bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Older Adults in China
Authors: Chi Iris 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of social work in China, presenting both a historical and a political context for the tremendous aging of the world's most populous nation that is simultaneously experiencing rapid economic development. Gerontological social work is urgently needed in China and other Chinese societies, and social workers should practice in a variety of settings along the aging wellness and long-term care continuum in order to make an impact on these rapidly aging societies. The role of social worker in these settings is often unique because social work's primary focus is the psychosocial well-being of elders and their families, which are directly related among older Chinese adults. Social workers should review their own attitudes toward social norms, including family and filial piety, sharpen their skills in family work, and increase their knowledge of indigenous evidence-based interventions.
Issues in Conducting Social Work Research in Aging
Authors: Horowitz Amy 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter addresses issues in social work research in aging. The intent is to introduce the reader to the major issues that need to be considered in designing and/or evaluating research in aging. Obviously, all aspects of the scientific method that are relevant to any age-group are also relevant to research on older adults. However, there are special considerations that apply to research in aging in general, and social work research in aging in particular, that are the focus of this chapter. These include issues relevant to design, informed consent and ethical considerations, sample recruitment and retention (especially in terms of ethnic elders), and data collection and measurement, including the use of proxy data. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of the current and future role of the social work profession in contributing to the knowledge base in gerontology.
Educating Social Workers for an Aging Society: Needs and Approaches
Authors: Wilson Nancy L. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter has three primary aims: (1) to review the need for a knowledgeable cadre of social workers prepared to fulfill many roles in a rapidly aging society; (2) to present alternative models and approaches to the education of “aging-savvy” social workers; and (3) to highlight best practices and resources to support educational innovation focused on improving the quality of life for aging individuals, families, and communities.
Introduction
Authors: Gopni Alison , Schulz Laura 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter provides a simple, clear, and (hopefully) amusing introduction to causal model and Bayes nets theories in computer science, the interventionist account of causation in philosophy, and the psychology of causal learning in both adults and children. It takes the form of a fictional e-mail exchange between a developmental psychologist and a philosopher/computer scientist in which each partner explains the background of their field to the other. In two attachments, the fictional authors review the literature on causal Bayes nets and on the psychology of causal inference.
Interventionist Theories of Causation in Psychological Perspective
Authors: Woodward Jim 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
The guiding idea of interventionist accounts of causation is that causal claims (e.g. C causes E) have to do with what would happen to E if an intervention (an idealized experimental manipulation) were to be performed on C. Although originally proposed as a normative, philosophical account of causation, one may also ask how interventionism fares as an account of the empirical psychology of causal learning and judgment in humans and other animals. This chapter explores this question, focusing more specifically on the following: the connection between causal learning and operant conditioning, the connection between counterfactual claims involving interventions and causal judgment, and the role of interventions in facilitating causal learning. Causal understanding in non-human primates is also discussed from an interventionist perspective.
An Interventionist Approach to Causation in Psychology
Authors: Campbell John 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Interventionist analyses make explicit the conception of causation used in experimental science, but have not been applied to the case of mental causation. This chapter addresses some of the basic problems of mental causation in interventionist terms. It proposes a way of finding the “right level” of variables to use in characterizing the causal workings of a system, whether we should be describing causal relations in psychological rather than biological terms. It argues that a notion of “soft” intervention is needed when discussing causation by reasons. Finally, we can make sense of the idea of causation without mechanisms, and we may have to do that when we are considering the outcomes of combinations of psychological and biological variables.
Learning From Doing
Authors: Schulz Laura , Kushnir Tamar , Gopnik Alison 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter starts from the premise that much of children's knowledge takes the form of abstract, coherent, causal claims that are learned from, and defeasible by, evidence. This view is consistent with an interventionist view of causal knowledge, formalized in computational models using causal Bayes net representations. The chapter reviews empirical studies suggesting that, consistent with this account, preschoolers use patterns of evidence to: a) create novel, effective interventions; b) infer the structure of causal relationships, including relationships involving unobserved causes; c) accurately predict distinct outcomes from observed evidence and evidence generated by interventions; d) integrate novel evidence with prior beliefs; and e) distinguish informative interventions from confounded ones.
