bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Paraguayan Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Spanish arrived in Paraguay in 1524 and founded Asuncion in 1537. The bishopric of Asuncion was created by papal decree in 1547 and the first bishop arrived in 1556. In 1588 three Jesuits reached the area, charged with pacifying and converting the Indians. After the arrival of additional Jesuit and Franciscan priests, they began large‐scale operations in the southeastern section of the country and on the eastern and southern shores of the Alto Parana River. The Jesuits soon found themselves in the role of protector of the Indians against the greed of the Spanish settlers. For this purpose they created
reducciones
or agricultural colonies where in addition to Christianization of the residents they taught them farming, arts, and crafts. Eventually the Jesuits and the Franciscans established 30 of these
reducciones
, eight of which were within the borders of present‐day Paraguay. The colonies grew powerful and wealthy and before long became a state within a state.
P
arthians
Authors: Thomas David Andrew 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Parthian Empire had its genesis around the year 247
bc
with the migration of a nomadic Scythian people called the Parni into the Seleucid satrapy of Parthia. Consolidating their power, they soon exploited the power vacuum created by the progressive downfall of the Seleucid Empire, expanding into Iran and beyond. As the political progenitor of the Parthians was one Arsaces, all subsequent monarchs are known as Arsacids, and the whole of Parthian history as the Arsacid Dynasty. Though relatively little is known about the Parthians, their empire grew to be one of the most powerful in the ancient world, stretching from Mesopotamia to Afghanistan and enduring until the advent of the Sassanians in
ad
224. While their culture and language arose from an eclectic mix of their own history and the Hellenism of their Seleucid forebears, they fashioned themselves the heirs of the defunct Achaemenids, playing heavily upon Persian identity in their political and cultural propaganda. Their government was a form of feudalism, and their monarch's use of the Persian title “King of kings” carried more than merely symbolic significance. Parthian wealth was generated primarily by trade, with tariffs from along the Silk Road generating enough income to preclude the need for heavy taxation. A light tax burden, in turn, made for a content populace that readily mobilized at a local level to defend the borders of the realm. The Parthian military, heavily comprised of horse‐borne warriors, was renowned for its swiftness and cunning. Roman historians agree that the Parthian steeds, known as Niseans for the plains upon which they grazed, were the largest, fastest, and most dependable horse of their day.
Passion of Christ
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The term passion is derived from the Latin,
passio
. The etymology is indicative of passivity and the chronicling or narrative of the suffering of a martyr. In the case of the Christ, the passion narrative denotes the agony that Jesus suffered at the hands of others from the time of his Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem to his death and burial on Good Friday as recorded in the gospels of the New Testament.
Patrick,Saint (c.387–460/461 or 493)
Authors: Murray K. Sarah‐Jane , Zdansky Hannah 
Published: January 2012

AbstractAccording to tradition, St. Patrick is the Apostle of Ireland. He says in hisConfessiothat he is the son of Calpurnius from the village of Bannavem Taburniae, now Kilpatrick, near present‐day Dumbarton, Scotland. His mother was Conchessa. Both were high‐ranking Britannico‐Roman citizens.
Paulists
Authors: Watts Thomas D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Society of Missionary Priests of St. Paul the Apostle, popularly known as the Paulist Fathers or the Paulists, was the first religious community of men founded in the United States. The mission of the Paulists is threefold: ecumenism, interreligious dialogue, and evangelization. Interestingly, these are not seen as contradictory, and represent in large measure the thinking and beliefs of their remarkable founder, Isaac Thomas Hecker. The Paulists were founded in New York City in 1858 by Hecker, in association with Augustine F. Hewitt, George Deshon, Francis Baker, and later Clarence Walworth. All were converts to Catholicism during the antebellum period of religious revival and social reform in the US. All were on individual quests that led them to Catholicism.
P
enderecki,
K
rzysztof (
b
. 1933)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Avant garde Polish composer whose atonal, serial, and electronic music explored the frontiers of liturgical music with special dramatic effects such as tone clusters, instrumental and vocal glissandi, percussive devices, and instrumental techniques such as
sul ponticello
(in which a stringed instrument is bowed near the bridge).
P
ercy,
W
alker (1916–1990)
Authors: Carson Nathan P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Walker Percy was a philosophically and theologically oriented novelist from the American South, whose work is part of the 20th century Catholic Renascence (along with Flannery O'Connor, Thomas Merton, Graham Greene, Evelyn Waugh, and Dorothy Day). Born in 1916 in Birmingham, Alabama, to a family of established Southern gentry, Percy's short‐lived career in medicine ended in 1941 when he contracted tuberculosis. During his sanatorium recovery (1942–1945), Percy discovered writers who challenged his positivist scientific worldview, inspired him to take up a writing vocation, and led him toward an eventual (1947) conversion to the Catholic faith. These writers, whose ideas pervade Percy's novels, include (among others) Kierkegaard, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Kafka, the French existentialists, Augustine, and Aquinas. Inheriting his “Uncle Will's” large estate and having left medicine, Percy married Mary (“Bunt”) Bernice Townsend in 1946 and assumed the writing life, generating most of his work from their home in Covington, Louisiana.
