bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Does Obesity Really Make the Femur Stronger? BMD, Geometry, and Fracture Incidence in the Women's Health Initiative-Observational Study
Authors: Beck Thomas J , Petit Moira A , Wu Guanglin , LeBoff Meryl S , Cauley Jane A , Chen Zhao 
Published: March 2009

Abstract
Heavier individuals have higher hip BMD and more robust femur geometry, but it is unclear whether values vary in proportion with body weight in obesity. We studied the variation of hip BMD and geometry across categories of body mass index (BMI) in a subset of postmenopausal non-Hispanic whites (NHWs) from the Women's Health Initiative Observational Cohort (WHI-OS). The implications on fracture incidence were studied among NHWs in the entire WHI-OS. Baseline DXA scans of hip and total body from 4642 NHW women were divided into BMI (kg/m2) categories: underweight (&lt;18.5), healthy weight (18.5–24.9), overweight (25–29.9), and mild (30–34.9), moderate (35–39.9), and extreme obesity (&gt;40). Femur BMD and indices of bone axial (cross-sectional area [CSA]) and bending strength (section modulus [SM]) were extracted from DXA scans using the hip structure analysis (HSA) method and compared among BMI categories after adjustment for height, age, hormone use, diabetes, activity level, femur neck-shaft angle, and neck length. The association between BMI and incident fracture was studied in 78,013 NHWs from the entire WHI-OS over 8.5 ± 2.6 (SD) yr of follow-up. Fracture incidence (cases/1000 person-years) was compared among BMI categories for hip alone, central body (hip, pelvis, spine, ribs, and shoulder girdle), upper extremity (humerus and distal), and lower extremity (femur shaft and distal but not hip). Femur BMD, CSA, and SM were larger in women with higher BMI, but values scaled in proportion to lean and not to fat or total body mass. Women with highest BMI reported more falls in the 12 mo before enrollment, more prevalent fractures, and had lower measures of physical activity and function. Incidence of hip fractures and all central body fractures declined with BMI. Lower extremity fractures distal to the hip trended upward, and upper extremity incidence was independent of BMI. BMD, CSA, and SM vary in proportion to total body lean mass, supporting the view that bones adapt to prevalent muscle loads. Because lean mass is a progressively smaller fraction of total mass in obesity, femur BMD, CSA, and SM decline relative to body weight in higher BMI categories. Traumatic forces increase with body weight, but fracture rates at the hip and central body were less frequent with increasing BMI, possibly because of greater soft tissue padding. There was no evident protective effect in fracture rates at less padded distal extremity sites. Upper extremity fractures showed no variation with BMI, and lower extremity fracture rates were higher only in the overweight (BMI = 25–29.9 kg/m2).
Financial Reporting for Private Companies: The Canadian Experience*
Authors: Rennie Morina D. , Senkow David W. 
Published: March 2009

ABSTRACTThe issue of whether small and/or private companies should be allowed to use simplified accounting standards in financial reports has concerned the accounting profession for decades. It has been argued that preparing financial reports in accordance with the large volume of promulgated standards contained in generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), some of which are relatively complex, has put a significant strain on the resources of small/private business. Moreover, information produced and presented in accordance with at least some accounting standards within GAAP may not be relevant for the users of small/private companies' financial statements.In this paper we look at differential reporting in Canadian GAAP, which gives nonpublicly accountable enterprises the ability to opt out of certain CICA Handbook requirements with unanimous consent of the shareholders. We look at lobbying activity in response to the proposed differential reporting standard and at nonpublicly accountable company experience with the differential reporting opportunity in the period since the standard was promulgated.
Plate Thickness and Specimen Size Considerations in Through-Thickness Tension Testing
Authors: Ludwigson DC 
Published: March 2009

The through-thickness tension test to assess the resistance of plate steels to lamellar tearing often involves the welding of prolongs to either surface of coupons from a plate and the preparation of round through-thickness tension test specimens from the resulting weldments. Specimens are strained to failure in a universal testing machine, and reduction of area is calculated from before-and-after test measurements of minimum specimen diameter.
Experiments have been performed to evaluate the influence of coupon thickness on tensile properties measured with axisymmetric through-thickness specimens prepared from stud-welded assemblies. Results indicate that the influence of coupon thickness on tensile strength and reduction of area is small, provided that the separation between metallographically observable weld heat-affected zones in the coupon is at least as great as the specimen diameter. At smaller separations the intrusion of hardened prolongs and associated welds into the specimen gage length severely increases observed tensile strength and severely decreases observed reduction of area.
Test results led to an engineering rule of thumb for the minimum plate thickness that may properly be tested with welded through-thickness specimens of a given diameter:
minimum plate thickness = specimen diameter + 2 (penetration distance)
For a stud-welded specimen in which the penetration distance is about 0.457 mm (0.18 in.), the approximate minimum critical coupon thicknesses for 12.83, 9.07, and 6.40 mm (0.505, 0.357, and 0.252 in.) diameter specimens are 22.2, 19.1, and 15.9 mm (7∕8, 3∕4 and 5∕8 in.), respectively. Provided these minimums are observed, property differences attributable to specimen size are small.
Evaluation of Valid Nil-Ductility Transition Temperatures for Nuclear Vessel Steels
Authors: Satoh M , Funada T , Tomimatsu M 
Published: March 2009

