bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
13 Industrial R&D Policy in Norway: Who Gets the Funding and What are the Effects?
Authors: Clausen Tommy H. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter presents an empirical analysis of contemporary Norwegian innovation policy with a particular emphasis on research and development (R&D). It investigates whether and to what extent the ‘national champions' strategy’ identified in the historical analysis in Chapter 4 persists in more recent policymaking. In the analysis, it is found that national champions are more inclined to get access to both development and research subsidies from Norwegian technology programs. The results also suggest that subsidies for ‘research’ within firms increase firm-financed R&D spending while subsidies for ‘development’ substitute such R&D.
Introduction to Reactive Gas Dynamics
Authors: Brun Raymond 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
The high enthalpy gas flows, associating high velocities, and high temperatures, are the scene of physical and chemical processes such as molecular vibrational excitation, dissociation, ionization, or various reactions. The characteristic times of these processes are of the same order of magnitude as aerodynamic characteristic times so that these reactive media are generally in thermodynamic and chemical non-equilibrium. This book presents a general introductory study of these media. In a first part their fundamental statistical aspects are described, starting from their discrete structure and taking into account the interactions between elementary particles: the transport phenomena, relaxation, and kinetics as well as their coupling are thus analysed and illustrated by many examples. The second part of the work is devoted to the macroscopic aspects of the reactive flows including shock waves, hypersonic expansions, flows around bodies, and boundary layers. Experimental data on vibrational relaxation times, vibrational populations, and kinetic rate constants are also presented. Finally, experimental aspects of reactive flows, their simulation in shock tube and shock tunnel are described as well as their applications, particularly in the aero-spatial domain.
Equilibrium and Non-Equilibrium Collisional Regimes
Authors: Brun Raymond 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter defines collisional regimes of gaseous flows, including equilibrium and non-equilibrium situations which are described with Euler equations. It examines monatomic and diatomic gas flows, with particular attention to vibrationally non-equilibrium flows of pure gases and gas mixtures. Boltzmann and Treanor distributions are also discussed. The evolution equations of vibrational populations or mean vibrational energy are presented, in particular for the case of the harmonic oscillator model and Landau-Teller equation. General cases of reactive flows are examined and reaction rate constants are defined for reacting gases including or not internal energy. In the appendices, physical models for internal energy modes, properties of the Maxwell distribution, and particular vibrational relaxation equations are presented for pure gases and gas mixtures.
General Aspects of Gas Flows
Authors: Brun Raymond 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter reviews the Navier-Stokes equations for a gaseous system in vibrational and/or chemical non-equilibrium, and proposes various forms. The equations are written in a dimensionless form so that dimensionless numbers are defined, characterizing the relative influence of the physical processes involved in the equations. Typical particular flows are presented such as one and two-dimensional flows, isentropic, and dissipative flows. Problems related to gas-solid and gas-liquid interfaces, flow stability, entropy and global balances, dimensional analysis, and magnetohydrodynamics are also briefly discussed.
Facilities and Experimental Methods
Authors: Brun Raymond 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter describes the main facilities used for the study of non-equilibrium flows, especially shock tubes and shock tunnels. The principles of shock tube operation are first reviewed and the disturbing processes, such as boundary layer effects, finite duration of diaphragm opening and transition are analysed. The main practical shock tube configurations are described as well as general measurement methods of pressure, density, and heat flux. Various flow vizualizations obtained in shock tube are shown. The description, operation, and calibration of free piston shock tunnels are presented, the source flow effects are analysed, and shock-interface interactions are discussed. A few results of heat flux measurements carried out in real flight are compared with computational results, emphasizing the catalytic properties of the walls.
Relaxation and Kinetics in Shock Tubes and Shock Tunnels
Authors: Brun Raymond 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
The first part of this chapter presents experimental data on vibrational relaxation times and vibrational populations obtained in shock tubes and shock tunnels. The corresponding methods of measurement such as interferometry, Raman diffusion spectroscopy, infra-red absorption, and emission are described. The TV and VV relaxation times and non-equilibrium vibrational populations deduced from these measurements are then analysed, and measurements of accommodation and exchange coefficients are described. In the second part, values of dissociation rate constants for various species are proposed. Time-resolved spectra of radiating species (CN, C2) behind strong shock waves are presented; they allow for the analysis of the kinetics of mixtures characteristic of planetary atmospheres. Experimental results of shock stand-off distances over blunt bodies obtained in shock and gun tunnels are compared to computed results. Experimental data on chemical catalycity are discussed. Finally, in the appendices, kinetic models for relaxing and/or reactive mixtures, simulation methods of emission spectra, and precursor radiation measurement in shock tube are discussed.
