bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ash Fouling of Boiler Tubes and Thermophysical Properties of Deposits
Authors: Ots Arvo 
Published: June 2010

AbstractA brief overview is presented of ash fouling of heat transfer surfaces of boiler and the thermophysical properties of deposits. Loose and bound ash deposit formation on transverse‐flow boiler tubes is treated. Composition of the bound deposits differs from the composition of fly ash passing through the heat transfer surface. Ash deposited on boiler tubes is examined as a porous material with the effective thermal conductivity. At higher temperatures, heat exchange in a porous body also becomes affected by radiant heat transfer inside the material. The radiation properties of ash deposits are also discussed. The radiation flux originating from the ash particle layer and deposit layer is spectral in the region of short wavelengths but for a smooth slag layer the selectivity is negligible.
HCCICombustion Chemistry, Reduced Kinetic Mechanisms and Controlling Strategies
Authors: Machrafi Hatim 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionPresent SituationHCCIEngines, A New AlternativeHCCICombustionDefinitionProblem of Implementing theHCCIMethodChemical Kinetics inHCCICombustionChemical Combustion Mechanism of Iso‐OctaneLow‐Temperature IntervalIntermediate‐Temperature IntervalHigh‐Temperature IntervalChemical Combustion Mechanism of Iso‐octaneChemical Combustion Mechanism of TolueneInitiation ReactionsBenzene Sub‐MechanismResume of the Auto‐Ignition ProcessKinetic Mechanisms for the Study ofHCCICombustionGeneral Discussion about the Cool Flame PhenomenonReduced Kinetic MechanismsExperimental Validation of a Reduced Kinetic MechanismControlling StrategiesControl MethodsKinetic Mechanisms to Control the Auto‐IgnitionExisting Applications of theHCCIEngine and its FutureConclusions
Laser Ignition
Authors: Phuoc Tran X. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionLaser Ignition EnergyBreakdown Threshold Laser EnergyMultiphoton IonizationCascade Breakdown IonizationSpark EvolutionIgnition MechanismHomogeneous Hot‐Gas ModelBlast Wave Ignition ModelA Hot Gas ModelPotential Applications and Research NeedsLaser‐Induced Gas Breakdown and Evolution in High‐Speed and Highly Turbulent StreamsLaser Ignition for Stabilization of Ultra‐Lean and High Speed Combustion ApplicationsLaser Ignition under Engine and/or Engine‐Like ConditionsDevelopment of a Diode‐Pumped Solid State Laser for Laser Ignition ApplicationsConclusions
Combustion Synthesis
Authors: Specchia Stefania , Finocchio Elisabetta , Busca Guido , Specchia Vito 
Published: June 2010