The causes of data scatter in nil-ductility transition (NDT) temperature were investigated to establish appropriate conditions for crack-starter bead welding. Drop-weight tests were carried out for nuclear vessel steels by changing the welding conditions to examine the effects of welding amperage and shapes of heat sinks on NDT temperature. The results show that preparation of the crack-starter bead by low welding amperage should not be allowed, because it makes the measured NDT temperature nonconservative, and that it is important to use a heat sink which increases the cooling rate of the specimen.
In addition, the authors propose methods for estimating the NDT temperature of nuclear vessel steels by using Charpy transition temperatures.
Influence of the Crack-Starter Bead Technique on the Nil-Ductility Transition Temperature of ASTM A572 Grade 55 Hot-Rolled Plate
Authors: Lundin CD , Merrick EA , Kruse BJ 
Published: March 2009

An investigation of the nil-ductility transition (NDT) temperature of three heats of A572 Grade 55, hot-rolled steel plate, revealed a distinct and decided difference in behavior for specimens fabricated with a single-pass technique in comparison with those fabricated with the two-pass technique, which places the terminal weld crater at the bead center. The single-pass technique resulted in NDT temperatures 11°C (20°F) higher than those for the two-pass technique. Furthermore, the crack behavior was distinctly different at temperatures above the NDT, with the single-pass specimens showing progressively shorter cracks as the temperature was raised. This result is in contrast to that for the two-pass technique, which revealed no crack extension from the starter bead heat-affected zone (HAZ) above the NDT.
The metallurgical reasons for the observed behavior were determined by utilizing optical microscopy, scanning electron fractography, and microhardness methods. The toughness of the various regions of the HAZ and the base metal were correlated with the microstructure and NDT behavior. The differences in the NDT temperature are related to a toughening of the HAZ by the two-pass technique. The effect of this toughened HAZ on crack propagation and crack fracture morphology from the crack-starter bead, through the HAZ, and into the base metal was evaluated.
NDTT, RTNDT, and Fracture Toughness: A Study of Their Interrelationships Using a Large Data Base and Computer Models
Authors: Oldfield W , Server WL 
Published: March 2009

The nil-ductility transition temperature (NDTT) test has been used extensively in naval ferritic steel applications since World War II. The use of the test results in fracture-safe design has extended into other structural steel industries, most notably those covered by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. The construction of nuclear reactor pressure vessels, in accordance with the ASME code, requires material specifications that utilize both the NDTT and Charpy V-notch test data; coupling the NDTT and Charpy V-notch data results in a “reference” temperature (RTNDT), which is either greater than or equal to the NDTT. [The RTNDT is defined as being greater than or equal to the NDTT; at RTNDT plus 33°C (60°F), three Charpy V-notch specimen results must exhibit a minimum of 68 J (50 ft · lb) of absorbed energy and 0.89 mm (35 mil) of lateral expansion. The energy requirement generally governs except for irradiated materials.] Interestingly, some materials generally have an RTNDT based upon the NDTT, while others have an RTNDT consistently greater than the NDTT since the RTNDT is governed by the Charpy V-notch data; (that is, the temperature at 68 J (50 ft · lb) minus 33°C (60°F) is greater than the NDTT). For example, the RTNDT for SA533B-1 plate steel is generally set by the Charpy data, but the RTNDT for SA508-2 forging steel (which is similar to SA533B-1) is typically controlled by the measured NDTT.
The science of fracture mechanics has also evolved since World War II, but the matching of transition temperature test results (NDTT, and RTNDT) with actual material fracture toughness (stress intensity) values is still uncertain. However, considerable progress in matching Charpy data with fracture toughness values has been made in recent years through the development of a large material property data base, which includes transition temperature and fracture toughness data. The work described in this paper builds on this research, and uses the same data base to examine the relationship between other transition temperature and toughness parameters. Computer modeling using stochastic procedures was employed to develop probability distributions which, by simulating the measurement of NDTT, clarify the interrelationships between NDTT, RTNDT, and fracture toughness. Predictions by the model of NDTT and RTNDT from dynamic fracture toughness data are in excellent agreement with measured values.
In-Service Inspection of Steam-Generator Tubing Using Multiple-Frequency Eddy-Current Techniques
Authors: Dodd CV , Deeds WE 
Published: March 2009

