bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Plantinga,Alvin (b. 1932)
Authors: Clark Kelly James 
Published: January 2012

AbstractAlvin Plantinga is John A. O'Brien Professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame. He graduated B.A. from Calvin College and proceeded Ph.D. at Yale University. At Calvin, Plantinga began thinking about philosophy from an explicitly Christian perspective, which was counter to the positivist and rationalist presuppositions of the time; at Yale he learned metaphysics in the expansive but undisciplined tradition of idealism. While teaching at Wayne State University with some of the brightest young philosophers of the day, Plantinga and his colleagues honed the analytic style of philosophy that attended to precise but careful argumentation and clarification of key terms. He returned to teach at Calvin College for 20 years before taking up a chair at Notre Dame. In 1978 Plantinga cofounded the Society of Christian Philosophers, which grew to over 1,000 members. In 1980Timemagazine hailed Plantinga as “the leading philosopher of God” in an article on the renaissance of Christian philosophy.
P
olycarp (
c
.69–155)
Authors: Tarwater John K. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Polycarp was Bishop of Smyrna (modern day Turkey) during the 2nd century. His writings are representative of the earliest orthodox Christian authors not included in the New Testament, often entitled the Apostolic Fathers. Indeed, Polycarp's letters reflect the apostolic tradition. Irenaeus, the Bishop of Lyons, claims that Polycarp received the tradition from John, the disciple of the Lord, and that he was appointed bishop by other “apostles in Asia.” Thus, Polycarp adopted the Christian life early, and quickly became a leader in the faith.
Postconservative Theology
Authors: Sleasman Michael J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The term “postconservative theology” is a theological neologism of the mid 1990s adding to the number of “post‐” movements in philosophy and theology (e.g. postliberal, postfoundationalism, and poststructuralism) seeking the outworking of postmodern critiques to evangelical theological methodology. Given its recent emergence, postconservative theology is less reflective of a monolithic movement with standardized doctrinal commitments and formal methodologies than it is a shared concern regarding the role of modern/Enlightenment epistemologies in evangelical theological methodology.
Postmodernism
Authors: Smith R. Scott 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

If there were an “essence” to postmodernism, then the postmodern reaction to modernism would be misguided. For, according to many postmodern authors, modernists claim we have unfettered access to know objective (i.e. mind‐independent, universal) truths from a neutral standpoint, independent of all historical and cultural contingencies, languages, and our finitude. But if all knowledge is situated and conditioned, then modernists would be misguided, for
we
can never be objective (i.e. neutral).
Practical Theology
Authors: Cartledge Mark J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The term “practical theology” has its origins in the European university academy where it was used to refer to the domain of
pastoralia
, that is pastoral skills, required for clergy at the end of their theological studies. Candidates for church ministry had already studied the Bible, church history, Christian doctrine and philosophy, and so practical theology was the crown of such study in preparation for the ordained life. It prepared students for such tasks as preaching, leading worship, conducting pastoral conversations, and educating their congregations in the Christian faith. It is this sense of applying the teaching of the Bible or Christian doctrine to ministerial tasks that has resulted in the term “applied theology” being used. However, with the advent of “liberation theology” and the turn to
praxis
as the focus of theology, this clergy‐dominated paradigm was challenged. Practical theology took seriously the hermeneutical and contemporary turn in theology. The valueladen practices of ecclesial communities became the focus and in the liberationist tradition a hermeneutic of suspicion was added as a means of transforming such practices. This liberationist paradigm is still a dominant one within practical theology as different minority and previously excluded perspectives are brought to bear on issues in church and society. However, there is another strand to practical theology that has emerged in recent years, which uses the empirical research methods of the social sciences in a rigorous way in order to explore, describe, and test the nature of religious beliefs, values, and practices. It is called “empirical theology.” This strand of practical theology does not limit itself to ecclesial studies, although these are in evidence; instead it considers the nature of religious worldviews in society at large and aims to offer specific theological appraisal of them by means of empirical‐theological analysis and construction.
