bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Biodiversity-ecosystem function research and biodiversity futures: early bird catches the worm or a day late and a dollar short?
Authors: Solan Martin , Godbold Jasmin A. , Symstad Amy , Flynn Dan F. B. , Bunker Daniel E. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractArticulating the appropriate interpretation of biodiversity-ecosystem function research is fundamental to providing a tenable solution to the biodiversity crisis, but the gradual dissemination of results and ideology through the literature is inefficient and frustrates timely application of practical solutions. This chapter summarizes the core biodiversity-ecosystem function (BEF) literature then tracks the sequential flow of information to other scientific disciplines and to end users tasked with managing the environment. It examines how effective the BEF community has been in communicating the science and asks whether the discipline runs the risk of being an independent, primarily academic field that does not directly contribute to environmental policy or impending global scale problems. Despite consensus that biodiversity enhances ecosystem function, adoption of BEF principles by policymakers is lagging. If the benefits of our scientific products are to be realized, the information flow from science to policy needs to be more effectively managed and communicated.
Forecasting decline in ecosystem services under realistic scenarios of extinction
Authors: Duffy J. Emmett , Srivastava Diane S. , McLaren Jennie , Sankaran Mahesh , Solan Martin , Griffin John , Emmerson Mark , Jones Kate E. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractBiodiversity-Ecosystem functioning research remains incompletely integrated with practical conservation by inadequately incorporating the deterministic nature of biodiversity change, which frequently depends on traits that render species sensitive to environmental change. This chapter summarizes progress toward developing a trait-based framework linking empirical data on extinction trajectories, through subsequent community reorganization, to changes in functioning of multitrophic ecosystems. First, this chapter reviews data on traits important in mediating loss and decline of plant and animal species in nature. Second, we discuss how organismal traits may be linked to reorganization of communities via compensation and secondary extinctions following a primary extinction. Third, the chapter briefly considers how organismal traits relate to basic ecosystem processes such as productivity and trophic transfer. Finally this chapter reviews the small number of studies that have compared random vs. deterministic sequences of species loss, and show that deterministic extinction sequences lead to varied, and often stronger, effects on ecosystem functioning.
Microbial biodiversity and ecosystem functioning under controlled conditions and in the wild
Authors: Bell Thomas , Gessner Mark O. , Griffiths Robert I. , McLaren Jennie R. , Morin Peter J. , van der Heijden Marcel , van der Putten Wim H. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractPrimary production and decomposition by microbial communities underpins the functioning of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Microbial communities also provide economically important services such as degradation of pollutants; direct effects on primary productivity; and indirect effects of predation, phytophagy, or resource competition. This chapter's review recent experiments with constructed communities of microbes under controlled conditions. Our review reveals that, although there are many exceptions, most studies have demonstrated a positive relationship between microbial diversity and ecosystem functioning. However, studies of natural communities have reported a variety of relationships between microbial diversity and functioning, and no consistent evidence for a significant relationship has emerged. Regarding these inconsistencies, This chapter discusses the possibility that microcosm and field studies are investigating different parts of the same underlying relationship, and also the possibility that bias in microbe culturability or error in field measurements of biodiversity make comparisons difficult.
Understanding the role of species richness for crop pollination services
Authors: Klein Alexandra-Maria , Müller Christine , Hoehn Patrick , Kremen Claire 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses the role of flower-visiting species richness for crop pollination services. General arguments why flower-visitor species richness can be important for the mutualistic plant partners are described; highlighting the mechanisms that underlie flower-visiting species richness-pollination services relationships. The visualization and quantification of plant-flower visitor interaction webs are demonstrated and linked to crop pollination research. Current knowledge about the consequences of pollinator decline for the global food supply are presented and pollination markets for honey bees and other bee species are discussed using alfalfa as a case study. This chapter shows that conservation and restoration for high species richness is important to provide insurance and stabilise for pollination services interacting with nature in a changing world.