Interactions Between Causal and Statistical Learning
Authors: Sobel David M. , Kirkham Natasha Z. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Infants and young children appear to have powerful statistical learning mechanisms that allow them to acquire predictive information about the environment. Children also appear to possess powerful mechanisms for causal learning, which allow them not only to predict their environment, but to explain, interpret, and intervene. This chapter examines the relation between children's causal learning and inferential abilities, and their ability to recognize statistical regularity. It proposes that while there is more to causal learning than just statistical mechanisms, statistical learning abilities — particularly abilities that infants appear to possess — might help to lay the foundation for a mechanism for causal learning. It describes how the literature on infants' statistical learning has informed what we know about children's causal learning abilities.
Theory Unification and Graphical Models in Human Categorization
Authors: Danks David 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Many different, seemingly mutually exclusive, theories of categorization have been proposed in recent years. The most notable theories have been those based on prototypes, exemplars, and causal models. This chapter provides “representation theorems” for each of these theories in the framework of probabilistic graphical models. More specifically, it shows for each of these psychological theories that the categorization judgments predicted and explained by the theory can be wholly captured using probabilistic graphical models. In other words, probabilistic graphical models provide a lingua franca for these disparate categorization theories, and so we can quite directly compare the different types of theories. These formal results are used to explain a variety of surprising empirical results, and to propose several novel theories of categorization.
Data-Mining Probabilists or Experimental Determinists?
Authors: Richardson Thomas , Schulz Laura , Gopnik Alison 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents a dialogue that is a distillation of a real series of conversations which took place at that most platonic of academies — the Center for Advanced Studies in the Behavioral Sciences — between the first and third authors. The second author had determinist leanings to begin with and acted as an intermediary.
Learning the Structure of Deterministic Systems
Authors: Glymour Clark 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Consider a system represented by a directed acyclic graph with variables as vertices in which represented variable is a deterministic function of its parents. Most engineered systems without feedback instantiate such structures, and so, at least to appearances, do many macroscopic, natural inanimate systems. Learning the graphical representation of causal structure without experimental controls is especially difficult for such systems, because while the Markov condition holds, faithfulness does not. This chapter illustrates the problem and describes a heuristic (and not very satisfactory) learning procedure.
Dynamic Interpretations of Covariation Data
Authors: kyoung Ahn Woo , Marsh Jessecae K. , Luhmann Christian C. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Many models of causal induction are based on covariation information, which depicts whether the presence or absence of an event co-occurs with the presence or absence of another event. In all covariation-based models of causal induction, events that are classified as the same type play an identical role throughout learning. This chapter reviews three sets of studies demonstrating that people treat the same type of evidence differently depending on at what point during learning the evidence is presented. The major thesis is that people develop a hypothesis about causal relations based on a few pieces of initial evidence and interpret the subsequent data in light of this hypothesis. Thus, depending on what the initial hypothesis is and when the data are presented, the identical data can play different roles. Such dynamic interpretations of data result in the primacy effect, varying inferences about unobserved, alternative causes, and the context-dependent interpretations of ambiguous stimuli.
Intuitive Theories as Grammars for Causal Inference
Authors: Tenenbaum Joshua B. , Griffiths Thomas L. , Niyogi Sourabh 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents a framework for understanding the structure, function, and acquisition of causal theories from a rational computational perspective. Using a “reverse engineering” approach, it considers the computational problems that intuitive theories help to solve, focusing on their role in learning and reasoning about causal systems, and then using Bayesian statistics to describe the ideal solutions to these problems. The resulting framework highlights an analogy between causal theories and linguistic grammars: just as grammars generate sentences and guide inferences about their interpretation, causal theories specify a generative process for events, and guide causal inference.
Two Proposals for Causal Grammars
Authors: Griffiths Thomas L. , Tenenbaum Joshua B. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
A causal theory can be thought of as a grammar that generates events, and that can be used to parse events to identify underlying causal structure. This chapter considers what the components of such a grammar might be — the analogues of syntactic categories and the rules that relate them in a linguistic grammar. It presents two proposals for causal grammars. The first asserts that the variables which describe events can be organized into causal categories, and allows relationships between those categories to be expressed. The second uses a probabilistic variant of first-order logic in order to describe the ontology and causal laws expressed in an intuitive theory. This chapter illustrates how both kinds of grammar can guide causal learning.