Presbyteries
Authors: Roxborogh John 
Published: January 2012

AbstractIn Reformed and Presbyterian churches the presbytery is the governing body between congregations and synods or general assemblies. Typically comprising equal numbers of ministers and elders from each congregation, they are presided over by an elected moderator. Ordained ministers in other roles (theological education, social services, church administration, or retired) are also members, and equality in the numbers of ministers and elders is maintained by the appointment of additional elders.
Process Theology
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Process theology is a 20th century theological position deriving from process philosophy. The process philosophers Whitehead and Hartshorne concluded from relativity theory and the Heisenberg indeterminacy principle that one must regard becoming rather than being — process rather than substance — as fundamental and therefore that sharing and involvement are basic to a proper understanding of reality. For Hartshorne, God is to be understood “panentheistically” — as embracing the world — in contrast with traditional theism (which sees the world as an independent creation of God) or with pantheism (which regards God and the world as coterminous). Hartshorne's God is greater than the world but contains it, such that world experience occurs within God and is part of God's own experience.
Proclamation
Authors: Emerick Christopher C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Proclamation, synonymous with preaching, refers to the (primarily) vocal announcement of the gospel of Jesus Christ. It may also involve other varieties of communication such as sign language, drama, and poetic and artistic forms. Whatever the means, this announcement includes the bad news that all humans are sinners and in need of God's justifying and transforming grace, and the good news that God has provided what fallen humans need in the life, death, and resurrection of his Son, Jesus Christ. This announcement may be given by anyone moved by the Spirit to proclaim it, but is typically given by ordained clergy in ecclesial or evangelistic settings.
Prophecy
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The early Christian church employed two major styles of apologetic: miracle and prophecy, the first directed especially to the Gentiles, the second particularly to the Jewish community. A remarkable feature of the Christian apologetic was the inherent interconnection of the two approaches, owing to the fact that miracles central to the faith (such as the virgin birth of Jesus Christ) had often been the object of specific Old Testament prophecies. Today, three forms of prophetic attestation are offered to support the truth of Christian faith:
Charismatic
(experiential) prophecy,
end‐time
(futuristic) prophecy, and
fulfilled
(historical) prophecy.
Protestant Ethic
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

In 1905, Max Weber, the renowned German sociologist, published
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
. He noted that “business leaders and owners of capital, as well as the higher grades of skilled labor, and even more the higher technically and commercially trained personnel of modern enterprises, [were] overwhelmingly Protestant.” He further argued that Protestantism, which held to Luther's and Calvin's teachings that work for the Christian in his community was a calling (
vocatio
), gave a strong emphasis to the work ethic. In the case of Calvin, Weber further contended that the work ethic was enhanced by Calvin's teaching that taught it was not sinful for Christians to receive interest income. This teaching rejected what numerous church councils called the sin of usury for more than a thousand years.
Poussin,Nicolas (1594–1665)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe greatest French classical painter, who worked in Rome from 1624. His religious paintings begin in 1628 withThe Rest on the Flight into Egyptin which the Holy Family is on a boat and theLamentation Over the Dead Christ(1628). In the 1630s he did hisMassacre of the Innocents(1631) andWorship of the Golden Calf. It was not until the 1650s that he began his Madonna and Child series withMadonna on the Steps(1648) and theMadonna with the Basin(1650). There are two versions of hisAnnunciation. Cassiano da Pazzo, a patron, commissioned theAgony in the Gardenpainted on copper (1626). Growing prestige led to other commissions for church altarpieces:The Martyrdom of St. Erasmus(1628), commissioned for St. Peter's, andThe Virgin Appearing to St. Jamesfor a church in the Spanish Netherlands. From the 1650 his works reflect a more human quality, especially the series ofSeven Sacramentsbeginning with theBaptism. He did a second series ofSeven Sacramentsbut they lack the audacity and narrative integrity of the earlier series. The devotional requirements of the Catholic Church interested him less but he brought to his Christian themes a historical imagination that reflected his love of antiquity. Although never grandiose in conception, Poussin's figures sometimes achieve a marmoreal detachment and a silvery, otherworldly quality.
