bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ethical Issues in Psychology
Authors: Kitchener Karen Strohm 
Published: January 2010

AbstractProfessions share many common characteristics, such as the development of a code of ethics. Ethics codes serve many purposes, one of which is to state the fundamental values of the profession and to bring together the cumulative wisdom of the profession about acting morally toward those with whom the profession works. The 2002 Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association (APA) is divided into four sections: (1) the introduction, (2) the preamble, (3) general principles, and (4) ethical standards (American Psychological Association, 2002). Kitchener (1984) has argued that the ethical standards are grounded in principles that are more general and fundamental than standards and that serve as their foundation. Although slightly different from those in the 2002 APA Ethics Code, the five principles that seem central to thinking about ethical problems in psychology are (1) beneficence (do good), (2) nonmaleficence (do no harm), (3) respect for persons (treat individuals as autonomous agents, but recognize that those with diminished autonomy or competence need protection), (4) justice (be fair), and (5) fidelity (keep promises, do not lie, be faithful). These principles articulate ethical norms that are central to whatever role the psychologist is in and are quite similar to the principles in the 2002 code.
Ethical Treatment of Animals
Authors: Shapiro Kenneth J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

More than any other single event, the publication of Singer's
Animal Liberation
(1976) reopened examination of contemporary society's many and varied uses of animals other than humans (hereafter, animals). This discussion occurred in three overlapping contexts: (1) governmental regulation and institutional self‐regulation and the developments of (2) a major social justice movement, the animal rights movement (ARM), and (3) a field of study, human‐animal studies (HAS). It has ushered in numerous policies implementing changes in how we treat nonhuman animals and in public recognition of and changes in attitudes toward the various issues.
Existential Psychology
Authors: Koole Sander L. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Existential psychology is a branch of psychology that studies how people come to terms with the basic givens of human existence. The existential perspective has important roots in philosophy, which has long tried to make sense of people's being in the world. The philosophical tradition most associated with existential psychology is existential philosophy, which was pioneered by such thinkers as Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Heidegger. These and other existential philosophers have written about the anxiety that is inherent in human existence, people's need for meaning in a meaningless world, and the importance for people to make their own choices according to their own authentic desires. Existential psychology has also been influenced by artistic expressions of the confusion and alienation that people experience in their confrontation with meaninglessness and absurdity, which can be found in the work of novelists such as Dostoevsky and Kafka and existentialist writers such as Sartre, de Bouvoir, Camus, Ionesco, and Beckett.
Fear
Authors: Lohr Jeffrey M. , Adams Thomas G. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Fear may be the most important emotion for the survival of the human species. The experience of fear is the immediate subjective experience of apprehension marked by activation of the fight or flight response. The experience of fear is best understood on the basis of its principle function. According to Seligman (1971), “the great majority of phobias are about object(s) of natural importance to the survival of the species.” In the most severe of circumstances (e.g., in the presence of a fast‐approaching predator), fear activates the organism to flee or battle for its life. A less severe illustration of fear function is seen in day‐to‐day social interactions in which individuals avoid saying or doing embarrassing things in order to prevent social rejection or maintain companionship.
F
erster,
C
harles
B
. (1922–1981)
Authors: Lundin Ralph W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Charles B. Ferster received the BS from Rutgers University, and the PhD in 1950 from Columbia, where he studied under such well‐known behaviorists as Fred S. Keller and William N. Schoenfeld. He served as research scientist at Yerkes Laboratories in Orange Park, FL, at Harvard University, and at the Indiana University School of Medicine. He then became professor of psychology at Georgetown University and then at the American University in Washington, D.C., where he remained until his death in 1981.
Finland, Psychology in
Authors: Niemi Pekka 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Not surprisingly, the first Finnish psychologists were trained by Wilhelm Wundt in his Leipzig laboratory. Most promising among them was Hjalmar Neiglick, who prepared his doctoral thesis there and defended it at the University of Helsinki in 1887. Unfortunately, Neiglick's premature death two years afterward put a brake on the development of an independent discipline of psychology, which thereafter remained a subsidiary interest of professors of philosophy. One of them, Eino Kaila, finally emerged as a founding father in psychology as late as 1922, when as a newly appointed professor of philosophy, he established a psychological laboratory in Turku. Kaila was keen on following the up‐to‐date trends in psychology. Some years earlier, he had defended this thesis “Über die Motivation und die Entscheidung” (On Motivation and Decision Making”). He also published in one of the leading German journals,
Psychologische Forschung
, in the 1920s and by so doing set a standard for his successors. However, a long time elapsed before Kaila's work entered the scene, with the exception that applied psychology was started by Esther Hjelt, who became the head of the State Railways' Psychotechnical Laboratory founded in 1923.
Fitts's Law
Authors: Grosjean Marc 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Fitts's law is a mathematical relationship that captures how speed and accuracy trade off in human movement. Originally formulated by Paul M. Fitts (Fitts, 1954), it predicts the time it takes to move to a target as a function of the target's size and the distance that needs to be covered to attain it. In Fitts's study, people were asked to move a hand‐held stylus between two targets as fast as possible without missing them. The targets were of identical width (
W
) and were separated center‐to‐center by a certain amplitude (
A
). By systematically varying the width of the targets and distance between them, he found that the average movement time (
MT
) to go from one target to the other was specified by the following equation:

urn:x-wiley:9780470479216:media:corpsy0361:xm1

where a and b are empirically defined constants, and the expression log
2
(2·
A/W
) was termed the index of difficulty (
ID
) of the movement. Thus
MT
is predicted to increase linearly with
ID
:
MT
= a + b·
ID
. The index of difficulty is defined such that it increases with the distance that needs to be covered and the narrowness of the targets (required movement accuracy). Moreover,
MT
is predicted to be the same as long as the ratio between movement amplitude and target width (
A
/
W
) remains unchanged.
Five‐Factor Model of Personality
Authors: Pincus Aaron L. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractPersonality traits describe individual differences in human beings' typical ways of perceiving, thinking, feeling, and behaving that are generally consistent over time and across situations. Beginning with the work of Allport and Odbert (1936), trait psychologists have attempted to identify a set of basic traits that adequately describe variation in human personality. This effort has employed two strategies: the analysis of descriptive adjectives across human languages (the lexical approach) and the measurement of various traits derived from personality theories (the questionnaire approach). For nearly 50 years, competing sets of fundamental traits (e.g., Cattell, Eysenck, Guilford), typically derived through factor analysis, created disagreement about which traits were basic. However, in the 1980s, a convergence of the lexical and questionnaire strategies generated a consensus among many trait psychologists that five basic broad traits provided an adequate description of individual differences (McCrae & John, 1992). This set of basic traits is referred to as the Five‐Factor Model (FFM) of personality.
Flynn Effect
Authors: Mingroni Michael A. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The term “Flynn Effect” refers to the finding that IQ test scores have increased over time in many countries (Flynn, 2007). Most existing evidence of the effect comes from industrialized nations; however, recent studies suggest that gains are now occurring in developing countries as well. In some northern European countries, the trend appears to have stopped. At present there is no generally agreed‐on explanation for the effect.
Forensic Assessment Instruments and Techniques
Authors: Otto Randy K. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Assessment and evaluation is a key component of the identity and practice of clinical psychologists. The majority of assessment activity in which psychologists engage is best described as
therapeutic assessment—
psychological evaluation that is conducted to facilitate or inform decision making about treatment and other types of interventions. In contrast,
forensic assessment
is conducted during or in anticipation of litigation, for the purpose of providing legal decision makers or others with information about aspects of the examinee's psychological functioning that are relevant to some issue that is in dispute. Many commentators, when discussing this issue, distinguish between “clinical assessment” and “forensic assessment” (or between clinical activities and forensic activities). Such terminology is potentially misleading, however, insofar as all forensic assessment is clinical in nature, and it is psychologists' clinical expertise that leads to the court to seek input and opinions from them.
Functional Analysis
Authors: O'Donohue William T. , Loverich Tamara Penix 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Functional analysis is a strategy for the assessment and treatment of mental health problems (or preferably “behavioral problems”) with origins in radical behaviorism, and particularly behavior therapy. It is generally viewed as an assessment and treatment strategy within the larger realm of behavioral assessment and behavior therapy. More specifically, functional analysis is a set of procedures that attempts to identify important environmental variables that develop and maintain behavior. The clinical goal of functional analysis is to effectively identify targets of intervention that are alterable, in order that appropriate treatments may be rapidly implemented and evaluated.
Germany, Psychology in
Authors: Plath Ingrid , Eckensberger Lutz H. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe history of psychology in German‐speaking countries (especially Germany, Austria, and Switzerland) goes back to the nineteenth century, when it began to evolve as an autonomous discipline by separating from philosophy and physiology (see Danziger, 1990; Hothersall, 2004). Typically this is linked to Wilhelm Wundt, who founded the first psychological institute in Leipzig in 1879 and soon launched the first psychological journal in 1883 (Philosophical Studies); in 1904 the first German congress was held, and the Society for Experimental Psychology established, later renamed the German Psychological Society (DGPs—Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychologie) in 1929—all hallmarks of an established science. The history of the DGPs and psychology as a discipline is documented in detail in a special issue of its journalPsychologische Rundschau(Lukas & Schneider, 2004) on the occasion of its 100th anniversary.
Giftedness
Authors: Renzulli Joseph , Reis Sally M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