The economics of biodiversity and ecosystem services
Authors: Perrings Charles , Baumgärtner Stefan , Brock William A. , Chopra Kanchan , Conte Marc , Costello Christopher , Duraiappah Anantha , Kinzig Ann P. , Pascual Unai , Polasky Stephen , Tschirhart John , Xepapadeas Anastasios 
Published: September 2009

AbstractBiodiversity conservation confers social benefits at many levels. Although the gene pool is a global public good, many of the ecosystem services supported by biodiversity are regional or even local public goods. At all levels, biodiversity underpins the capacity of the system to deliver services over a range of environmental conditions. The economic problem addressed in this chapter is how to correct for (a) the failure of markets to signal the true cost of biodiversity change in terms of ecosystem services, (b) the failure of governance systems to regulate access to the biodiversity embedded in 'common pool' environmental assets, and (c) the failure of communities to invest in biodiversity conservation as an ecological 'public good'. The chapter reviews both the nature of the challenges posed by these failures, and the options for addressing them. It requires that we are able to correctly identify both the private and social decision problems, and hence that we are able to value those non-marketed environmental effects that are ignored in many private decisions. It further requires that we are able to identify governance mechanisms, institutions, and instruments that will induce private decision-makers to behave in ways that are consistent with the social interest. This chapter focuses on the institutional and policy options for securing the socially optimal mix of species, given the role of biodiversity in assuring ecosystem services over a range of environmental conditions.
The valuation of ecosystem services
Authors: Barbier Edward B. , Baumgärtner Stefan , Chopra Kanchan , Costello Christopher , Duraiappah Anantha , Hassan Rashid , Kinzig Ann P. , Lehman Markus , Pascual Unai , Polasky Stephen , Perrings Charles 
Published: September 2009

AbstractBy harnessing recent results on the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning to an assessment of the valued services that people obtain from the natural environment, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) has brought the analysis of ecosystems into the domain of economics. Ecosystem services are defined by the MA as the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems. Since the value of any asset is simply the discounted stream of benefits that are obtained from that asset, the benefit streams associated with ecosystem services may be used to estimate the value of the underlying ecological assets. Those assets are not the traditional stocks of resource economics – minerals, water, timber and so on – but the systems that yield flows of such things. This chapter discusses the value of ecosystems and ecosystem services. It identifies the main methods for valuing different types of ecosystem service, and the role of valuation in developing sustainability indicators. The sustainability of economic development requires that the value of the assets or capital stocks supporting development be maintained over time, and since capital includes produced, human and natural capital, it is important to understand how the value of ecosystems may be changing relative to the value of other capital stocks.
The Ediacaran emergence of bilaterians: congruence between the genetic and the geological fossil records
Authors: Peterson Kevin J. , Cotton James A. , Gehling James G. , Pisani Davide 
Published: September 2009

AbstractUnraveling the timing of the metazoan radiation is crucial for elucidating the macroevolutionary processes associated with the Cambrian explosion. Because estimates of metazoan divergence times derived from molecular clocks range from quite shallow (Ediacaran) to very deep (Mesoproterozoic), it has been difficult to ascertain whether there is concordance or quite dramatic discordance between the genetic and geologic fossil records. Here, using a range of molecular clock methods, we show that the major pulse of metazoan divergence times was during the Ediacaran, consistent with a synoptic reading of the Ediacaran macrobiota. These estimates are robust to changes in priors, and are returned with or without the inclusion of a palaeontologically-derived maximal calibration point. The two historical records of life both suggest, therefore, that although the cradle of Metazoa lies in the Cryogenian, and despite the explosion of ecology that occurs in the Cambrian, it is the emergence of bilaterian taxa in the Ediacaran that sets the tempo and mode of macroevolution for the remainder of geologic time.
Genomic, phylogenetic, and cell biological insights into metazoan origins
Authors: Nichols Scott A. , Dayel Mark J. , King Nicole 
Published: September 2009

AbstractOver 600 million years ago, the first multicellular metazoans evolved from their single celled ancestors. Although not recorded in the fossil record, the earliest events in metazoan evolution can be inferred by integrating findings from phylogenetics, genomics, and cell biology. Comparisons of choanoflagellate — microeukaryote relatives of metazoans, with sponges (the earliest known metazoans) — reveal genetic innovations associated with metazoan origins. Among these are the evolution of gene families required for cell adhesion and cell signaling, the presence of which catalyzed the evolution of multicellularity and whose functions have since been elaborated to regulate cell differentiation, developmental patterning, morphogenesis, and the functional integration of tissues. The most ancient tissues — differentiated epithelia — are found in sponges and evolved before the origin and diversification of modern phyla.
The mouth, the anus, and the blastopore—open questions about questionable openings
Authors: Hejnol Andreas , Martindale Mark Q. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractGastrulation is one of the major events during the embryogenesis of an animal. In addition to the formation of the germ layers it is often the time when the future axial properties and digestive openings become apparent and it is not surprising that this event plays an important role in hypotheses regarding metazoan evolution. A major difference between these theories concerns the structure of the alimentary canal and the relationship of its openings to the blastopore of the last common bilaterian ancestor. Here we review competing theories of bilaterian evolution and evaluate their plausibility in the light of recent insights into metazoan phylogeny and development.