Quietism
Authors: Dawson Connie 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Quietism was first associated with the mystic teachings of Miguel de Molinos in the 17th century. Molinos was a Spanish priest who received his doctorate in theology at the University of Valencia. He settled in Rome after being commissioned by his native land to promote the canonization of a local Spaniard. In Rome, Molinos quickly gained recognition as a spiritual leader. His book,
The Spiritual Guide
, published in both Spanish and French in 1675, was an immediate sensation. His teachings were not unique but a continuation of the mystic stream which has flowed throughout church history and reflects the influence of two other contemplative Spaniards, St. John of the Cross and Teresa of Avila.
Radio Evangelism
Authors: Kreider Glenn R. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Almost from the very beginning of the technology, radio and religion, particularly Christianity, were closely linked. Although some fundamentalists condemned the use of radio on biblical grounds, that Satan is “the prince of the power of the air” (Eph. 2:2), Christians across the theological spectrum soon saw this medium as useful for spreading their views, and the industry of Christian radio was born. Although radio programs serve a variety of functions, Protestant Christians, particularly evangelicals, view the major goal of broadcasting as making converts to Jesus Christ.
Rahner,Karl (1904–1984)
Authors: S.J. Harvey D. Egan 
Published: January 2012

AbstractKarl Rahner has been aptly called the 20th century's “Church Father” and “quiet mover of the Roman Catholic Church.” Born in Freiburg (Breisgau), Germany, Rahner entered the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) in 1922 and was ordained priest in 1934. After advanced studies in Freiburg (where he attended seminars taught by Martin Heidegger) and Innsbruck, he taught theology at Innsbruck (1949–1964). During this period, he was appointed one of the official theological experts (periti) of the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) — a council whose theological outlook he profoundly influenced. He then became successor to Romano Guardini (d. 1968) in the Chair of Christianity and the Philosophy of Religion at the University of Munich (1964–1967) and was later appointed professor of dogmatic theology at the University of Münster (1967–1971). After retiring from university work, he lived at the Jesuit writers' house in Munich (1971–1981) and afterwards in Innsbruck, and continued his unrelenting worldwide lecturing, writing, and pastoral activity until his death a few weeks after his 80th birthday.
R
amabai,
P
andita
S
arasvati (1858–1922)
Authors: Anderson Allan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Ramabai (1858–1922) was a converted Brahmin who was widowed with her baby daughter Manoramabai after less than two years' marriage out of her caste. She became a Christian during her almost three year stay in England, where she studied education at the Cheltenham Ladies' College, and Greek and Hebrew privately. From England she traveled to the USA, where she spent two‐and‐a‐half years (1886–1888) studying education systems and publicizing her planned mission in India. She published a book in 1887 outlining the plight of Indian women, titled
The High‐Caste Hindu Woman
, pleading for the creation of educational institutions for Indian women. She wrote a book in her mother tongue Marathi on her observations of life in the USA, in which she contrasted the free democracy there with the colonial oppression of Britain, and gave her preference for voluntary denominations over state churches. Her rejection of British colonialism remained with her all her life — like most educated Indians, she believed in Indian nationalism, stimulated by the British rulers' repression and arrogance toward Indian social structures that had resulted in determined Indian resistance. She favorably commented on women's rights in American society.
Ramsay,WilliamM. (1851–1939)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractSir William Mitchell Ramsay was born the youngest son of Thomas Ramsay (a third generation lawyer) and Jane Mitchell in Glasgow, Scotland, March 15, 1851, and died April 20, 1939. Ramsay's father died when he was 6 years old (1857), and the family returned to the family home near Alloa. Ramsay was a classical scholar and archaeologist, the principal authority of his day in regards to the antiquities, society, and topography of Asia Minor in ancient times, and also a leading authority of the New Testaments, especially the Book of Acts and the Pauline Epistles.
