bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Multilateral Development Banks
Authors: Polillo Simone 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The central bank is normally invested with some degree of power over monetary policy. By influencing short‐term interest rates, undertaking open market operations, and enforcing reserve requirements, the central bank affects the money supply (whether the central bank
controls
the money supply is a matter of controversy). Its monetary policy can contribute to inflation, unemployment, and economic growth. Furthermore, the actions of the central bank have potentially systemic effects on financial stability and the currency exchange rate (Maxfield 1997; Eichengreen 2008).
Multitude
Authors: Passavant Paul 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Critics of globalization in the 1990s argued that globalization undermined democracy. Whether globalization was understood as something fundamentally new, or as the latest example of imperialist assertions of national interests by strong states in the global system, globalization threatened the sovereignty of the nation‐state. Since democracy in the modern era has been premised on the idea of national self‐determination – the idea that a national people should be self‐governing – the threat that globalization posed to the sovereignty of the nation‐state meant, in turn, a threat to democratic self‐determination; a threat, that is, to democracy.
Nation
Authors: Chernilo Daniel 
Published: March 2012

Abstract“Nation” is one of those terms in which everyday and social scientific languages intersect with and feed into one another. It is then not at all surprising that complications and ambivalences ensue when trying to define it. Indeed, during the past two centuries, and increasingly over the whole globe, the nation has been treated as a god and a demon; been declared born and dead many times; been regarded as a modern as well as a primordial form of social and political community; been conceived of as both a rational structure and an imagined/imaginary community; created as much welfare as misery; been equally a source for political democracy, cosmopolitan dreams, and ethnic cleansing; coexisted with empires, colonies, blocs, protectorates, city‐states, and other forms of sociopolitical organization; gone through experiences of unification, totalitarian terror, occupation, division, and then re‐unification; and been legitimized around ethnic, racial, republican, monarchic, liberal, multicultural, federal, and even class principles. Yet, despite – or more possibly owing to – all this variation, the nation has somehow managed to present itself as a solid, stable, and ultimately the necessary form of social and political organization in modernity. Again in this case, the sources of this alleged solidity have proved difficult to identify: increase in the state's control over “its” population through nationalization policies such as literacy campaigns, schooling, taxation, and military recruitment; the use and abuse of sentiments of belonging, to emphasize cultural and/or ethnic differences; the rise of an “international” system of nation‐states composed of a growing number of at least formally equally sovereign members; the development of a capitalist class structure at the national level and the expansion of capitalism at the global level; the universalistic appeal of popular sovereignty and democracy. Nations and nation‐states are, in all certainty, one of modernity's most complicated themes.
National Identity
Authors: Chua Vincent , Tan Ern Ser 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
National identity denotes a collective self‐recognition and sentiment among a people who possess a shared sense of belonging and feeling of attachment to a nation, best understood as an “imagined political community.” This last concept is “imagined” in that “members of even the smallest nations will never know most of their fellow members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion” (Anderson 1991: 6–7). Where do such imaginings come from? Sharing a common culture – language, customs, institutions – and history can provide the basis for individuals to identify themselves as a people or nation. However, many, if not most, polities which aspire or even claim to be nations on the world map are characterized by cultural or ethnic diversity. This poses an interesting puzzle: how is a nation possible, and by extension, how does national identity emerge?
Nationalism
Authors: Greenfeld Liah 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Nationalism and globalization are often considered processes leading to opposite poles in cultural, economic, and political history, but in fact the relationship between them has been far more complex, and in the past century and a half they may be said to have worked in tandem. Nationalism emerged in a sixteenth‐century country in Western Europe – England – its emergence coinciding with the dawning of “the European Age in History”: the rise of Western Europe, in particular, and societies of Western European descent, to the position of economic, political, and to a certain extent cultural leadership of the entire world. It emerged in a region, culturally unified by Western Christianity, which, independently of nationalism, and for the first time on such a broad scale in history, already began to bring other continents under its sway, thereby initiating the process of cultural, economic, and political globalization. At the center of this globalizing world was Spain, which subordinated the European “Holy Roman” Empire and vast areas in South and Central America under the political authority of the Habsburg Crown, united Europe, Africa, and the Americas economically in the “triangular trade,” and dedicated itself to the mission of spreading Roman Catholicism. The world would never again be integrated into one system on so many levels, that is, so meaningfully, but, however profound, the success of this first attempt at globalization was short lived. The emergence of nationalism, reinforced by and reinforcing the disintegration of the Western European Church order which produced the Protestant Reformation, put an end to it:
res publica christiana
split into warring camps, religious differences adding on to and often masking secular political conflicts, and by the eighteenth century the competitive spirit which pitted nation against nation in every sphere of human endeavor replaced the universalistic, catholic indeed, religious consciousness which for so long united Western Christians.