AbstractCombustion synthesis (CS) is becoming one of the most important ways to produce a wide range of advanced porous ceramic or metallic materials. These include ceramic oxide like nanostructured catalysts. In CS, the heat released from the redox chemical reaction is used to produce useful materials. Depending upon the nature of the reactants, and the amount of heat made available during reaction, CS is in general mainly described as self‐propagating high temperature synthesis (SHS), solution combustion synthesis (SCS), and flame synthesis (FS). Among these, SCS is an attractive alternative for the production of particular materials of high value compared to the more conventional and expensive preparation routes.SCS processes are characterized by relatively medium heating oven temperatures (350–600 °C), fast heating rates, and short reaction times. SCS, in fact, offers a unique synthesis route via a highly exothermic redox reaction between metal nitrates and an organic fuel to produce multi‐component oxides. The reaction is self‐propagating and able to sustain high temperatures for a time long enough to complete the synthesis reaction and form the desired product. Therefore, the reaction is over in a few minutes without the use of high temperature furnaces. The final product is usually of high purity and well crystallized with nanometric size clusters, owing to the very small residence time at high temperature, a condition allowing the formation of a very large number of particles without huge growing effects. As a consequence, it is characterized by high values of both surface area and specific volume. Moreover, the significant gas rate produced during the synthesis process breaks up the large agglomerates and yields a porous mass that is easily crumbled into a fine powder. Furthermore, SCS, suitably adapted, is easily tunable to complex systems to produce directlyin situstructured catalysts. In recent years this technique has been used to produce very fine, crystalline powders, without the intermediate steps that other conventional synthesis routes would require. These features make CS an attractive alternative for the production of ceramic materials compared to the conventional more expensive and time consuming processes. Examples of SCS andin situSCS for the production of structured catalysts for combustion of natural gas and preferential oxidation of carbon monoxide are described.
Nanosized Photocatalysts in Environmental Remediation
Authors: Wilcoxon Jess P. , Abrams Billie L. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractWe review the science and technology underlying the synthesis of nanosized photocatalysts and their application in environmental remediation. Certain types of semiconductor nanoparticles in both dispersed and supported form can oxidize toxic organic chemicals in liquid, gas and solid phases. This mineralization process can be driven by light and an optimized process can function under ambient conditions of temperature and pressure, producing CO2and dilute mineral acids. Such photocatalysis is a potentially inexpensive alternative to other methods for destroying both chemical and biological toxins in the environment. Our review includes discussion of several nanosized photocatalysts with an emphasis on the metal oxide TiO2and metal sulfides, especially MoS2. We discuss their characterization and the factors which influence their photocatalytic activity and selectivity. Issues such as control of size, quantum confinement, surface chemistry and carrier recombination rate play an important role in the functioning of these photocatalysts. Finally, we summarize some recent applications of TiO2films in environmental remediation technology which are just being commercialized. We also discuss future research needs in this area required for an economically viable technology.
Physics of Computational Elements
Authors: Zhirnov Victor V. , Cavin Ralph K. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThis chapter considers the physical principles and trends in nanoscale information‐processing devices. It provides a coherent description and the performance analysis of diverse nanoelectronic devices that operate in different physical domains. A generic device abstraction for computational elements is developed for a uniform treatment of several classes of nanodevice that use different information carriers, such as electrons, spins, or photons. Estimates of theoretically attainable performance and of geometric scaling limits for these diverse devices are also provided.
Indium Arsenide (InAs) Nanowire Wrapped‐Insulator‐Gate Field‐Effect Transistor
Authors: Wernersson Lars‐Erik , Bryllert Tomas , Fröberg Linus , Lind Erik , Thelander Claes , Samuelson Lars 
Published: June 2010

AbstractIn the highly competitive R&D‐field aimed at extensions or replacements of standard transistors and integrated circuits, two primary approaches are envisioned: either as modifications to today's technology (e.g. via development of high‐kdielectrics), or as the development of more radically approaches on the device and integration level. One of these non‐disruptive technologies involves the use of vertical transistors in the form of monolithically grown, one‐dimensional III–V transistor channels, with a coaxial configuration of a metal‐insulator‐semiconductor field‐effect transistor (MISFET) implementation. This geometry and material choice promises a competitive new technology that may extend the scaling roadmap. The main benefits are the ideal terms of electrostatics, as well as down‐scaling offered in the coaxial configuration and the possibility of increasing the drive current and enhancing device performance with the addition of designed heterostructures as part of the transistor technology. In this chapter, the state‐of‐the‐art vertical wrap‐gate nanowire‐based transistor is described, and this family of transistors as wrapped‐insulator‐gate field‐effect transistors (abbreviated as WIGFET) is outlined.
A Survey of Bio‐Inspired and Other Alternative Architectures
Authors: Hammerstrom Dan 
Published: June 2010

AbstractSince the earliest days of the electronic computer, a small group of people has always seen the computer as an extension of biology, and endeavored to build computing models and even hardware which are inspired by, and in some cases direct copies of, biological systems. This chapter presents a brief survey of the specialized hardware developed over the past 20 years to support neurobiological models of computation. It includes a brief examination of current efforts and speculates on how such hardware, especially when implemented in nanoscale electronics, might offer unprecedented computing density, possibly leading to new capabilities in computational intelligence. The mix of continued Moore's law scaling, models from computational neuroscience, and molecular‐scale technology portends a potential paradigm shift in how computing is carried out. Among other things, the future of computing is most likely not about discrete logic, but rather about encoding, learning, and performing inference over stochastic variables. There may be a wide range of applications for such devices in robotics, and in the reduction and compression of widely distributed sensor data and power management.
Introduction
Authors: Vogel Viola 
Published: June 2010

