analyte‐free human serum or whole blood). IQC procedures, i.e., the analysis of independently prepared solutions of known compositions that are not used in assay calibration, should be instituted; normally low, medium, and high concentrations of each analyte are prepared in an appropriate analyte‐free matrix.
Assay validation should conform as far as possible with the current requirements for bioanalytical method validation. Quantitative methods must have good precision (reproducibility) and accuracy (the results must reflect the true concentration of the analyte). Data for within‐day (repeatability), between‐day, and total precision should be calculated according to the protocol proposed by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute.
Implementation of QM principles and laboratory accreditation procedures helps ensure that reliable results are obtained. With the increasing use of point‐of‐care testing (POCT) or roadside devices, the principles of QM have to be applied to such procedures in order to ensure the reliability of results. Although QM principles are more difficult to apply to the clinical interpretation of results, this aspect of the laboratory's work must not be neglected.
Web Resources
Authors: Botluk Diana , Fitterman Elizabeth 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article explores online resources related to forensic science, including websites covering general forensic resources that include a variety of topics, as well as websites that focus on a variety of individual forensic topics. Another section describes websites of forensic‐related associations, and lists SWGs and TWGs. There is also a section about how to locate forensic‐related articles online.