Persecution and the Suffering Church
Authors: Culpepper Scott 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The term “persecuted church” denotes Christian churches that have suffered overt persecution throughout the history of Christianity. The term persecution is defined in this article as the use of state or ecclesiastical power to deny the rights of persons to practice their faith through physical force, economic sanction, or legal action. While all Christians may suffer various subtle forms of persecution in contemporary societies, a majority of the world's believers in the 21st century still live in cultures and under regimes where persecution is orchestrated. Various Christian organizations emerged in the late 20th century to raise awareness in the west of international persecution of Christians. Persecution as repression of Christian life and witness is as old as Christianity itself. It has included persecution directed at Christians by people hostile to Christianity as well as persecution initiated by Christians against other Christians. Christian apologists such as Justin Martyr and Tertullian were called upon to answer these attacks in the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
P
isano,
N
icola (
c
.1220/1225–1284) and
G
iovanni (
c
.1245/1250–1314)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Father and son, Italian sculptors. Nicola's first important work was Pisa Baptistery pulpit in 1250. It is a marble hexagon with small figures of Virtues standing on the capitals of columns. At the base of the central column is a group of animals and grotesque figures. Five of the sides have reliefs with scenes from the New Testament, ending with the
Last Judgment
. All the figures are Roman, including the Virgin in the
Nativity
and the Holy women in the
Crucifixion
. Nicola also designed the Shrine of St. Dominic in Bologna. Giovanni carried on his father's work in the pulpit of the Sienna Cathedral. It is similar to the Pisa Baptistery with larger reliefs. Christ does not appear serene but is in agony. The
Last Judgment
occupies two panels with Christ as the Judge between them, and below him is a cross flanked by angels with instruments of the Passion. Father and son carved many of the prophets and saints on the outside of Pisa Baptistery, one of the first examples of sculpture incorporated into architecture. Two other pulpits by Giovanni followed. His masterpiece is the one in Sant'Andrea, Pistoia (1301). It is hexagonal with five narrative reliefs, including an apo‐calyptic Christ with blood spurting from his side, standing on a lion and a serpent with the hand of God and the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove above him. The
Crucifixion
scene includes the two thieves, representations of Ecclesia and Synagoga. The pulpit in Pisa Cathedral is larger and circular in form with nine reliefs, seven on the pulpit proper and two on the stair leading up to it. All the reliefs are taken from the New Testament. The tragic vehemence of the
Massacre of the Innocent
s has no parallel in the history of Italian sculpture. Of the nine supporting columns, seven represent theological virtues, Ecclesia and cardinal virtues, Christ and the four evangelists, Archangel Michael, and Samson. Giovanni also did several Madonna and Child groups, of which the most noteworthy are in the Pisa Baptistery, Arena Chapel in Padua Prato Cathedral, and Pisa Cathedral. He made a number of freestanding statues of which the best known is the
Madonna and Child
on the altar of the Arena Chapel.
Polish
C
hristianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The history of Polish Christianity began in 966 when Duke Mieszko was converted through his wife, a Bohemian princess, and the first bishopric was established in Poznan in 968. The faith grew and flourished under Mieszko's son, Boleslaw I the Brave, who gained recognition as king from Emperor Otto III. The expansion of Christianity owed much to the work of missionaries from the German Empire, as well as the legacy of St. Adalbert of Prague, who was martyred at the hands of the Prussian pagans. In 1000 Gniezno, Adalbert's burial place, was made an independent archepiscopal see with three suffragan bishoprics, and Boleslaw promoted the church's organizational structure in his expanding realm. The death of Boleslaw ushered in a period of turmoil, in which the church began to disintegrate along with the kingdom. Pagan attacks on churches brought the deaths of Christians, and later conflicts between king and church led to the death of Bishop Stanislaus of Cracow. The church reestablished itself in the late 11th century, but it was not until the late 14th century that Christianity achieved the status of a national faith under King Casimir III the Great. The church was reorganized in conformity with canon law and in 1364 the University of Krakow was established. The pagan Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila became the ruler of both Lithuania and Poland following his baptism and the conversion of the Lithuanians to Roman Catholicism in 1386. At this time, German Catholics had also begun to migrate to Poland as settlers. The dynastic union of Poland and Lithuania thus created not only one of the largest states in European Christendom but also one of the most religiously diverse, with Polish, German, and Lithuanian Catholics, Slavic and Lithuanian Orthodox, as well as Jews. Polish Roman Catholicism's Golden Age encompassed both the 15th and 16th centuries. The 15th century was known as the Century of Saints. After the Confederation of Warsaw in 1573, the Church, led by St. Hosius, increased its influence by judicious reforms. In 1595 the Ruthenian Church left the Orthodox fold and submitted to Rome. The Jagiello regime was overthrown in 1572, the throne became elective and a parliament was established. In 1587 the Catholic Church was given official recognition and Protestantism was restricted. Nicholas Copernicus was among the scientists and scholars who contributed to a rebirth of learning.