Paths to Filipino Youth Involvement in Violent Conflict
Authors: Maria Madelene A. Sta. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
The involvement of Filipino youth in violent situations is primarily found in their participation in the armed conflict between rebel movements — primarily the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), and New People's Army (NPA) — and the government. Their involvement is likewise evident in the commission of crimes against property (e.g. theft and robbery) and against the person (e.g. homicide and rape), and in their participation in gang and fraternity wars. This chapter describes the situation of young people who are involved in conflict (specifically, armed conflict) through a review of selected literature and data collected from published and unpublished documents, and from initial interviews and correspondence with various representatives from relevant government and non-government agencies. These sources were used to identify the reasons and conditions that shape the participation of young people in violent activities. Likewise, an attempt is made to explore the possible implications for developmental theory.
Youth Participation in Violence in Nigeria Since the 1980s
Authors: Akinwumi Olayemi 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Since the 1980s, Nigeria has continued to witness an unprecedented surge of ethnoreligious violence. The involvement of youth in these civil disturbances or conflicts is very disturbing. They are the foot soldiers, and in some cases “generals,” of the various ethnic militia groups that were formed in this period in order to defend the narrow interests of the various ethnic groups or individuals who established them. This chapter considers the factors responsible for youth violence in the country. It also focuses on the state reaction and measures to curb youth involvement in violence. It argues that until the state resolves the fundamental problems with the economy, especially in the area of employment, Nigerian youth will continue to be involved in ethno-religious conflicts. Second, it is posited that the youth should be involved in creating policies that directly affect them instead of being treated as mere objects of knowledge and policy. Third, fundamental survival techniques in the country must be dissociated from violence.
Social Transformation and Values Conflicts Among Youth in Contemporary China
Authors: Cen Guozhen , Li Dan 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter describes the challenges faced by Chinese youth with respect to their moral and social values that emerged as a result of China's shift from a command economy to a free market system. It presents studies indicating that Chinese youth have shifted from traditional collectivist values to ones consistent with pursing personal development. Material wealth and personal happiness have become salient values among Chinese youth. Positive virtues of patriotism, concern for others, and fundamental fairness are also evident in the values of contemporary Chinese youth. However, research has demonstrated that there are also some values/moral problems among Chinese youth today. These include less trust of social institutions, expectations that bribery and social influence are associated with success, and a reduced belief that one can resist such forces. These shifts in social values appear to be accompanied by a rise in the national crime rate of robbery and theft. The chapter provides an analysis of the cultural and contextual causes related to the rise of what we term moral and social values confusion. Finally, it offers a set of recommendations for educational research and practice that would ameliorate these problems.
Child Soldiers
Authors: Honwana Alcinda 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter analyzes specific social and cultural notions of health, mental health, and healing as they apply, in particular, to child soldiers' reintegration into society in Mozambique and Angola. It presents a number of case studies from Mozambique and Angola, and then considers why such understandings and practices are fundamental to the wellbeing of these populations. This chapter is organized in three main sections: the first examines the issue of culture and mental health by looking at Western concepts of mental health as cultural constructions; the second section deals with local concepts of heath, illness, and healing in Mozambique and Angola, and highlights the role of the spirits of the dead in processes of causation and healing of ill health; and the third section considers some of the therapeutic strategies employed by local populations in Mozambique and Angola to deal with mental distress caused by war. Community rituals to appease the spirits as well as cleansing rituals to purify polluted individuals are analyzed in this section.
Transborder Violence and Undocumented Youth
Authors: Solis Jocelyn 
Published: April 2010

AbstractThis chapter illustrates how cultural-historical theory is a potentially integrative means of analysis in the study of transnational immigration and youth violence. It identifies another negative outcome of globalization: transnationalization of communities in search of financial stability. In particular, it discusses the author's work with the Mexican community in New York, examining Mexican young people's experience of their identity in relation to the identities thrust on them by their political and economic status as undocumented immigrants in the capitalist system of the United States. It argues for the importance of focusing on individual experiences. Psychological analyses can complement sociological and political analyses, and can be incorporated in the study of youth violence and conflict in transnational communities in order to offer specific ideas for intervention.
