bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Dressed States
Authors: BARNETT STEPHEN M. , RADMORE PAUL M. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractA dressed state is defined as an eigenstate of the total Hamiltonian, including interactions. Once these dressed states are found, and their energies known, the dynamics of the system is simple: the total state is a superposition of these states, the amplitudes being constant. The dressed states are derived for a two-state system, a three-state system and the Bixon–Jortner model. Dissipative systems are treated using Fano theory. Related techniques, suited to the Heisenberg picture, involve dressed operators. Two examples of physical interest are discussed: an imperfect cavity, and the Jaynes–Cummings model.
Lagrangian Theory of Constraints
Authors: Johns Oliver 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
One attractive feature of the Lagrangian method is the ease with which it solves so-called constraint problems. This chapter presents several different ways of solving such problems, with examples of each. In the previous chapter, the generalised coordinates were assumed to be independent variables. However, there are problems of interest in which these coordinates are not independent, but rather are forced into particular relations by constraints. In this chapter, constraints are defined and virtual displacement is discussed, along with virtual work, form of the forces of constraint, general Lagrange equations with constraints, alternate notation for holonomic constraints, reduction of degrees of freedom, recovery of the forces of constraint, generalised energy theorem with constraints, and tractable non-holonomic constraints.
Lagrangian Mechanics with Time as a Coordinate
Authors: Johns Oliver 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In traditional analytical mechanics, it is assumed that the system traces out a path (one-dimensional curved line) in a D dimensional configuration space that is defined by writing each of the generalised coordinates as a function of the absolute, Newtonian time. The extended Lagrangian theory combines the traditional Lagrange equations and generalised energy theorem into a single set of equations, and restores the symmetry of the mathematical system. The traditional Lagrangian methods are analogous to the ‘coordinate parametric method’ in the calculus of variations and to the recommended ‘general parametric method’ presented earlier. This chapter discusses Lagrangian mechanics in which time is treated as a coordinate, extended momenta, invariance under change of parameter, change of generalised coordinates, redundancy of the extended Lagrange equations, forces of constraint, and reduced Lagrangians with time as a coordinate.
Hamiltonian Mechanics with Time as a Coordinate
Authors: Johns Oliver 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In the previous chapter, the traditional Lagrange equations were used as the basis for an extended Lagrangian theory in which time is treated as a coordinate. This extended theory combined the Lagrange equations and the generalised energy theorem into one set of equations. In the present chapter, the same is done with the traditional Hamilton equations. The traditional Hamilton equations, including the Hamiltonian form of the generalised energy theorem, are combined into a single set of extended Hamilton equations in which time is treated as a coordinate. The chapter also discusses the extended phase space, dependency relation, shift from traditional to extended Hamiltonian mechanics, equivalence to traditional Hamilton equations, example of extended Hamilton equations, equivalent extended Hamiltonians, alternate Hamiltonians, alternate traditional Hamiltonians, Dirac’s theory of phase-space constraints, Poisson brackets with time as a coordinate, and Poisson brackets and quantum commutators.
Experimental Techniques for Low-Temperature Measurements
Authors: Ekin Jack 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book presents an integrated, step-by-step approach to the design and construction of low-temperature measurement apparatus. It is effectively two books in one: a textbook on cryostat design techniques and an appendix data handbook that provides materials-property data for carrying out that design. The main text encompasses a wide range of information. After summarizing cooling methods, Part I provides core information in an accessible style on techniques for cryostat design and fabrication — including heat-transfer design, selection of materials, construction, wiring, and thermometry, accompanied by many graphs, data, and clear examples. Part II gives a practical user's perspective of sample mounting techniques and contact technology. Part III applies the information from Parts I and II to the measurement and analysis of superconductor critical currents, including in-depth measurement techniques and the latest developments in data analysis and scaling theory. The appendix is a ready reference handbook for cryostat design, encompassing seventy tables compiled from the contributions of experts and over fifty years of literature.
Cryostat Construction
Authors: Ekin Jack W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The first part of this chapter covers techniques common to the construction of most cryostats: materials selection in Secyion 3.2 and joining techniques in Section 3.3. These are then integrated into a practical construction example for a dipper probe in Section 3.4. Specialty construction topics are considered next: sizing parts for mechanical strength, mechanical motion at cryogenic temperature, and, finally, vacuum techniques and cryogenic seals. High- and ultrahigh-vacuum techniques are less commonly needed (but critical for dewar design as well as surface science and microscopy apparatus); they are treated separately as addenda in the final section.