Although a rapid, accurate, and easy-to-use inspection method for steam-generator tubes is clearly needed, it is not entirely provided by our present eddy-current tests. The signals from eddy-current tests are affected by changes in tube wall thickness, the location and size of defects, the electrical conductivity, the magnetic permeability, and the tube-to-tube support spacing and denting (which changes the probe-to-tube spacing). Simultaneous variations in these test properties produce signals that are ambiguous in present commercial eddy-current instruments.
However, this type of multiple-property eddy-current testing can be done using pulsed techniques or, as in this example, multiple frequencies. A systematic, automated process has been developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) to allow rapid development of accurate multiple-property eddy-current tests. It consists of the following steps:
1. Using a computer to design the coil, instrument, and operating conditions that give the best determination of the desired properties from a nonlinear combination of instrument readings.
2. Constructing the coil and instrument and testing with calibration specimens.
3. Using a large digital computer to take on-line instrument readings and perform the nonlinear property calculations.
4. Programming the on-board microcomputer in the instrument to perform the property calculations in the field.
The system has demonstrated a considerable improvement in the ability to measure wall thickness, tubing inside diameter, defect size, and defect location even in the presence of severe denting using laboratory standards. We are now proceeding with field testing of the instrumentation.
Power-Plant-Related Estuarine Zooplankton Studies
Authors: Sage LE , Olson MM 
Published: March 2009

Increased emphasis is being placed on formulating a particular study design that will generate the greatest amount of relevant information for a particular problem. This is a case history of a study design as it evolved from one level of information to another, yielding both quantitative and biologically meaningful information.
In-plant studies examining the effects of entrainment on zooplankton and field studies examining zooplankton abundance, composition, and distribution in the Chesapeake Bay in the vicinity of Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant (Baltimore Gas and Electric Co.) have been conducted from 1974 to the present. The evolution of these studies, with particular emphasis on design and statistical treatment, is discussed. Entrainment study designs evolved from discrete sampling episodes at 4-h intervals over 24 h to a time-series sampling design in which sampling took place every 30 min over 24 and 48-h periods. The near-field study design and sampling methods have included replicated net tows, using 0.5-m nets, and replicated and nonreplicated pumped samples, using a high-speed centrifugal pump. The relative collecting characteristics of sampling methods are described; study designs and applicable data analysis techniques are evaluated with respect to their ability to detect plant effects within defined limits of personnel and budgetary constraints.
Assessment of Effluent Impacts Through Evaluation of Periphyton Diatom Community Structure
Authors: Weitzel RL , Bates JM 
Published: March 2009

Evaluation of changes in periphyton diatom community structure proved to be a useful means of assessing the impact of an electroplating waste discharge on the biota of the Muskingum River in Ohio. The copper waste discharge decreased species richness and species diversity (as indicated by the Shannon-Weaver and Brillouin indexes) of the diatom community collected from artifical substrates. Corresponding evenness and redundancy components also indicated stressed conditions.
Short-count intervals of detailed readings were compared to determine the ability and sensitivity of these shorter efforts of enumeration to respond to community changes. Counts of 500 diatom cells, while accurately responding to gross perturbations when applied in the form of biotic indexes, were somewhat inconsistent and apparently insensitive to minor shifts in diatom community structure. Counts of 1000 diatom cells more closely paralleled the trends developed by the 5000-cell long counts. Extension of the diatom counts beyond 2000 cells yielded less species information for the manhours required, and it was at this level that the species curve began to approach an asymptote.
Assessment and Prediction of Impacts of Effluents on Communities of Benthic Stream Macroinvertebrates
Authors: Kovalak WP 
Published: March 2009

Diversity indexes, particularly those based on information theory, have been widely promoted as the best method for assessing the impact of effluents on macroinvertebrate communities. Despite their superiority, neither the Shannon-Weaver index (SWI) nor the Brillouin index (BI) is universally applicable. The SWI is preferred where effluents are selective (for example, organics) and BI preferred where effluents are nonselective (for example, heavy metals). Despite their simplicity, it should be remembered that diversity indexes supplement, not replace, community analyses based on species richness and population densities. Covariance analyses and more tightly defined stratified sampling programs are discussed as ways of improving the accuracy of density estimates.
Impact prediction depends on models predicting changes in species richness and population densities. A mechanistic model predicting changes in species richness as a function of oxygen supply and demand is offered as a step in this direction. Despite its accuracy in undisturbed streams, the applicability of the model to organic and thermal pollution awaits testing. Implications of the model for impact prediction are discussed.
Electrochemical Hydrogen Patch Probe Correlated to Corrosion Rate in a Slightly Sour Water Flood
Authors: Dexter R 
Published: March 2009