The evolution of nervous system centralization
Authors: Arendt Detlev , Denes Alexandru S. , Jékely Gáspár , Tessmar-Raible Kristin 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIt is currently unknown when and in what form the central nervous system (CNS) in Bilateria first appeared, and how it further evolved in the different bilaterian phyla. To find out, a series of recent molecular studies has compared neurodevelopment in slow-evolving deuterostome and protostome invertebrates such as the enteropneust hemichordate Saccoglossus and the polychaete annelid Platynereis. These studies focus on the spatially different activation and, when accessible, function of genes that set up the molecular anatomy of the neuroectoderm, and specify neuron types that emerge from distinct molecular coordinates. Complex similarities are detected that reveal aspects of neurodevelopment that most likely already occurred in a similar manner in the last common ancestor of the bilaterians, Urbilateria. Using this approach, different aspects of the molecular architecture of the urbilaterian nervous system are being reconstructed and are yielding insight into the degree of centralization that was in place in the bilaterian ancestors.
The animal in the genome: comparative genomics and evolution
Authors: Copley Richard R. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractComparisons between completely sequenced metazoan genomes have generally emphasized how similar their encoded protein content is, even when the comparison is between phyla. Given the manifest differences between phyla and, in particular, intuitive notions that some animals are more complex than others, this creates something of a paradox. Simplistic explanations have included arguments such as increased numbers of genes; greater numbers of protein products produced through alternative splicing; increased numbers of regulatory non-coding RNAs and increased complexity of the cis-regulatory code. An obvious value of complete genome sequences lies in their ability to provide us with inventories of such components. This chapter examines progress being made in linking genome content to the pattern of animal evolution, and argues that the gap between genome and phenotypic complexity can only be understood through the totality of interacting components.
Reassembling animal evolution: a four-dimensional puzzle
Authors: Telford Maximilian J. , Timothy D. , Littlewood J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractDrawing from the recent literature and the contributions in this volume this chapter considers some of the recent progress made in the study of animal evolution and the hurdles that remain. Modern approaches to the study of animal evolution integrate palaeontology, evo-devo, phylogenetics, and data from genomes each in the pursuit of a greater understanding of homology as a means of revealing patterns and processes through time and across multiple levels of biological organization. Gaps in our knowledge are inevitable, but with caution, careful sampling and keeping an eye towards new technologies and opportunities, we should not be deterred from inferring the patterns and processes we wish to untangle.
1 The Changing Political Geography of Financial Crisis Management
Authors: Pauly Louis W. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn the wake of several financial crises that also now spanned national boundaries, pragmatic financial supervisors gradually built a workable regime around the principle of ‘home-country control’ — the government ultimately responsible for any particular coordinated response necessary to stabilize an interdependent system was the government of the state within which a troubled institution was licensed and clearly based. A truly integrated pan-European market, however, just as a truly global market, pushes such a regime past its limit. In fact, it is already the case that the emergence of certain large, complex financial institutions in Europe blurs the identity of the responsible government and opens the policy space for new supervisory approaches and common agreement on burden sharing. In principle and in extremis, that space can only be filled with an understanding involving the fundamental commitment of fiscal resources, and by the sharing of such a commitment by national authorities. For various reasons, the extent of that commitment may have to remain implicit, but it will only be plausible if credible structures are in place to coordinate responses in the event of emergency. The difficulty in putting these crisis prevention and crisis management arrangements in place exposes the political dilemma at the heart of the financial integration project, both in Europe and more broadly. Finance respects fewer frontiers, but fiscal politics remains geographically bounded. This chapter sets out the conceptual and historical context for understanding that dilemma, and in this light examines the contemporary evolution of policy responses.
Introduction
Authors: Martin Gunther 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This introductory chapter presents the aim of the book and sets out some of the principal questions of the topic. References to religious institutions and beliefs are analysed by contextualization of and differentiation between factors that may influence the choice and employment of such references, making it possible to state not just what types of argument Athenian orators used, but also when and how. Problems lie in the decision as to what to count as religious arguments and how accurately our texts represent what was actually said.