4 Wiring and Connections
Authors: Ekin Jack W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Cryostat wiring requires someone who is skilled and meticulous with his or her hands. It is fine detail work that, in many cases, is done by the experimentalist and not subcontracted outside the laboratory. This chapter focuses on some of the techniques and pitfalls in wiring. It first describes the main guidelines for wiring a cryostat in Section 4.1. Recommendations are made for selecting the right wire material and gauge size in Section 4.2, and wire insulation in Section 4.3. The later sections of the chapter present details about heat-sinking and soldering techniques, as well as information on specialty topics, including thermoelectric voltages, vacuum electrical lead-throughs, radio-frequency coaxial cable selection, high-current leads, and flexible current leads.
Temperature Measurement and Control
Authors: Ekin Jack W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on cryogenic thermometers. Section 5.1 gives an overview of thermometers and singles out several that will serve well in most measurement situations. It then looks at the selection of thermometers for use in high magnetic fields, installation and checkout of thermometers, and, finally, techniques for controlling temperature. A separate compendium of comments on the wide spectrum of available thermometers is given in an addendum to the chapter, which is keyed to a quantitative tabulation of thermometer properties in Appendix 5.2.
6 Properties of Solids at Low Temperatures
Authors: Ekin Jack W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the physics of the properties of material used in cryostat construction and presents tables of data for cryostat design. The order of presentation of the first four properties (specific heat; thermal expansion; electrical resistivity; and thermal conductivity) has been chosen because the underlying physics of each one logically flows into the next. The last two properties, magnetic susceptibility and mechanical properties, are not always included in treatments of material properties, but they are absolutely crucial to the selection of materials for cryostat design.
Sample Holders
Authors: Ekin Jack W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Sample holders provide uniform and stable temperature control of the sample; eliminate sample stress due to differential thermal contraction between the sample and holder; minimize noise from induced voltages and magnetic pickup by keeping the effective voltage-tap loop area as small as possible; provide well-designed current and voltage contacts, with enough space between each current contact and the nearest voltage lead to ensure that the current distribution is uniform in the region between the voltage taps; and provide firm mechanical support for the sample, particularly for critical-current measurements where large, magnetic Lorentz forces are a major issue. This chapter considers each of these factors in turn, for both bulk sample holders and thin film sample holders, along with examples and design techniques. It also considers the general nature of four-lead measurements, since this technique determines the overall design of most transport-measurement sample holders.
Sample Contacts
Authors: Ekin Jack W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
After designing an effective sample holder, the next step is making electrical contact directly to the test sample itself. If the contacts are resistive and there is significant Joule heating, sample temperature becomes impossible to control and measure. For many materials, sample contacts are straightforward, but not for the high-Tc oxide superconductors (HTS). They have a unique interfacial chemistry that is counterintuitive. This chapter focuses on contact techniques for the more challenging high-Tc oxide superconductors. The chapter is divided into two major parts: the first describes techniques for fabricating contacts to high-current superconductors; the second focuses on contacts to low-current film superconductors.
Critical-Current Measurements
Authors: Ekin Jack W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents techniques for critical-current-data acquisition. Firstly it describes the principal ways of defining critical-current density (which can lead to vastly different values). It then offers suggestions of where to put your money when assembling a quality instrumentation system. The next section looks at general, time-proven troubleshooting tips as well as specific methods to avoid and identify critical-current measurement problems. Finally, the chapter illustrates specific examples of various types of cryostats for measuring critical current.
Critical-Current Data Analysis
Authors: Ekin Jack W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the methods of defining critical current that are practical. It then looks at the notorious problem of current-transfer voltages and how to correct them; all too often, these extraneous voltages interfere with obtaining good critical current data on short, high-current samples, but there are effective ways to extract the underlying intrinsic Ic data. The main part of the chapter presents analytic representations of the critical current for use in application design and for accurate intercomparisons of data obtained on different conductors, in different locations, and at different magnetic fields, temperatures, and strain levels.