5 What it means (not) to know (number) agreement
Authors: Schütze Carson T. 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter explores how a language-acquiring child might ‘not know’ agreement. Ways in which such a child could be non-adultlike include inoperability of universal principles, incorrect parameter settings, incomplete/incorrect knowledge of inflectional forms, imperfect execution of grammatical computations, and production difficulties. Distinguishing these is illustrated with English and Swahili transcripts.
7 Variable vs. consistent input: comprehension of plural morphology and verbal agreement in children
Authors: Miller Karen , Schmitt Cristina 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents an experimental study that tests Chilean and Mexican children's comprehension of nominal plural morphology and subject-verb agreement. The main results of the study are that children exposed to reliable input associate the plural morpheme to an interpretation of ‘more than one’ by at least four years of age, while children exposed to variable and unreliable input are delayed in their comprehension of plural morphology. Instead, these children rely on subject-verb agreement when assigning number to nouns. The results of this research strongly indicate that variable and unreliable input delays the acquisition of grammatical morphology that is affected by that variability.
9 When movement fails to reconstruct
Authors: Guilliot Nicolas , Malkawi Nouman 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter on resumption argues for an account for reconstruction based syntactically on the presence of copies resulting from movement or ellipsis, and semantically on copy interpretation as indefinite or definite. Such analysis provides a straightforward explanation to major syntactic and semantic properties of resumption: availability of reconstruction within islands, lack of pair-list readings.
12 The diversity of dative experiencers
Authors: RÁkosi GyÖrgy 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter argues that two types of lexical dative experiencers need to be distinguished. Regular dative experiencer arguments are merged in unaccusative structures, but a natural class of unergative predicates optionally license low dative experiencer adjuncts and assign them a theta role. The differences between the two dative types are discussed and explained in a lexicalist framework.
17 Acquisition of plurality in a language without plurality
Authors: Munn Alan , Zhang Xiaofei , Schmitt Cristina 
Published: May 2009

AbstractMandarin Chinese has no marking for either plurality or definiteness on bare nominals, but has a portmanteau morpheme -men which encodes both plurality and definiteness. This chapter shows that the distinct properties of -men are learned at different times, and that the younger children have a strong bias to treat definite NPs, whether bare or with -men, as generic.
5 The Construction of an Asset Index
Authors: Moser Caroline , Felton Andrew 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter applies principal components analysis to panel data from urban Ecuador (collected over 1978-2004) and constructs an asset index to measure asset accumulation. The chosen assets are: physical capital (including housing); financial/productive capital; human capital and social capital (natural capital is not included as this is an urban study). It is shown that grouping a large number of assets into a smaller number of dimensions facilitates an intermediate level of analysis. By examining how households allocate their resources using an asset index, the analysis of specific poverty mechanics is possible without examining an overwhelming quantity of individual variables. Asset indices are an important complement to pure income data because they paint a clearer picture of the strategies households in various income groups have employed to acquire different types of assets, and because they provide clues to poverty alleviation.
7 Poverty in Time
Authors: Davis Peter 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses the usefulness of a life history method for analysing poverty dynamics in developing country contexts, using findings from a study in the Kushtia district in Bangladesh. Among the advantages of using life history methodology in studies of poverty dynamics include a much longer and more detailed interview which can take place without boring the respondent, mainly because of the fascination we all have with life histories when they are discussed and depicted. A life history approach also allows for a different type of analysis to occur. Lifecycle patterns can be identified, patterns of complex causation emerge, and individual episodes of crisis, coping, and opportunity can be seen within the interrelated and wider context of national, community, and family trajectories.
9 Bringing Politics Back into Poverty Analysis
Authors: Harriss John 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter argues that most poverty research is working with a model of knowledge from the natural sciences: that is to say, there are objective facts to be discovered; methods for uncovering these facts improve over time as better techniques are discovered and employed; and, predictive theories that can be universally applied across all societies will eventually emerge. However, this approach is doomed to disappointment, because the focus is on measurement and on the characteristics of individuals and households with very little attention to the structural processes that move people in and out of poverty. It highlights similarities between the new asset-based approaches and research during the 1970s on agrarian differentiation and class formation.