An externally mounted electrochemical cell has recently been developed that can be patched onto the outside of steel pipes and vessels. This probe monitors the amount of hydrogen diffusing through the steel walls.
The hydrogen patch probe was mounted on a slightly sour water flood line 9.1440 m (30 ft) upstream of a corrosion coupon rack. Real time hydrogen current levels are compared to weekly weight loss corrosion measurements for a period of six months. Areas of agreement and disagreement are discussed.
Some Factors Contributing to Decreased Well Efficiency During Fluid Injection
Authors: Johnson AI 
Published: March 2009

Many factors affecting fluid injection through wells involve clogging of the well and injection zone. Extensive field research carried out in the Grand Prairie Region of Arkansas, supported by special laboratory testing, involved the injection of surface waters into native waters of the local aquifers. The principal causes of clogging were found to be gas binding or air entrainment in the injection zone, suspended particles in the injection fluid, bacterial contamination of the injection zone by the injection fluid and subsequent clogging by bacterial growths, mechanical jamming of the injection zone and gravel pack around the well caused by particle rearrangement when the direction of fluid movement into and through the injection zone is reversed, and chemical reactions between the injection fluid and the native groundwater or the particles in the injection zone. The results indicated that the efficiency of the injection well could be reduced by as much as 50 percent by such factors and that treated injection fluid therefore would be advisable.
Other problems in operating an injection well included the effects of injecting fluid of a different temperature and viscosity and the interpretation of fluid-level changes in the injection zone during the injection tests because most clogging was found to take place within a few feet of the injection well.
Laboratory tests were used successfully to make preliminary estimates of the hydraulic characteristics of the injection zone prior to field testing of those properties. Laboratory experiments also showed that a permeability reduction of as much as 45 percent resulted from compaction of the gravel pack caused by surging action during well development and from the pumping and injection tests.
Influence of Formation Clays on the Flow of Aqueous Fluids
Authors: Hower WF 
Published: March 2009

Most sandstone formations contain clays that can have a significant effect on the flow of aqueous fluids. The clays most frequently detected are smectite, mixed layer, illite, kaolinite, and chlorite. All of these clays are capable of migrating and causing permeability damage when they are contacted by waters foreign to the formation. Normally, these waters alter ionic environments around the clays, which causes the clays to be dislodged from their original positions. Thus, any time clay is present in the rock, it can be assumed that permeability damage can occur. The degree of damage will depend upon the concentration and types of clays present, their relative position in the rock, the severity of the ionic environmental change, and fluid velocity.
Aqueous fluids that may be classed as foreign waters are effluents being injected into disposal wells, fresh water storage in underground aquifers, flooding waters used for secondary oil recovery, and waters that may contact hydrocarbon-producing formations during numerous phases in a well's life.
Permeability damage has been minimized in oil and gas wells through the use of the potassium and ammonium ions. These ions will control the amount of water adsorbed by clays but, since they are exchangeable, they do not affect permanent protection against clay migration. A hydroxy-aluminum ion has been used effectively for formation treatment, but its use is limited to formation temperatures below 93.3°C (200°F) and where pH values do not vary more than a few integrals from neutral. The most effective material that provides long-time control of clay migration under a large variety of conditions is a select group of organic polymers. These polymers are strongly adsorbed by clays, thus helping to prevent clay movement in the rock matrix.
Ion-Exchange Softening of High-Solids Waters
Authors: Anderson RE 
Published: March 2009

Extension of conventional sodium-cycle softening to high-solids waters is restricted by the fundamental properties of ion-exchange systems. Resin performance is a function of water composition, both in regard to total dissolved salts and the fraction of hardness salts. Volume treated to hardness breakthrough, and hardness leakage can be estimated with a useful degree of accuracy by use of equilibrium relationships. Adjustment of performance for different levels of regeneration can be made by use of empirical data relating degree of regeneration to salt dosage.
Waters with total dissolved solids above 5000 ppm can be softened by use of weak acid resins in many cases. Depending on the nature of the salts present, a weak-acid resin may be used in either a sodium or hydrogen cycle. Although acid and base are required for regeneration, chemical costs are competitive with conventional softening in many situations.
Softening of saturated brines requires use of chelating resins showing high selectivity for hardness ions over sodium ion.
A Rationale for Testing to Establish Suitability for an End-Use Application
Authors: Evans RE 
Published: March 2009

The methodology necessary for selecting physical test procedures relevant to end-use applications is discussed. Emphasis is placed on the complex behavior of plastics and the fact that the physical properties of polymers cannot be presented as unchanging “typical values” that universally describe material behavior.
A basic rationale necessary to develop a sound philosophy of testing is first developed. An integrated approach of describing all physical tests simply as input/output measurements under given boundary conditions is presented. Three classes of test methods, that is, fundamental tests, component or practical tests, and hybrid tests are defined. The importance of avoiding hybrid types of tests is illustrated. An assessment of standard ASTM test methods is presented. Guidelines are established for selecting relevant physical testing procedures.