AbstractWhile fascinating medical applications of engineered nanoparticles are at the forefront of the public perception of how nanotechnologies will change the detection and treatment of disease – as comprehensively reviewed in this volume – even more long‐range medical impact is expected to come from the application of nanotechnology tools to quantify biological processes at the nanoscale. Today, not only can images be taken with steadily improved spatial and temporal resolution; combined with unprecedented abilities to conduct quantitative measurements on biological nanosystems and living cells, we are entering a new era in biomedical sciences. Biologists, physical scientists and engineers have begun to analyze biological nanosystems in action, as well as the factors that cause their malfunction. Never before was it possible to elucidate how the molecular components in cells work together when integrated into complex systems. As enabled by nanotechnologies, the major focus of this introductory chapter – and of the book in its entirety – is to describe selected examples from the forefront of scientific discovery. In this context, it is discussed how this plethora of new tools can be used to distil underpinning mechanisms and engineering design principles that Nature has evolved and uses to build and operate its nanoscale machineries. Most importantly, this finally leads into an exploration as to how these novel insights into the biological nanoworld might provide new solutions for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
FromIn VivoUltrasound andMRIImaging to Therapy: Contrast Agents Based on Target‐Specific Nanoparticles
Authors: Wallace Kirk D. , Hughes Michael S. , Marsh Jon N. , Caruthers Shelton D. , Lanza Gregory M. , Wickline Samuel A. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractMolecular imaging utilizes a novel toolset to enable and expand the role of noninvasive diagnostic imaging from the realm of gross anatomical description to the identification of specific tissue epitopes and observation of biological processes at the cellular level. Until recently, this approach was confined to the field of nuclear imaging; however, advances in nanotechnology have extended this research to include imaging modalities such as ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging. The application of nanotechnology to magnetic resonance and ultrasound molecular imaging has generated several candidate contrast agents. One multimodality platform – targeted perfluorocarbon nanoparticles – is useful for noninvasive detection with all three imaging modalities, and may additionally be used for local drug delivery.
Harnessing Biological Motors to Engineer Systems for Nanoscale Transport and Assembly*
Authors: Goel Anita , Vogel Viola 
Published: June 2010