12 Investments, Bequests, and Public Policy
Authors: Quisumbing Agnes R. 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the factors that impede the transfer of human and physical capital (assets), forms of wealth for which there is more empirical evidence. Section 12.2 uses a conceptual framework of wealth transfers to highlight barriers the poor may face in transferring wealth to the next generation. Section 12.3 illustrates various aspects of the conceptual framework using empirical evidence from developing countries, focusing on: (1) the role of credit constraints in preventing optimal investments in human capital and asset transfers; (2) the role of gender differences in schooling and assets in perpetuating unequal lifetime incomes; and (3) the role of the marriage market and assortative matching in perpetuating asset inequality across families and across generations. Section 12.4 examines the scope for public policy in relieving constraints to the poor in accumulation and transferring wealth to the next generation.
13 Questioning the Power of Resilience
Authors: Boyden Jo , Cooper Elizabeth 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses the question of whether studies of resilience are useful for research and practice concerning children's poverty and the life course and intergenerational transmission of poverty. Based on a review of the increasing exercise of the resilience concept in various fields of research, it is argued that resilience has not yet been demonstrated as a valid analytical tool for poverty research. So far resilience has achieved neither a sufficiently functional definition nor a credible theory by which to identify its existence.
14 The Social Distribution of Sanctioned Harm
Authors: Green Maia 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents an anthropological take on the concept of chronic poverty. An anthropological approach places social construction at the centre of enquiry, considering how concepts come to inform the practice of those who are the subjects of study and the classificatory practices through which analysis is conducted. This reflexivity differentiates anthropology from other social sciences. Anthropological perspectives on the constitution of development categories not only provide a qualitative understanding of the social processes through which such classificatory systems come to have salience. In exposing how the social is constituted as a category of organization and analysis, anthropology sheds light on the delineations of the social in other social sciences and hence on the explanatory limits of what is represented as social analysis.
History and Definitions
Authors: Morgera Elisa 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter introduces the basic concepts and background references for the study. It illustrates the increasing attention of the international community at major global conferences to corporate environmental accountability and responsibility. Corporate accountability is initially circumscribed to the answerability of private companies to public expectations based on international environmental standards. This are the reasonable means to ensure the transparency and openness to all stakeholders of private companies' operations and decision-making, and to means to encourage the prevention of environmental harm or even a proactive contribution to the attainment of sustainable development by private companies. Corporate accountability is then differentiated from the idea of corporate responsibility, which focuses more on obligations or at least on result-oriented expectations for the conduct of the private sector and which seems still much more controversial at the intergovernmental level.
The UN and the OECD: Parallel or Convergent Paths?
Authors: Morgera Elisa 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter is based on an analysis and comparison of the instruments elaborated in the framework of the United Nations and the Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation. It serves to assess whether a significant convergence in the choice of international environmental standards for private companies is occurring. Such assessment provides further historical and conceptual background to this research, in highlighting the different approaches adopted to ensure the responsible conduct of the private sector and the different processes and actors involved in the definition of these standards. Notwithstanding the different levels of international acceptance and the different approaches of these initiatives, the analysis of these instruments led to the identification of a striking convergence of selected international environmental standards for corporate accountability.
Standard-setting by International Financial Institutions
Authors: Morgera Elisa 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter offers an assessment of the international environmental standards utilized by international financial institutions to review private companies' projects eligibility for funding and to set conditions in loan agreements. It further explores the extent to which these standards are based on international environmental law, and the extent to which they are expected to be taken into account directly by private companies. The chapter focuses in particular on the most recent environmental Performance Standards launched in early 2006 by the International Finance Corporation (IFC), which clearly defined the standards for the environmentally acceptable conduct of private companies in accordance with specific international environmental treaties and initiatives.
The Tools of International Financial Institutions: Conditions in Loan Agreements and Complaints Mechanisms
Authors: Morgera Elisa 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter analyses the environmental performance standards utilized by international financial institutions working with the private sector, with a view to suggest further means to strengthen their application and integration in contractual loan agreements. In addition, the role of international financial institutions' complaints mechanisms is also considered as avenue for victims of corporate environmental damage. Once again, the specific case of the International Finance Corporation is analysed in detail to formulate recommendations that may be of interest for other international financial institutions.