R
aphael (1483–1520)
Authors: Baltrip Ryan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Raphael was an Italian Renaissance painter, and he is considered one of the greatest and most influential painters of all time. He was born in Urbino on April 6, 1483. The arts were very influential in his hometown, and his earliest painting influence was his father who was a court painter for the Duke. After leaving Urbino, Raphael's life can be divided into three time periods based on his location and his works.
R
auschenbusch,
W
alter (1861–1918)
Authors: Patterson James A. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
American. Born in Rochester, New York, October 4, 1861, to August, an immigrant German Baptist clergyman and educator, and Caroline. He was the last of four children, one of whom died before Walter was born. His upbringing was shaped by the Pietism of his parents, as well as the time he spent in Germany with his mother and sisters from 1865 to 1869. He pursued his education both in Germany and the USA, eventually completing his B.A. in 1884 at the University of Rochester, and finishing at the top of his class at Rochester Theological Seminary in 1886.
Religious Epistemology
Authors: Geivett R. Douglas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

From the beginning, being a follower of Jesus Christ (that is, being a Christian) has meant
believing
certain things — including some things that no one else believes. Christianity is a
creedal
religion. Believing a set of definite propositions is part of what it means to be fully Christian. This emphasis is due in no small measure to the conduct of Jesus himself.
Religious Vocations
Authors: Endres David J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Religious vocations in the Christian sense have come to denote specialized service to the church. Derived from the Latin verb,
vocare
, meaning “to call,” the term “vocation” was applied to those chosen by God and confirmed by the church to enter the priesthood or religious life. The church's sacrament of holy orders by which one enters the clergy, as well as the taking of religious vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, became the marks of those with a “religious vocation.”
Restorationism
Authors: Steinacher C. Mark 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
“Restorationism” describes movements whose stated aim is to reproduce or “restore” what its followers believe to be salient 1st century Christian practices and beliefs. Movements in many eras have tried to return their contemporary church to an imagined pristine purity. These include the Benedictine and Franciscan monastic movements, 16th century Anabaptists, and Plymouth Brethren. A particular outburst of restorationist movements occurred in early 19th century North America.
Reuchlin,Johann (1455–1522)
Authors: Posset Franz 
Published: January 2012

AbstractGerman. Born in Pforzheim, to the business manager of the local Dominican friary (Graecized family name, Capnion). He studied at Freiburg (1470), Paris (1473), and Basle (1474–1477). In Paris he learned Greek. In Basle he received his master's degree and published the reworked Latin dictionaryVocabularius breviloquus. From 1479 to 1482 he studied law in Orléans, Poitiers, and Tübingen. He got married, but soon became a widower. During his journeys to Italy in 1482 and 1490 he became acquainted with the Platonic Academy at Florence. He was admired for his polyglot expertise (Latin, Greek, Hebrew). He began to investigate the original Hebrew name of God (Tetragrammaton). In 1492 he represented his territorial lord at the imperial court in Linz, Austria, where Emperor Frederic III made him a nobleman. In 1494 he publishedOn the Wonder‐Working Word, which demonstrates his capacities as a biblical humanist and lay theologian. From 1496 to 1499 he worked for the prince in Heidelberg; there he joined the humanist sodality around Johannes von Dalberg, bishop of Worms. Reuchlin wrote two successful Latin comedies,SergiusandHenno. In 1498 he traveled a third time to Italy (Rome and Venice). After his return he was appointed to the high court of the Swabian League (1502–1512). During pestilence he fled to the monastery at Denkendorf, where he wrote a small manual on preaching. With his epoch‐making textbook on theRudiments of Hebrew(1506), containing both lexicon and grammar, he provided an introduction to the study of Hebrew. In 1512 he published a literal translation of theSeven Penitential Psalmsfrom Hebrew into Latin. Martin Luther used