AbstractLiving systems use biological nanomotors to build life's essential molecules – such as DNA and proteins–as well as to transport cargo inside cells with both spatial and temporal precision. Each motor is highly specialized and carries out a distinct function within the cell. Some have even evolved sophisticated mechanisms to ensure quality control during nanomanufacturing processes, whether to correct errors in biosynthesis or to detect and permit the repair of damaged transport highways. In general, these nanomotors consume chemical energy in order to undergo a series of shape changes that let them interact sequentially with other molecules. Here we review some of the many tasks that biomotors perform and analyze their underlying design principles from an engineering perspective. We also discuss experiments and strategies to integrate biomotors into synthetic environments for applications such as sensing, transport and assembly.
The Micro‐ and Nanoscale Architecture of the Immunological Synapse
Authors: Dunlop Iain E. , Dustin Michael L. , Spatz Joachim P. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractIn this chapter we discuss the importance of micrometer‐ and nanometer‐scale spatial structuring to cellular signaling in the immunological synapse – the contact region between an antigen‐presenting cell (APC) and a T cell – focusing on the use of artificial biomimetic substrates. Immunological synapses cause the activation of T cells, which is a crucial stage in the adaptive immune response. Recent studies have investigated immunological synapse formation by bringing T cells into contact with surfaces that have been functionalized with peptide‐MHC (p‐MHC) and ICAM‐1, which induce T cell activation and adhesion, respectively. Studies using p‐MHC and ICAM‐1‐functionalized supported lipid bilayers have revealed important structures within the synapse at micrometer and nanometer length scales. Lithographically patterned substrates have been used to induce and control structure formation, providing controlled, realistic models ofin vivoT cell activation. For example, lithographic walls have been used to confine laterally mobile protein molecules to micrometer‐scale areas, mimicking possible effects of the APC cytoskeleton, and cells on lithographically patterned substrates have shown realistic segregation between p‐MHC‐ and ICAM‐1‐binding membrane proteins. Similar investigations will soon be performed on the nanometer scale, most likely using block copolymer nanolithography, which enables surfaces to be patterned with precisely positioned single‐protein molecules. Substrates patterned with single p‐MHC molecules should enable investigation of the effect of p‐MHC clustering on T cell activation. In addition to advancing our understanding of the immunological synapse, micro‐ and nanopatterned T cell‐activating substrates could be used to provide improved T‐cell phenotype control for adoptive T‐cell therapies against cancer.
Scanning Ion Conductance Microscopy of Cellular and Artificial Membranes
Authors: Böcker Matthias , Fuchs Harald , Schäffer Tilman E. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractScanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM) is based on an electrolyte‐filled nanopipette that acts as probe for scanning a sample surface in an electrolyte environment. By applying a voltage between the inside and outside of the pipette, an ion current at the nanoampere level through the pipette opening is induced. The dependence of the ion current on the pipette–sample distance allows the recording of sample topography, without mechanical interaction between probe and sample. SICM is therefore well suited to the investigation of ‘soft’ samples, such as cells in a physiological environment. This is demonstrated by imaging living MDCK‐II and rat Schwann cells. Furthermore, nonintrusive imaging of pore‐suspending artificial membranes is demonstrated. Finally, a combination of SICM with other scanning probe techniques allows the recording of local ion conductance independently of the surface topography.
Nanoanalysis by Atom Probe Tomography
Authors: Schmitz Guido 
Published: June 2010

AbstractAtom probe tomography is a most advanced microscopic analysis technique based on the principle of field ion microscopy. Atoms are individually desorbed from the specimen, identified and localized. From the measured data, the three‐dimensional atomic structure of nanometer‐sized specimens is reconstructed numerically. Significant improvements in the total volume of analysis, in the range of materials that can be investigated, and in specimen preparation have recently broadened the range of possible applications of this method decisively. In this chapter, the physical basis of this exciting nanoanalytical tool is presented in some detail, in order that the reader can appreciate the advantages and limitations of the method. The design of actual instruments is described, and the physics of field desorption and volume reconstruction algorithms are discussed. Application of the method to relevant problems of material physics in nanotechnology is illustrated with case studies.
Time‐Resolved Two‐Photon Photoemission on Surfaces and Nanoparticles
Authors: Aeschlimann Martin , Zacharias Helmut 
Published: June 2010

AbstractTime‐resolved two‐photon photoemission spectroscopy allows an insight to be gained into ultrafast dynamic surface processes. In this chapter, we first discuss the relaxation dynamics of excited electrons and holes for metals, and also describe the behavior of excitonic states on bandgap materials which show lifetimes well into the microsecond regime. Electron transfer processes to adsorbates are discussed for typical examples. New approaches for photoelectron imaging with time resolution are presented which extend time‐resolved investigations to localized dynamics on nanoparticles. Lifetime maps allow to study exciting prospects of propagation dynamics of surface plasmon polaritons with subfemtosecond resolution. Phase‐ and polarization‐ controlled optical fields also open a new area of nanoscopic dynamic studies with subwavelength spatial and femtosecond time resolution.
Atom Economy – Principles and Some Examples
Authors: Moores Audrey 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe concept of atom economy was introduced in the early 1990s by Trost and Sheldon to emphasize the importance of minimizing the waste created by chemical reactions. Atom economy can be defined as the reduction, if not the elimination, of all the atoms introduced in the process that do not end up in the desired product. This idea came together with a desire to be able to measure rationally the created waste and several criteria of atom economy were thus grafted. Since then, many new chemical reactions that can be called atom economical have been developed. In this chapter, the context, the principle, the criteria and the tool box of atom economy will be presented. A mini‐review on atom economical processes involving CH activation follows.
Microwave‐Accelerated Homogeneous Catalysis in Water
Authors: Odell Luke R. , Larhed Mats 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe science of green chemistry was developed to meet the increasing demand for environmentally benign chemical processes. This chapter attempts to give an overview of microwave‐assisted metal‐catalyzed homogeneous transformations in neat water, providing a personal selection of both pioneering and recently published examples. Applications include cross‐couplings, Heck reactions, carbonylations, Sonogashira reactions, nucleophilic substitutions and some additional transformations. We believe that the use of water as a non‐toxic reaction medium, in combination with metal catalysis and microwave heating, will be of importance in the search for green laboratory‐scale synthesis.
Ionic Liquids and Catalysis: theIFPBiphasic Difasol Process
Authors: Olivier‐Bourbigou Hélène , Favre Frédéric , Forestière Alain , Hugues François 
Published: June 2010

