bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
An electronically driven pendulum
Authors: Matthys Robert James 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
An electromagnetically driven pendulum is more accurate than a mechanically (escapement) driven pendulum. This is because a pendulum is disturbed less by an electromagnetic drive pulse than by hitting and dragging a pallet across an escape wheel's tooth. This is empirically based on Q —the less disturbed a pendulum is, the more accurate it will be. A short drive pulse at the center of swing is superior to the continuous sine wave drive approach. This is due to the difficulty in avoiding spurious electrical drive currents at the ends of swing, where unwanted low level electrical currents in a continuous sine wave drive can cause significant time errors over long time intervals. In this clock, the pendulum is electronically driven by a short current pulse in each drive coil at the center of swing. This chapter describes some features of an electromagnetically driven pendulum clock. The clock's mechanical layout is presented.
Application to Few-Particle Systems
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter illustrates the concept of restitution via two examples of few-particle systems. It shows that the detailed mechanics of collisions is important to overall behaviour: even small systems consisting of only viscoelastic particles behave qualitatively different from equivalent systems when a constant coefficient of restitution is assumed. Thus, it can be expected that details of pairwise particle collisions determine the properties of a granular many-body system, that is, a granular gas, qualitatively too.
Cooling Granular Gas — Haff's Law
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses cooling granular gas. During the first stage of its evolution, a force-free, initially uniform granular gas remains homogeneous, while the mean velocity of its particles decreases continuously. This stage is called the homogeneous cooling state. In this regime, the granular temperature decays according to Haff's law.
Velocity Distribution And Temperature Of A Granular Gas For The Case ε =Const.
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
For the ε = const the Boltzmann equation may be reduced to a set of two uncoupled equations. One of them describes the evolution of temperature and the other determines the scaled distribution function. This chapter solves this equation using the Sonine polynomials expansion.
Coefficient of Self-Diffusion
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the coefficient of self-diffusion. The coefficient of self-diffusion for granular gases with the simplified collision model ε = const differs from the coefficient for granular gases of viscoelastic particles. For the former case, the mean square displacement depends logarithmically on time; the latter case obeys a power law.
Two-Dimensional Granular Gases
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
It has been shown for molecular fluids that the velocity-time correlation function in ddimensions exhibits a power-law dependence for t &gt;&gt; 1. This function reveals a long time tail compared with an exponentially decaying function. According to the fluctuation-dissipation theorem, the kinetic coefficients are expressed by time integrals of the corresponding correlation functions. For d &gt; 2, these integrals converge; for two-dimensional systems the convergence of these integrals is problematic and hence, the existence of the kinetic coefficients is questionable. For force-free granular fluids, one can expect convergence of these integrals, since there exists an additional decay of correlation functions due to the decay of temperature. This problem has not been addressed for granular gases. This chapter presents the results for d-dimensionless gases.
Granular Gas as A Continuum: Hydrodynamic Equations
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers a highly inhomogeneous granular gas with small spatial gradients of temperature and density. It derives equations for the zero, the first, and the second moments of the velocity distribution function which characterize the density, flow velocity, and the temperature of the gas. A closed set of hydrodynamic equations are obtained by introducing phenomenological kinetic coefficients such as shear viscosity, thermal conductivity, etc.
Basic Dynamics of Point Particles and Collections
Authors: Johns Oliver 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Modern mechanics begins with the publication in 1687 of Isaac Newton’s Principia, in which he explains mathematically the motions of planets, moons, comets, and tides in what is now known as the three laws of motion. This chapter assumes that Newton’s three laws of motion refer fundamentally to point particles. After deriving the laws of momentum, angular momentum, and work-energy for point particles, it is shown that, given certain plausible and universally accepted additional axioms, essentially the same laws can be proved to apply to macroscopic bodies, considered as collections of the elementary point particles. This chapter also discusses Newton’s space and time, single point particle, collective variables, the law of momentum for collections, the law of angular momentum for collections, the work-energy theorem for collections, potential and total energy for collections, the center of mass, center of mass and momentum, center of mass and angular momentum, center of mass and torque, change of angular momentum, center of mass and the work-energy theorems, center of mass as a point particle, and special results for rigid bodies.