Nearshoring
Authors: Sandhu Amandeep 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Nearshoring refers to the transfer of service work from an originating country to another lower‐wage destination country or group of countries that are in geographical and temporal proximity to the originating country. The term first appeared in a 1998 article on software development in Barbados, in which India was depicted as a farshore option in comparison with the Caribbean. Although it is arguable that offshoring began with offshoring of service work from the US mainland to the Caribbean in the 1970s, the critical uptake of offshoring only took place following the rise of global fiber optics infrastructure in the 1990s. Since India – with its large labor force of English‐speaking workers – became a premier destination for offshoring of service work, other competing destinations had to come up with their own justifications as offshoring destinations, especially if they were not able to compete with India in terms of labor cost. As a point of differentiation, an emphasis on physical proximity of certain geographies took on an increasing importance. Although, in most usage of nearshoring, the emphasis is on the geographical proximity of the two countries or regions connected by offshoring, there are other aspects such as cultural, temporal, or political connections that facilitate smoother operation of geographically distributed work. Certain work processes require in‐person coordination rather than coordination through long‐distance telecommunications. These processes are more prone to be nearshored than farshored. Shared critical language and cultural skills needed in certain service activities make them more prone to nearshoring. India's big outsourcing multinationals – Infosys, Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), and Wipro – have reacted against the efforts to portray them as farshore by creating presences in nearshore countries so that they are able to offer both end‐to‐end nearshore and farshore options. As opposed to the oft‐cited death of distance under globalization, nearshoring emphasizes that distance still matters in the global economy, and it also signifies the critical role of clustering in economic geography under globalization.
Neighborhoods
Authors: Zhang Wenquan , Logan John R. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The concept of global neighborhood refers to a new set of residential processes in the United States under the influence of large‐scale immigration. It is the population counterpart of the economic transformations creating the “global city” (Sassen 1991). But in contrast to Sassen's hypothesis that global cities are characterized by accentuated class inequalities and segregation, the global neighborhood refers to the creation of new possibilities for stable integration of neighborhoods by race and ethnicity.
Neoliberalism
Authors: Jessop Bob 
Published: March 2012

AbstractNeoliberalism has had an interesting trajectory. It was initially formulated as an intellectual‐cum‐political project in 1938; enjoyed growing acceptance as an economic and political strategy in the 1970s; witnessed panic‐stricken meetings in New York and Washington a generation later at the height of the global financial crisis; and, most recently, seems to be undergoing a return to business as usual. There have been many efforts over these long decades to promote (or defend) “neoliberal” institutions and practices as the best basis for economic, legal, political, social, and moral order in complex social formations. There is an even wider range of commentaries and criticisms concerned with neoliberalism, its core features, social bases of support, and its impact on various sites and scales from the local to the global. This contribution addresses some of these issues. It has five main aims: to offer a baseline definition of neoliberalism; to discuss different social scientific approaches to neoliberalism; to distinguish four main types of neoliberalism from a critical political economy viewpoint and relate them to the world market, geopolitics, and global governance; to review the contradictory aspects of neoliberalism in actually existing capitalism; and to assess its prospects after the first global financial crisis and first great recession of the twenty‐first century.
Neoliberalism, Class Foundations
Authors: Duménil Gérard , Lévy Dominique 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Neoliberalism can be approximately dated to the beginning of the 1980s. Although significant manifestations of the forthcoming transformation could already be detected during the 1970s, the end of 1979, when the Federal Reserve dramatically increased its interest rate, can be considered emblematic of the new directions. Neoliberalism is a new stage of capitalism, manifest in practices such as new corporate management and policies. It meant the definition of new institutional frameworks, notably the enhancement of globalization in a specific configuration. Globalization is, certainly, the outcome of a lasting historical process, but it reached new degrees during neoliberal decades as a result of the generalization of free trade and the opening of borders to the free movements of capital.