2 On the False Embassy (Or. 19)
Authors: Martin Gunther 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
In the first trial between Demosthenes and Aeschines, the former depicts his rival as a traitor who by accepting Philip of Macedon's bribes and acting against the interest of the Aeschines has effectively left the community of Athenians. Demosthenes uses references to cults, festivals, or ceremonies to support this political point: Aeschines has poured libations and sung the paean with the enemy, and he has caused disruption to an Athenian festival through his detrimental policies. Hardly ever does Demosthenes accuse Aeschines directly of being flawed in a religious way. The clearest instances of argumentation based on religion are the admonitions to the judges to heed the heliastic oath and therefore not to acquit Aeschines.
3 On the Crown (Or. 18)
Authors: Martin Gunther 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
A description of Demosthenes' position after Chaeroneia stands at the start of this chapter, showing that he defends himself not only against Aeschines, but also against the many accusations and the allegations with a religious background which Aeschines only exploits. Demosthenes turns arguments about his ‘Fortune’, described as a goddess by Aeschines, into a discussion of personal fortune, thus deflecting the debate to one of social standing. In the discussion of Aeschines' participation in the obscure rite of Sabazius, he does not make a religious point but ridicules Aeschines for his ignoble upbringing. In this way he removes the religious element, alluding to this aspect of the accusation only occasionally and after long preparation.
4 Dialogue: The restoration of humanity in Christ
Authors: Greggs Tom 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter is concerned with the issue of a non-binary or non-separationist soteriology. However, it advocates that divisive approaches to soteriology can only be countered with a particularist agenda. Thus, the chapter seeks to articulate an inclusivist and universalist approach to soteriology, which breaks through binary oppositions, but which is still grounded fully in the particularity of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The work of the Son is understood to be a work for all creation and not a matter of being an insider rather than an outsider. Only in recognizing this universal work of Christ can unhelpful separationism begin to be undermined on its own terms. The chapter seeks to explore further the possibility of a genuinely Christian universalism, giving interpretations and more creative readings of Origen and Barth.
5 The Present work of God: Subjectivity and the Spirit (Barth)
Authors: Greggs Tom 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter is concerned with the economy of the Holy Spirit. It seeks to redress the accusation (connected to the accusation of universalism) of Christomonism in Barth. It argues that for Barth's theology the economy of the Holy Spirit is the operation of God which allows for the place of faith and Christian existence within a universalist soteriology based strongly on the objective work of Christ: the Spirit allows this objective reality to reach the community and the individual. The chapter discusses the temporal ‘remit’ of the Spirit; the role of the Spirit in the reception of revelation; the operation of the Spirit in establishing Christian particularity and identity; Barth's concept of correspondence (Entsprechung); the Spirit's work in establishing human identity and particularity; and the role of the Spirit in eschatology.
8 Conclusion
Authors: Greggs Tom 
Published: September 2009

AbstractOffers a summarized version of the argument contained within the book, uniting the various strands of thought into a systematic and constructive statement. It then suggests some of the implications that this presentation of particularist universalism might have. These are in terms of ecclesiology, liturgy and homiletics, eschatological differentiation, ethics, politics, and inter-faith dialogue.
The WTO Dispute Settlement System
Authors: Van Damme Isabelle 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter sketches relevant features of the subject of analysis: the WTO dispute settlement system. This book on treaty interpretation by the WTO Appellate Body is essentially concerned with how the Appellate Body has used interpretation to simultaneously assert and justify its exercise of the judicial function in the WTO. This presupposes an awareness of the characteristics of this dispute settlement system, its jurisdiction, and the law that applies in adjudicating disputes between WTO Members. For that purpose, the chapter introduces the WTO dispute settlement system, its jurisdiction, the applicable law, and the applicable principles of treaty interpretation. It also contrasts the effect of authentic interpretations of the WTO treaty language with that of judicial interpretations, mostly from a practical perspective.
The Effective Interpretation of the WTO Covered Agreements
Authors: Van Damme Isabelle 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter seeks to establish how the Appellate Body recognizes certain values and systemic concerns in the WTO covered agreements through the principle of effectiveness. It also illustrates the relationship between the principle of effectiveness and contextualism. The function and meaning of the principle of effectiveness in the Appellate Body's interpretation of the WTO covered agreements illustrates why the ILC ultimately and wisely decided not to codify the principle. The principle is rarely the sole guidance and explanation for a particular interpretation. In most cases, it accompanies the application of other principles of interpretation and functions as a touchstone to review the possible meanings of the treaty language. The principle can also used be a vehicle to emphasize certain values in the treaty. This is common when an adjudicator continuously revisits the same treaty language.