Linear Operators and Dyadics
Authors: Johns Oliver 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Linear vector functions of vectors, and the related dyadic notation, are important in the study of rigid body motion and the covariant formulations of relativistic mechanics. These functions have a rich structure, with up to nine independent parameters needed to characterise them, and vector outputs that need not even have the same directions as the vector inputs. The subject of linear vector operators merits a chapter to itself not only for its importance in analytical mechanics, but also because study of it will help the reader to master the operator formalism of quantum mechanics. This chapter defines linear operators and discusses operators and matrices as well as special operators, dyadics, resolution of unity, complex vectors and operators, real and complex inner products, eigenvectors and eigenvalues, eigenvectors of real symmetric operator, eigenvectors of real anti-symmetric operator, normal operators, determinant and trace of normal operator, eigen-dyadic expansion of normal operator, functions of normal operators, exponential function, and Dirac notation.
Kinematics of Rotation
Authors: Johns Oliver 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter deals with techniques needed to define the location and orientation of a moving rigid body. Rigid bodies are characterised and the center of mass of a rigid body is discussed along with rotation operators, rotation matrices, some properties of rotation operators, proper and improper rotation operators, rotation group, kinematics of a rigid body, differentiation of a rotation operator, angular velocity vector, velocities of the masses of a rigid body, Savio’s theorem, infinitesimal rotation, addition of angular velocities, fundamental generators of rotations, rotation with a fixed axis, expansion of fixed-axis rotation, eigenvectors of the fixed-axis rotation operator, Euler theorem, rotation of operators, rotation of the fundamental generators, rotation of a fixed-axis rotation, parameterisation of rotation operators, differentiation of parameterised operator, Euler angles, fixed-axis rotation from Euler angles, time derivative of a product, angular velocity from Euler angles, active and passive rotations, passive transformation of vector components, passive transformation of matrix elements, body derivative, passive rotations and rigid bodies, and passive use of Euler angles.
The molecule: structure, size and shape
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The relationships between atoms and molecules are mediated by the theory of chemical bonding. Atoms were forged in the extreme conditions that occurred at the cores of stars in the early stages of the development of the universe, but they did not survive as isolated systems in the much milder conditions of mature planets, where more stable structures are formed by highly stabilising interactions between electrons of different atoms, in terms of lowering of the potential energy and of spin pairing. This chapter discusses molecular structure, size and shape, along with classification concepts in many particle systems, symmetry and order, enthalpy and entropy, mass and length dimensions of a molecule, atomic radii, molecular volume and surface, and molecular size in terms of electron density.
Crystal polymorphism and crystal structure prediction
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Organic molecules can provide an almost infinite variability in shape and electrical polarisation, and the solid state has a high degree of structuring and anisotropy. These are the reasons why much is expected from structure-activity relationships in solid-state chemistry, with promise for constructing a wide range of diverse materials. Moreover, since molecules in solids are blocked into a fixed conformation, and rotation and translation are forbidden, one may expect to be able to construct many different buildings with the same bricks, and one may fancy that the same organic compound can make a piece of rubbish in one crystal and a touchstone in another. This chapter discusses crystal polymorphism and crystal structure and how they are predicted, taxonomy of organic crystals, phenomenology of crystal polymorphism, analysis of crystal polymorphism by Pixel and quantum chemical calculations, construction of crystal structures by computers, molecular clusters with one symmetry operator, pros and cons of the Prom algorithm, and computer prediction of crystal structure.
Distributive Justice
Authors: LUCY WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins by introducing some distinctions that will structure our thinking about distributive justice. Although not all of the distinctions will be to the forefront of all that follows in this chapter, all are in play at some point. These preliminary matters are tackled briskly in the first section. The second section analyzes three indirect arguments about the relation between private law and distributive justice and culminates with some speculation about why such arguments are more common than direct arguments. That speculation leads directly to the fulcrum of the third section. It examines an argument which, if successful, pre-empts all talk about a relation between distributive justice and private law. The fourth section analyses two examples of the direct argument and inter alia assesses how well they deal with this pre-emptive objection.
7. The Rise of the Action of Assumpsit
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter shows how, in the 16th century, the action of trespass on the case came to be established as the primary, ordinary remedy for the imposition of liability on informal contracts. The route by which this was achieved was the same as that followed in other situations: first of all the argument that trespassory remedy was simply supplementing the remedies that were otherwise available, followed by a wholesale expansion into the ground covered by other remedies.