Correlation studies in organic solids
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Structure correlation studies were first carried out on intramolecular parameters, a classic work of which involved molecular deformations at a carbonyl center as a function of the intermolecular distance to an incoming nucleophile. In further applications, the term ‘structure correlation’ was extended to include all studies in which molecular or crystal properties are analysed in a systematic way over the database, to reveal correlations between structural or energetic properties of crystallised molecules. This chapter discusses correlation studies in organic solids, the Cambridge Structural Database (CSD) of organic crystals, structure correlation, retrieval of crystal and molecular structures from the CSD, the SubHeat database, geometrical categorisation of intermolecular bonding, space analysis of molecular packing modes, empty space versus filled space, close packing in crystals, calculation of intermolecular energies in crystals, basic concepts on lattice energies, sublimation entropies and vapor pressures of crystals, general-purpose force fields for organic crystals, correlation between molecular and crystal properties, and acceptable crystal structures.
Computers
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Chemical applications of force field simulations, of quantum mechanics, as well as X-ray data processing, lattice dynamics, and molecular dynamics simulations are all made possible by fast and reliable numerical computation. Therefore, electronic computers are a theoretical chemist's vital tool, and very few — if any — quantitative results can be obtained without them. Computers handle a very large and very diversified range of tasks on a surprisingly small fundamental basis: the electric representation of only two numbers, zero and one, called binary digits (or bits). Computers use bits to represent numbers in binary notation. In a very successful metaphoric style, all items of the computer world that have to do with programs are called software, while all the rest (electronic parts, wires, input-output devices) are called hardware. This chapter provides an overview of computers, operating systems, computer programming, bugs, program checking and validation, and reproducibility.
Structure-property and structure–activity relationships
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The study of the structure and transformations of organic condensed phases is at the forefront of modern chemistry. One reason for this is that these structures and transformations are poorly understood, and hence stimulate the curiosity of researchers; another reason is that molecular devices are a worldwide and ever expanding market with immense opportunities for money-making. This chapter discusses structure-property relationships as well as structure-activity relationships, use of applied technology in fundamental research, the structure-activity dogma, crystal dissolution, thermal properties, thermal expansion coefficients, heat capacity and heat transport, strain and stress, elastic and viscous properties, optical, electric and magnetic properties, color, optical properties and the polar axis, and electric and magnetic properties.
Mixed Foundations
Authors: LUCY WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines what can be called ‘mixed’ accounts of the normative basis of private law. The first section briefly sketches the limitations of corrective and distributive justice accounts which make consideration of mixed accounts necessary. It also outlines some of the requirements that any successful mixed theory must satisfy. The second section examines in detail one mixed account in light of those requirements and also considers how it responds to the key questions noted in Chapter 7. This section also briefly notes how other ostensibly mixed accounts fare in relation to one of these conditions, thus highlighting that the problems faced by the first account are not unique to it. The third section offers, among other things, a brief prospectus for the future development of mixed accounts.
Prologue: The Prehistory of the English Law of Obligations
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Common law of obligations grew out of the intermingling of native ideas and sophisticated Roman learning. The friction between them was a prime force for legal change, and has remained so right up to the present. This chapter identifies these basic building blocks. Topics discussed include prevailing ideas about the legal system in medieval Europe and obligations in Roman law.
10. The Law of Torts in the Twentieth Century: Expansion and Collapse of the Tort of Negligence
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The tort law of negligence was thoroughly fragmented in the 19th century. This chapter shows how, in the 20th century, the practice moved in the direction of theory as the tendency towards fragmentation was reversed. Detailed duties of care were superseded by a single duty of care. The component parts of the tort—duty, breach, remoteness—increasingly merged into each other. Moreover, it no longer seemed self-evident that there should be a link between legal liability and wrongdoing, with the result that the idea of negligence as a failure to take the care that would have been taken by a reasonable man began to degenerate back to an undifferentiated notion of blameworthiness.
11. Foundations of the Modern Law of Contract
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter shows how the 17th and 18th centuries marked a period of consolidation of the law of contract, the fleshing out of the skeletal structure that had been locked in place at the end of the 16th century. The most important developments occurred in the Chancery, which had begun to operate along clearly defined, rule-based lines by the time of the Chancellorship of Nottingham (1673-81). The 18th century saw the first attempts to articulate a theory of contractual liability, largely based on the writings of non-lawyers, at least non-Common lawyers. Although these attempts were neither sophisticated nor successful, they did begin the work of accustoming English lawyers to the fact that there were not several sets of rules applicable to different forms of action in Common law and Chancery, but a single body of definable rules that could be called the ‘law of contract’.