4 The Changing Face of Sodom, Part I: The Latin Tradition
Authors: Clark David 
Published: May 2009

AbstractChapters 4 and 5 constitute another pair of chapters, but this time the argument is that critics have been premature in finding evidence of same‐sex activity. Chapter 4 begins with a review of the biblical and patristic allusions to Sodom as a context for its study of medieval Continental and Anglo‐Latin interpretations of the narrative, discussing Bede, Aldhelm, Boniface, Alcuin, and Ælfric. It shows that religious writers in Latin associate Sodom with a range of sins, and not just same‐sex acts.
7 Heroic Desire? Male Relations inBeowulf,The Battle of Maldon, andThe Dream of the Rood
Authors: Clark David 
Published: May 2009

AbstractChapter 7 focuses on the construction of homosocial bonds, looking first at heroic male relations in Beowulf and The Battle of Maldon. It argues that the Beowulf‐poet here as in other matters remains ambivalent, but that the Maldon‐poet opposes what he sees as correct homosocial bonds to a cowardice stigmatized by associations with effeminacy and sexual passivity. It then contrasts the radical revaluation of masculinity and heroic passivity in The Dream of the Rood, paving the way for the later chapters' further analyses of vernacular religious texts which re‐envision gender roles and homosocial bonds.
9 Saintly Desire? Same‐Sex Relations in Ælfric's Lives of Saints
Authors: Clark David 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThe ninth chapter moves into Old English prose literature to study the interaction of different constructions of homosocial desire in Ælfric's Lives of Saints, where same‐sex relations are depicted as simultaneously natural and unnatural. Intense male loyalty inextricably fused with Christian faith is held up as an ideal in the Life of the Forty Soldiers, in contrast to male‐female sexuality which is repudiated. However, there are signs of authorial anxiety over the homosocial intimacy described in the martial saints' lives. A conversion model based on homosocial community in other Lives coexists with the threat of same‐sex desire, and this dynamic is compared to ways in which the eponymous transvestite protagonist of Æfric's Life of Eugenia reflects anxieties about gender and same‐sex intimacy in monastic contexts.
Republicanism and Crime
Authors: Dagger Richard 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter looks to the republican tradition of political thought for guidance in unravelling the problems that surround the analysis and practice of criminal law. It argues that republicanism can help us to understand what ‘the public’ is, how an action may wrong it, and why some of those wrongs should be designated crimes. It shows how a republican theory of criminal law draws on elements of the three neo-republican approaches: Pettit's (and Braithwaite's) emphasis on dominion, Huigens' emphasis on virtue, and Marshall's and Duff's emphasis on crimes as ‘shared wrongs’. These help explain the public stake in preserving some sense of community or solidarity where the law is concerned.
Tough on Punishment: Criminal Justice, Deliberation, and Legal Alienation
Authors: Gargarella Roberto 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
The literature on criminal justice in the last few years has been enriched by different studies connecting a concern with deliberative democracy with republican and egalitarian intuitions. This chapter takes that regulative ideal into account in order to reflect on certain real-life situations related to the application of criminal law in radically unequal societies, which suffer from high rates of criminality and ‘tough’ public responses to crime. The chapter is organized as follows. First, it describes the normative view, making some connections between criminal justice, a republican political philosophy, and a specific democratic theory, namely deliberative democracy. Second, it contrasts this normative theory with other alternative views, which also emphasize the importance of connecting (or re-connecting, or strengthening the connection between) criminal justice and democracy. Finally, this normative theory is used to reflect upon situations where the democratic legitimacy of the norms is heavily contested.
Ubi Ius, Ibi Civitas: A Republican Account of the International Community
Authors: Besson Samantha 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
The notion of international community is en vogue and pervades international law. Curiously, there are no shared understandings, however, among international lawyers about what this community is or should be. Without a clear conception of the nature, boundaries, and constituency of the community or communities concerned by international law-making and of the ways to link their interests and decisions back to national political communities, efforts made to institutionalize global democracy, or at least to develop mechanisms of international accountability are seriously hindered.Based on republican premises, this chapter argues that the international community should be conceived as a community of both States and individuals and constructed as multilevel, multilateral, and pluralistic. It refines the controversial criterion of inclusion in the international political community and addresses the vexed question of the responsibility for inclusion.