Networks and the International System
Authors: Thompson Grahame F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter extends the analysis of networks explicitly to the international sphere by addressing the whole area of information and communications technology (ICT) and networks and particularly how they are argued to be radically transforming the nature of international relations, organised under the conceptual umbrella term of ‘globalisation’. The internationalisation of ‘production networks’ and how these are also argued to be recasting the nature of global economic relationships are also discussed. Both of these aspects to international networks are critically analysed. The relationship between national and international networking as well as the relationship between networks and other mechanisms of socio-economic coordination and governance is reviewed. The role of the Internet and the World Wide Web in reshaping the whole nature of domestic and international social and economic relationships is discussed, along with the notion of value chains or commodity chains as networks and the role of networks in the governance of the international system.
Success Snatched from Defeat: London and the Bar
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter details H. L. A. Hart's preparations to become a barrister and the start of his legal practice. By the time of his graduation, Herbert had already preparing to qualify as a barrister. The Bar provided nothing in the way of formal training: it was simply a matter of equipping oneself with the knowledge necessary to pass the entry examinations. From the very beginning of his student career, Herbert had entertained an ambition to follow up his classics degree with an undergraduate degree in law based on just one further year's study. Spurred on by his brilliant success in his finals, and by the story of another student who had gained a First in a year, Herbert set out to match this achievement.
Jenifer
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on H. L. A. Hart's wife, Jenifer Williams. Jenifer came from an educated, moneyed upper-middle-class background. She was the daughter of Sir John Fischer Williams and Eleanor Marjorie Hay Murray, his second wife. Sir John was a well-known international lawyer and the author of a number of books on the development of the League of Nations, of which he was a strong and influential supporter. Jenifer and her three sisters had travelled widely with their parents, spending time not only in London, Oxford, and at Lamledra, but also living and being educated for much of her childhood in Paris. On going to university in 1932, she became involved in the Women's University Settlement Movement, devoting some free time to working with the poor. Her reading and conversations during her student years gradually moved her politics leftwards, and the summer of her graduation saw her working at a camp for the unemployed organized by the National Unemployed Workers Movement. Though she was initially unaware of it, the camp was run largely by members of the Communist Party.
Oxford from the Other Side of the Fence
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter details H. L. A. Hart's post-war career. In September 1945, Herbert returned to an Oxford that was a cloistered, parochial, and largely masculine community. New College was not, in most ways, substantially different from the small community of scholars he had left in 1929. It was surrounded by thirty-odd other such communities, only five of which were for women; and it operated within the framework of only a fragmentary university structure. The small number of Fellows at New College further contributed to an intense and emotionally complex network of social relationships which in many respects resembled a family more than a workplace.
American Jurisprudence through English Eyes: Harvard 1956–7
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the time H. L. A. Hart's spent in Harvard University. In early September 1956, Herbert set out from Southampton on the Queen Elizabeth, bound for New York. He was heading for the pinnacle of the American University system, Harvard, where he had been invited to spend a year visiting both the Law School and the Philosophy Department. Harvard Law School — indeed Harvard University — presented him with an intellectual environment strikingly different from Oxford, and one which he could not reasonably have expected to be particularly welcoming.
The Geography, Topography and Land Transport Networks of Egypt
Authors: Adams Colin 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter places transport in Roman Egypt into its physical context, discussing the geography and topography of the Nile Valley, Fayum, and desert regions. It studies both the literary and papyrological evidence for this, discussing roads and canals, and the problems for transport created by a hydraulic civilization: canals, irrigation channels, dykes, and embankments. It surveys the difficulties encountered by travellers and transporters, and the concern of the state in the upkeep of roads and routes. It considers the nature of desert travel, desert routes, and their transport infrastructure: these routes connected the oases of the Western Desert to the Nile Valley, and gave access, across the Eastern Desert, to the Red Sea and its ports, facilitating trade with the East.