this book for his studies on the psalms and for his exposition of theSeven Penitential Psalmsin German in 1517. In the same year Reuchlin publishedThe Art of the Cabala, dedicated to Pope Leo X. In 1518 he wrote on the Hebrew language, its orthography and accents, including an appendix on music notes. From 1510 he was involved in quarrels concerning the destruction of Jewish books. On this issue he wrote a confidential expert opinion for the emperor in which he declared that the Jewish faith is none of the Christians' business, as he defended the preservation of Jewish books including the Talmud. Against Johann Pfefferkorn'sHand Mirrorof 1511 he published hisEye Mirrorin support of Hebrew studies with Hebrew books. He was widely supported by the humanists of Europe. Late in life he became professor of Greek and Hebrew at Ingolstadt (1520–1521) and Tübingen (1521–1522). Throughout the early Lutheran Reformation, he remained faithful to the Catholic Church while his grandnephew Philip Melanchthon joined Luther's movement. Reuchlin died in Stuttgart, and is buried at St. Leonhard church.
Revivals
Authors: Caldwell Robert W. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractRevivals are movements of Christian religious renewal that are generated by the Holy Spirit, accompanied by the powerful preaching of zealous ministers, and result in the personal conversions of numerous individuals to the Christian faith and their subsequent incorporation into the Christian community. Revival usually involves a widespread increase of intense concern in the claims of Christianity and an emphasis on “heart religion” or the individual internalization of Christian truths. The term “revival” is closely related to “awakening,” the latter term usually referring to a revival that is far more extensive. “Revivalism” often refers to the systematic practice of expecting and even planning for a revival. A “revivalist” is generally a leader of a revival, such as a pastor or itinerant preacher. Revivals have been a prominent feature of evangelical Protestantism since the 18th century and as such their adherents have generally emphasized the following: an experienced, spiritual conversion as the beginning of the Christian life (rather than baptism or merely being raised a Christian); a pious, warm‐hearted “relationship with God” grounded in the cross and focused on the scriptures (rather than sacramental, moraistic, or “nominal” approaches to Christianity); and a desire to spread the Christian message abroad through evangelism, missions, and social reform.
R
itschl,
A
lbrecht (1822–1889)
Authors: Green Todd 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Arguably the most influential German theologian of the late 19th century. Ritschl began teaching at Bonn in 1846. He initially lectured and published on the New Testament, but in the 1850s his interests shifted, first to church history and then gradually to systematic theology. In 1864, he accepted the chair at Göttingen where he remained until his death.
R
obertson, A. T. (1863–1934)
Authors: Dockery David S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Archibald Thomas Robertson taught at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary for 46 years (1888–1934). Robertson, who was born on November 6, 1863 in Chatham, Virginia, was the greatest biblical scholar in the history of the Southern Baptist Convention. He died on Monday evening, September 24, 1934. Characteristically, Robertson at his death was writing another book on the New Testament for Harper and Brothers.
R
obertson, Pat (
b
. 1930)
Authors: Coulter Michael 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Marion “Pat” Robertson (b. March 22, 1930) is best known as a religious broadcaster and political activist, but he has also been a businessman, a religion rights advocate, an educator, an author, and an international symbol. Robertson graduated from Washington and Lee University with a degree in history. In 1948, Robertson enlisted in the Marines officer candidate school, which allowed him to be formally commissioned as a second lieutenant upon graduation. After 2 years of active duty military service in Japan and Korea, where Robertson earned three battle stars from the Marine Corps, he returned to higher education. Robertson earned a law degree from Yale University Law School in 1955 and a Master of Divinity degree from Biblical Seminary in 1959. He is an ordained minister in the Southern Baptist Convention, but his particular brand of theology is an expression of Pentecostalism.