Political Theology
Authors: Coulter Michael 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Political theology is a branch of both theology and political philosophy which seeks to utilize theology to engage the world and provide a lens to interpret the world, specifically the arrangement of politics. This brand of political theology should not be viewed as simply political ethics, but rather a hermeneutical category grounded in theological research. Political theology seeks to question the political consciousness of theology itself and designates the field in which Christian theology should be articulated today. Under this view, salvation is seen not merely as an event that occurs in the future, but also something to be achieved politically in this world.
Postcolonial Theology
Authors: Bradnick David 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Postcolonial theology is an academic discipline within religious thought whereby structures of power, dominant systems, and embedded ideologies are examined, critiqued, and negotiated in order to make social transformations that recognize and validate the perspectives of marginalized peoples, cultures, and identities. Secular studies in postcolonial theory have played a significant role in giving rise to this genre of theological reflection. The traditional advent of postcolonial studies came in 1978 with the publication of Edward Said's book
Orientalism
, which unmasked Eurocentric assumptions ascribed to Oriental life, thus generating a misrepresentative reality in the Western imagination that was imposed upon Eastern people. The ability of colonial groups to speak for themselves had been stripped away, wherein they were customarily the object of discourse and rarely the subject (Lazarus 2004: 9). Additionally, decolonialization in the 20th century, specifically national rehabilitation, was problematic. Attempts to revitalize state and cultural identities failed because of the continued impact of colonialism and recognized shortcomings in indigenous heritages. “Interpreters simultaneously commended and condemned their cultural heritage” (Sugirtharajah 2003: 1), and as a result of this dialectic, new forms of literary, artistic, historical, and cultural productions began to embrace the multiculturality, migrancy, and hybridity of postcolonialialism; therefore postcolonial theory “effectively became a reconciliatory rather than a critical, anticolonialist category” (Lazarus 2004: 76). Within this context postcolonial theology emerged, placing the colonized “other” at the center of theological interpretations, wherein universalistic and individualistic Western categories are confronted through “positive engagement” (Keller et al. 2004: 9). Postcolonial theology recognizes differences and allows for a multiplicity of responses, hoping to achieve a reciprocal exchange of perspectives from all voices. Postcolonial theology has expanded, seeking emancipation and authenticity for all marginalized or oppressed identities, including issues of nationality, culture, race, gender, and sexuality. Pragmatically based theologizing occurs within one's context in order to inspire awareness, critical dialogue, and integration of ideas. The primary goal of postcolonial theology is to critique hegemonic ideological constructions that make absolutist or totalitarian claims and to provide legitimacy for alternative theological views.
Predestination
Authors: Bruce James E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Predestination is an English word which comes from the Latin verb for determining in advance,
praedestino
. The Latin itself resembles the Greek verb
proorizo
, itself a biblical word meaning to limit in advance (from
pro
‐ meaning “before” and
horizo
meaning “to limit”). The friends of the recently released Peter and John pray, in Acts 4.28, “For in this city, in fact, both Herod and Pontius Pilate, with the Gentiles and the peoples of Israel, gathered together against your holy servant Jesus, whom you anointed, to do whatever your hand and your plan had predestined to take place.” In Romans 8:29–30, Paul writes, “For those whom he foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son, in order that he might be the firstborn within a large family. And those whom he predestined he also called; and those whom he called he also justified; and those whom he justified he also glorified.” “But we speak God's wisdom, secret and hidden, which God decreed before the ages for our glory” (1 Cor. 2:7). The Letter to the Ephesians also contains uses of the verb
proorizo
: “He destined us for adoption as his children through Jesus Christ, according to the good pleasure of his will” (1:5). Again, Ephesians 1:11, “In Christ we have also obtained an inheritance, having been destined according to the purpose of him who accomplishes all things according to his counsel and will.” So predestination is most certainly a biblical idea; the debate has been how best to understand it.