Deserts and Military Supply
Authors: Adams Colin 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Communities in the desert, whether ports or military outposts, were almost wholly reliant on the Nile Valley for their supplies. This chapter considers how the ports of the Red Sea, quarry installations, military outposts, and hydreumata were supplied, in the light of the ever-increasing body of evidence provided by ostraca. It also studies the transport of decorative stone, one of the most impressive technological feats of the ancient world. An impressive infrastructure of desert routes and cisterns was developed to support those engaged in the protection of routes and their supply. Requisitioned animals from the Nile Valley provided the necessary labour. Finally, the transport of military supply is considered, both requisition of supplies and their transport.
Rhetoric
Authors: Wiseman Susan 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Women's theoretical exclusion from the political sphere generated not silence but highly developed linguistic and figurative responses in seventeenth century England. This chapter analyses women's involvement in politics by examining the use of the example in seventeenth century texts. It concentrates on exemplarity because of its pervasive presence in early modern writing, because of the tensions it sometimes generated for readers, and because of the way it shows gender at work in the interpretative acts of readers and writers. Although the seventeenth century is often characterised as a time when exemplarity became synonymous with mere authority, it might be more accurate to say that the seventeenth century had its own debates on exemplarity. Rather than being ‘merely’ ornament, the examples in an early modern text gave the reader a route, but one which, by the seventeenth century at least, not only was uncertain but might be experienced as such.
Test Cases: Brilliana Harley and Anne Clifford
Authors: Wiseman Susan 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses two writers who have not usually been considered in the same frame as politics, Brilliana Harley and Anne Clifford. They, and the language they use, are test cases for this study in two ways. First, when we ask what are the relationships between their writing and politics we find, in different ways, that each corpus is deeply immersed in political concerns. Second, however, the ways in which tier writings register political concerns requite that we expand and refine what we mean by politics. The reception and transmission of these women's texts tell us about changes in the understanding of politics and of women's relationship to it. As test cases, these writers invite us to understand that women were deeply enmeshed in political ideas, and to begin to reformulate what we think of as political.
Concepts and Theories of Remedies
Authors: SHELTON DINAH 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The theoretical foundations of remedies are rarely discussed in international human rights law and practice. Yet, in order to construct and afford appropriate remedies, human rights law must develop not only a primary legal framework expressing the duties of states and other actors in this field, but a secondary theory of what duties exist when a primary duty is violated. In most legal systems, including the international legal system, the aims of compensatory justice and deterrence are most often cited as the foundation for the law of remedies. Restorative justice, retribution, and economic analysis recently have provided other theoretical models to approach the issue of responding to human rights violations. This chapter discusses the meaning of and theoretical approaches to remedies and the differences between private law and public law cases.
Reparations in the Law of State Responsibility
Authors: SHELTON DINAH 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Prior to the development of international human rights law, violations of international law were met with responses under the law of state responsibility. This traditional body of law, particularly the part of it that concerns the mistreatment of aliens, contains useful precedents for evaluating the nature and scope of remedies afforded in state practice. Clearly, the law of state responsibility remains applicable to a human rights violation by a state in breach of an international obligation contained in a treaty or customary international law. This chapter reviews the law of state responsibility, in particular the redress afforded for injury to aliens, in order to identify general principles and precedents that may be applicable or useful in addressing human rights violations.
Costs and Fees
Authors: SHELTON DINAH 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The lack of financial resources can be a major hindrance to recourse to international or national human rights mechanisms. Despite the obvious need of many applicants to legal aid, no issue divided international tribunals in their early jurisprudence as much as the issue of awards of costs and attorneys' fees. In national legal systems, fees are often awarded and the amount is usually calculated on the basis of the number of hours reasonably expended during the litigation, multiplied by a reasonable hourly rate. Attorneys who bring human rights cases need to be paid because fee awards encourage them to represent victims who are often indigent, social outcasts, or marginalised.
Conclusions
Authors: SHELTON DINAH 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
One of the most important legal developments of the modern era, both nationally and internationally, has been the opening of avenues of complaint for private citizens against oppressive action by government agents and agencies and the affording of remedies when violations are found. The right of access to judicial remedies is widely guaranteed in international human rights treaties and can be considered as part of the corpus of the customary international law of human rights. Remedies not only provide redress for the individual victim, but they serve the community interest in sanctioning the perpetrator and deterring future violations by the same or other wrongdoers. They thus serve the rule of law at all levels of society. The nature and scope of remedies is generally consistent throughout the world.