AbstractOptimal exploitation of raw materials, energy saving, and environmental friendliness take nowadays a major place in the development of catalytic processes. This implies better use of raw materials, lower formation of side products and, if possible, simplified separation workup steps. In this economical and environmental context, one most successful approach to bridge the gap between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis is multiphasic catalysis. In its simplest version, the catalyst is dissolved in one phase (generally a polar phase) while the products and the substrates mainly remain in the second one. The catalyst can be separated by simple settling and recycled under mild conditions. Ionic liquids have recently emerged as a new class of solvents, offering large opportunities of developments for biphasic (multiphasic) catalysis. In this chapter, the Ni‐catalyzed olefin oligomerization is described. Starting from the original industrial homogeneous Dimersol process, the emergence of the biphasic Difasol system using ionic liquids as the catalyst solvent will be detailed. This biphasic process was designed and developed with the aim of reducing catalyst consumption, waste and chemicals, all in an economical feasible manner.
Organocatalysis
Authors: McCort‐Tranchepain Isabelle , Petit Morgane , Dalko Peter I. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractAsymmetric organocatalytic reactions are continuing to provide more and more efficient and environmentally friendly synthetic alternatives to metal complex‐mediated reactions. Although substrate dependence remains an important issue, there are increasing numbers of transformations that have reached the standards of current asymmetric reactions.
Single‐Site Heterogeneous Catalysts via Surface‐Bound Organometallic and Inorganic Complexes
Authors: Copéret Christophe 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThis chapter describes the preparation of single‐site catalysts prepared via a molecular approach and their use in various applications such as hydrogenolysis, hydrogenation, hydrosilylation, metathesis (alkane, alkene, alkyne) and oxidation.
High‐pressure Methods and Equipment
Authors: Theyssen Nils , Scovell Katherine , Poliakoff Martyn 
Published: June 2010

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Infrastructure for High‐pressure Experiments

Location

Gas Supply, Compression, and Purification

High‐pressure Reactors

Materials of Construction for High‐pressure Reactors

Metal Components

Sealing Materials

Reactor Design

General Considerations

Pressure Vessels for Batch Processing

Continuous Flow Reactors

Auxiliary Equipment and Handling

Tubes and Fittings

Valves

Pressure Transmitter and Manometer

Reactor Heating and Temperature Control

Stirrer Types

Optical Windows

Pressure Safety Valves and Bursting Discs

Online Sampling

Inline Spectroscopic Measurements

Reactor Cleaning

Cleaning with Organic Solvents

Cleaning with Heated Solvents

Cleaning with Acids

Cleaning with a Combination of Organic Solvent and
sc
CO

2

Dosage Under a High‐pressure Regime

Dosage of Gases

Safety Warnings

Dosing in Batch Processes

Dosage for Continuous Flow Processes

Dosage of Liquids

Dosage of Solids

Further Regulations and Control in Flow Systems

Supply Pressure

Reactor Pressure

Flow and Total Volume Measurement of Depressurized Gas Streams

Evaporation and Condensation

Evaporation

Condensation

Complete Reactor Systems for Synthesis with SCFs

Standard Batch Reactor System

Essential equipment

Brief Description of Work Steps

Fully Automated System for Continuous Flow Operation

Conclusion