Nomads
Authors: Fiddian‐Qasmiyeh Elena 
Published: March 2012

AbstractNomads rely on movement and mobility as an intrinsic part of their livelihood strategies. These livelihood strategies vary both between and within nomadic groups. For example,peripatetic nomadsmove among settled populations to offer a particular craft or trade, whilepastoral nomads(orpastoralists) move with their livestock on a seasonal basis in order to find pasture for their animals. Individuals within a given nomadic group may undertake different activities according to a range of factors including their gender, age, marital status, and tribe. In Salzman's view (1980), a nomadic society is one in which entire families, and not just certain individuals, engage in regular movement to complete essential livelihood activities.
Nonviolence
Authors: Gallo‐Cruz Selina 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The global nonviolence network encompasses a broad coalition of social movement organizations that share a belief in the superiority of nonviolent protest and nonviolence as a way of life. Nonviolent protest is centered on tactics of legal and political noncooperation, peaceful intervention on behalf of victims of violence, and strategically nonviolent public acts of resistance against a policy or group. Nonviolence as a way of life embraces a philosophical disposition toward building peaceful relationships at both the interpersonal and political levels. The objective of global nonviolence as a global tactical movement is increasingly to diffuse nonviolent protest tactics into conflict areas and populations working towards social change.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Authors: Whitfield Kristi 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Only months before the Soviet blockade sparking the Berlin Airlift was lifted, on April 4, 1949 in Washington, DC, 12 democratic nations signed the North Atlantic Treaty, creating the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). According to the Treaty, an attack on one NATO country would be an attack on all – members hoped that this would act as a deterrent to aggressive military action. Western powers needed to create a united front against what they considered a decidedly “expansionist” Soviet Union, in hopes that, in the face of another engagement, they would be able to quickly divert Soviet aggression. This multilateral organization was designed to give power equally to all members; though from its early days the United States held the most power over NATO's actions. NATO's headquarters was set up in Brussels, Belgium. The following nations all signed the original alliance: Great Britain, the United States, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Portugal, Iceland, Luxembourg, Canada, Italy, Norway, and Denmark. Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland were the only Western European nations that did not join. By 1955, Greece, Turkey, and West Germany joined. The following year the governing council of NATO organized a military force in Europe as a further deterrent.
Oppression
Authors: Langman Lauren 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Contemporary globalization has created vast wealth that has liberated hundreds of millions of poor peasants from lives of misery, drudgery, and destitution. But at the same time, it has also reconfigured traditional forms of oppression as well as led to new forms of oppression. Contemporary globalization, like any other hierarchical social system, is a system of domination in which some groups have wealth and power and others, the great majority, have little or none. When domination becomes cruel and unjust, when people are mistreated and exploited, indeed forced into servitude, tortured, raped, or murdered, it becomes oppression. In so far as the fundamental goal of a capitalist enterprise is maximizing profit, the quest for profits often fosters oppression. This is not to suggest that the agents of globalization are cruel people that intentionally inflict pain and suffering; rather, oppression is often an inadvertent consequence of the logic of capitalism. Oppression and often intentional cruelty have been present in traditional forms of colonialism – especially as settlers displace indigenous populations and slavery becomes widespread. Imperialism and recent capitalism have each been oppressive. But there are certain distinct and unique features to contemporary oppression (Falk 1999). The embrace of “neoliberalism” by transnational capital, and the guiding premises of the global regulatory agencies, has greatly contributed to the “freedom” accorded capitalist enterprises with minimal interference from the government (Harvey 2007). To be sure this has been profitable for some, but at the same time, this “freedom,” as seen in “structural adjustment programs,” development projects and/or privatization has fostered a great deal of oppression and human misery.
Organization of American States
Authors: Mace Gordon 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe Organization of American States (OAS) is considered by many to be the oldest regional institution in the world. A successor to the International Union of American Republic, established in 1890, it was formally created in 1948 on the occasion of the Ninth International Conference of American States, held in Bogota, Colombia. The constituent document of the inter‐American system, the Charter of the Organization of American States, identified the main organs of the OAS as being the Inter‐American Conference, later replaced by the General Assembly, the Meeting of Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the OAS Council (now Permanent Council), the General Secretariat, and the Inter‐American Economic and Social Council (now Inter‐American Council on Integral Development) (Connell‐Smith 1974: 202). Membership includes all countries of the Hemisphere, but the government of Cuba was excluded from participation in OAS activities in 1962 by a majority vote.