In the early and mid 1900s psychologists following in the footsteps of Lewis Terman (1877–1956) equated giftedness with high IQ. This legacy survives to the present day, although a variety of conceptions of giftedness have been suggested by many researchers. These conceptions range from general, broad characterizations to more targeted definitions of giftedness identified by specific actions, products, or abilities within certain domains (Sternberg & Davidson, 2005). Research conducted during the last few decades supports the more broad‐based conception of giftedness as a combination of multiple qualities, such as motivation, self‐concept, and creativity, in addition to intellectual potential. For example, Joseph Renzulli defines gifted behaviors rather than gifted individuals, as follows:

Gifted behavior consists of behaviors that reflect an interaction among three basic clusters of human traits—above average ability, high levels of task commitment, and high levels of creativity. Individuals capable of developing gifted behavior are those possessing or capable of developing this composite set of traits and applying them to any potentially valuable area of human performance. (Renzulli, 1978, p. 183)
Group Therapy
Authors: Piper William 
Published: January 2010

AbstractGroup therapy is a form of psychosocial therapy that is conducted by one or more trained therapists with a group of patients or clients. Psychosocial therapy involves an extended verbal dialogue among patients and therapists and is believed to operate primarily by means of psychological mechanisms (e.g., insight regarding relationships or positive reinforcement). In contrast, treatment with medication management involves a brief verbal exchange among the parties and is believed to operate primarily by means of physical mechanisms (e.g., increased levels of neurotransmitters).
G
uthrie,
E
dwin
R
. (1886–1959)
Authors: Lundin Ralph W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Edwin R. Guthrie received the PhD from the University of Pennsylvania in 1912. He spent his entire academic career at the University of Washington until his retirement in 1956. In 1958, the year before his death, he was awarded the Gold Medal Award from the American Psychological Foundation.
Hallucinations
Authors: Weisholtz Daniel , Epstein Jane , Stern Emily , Silbersweig David 
Published: January 2010