P
usey,
E
dward
B
ouverie (1800–1882)
Authors: Faught Brad 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Edward Bouverie Pusey was a highly influential 19th century Anglican churchman whose integral role in the Oxford Movement prefigured his place as the acknowledged leader of the Victorian Anglo‐Catholics. Born in 1800 into a minor aristocratic family from Berkshire, he was educated at Eton College before advancing to Christ Church, Oxford. A highly successful undergraduate career followed, capped by his election to a fellowship at Oriel College in 1823. His contemporaries there included John Henry Newman and John Keble, with whom he soon became closely aligned.
Radical Orthodoxy
Authors: Bush Stephen 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Radical Orthodoxy is a contemporary theology, influenced by Augustine and Anglo‐Catholicism, that is opposed to key assumptions and values of modern democratic societies. First and foremost, Radical Orthodoxy is opposed to secularism, the thesis that political order, morality, and society can operate without reference to God. In contesting secularism, proponents of Radical Orthodoxy hearken back to the philosophy of the Neoplatonists, medieval thinkers influenced by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. From the Neoplatonists, Radical Orthodoxy takes the notion that the whole created universe has its existence and value only because it participates in the Being of God.
Reconciliation
Authors: Maclean Iain S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
To reconcile, or to bring about a condition of reconciliation, is to bring warring parties to peace or to change a state of enmity into one of friendship. The Christian tradition understands reconciliation as taking place between persons, between persons and God, and indeed between God and the created order. This is necessary since salvation is salvation from the results of human sin which include separation, alienation, suspicion, conflict, and finally death.
Redemption
Authors: Estes Douglas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Redemption is the act of paying a ransom for the release of a person or item, and is one of the most important and foundational themes of Christianity. Redeeming differs from purchasing in that the redeemer typically asserts some prior claim to or relationship with the person or item being redeemed, and that the redeemed person or item will be bettered in some way as a result of the transaction. After redemption, the redeemed person or item becomes the property of the redeemer if the redeemer so desires. In the ancient world, even as today, it was regular practice to redeem something of value by exchanging something else of value (often money or goods). Commonplace practices included purchasing freedom for prisoners of war, release from civil or legal liabilities, or liberty for slaves. In some instances, redemption was not considered optional but was encouraged or mandated by customs or laws.
Reformed Churches
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Reformed churches, named after their classic self‐designation as “churches reformed according to the word of God,” are a group of Christian Protestant denominations historically related by a similar system of doctrine often called “Calvinist” after the second generation reformer Jean (John) Calvin (1509–1564), even though it historically stems largely from the writings and reformation work of Martin Bucer in Strasbourg (Germany) and all first generation reformers in Switzerland like Huldrych Zwingli and Heinrich Bullinger (both Zurich).
Reformed Tradition
Authors: Emerick Christopher C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Reformed tradition derives its name from the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. With roots in attempted reforms by others such as John Wycliffe (1330–1384) and Jan Hus (1369–1415), the Reformation was initiated in 1517 by Martin Luther's (1483–1546) posting of his
95 Theses
to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg. Two years later, Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) began reforming the church in Switzerland. The Reformed tradition traces its origins to Zwingli's reforms, but it is in the ministry and thought of a second generation reformer, John Calvin (1509–1564), that the Reformed find their greatest expositor.
Reliquaries
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The word relic is derived from the Latin
reliquiae
(“remains”), and in Roman Catholic tradition has reference to some object, especially a part of the body, clothes, or item of close association, which remains as a memorial of someone of religious significance. Relics are carefully preserved as objects of veneration. The bones of Polycarp were regarded as “more valuable than precious stones and more to be esteemed than gold,” therefore they were to be laid in a suitable place. Relics must be sealed securely within a reliquary and authenticated by a pope or religious authority prior to any exhibition for veneration. A reliquary may be a box, case, or shrine that houses a relic. Reliquaries are of exquisite craft and ornamented with precious metals and stones. The Chasse of Champagnat (c.1150) from the church of Saint‐Martial is ornamented in gilded copper and champlevé enamel, as Martial (the first Bishop of Limoges) was thought to be the 13th apostle, according to legend. Complex containers may resemble the relic it enshrines, or may contain other body parts, such as the Reliquary Arm of Peter (c.1230). Some reliquaries contain scenes of martyrdom (e.g. Reliquary of St. Thomas Becket, c.1195–1200) and others have been formed entirely into full‐body statues that were displayed on altars or carried in ceremonial procession (e.g. Reliquary Statue of Sainte Foy, c.11th century). Throughout the medieval era in Byzantium and Europe, both relics and reliquaries were prominent forms of artistic production. Many world religions, including Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam, have a reliquary cult. Relics may be preserved in mosques,
stupas
, or temples, to which pilgrimage becomes a means of gaining merit before God. Relic worship within Buddhism (such as the Buddha's relics) is an undisputed fact, whereas veneration is stated as a central component of Roman Catholicism. Relic worship prompted Protestants to vigorously oppose any notion of relics.