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
Authors: Mason Charles F. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Over the course of the last 65 years, since the end of World War II, petroleum has become a critically important element in the economy of every developed country, as well as in the economies of many countries that aspire to join the developed world. During this time frame, the nature of the global market has changed radically, from one that was largely dominated by the “seven sisters,” a group of large, international vertically integrated firms that transformed crude oil deposits into gasoline and related products, into a market that is dominated by a handful of oil‐producing countries.
Pan‐Africanism
Authors: Ouédraogo Jean‐Bernard 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Although the term Pan‐Africanism came into vogue around 1900 at the “Pan‐African Conference” in London, the social, cultural and political movement predates it considerably. The manifestation of solidarity between the African peoples of the continent and the diaspora, expressing the desire to promote freedom, equality and development of Africans and the continent on equal footing with other parts of the world, Pan‐Africanism is based on a long struggle against the negation of black identity and against slavery – as the ultimate expression of black inferiority. The long history of Pan‐Africanism illustrates the complexity of this movement characterized by often contradictory trends and various historical and political phases.
Peasant Movements
Authors: Johnson Jennifer L. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe term ‘peasant' came into fashion in the social sciences in the post–World War II period. Anthropologist Eric Wolf coined the classic definition, denoting peasants as agricultural producers who control land and work this land for subsistence, not profit (Wolf 1955: 453–454). Today, the term is still widely used in scholarship, popular discourse, and by individuals and organizations that self‐identify as such despite objections in some academic circles that it essentializes and romanticizes a way of life that no longer exists. To reflect the reality that very few (if any) agricultural producers today subsist apart from market relations or depend exclusively on farming, current usage typically refers to small‐scale farmers who produce for themselves and for the market, and combine farming with an array of other survival strategies including seasonal migration and temporary wage labor.
Periphery
Authors: Reifer Tom 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The concept of periphery, though originating in the work of dependency theorists, is a critical concept of world‐systems analysis. The concept refers to those regions – often involved in monoculture agro‐exports or mineral extraction – that are continuously the most exploited and impoverished by the ongoing processes of the capitalist world economy, including due to intervention from core states and militaries. These processes of colonization through informal neo‐colonialism or formal colonial empires were part of the peripheralization of production processes in what was an increasingly a global division of labor, within which the core and semiperiphery monopolized the lion's share of benefits. In the initial emergence of the modern world system, the peripheries of East Central Europe and the Americas were central to the development of the capitalist world economy with its global division of labor, as were peripheralized labor forces from Africa in the era of black Atlantic slavery, or Latinos in the United States, as analyzed by David Montejano (1987) and others (Chicano Political Economy Collective, 1981). Ivan Berend (1996) looks at the way in which East Central Europe had higher social welfare per capita relative to other peripheral states, as part of the coercive Soviet empire, but now is arguably being relegated to its previous peripheral role in the aftermath of the collapse of the Eastern Bloc.
Pilgrimage
Authors: Bajc Vida 
Published: March 2012

AbstractPilgrimageis a performative social activity through which individuals in all world religions and a wide variety of indigenous traditions practice their faith, a type of a journey that generates a potential for self and collective transformation. Particularities of this practice make sense within a given cultural context and religious tradition and, therefore, vary widely throughout different historical settings, across cultures, as well as within religious systems. The decision on the part of the pilgrim to temporarily break with the mundane of daily living for the purposes of the journey opens up possibilities for new experiences, which can potentially be transformative. This process is meaningful in relation to a destination. In some traditions, this is an inner journey toward enlightenment and understanding. In others, it entails corporeal movement away from home to a physical landscape, marked through the aesthetics and symbolism of its topography, architecture, art, myths, collective memories, ritual practices, objects of veneration, sacred persons, or cultural heroes. The kinds of transformations this practice may generate are shaped by multiple factors, including pilgrims' openness to new circumstances afforded by the journey, their cultural backgrounds, their ability to relate to the setting, and the forms of sociality of which they become a part.