Rules of Order: Process Models of Human Learning
Authors: Nerb Josef , Ritter Frank E. , Langley Pat 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
Science is concerned not only with data, but also with models or theories that explain those data. Because human cognition is dynamic and involves change over time, accounts of cognition often take the form of process models, which are sometimes called cognitive models. This chapter reviews the form such models have taken and their relation to order effects in learning. It begins by discussing the connection between artificial intelligence (AI) systems, including those from machine learning and computational models of human behavior, including some illustrations of the latter. It presents a computational model of order effects on a cognitive task, cast within a particular but simplified theoretical framework. It then explores more broadly the possible sources of order effects within such models and then briefly considers an alternative approach that models human behavior at a more abstract level. The chapter closes with some open problems in the area of modeling order effects and a charge to new modelers.
An Ordered Chaos: How Do Order Effects Arise in a Cognitive Model?
Authors: Gobet Fernand , Lane Peter C. R. 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses how order effects arise within EPAM (Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer), an influential computational theory of cognition developed by Feigenbaum and Simon. EPAM acquires knowledge by constructing a discrimination network indexing chunks, closely integrating perception and memory. After a brief description of the theory, including its learning mechanisms, the chapter focuses on three ways order effects occur in EPAM: (a) as a function of attention; (b) as a function of the learning mechanisms; and (c) as a function of the ordering of stimuli in the environment. It illustrates these three cases with the paired-associate task in verbal learning and with an experiment using artificial material. It also addresses some of the implications of this work for education, including how to order hierarchically arrangeable material, and the need to focus learners on important and relevant features.
All Is in Order
Authors: Sweller John 
Published: April 2010

Abstract
The chapters in this book provide an extensive survey of the viewpoints and methodologies that have been and can be used to study order effects in learning. Either implicitly or explicitly, each chapter includes assumptions about the structures and function of human cognition. This chapter similarly takes as its departure point a particular view of human cognition and the consequent instructional recommendations. That view derives from cognitive load theory, which is primarily an instructional theory. However, the instructional principles generated by its assumptions have provided further insights into human cognitive processes, which in turn have led to further instructional recommendations. The chapters of this book are discussed in light of cognitive load theory.
Understanding Restorative Justice
Authors: Beck Elizabeth , Britto Sarah , Andrews Arlene 
Published: April 2010

AbstractThis chapter offers a brief history of the restorative justice movement in the United States. In order to do so it contrasts retributive and restorative justice goals and their application. Restorative justice is described as a theory and process designed to address needs and harms following a crime. Additionally, the needs of victims and offenders are explored. Towards the end of repairing harm, the chapter also examines two restorative processes: Truth and Reconciliation Commissions; and Victim-Offender Dialogue. Most importantly, it brings together the death row families with restorative justice and makes the case that they need to be included in restorative justice theory and supported by restorative justice-based processes. The chapter draws from an interview with Bud Welch, who met with Bill McVeigh following Timothy McVeigh's destruction of the Murrah Federal Building, which killed Bud Welch's daughter, Julie Marie.
Death Penalty Trials
Authors: Beck Elizabeth , Britto Sarah , Andrews Arlene 
Published: April 2010

AbstractRestorative justice involves the identification of harm and processes for repair. This chapter explores the various ways in which family members of capital offenders have been pronounced guilty and punished by the criminal justice system, their community, and society. It examines community-based harm to include the media and the harm that results from being scrutinized by the community. It also explores harm that occurs from the criminal justice system. Issues raised regarding the criminal justice system include the treatment of family members, race, quality of defense attorneys, and presentation of evidence. The chapter includes a discussion of death row inmate, Troy Davis, who is gaining international attention to get the evidence in his capital case heard. It argues that the harms incurred by offenders' family members should be central to restorative justice programs aimed at capital cases.
Children of the Condemned
Authors: Beck Elizabeth , Britto Sarah , Andrews Arlene 
Published: April 2010

AbstractChildren of incarcerated parents hold multiple risk factors. This chapter explores the risk factors associated with parental incarceration, and adds the additional layer of a death sentence to that experience. Having a family member on death row is unique because loved ones experience greater stress due to a death sentence and because of the fact that visitation rules are often excluded from programs that bring together parents and their children. The chapter recounts the voices of both minor and adult children as children of and siblings to the offender. It argues that children desperately need help in being able to develop or maintain a relationship, if they so choose, with their older sibling or parent on death row; and that professionals need to know the unique effects associated with a death sentence.