AbstractHallucinations are involuntary sensory experiences that are perceived as emanating from the external environment, in the absence of stimulation of relevant sensory receptors. Hallucinations can occur in a variety of contexts but are perhaps most striking and debilitating in the context of schizophrenia, in which they are generally experienced as real and emotionally significant, are related to concurrent delusions, and represent a manifestation of psychosis. Hallucinations can occur in any sensory modality and can involve multiple modalities. Auditory hallucinations are the most common in schizophrenia and other illnesses that are traditionally termed psychiatric, and visual hallucinations are the most common in illnesses termed neurological. Hallucinations can be described at multiple levels of analysis, including cognitive, neurochemical, computational, and social/psychological. This article presents a functional neuroanatomic approach to hallucinations describing and analyzing them in terms of disorders of sensory input and subcortical (mindbrain/thalamus) and higher brain regions, including cortical sensory, limbic, and frontal regions. It touches also on treatment considerations.
Hallucinogen‐Related Disorders
Authors: Hung Olivia Y. , Gillespie Charles F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Psychosis is a disturbance in the perception of reality, evidenced by hallucinations (false sensory perceptions), delusions (false beliefs that are not shared with any other people), or disorganized thoughts. Psychotic states brought on by hallucinogen use are often referred to as “trips” by recreational users, and they may be accompanied by agitation, aggression, and other forms of behavioral impairment. Trips generally involve existential experiences, distortions in perception, and synesthesias (blending of the senses).
Halstead‐Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery
Authors: Wedding Danny 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Halstead‐Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery consists of a series of individual neuropsychological measures that, in combination, permit a skilled examiner to make detailed inferences about the integrity of the cerebral hemispheres. Because the brain is the organ of adaptive behavior, brain dysfunction is typically observable in some behavioral aberrations. The tests included in the Halstead‐Reitan Battery are designed to sample behavior across every possible sphere and assess all major cognitive, sensory, expressive, and motor functions.
Health Psychology
Authors: Wallio Stephanie C. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Over 2,500 years have passed since philosophers Plato and Aristotle argued that the human mind or soul could not be found within the material body. Approximately 2,000 years later, René Descartes proposed his own theory about the separation of mind and body, which was rooted in these ancient philosophies and became known as Cartesian dualism. While believing that mental experiences were functions of the soul, which must be separate from the physical, Descartes also believed that the soul and body influenced one another. It has been argued (e.g., Rubin & Wessely, 2001) that perhaps the most important effect of Cartesian dualism is that it placed the body in the domain of physicians and the mind in the domain of philosophers, psychiatrists, and psychologists, leading to the development of modern medicine and psychology. This phenomenon is evident in one of the most common practitioner questions, “Is this problem organic or psychological?” Today, health psychology works within this still influential mind‐body dualism to bridge the gap between psychological and physical states.
H
ebb,
D
onald
O
lding (1904–1985)
Authors: Staff  
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Donald Olding Hebb was a Canadian born to two physicians in Chester, Nova Scotia, in 1904. He excelled in schoolwork until his reactions to authority led to difficulties in his later teenage years. He completed his undergraduate studies at Dalhousie University receiving a BA degree in 1925. He traveled to the beat of his own drum, engaging in teaching, farming, and common labor while he continued in self‐study reading works within the developing field of psychology. In 1928, he enrolled in psychology at McGill university, where he received his MA in 1932. His studies were combined with part‐time teaching, and he suffered from health problems and the death of his wife during his graduate studies. After these struggles, he left Canada in 1934 and began serious graduate study with Karl Lashley at the University of Chicago. Lashley left Chicago for Harvard in 1935, and Hebb moved with him. In 1936, at age 32, he received his PhD based on his research on the brains of rats.
High‐Risk Participant Studies
Authors: Stokes John M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In order to improve the efficiency of psychological research concerning etiology, studies may oversample participants who are identified as having high risk for the development of disorders or for the occurrence of adverse outcomes. High‐risk participant studies have evolved in the context of “diathesis‐stress” developmental models of psychopathology that emphasize the impact of exogenous factors on the vulnerable individual. Such studies are extremely helpful in instances where there is a low population base rate for the presence of a disorder or negative outcome, since few studies conducted by other methods will be able to recruit the number of participants needed to ensure sufficient statistical power. Information obtained from high‐risk participant studies may be used to identify vulnerability processes central to the etiology of disorders and to develop preventive intervention programs.
H
ilgard,
E
rnest
R
. (1905–2001)
Authors: Staff  
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Ernest R. Hilgard graduated with honors in chemical engineering at the University of Illinois (1924), and received his PhD (1930) in experimental psychology from Yale upon completing a dissertation on conditioned human eyelid responses under Raymond Dodge. He became a teaching assistant and remained at Yale as an instructor from 1929 to 1933, when he accepted an invitation from Lewis M. Terman to join the faculty at Stanford University. Except for a period during World War II, he spent the rest of his career at Stanford, becoming an Emeritus Professor in 1969. He held a joint appointment in the School of Humanities and the School of Education, served as Executive Head of the Department of Psychology from 1942 to 1950, and was Dean of the Graduate Division from 1951 to 1955.
Histrionic Personality Disorder
Authors: Dorfman William I. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Histrionic Personality Disorder is one of 10 personality disorders listed in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000). DSM‐IV‐TR defines a personality disorder as an enduring pattern of inner experience and inflexible, pervasive, and ultimately self‐defeating behavior, which is “stable and of long duration and its onset can be traced back at least to adolescence or early adulthood” (p. 689). Individuals diagnosed with histrionic personality disorder typically display exaggerated attention‐seeking behavior, dramatic emotionality, and often sexually seductive or otherwise provocative behavior, all of which are intended to manipulate others to ensure that their childlike dependency needs might be met. One's initial impression of such individuals is that of a rather charming, outgoing, and entertaining person who is often flirtatious and places a great deal of emphasis on his or her physical attractiveness. However, as time passes it becomes evident that this interpersonal style is a superficial façade, calculated to exploit and manipulate others into providing them with excitement and a corresponding, albeit fleeting, sense of self‐worth and identity.
Homelessness
Authors: Brown Sheldon S. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Homelessness is a nationwide, major social problem that continues to fester and requires resolution and prevention measures to eradicate. As incomes fall and the cost of living rises, Americans face complicated financial choices in buying food and clothing, securing roofs over their heads, paying for health care, and affording child care and education. Whoever cannot juggle these basic needs may become homeless.
Homeostasis
Authors: Enfield Roger E. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractComplex organisms must maintain relatively stable internal environments to survive and move freely through the changing and often adverse conditions that surround them. “Homeostasis” is the name that was given to this constancy in 1926 by Walter B. Cannon, an American psychologist. Through his work on homeostasis, Cannon created a concept that has become a milestone in the history of ideas. It was the culmination of an approach begun some six decades earlier with the work of Claude Bernard, the French physiologist who is considered to have established the foundations of scientific physiology. Bernard concluded that organisms have evolved toward a greater independence from the changing environment by developing, from the blood of bodily fluids, aninternal environmentthat is held stable by its own adjustments (Robin, 1979). Cannon demonstrated that the activities of homeostasis, often simple if each is viewed in isolation, are nevertheless orchestrated by remarkably complex regulatory processes involving the organism across physiological systems and levels of functioning.