15. Legal Change and Legal Continuity
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter argues that legal change occurs by filling in gaps between the rules in the way that seems the most convenient or most just at the time; through twisting rules, or rediscovering old ones; through reformulating claims into a different conceptual category; through intervening new rules that get tacked onto existing ones; through injecting shifting ideas of fairness or justice; and through adopting wholesale procrustean theoretical frameworks into which existing law can be squeezed. Whatever changes occurred at the surface of law, and whatever accretions have been incorporated into its fabric, at a deep level the structure of the Common law of obligations remained slow-moving.
International Organizations as Law-makers
Authors: Alvarez José E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book addresses how international organizations with a global reach, such as the UN and the WTO, have changed the mechanisms and reasoning behind the making, implementation, and enforcement of international law. It argues that existing descriptions of international law and international organizations do not do justice to the complex changes resulting from the increased importance of these institutions after World War II and then after the end of the Cold War. In particular, this book examines the impact of the institutions on international law through the day-to-day application and interpretation of institutional law, the making of multilateral treaties, and the decisions of a proliferating number of institutionalized dispute settlers. Part I re-examines the law resulting from the activity of political organs, such as the UN General Assembly and Security Council, technocratic entities within UN specialized agencies, and international financial institutions such as the IMF, and considers their impact on the once sacrosanct ‘domestic jurisdiction’ of states. Part II assesses the impact of the move towards institutions on treaty-making. It addresses the interplay between negotiating venues and procedures and interstate cooperation and asks whether the involvement of international organizations has made modern treaties ‘better’. Part III examines the proliferation of institutionalized dispute settlers, from the UN Secretary General to the WTO's dispute settlement body, and re-examines their role as both settlers of disputes and law-makers. The final chapter considers the promise and the perils of the turn to formal institutions for the making of the new kinds of ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ global law, including the potential for forms of hegemonic international law.
The Varied Forms of International Institutional Law
Authors: ALVAREZ JOSÉ E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the varied forms of international institutional law. It looks into the role of the Security Council as law-maker and its position between power and law. A selective survey on the standard-setting in other international organizations is also presented. The survey mentions the Codex Alimentarius, ICAO's standards and recommended practices, international organizations ‘advisory’ material, ILO recommendations, and IAEA standards. Also mentioned are the FAO's and UNEP's prior informed consent regime, WTO Soft Law, the WHO's Code on marketing of breast-milk substitutes, the World Bank guidelines, IMF conditionality, and emerging global administrative law. The chapter ends with interim conclusions that are at odds with the standard accounts of the limited role of international organizations in law-making and that describe the emerging global administrative law that these organizations produce.
The Nature of International Adjudication
Authors: ALVAREZ JOSÉ E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the nature of international adjudication. It also explains the features of a legitimate court, and the instances when courts ‘make law’ and defined more broadly the domain of international institutionalized dispute settlement. That part considers the underlying dynamics of distinct dispute settlement modes and whether it is accurate to describe their primary function as engaging in ‘dispute settlement’ at all. The chapter also considers the characteristics and limitations of law-making in the political, quasi-judicial, and judicial settings discussed, and concludes with an attempt to situate these issues within broader theoretical frameworks. Institutionalized dispute settlers may be regarded as both triadic conflict resolvers and guardians of public values. All else being equal, a dispute settler that shares the characteristics of one who looks like and quacks like a domestic court is more likely to attempt adjudicative law-creation.
Between Hierarchies and Markets
Authors: Thompson Grahame F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book explores the ways in which the word ‘network’ has been deployed in literature. In particular, it offers a commentary on how the idea of networks has been used to illustrate contemporary forms of socio-economic organisation (as with the idea of a ‘network society’ or a ‘network state’), broadly conceived to also include the political aspects of networks. The term ‘network’ has become a ubiquitous metaphor to describe too many aspects of contemporary life. In doing so, the book argues, the term has lost much of its analytical precision and has no clear conceptual underpinnings. This study brings some intellectual clarity to the discussion of networks by asking whether it is possible to construct a clearly demarcated idea of a network as a separable form of socio-economic coordination and governance mechanism with its own consistent logic. In doing this, the primary contrast is with hierarchies and markets as alternative and already well understood forms of socio-economic coordination each with their own distinctive logic. The book identifies two underlying programmatic issues: the question of whether there can be a particular logic to the network form of organisation, and whether there are any limits to networks. The book contends that if networks are to mean anything then they must not apply to everything, so this raises an obvious limit to their embrace. The questions thus become where and how to draw these limits. These are reviewed in the light of the concrete organisational forms that networks have taken in the contemporary period.