bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
International Organizations as Third Parties under the Law of International Treaties
Authors: Tomuschat Christian 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The rule providing that treaties do not produce rights or obligations for third states was taken from Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties I (Article 34) and inserted into Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties II with the appropriate modification ratione personae to international organizations. The rule was seen as a logical consequence of the fundamental principle of consent in international relations. Hence, according to the text, international organizations are protected against interference by third parties in the same way as states. However, no consideration was given to the question of whether the states members of an international organization stand in a special relationship to that organization. Practice shows that treaties elaborated within an international organization, although generally having a more restricted circle of parties, often impose specific duties on that organization. This chapter seeks to clarify the reasons justifying this practice and its limits.
Absolute Invalidity of Treaties and Their Non-Recognition by Third States
Authors: Gianelli Alessandra 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The 1969 Vienna Convention leaves to States parties a treaty invalid because of its conflict with a peremptory norm the initiative, and the choice of having the International Court of Justice declare the invalidity or of reaching an agreement to the same result. The Vienna Convention provides a similar solution with regard to the invalidity of treaties concluded as a result of coercion. According to widespread opinion, third States may not consider those treaties invalid independently from the parties' action. This outcome is particularly problematic, given that both are cases of so-called absolute invalidity, where nullity is the consequence of a contrast with rules of fundamental importance in contemporary international law. This chapter explores ways in which third States may invoke such an absolute invalidity, reaching the conclusion that through the well-established practice of non-recognition States have long declared their intention to consider treaties in such cases invalid, notwithstanding any lack of initiative of the States parties.
TheHomeric Hymn to Demeter
Authors: Richardson Nicholas 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter revisits key issues for the interpretation of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter since the publication of Nicholas Richardson's commentary on the poem in 1974. Issues examined include the Hymn's language and style in relation to other early hexameter poetry, its relationship to the cults of Demeter and Persephone in Eleusis, its structure and narrative, and gender conflict in the poem.
TheHomeric Hymn to Apollo
Authors: Chappell Mike 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter examines the controversial question of narrative unity in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo. A thorough review is undertaken of previous scholarship on the issue of whether the unified poem transmitted in the medieval manuscripts is composed of two originally separate hymns to Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo or, as several scholars have argued in recent years, was composed as a single hymn. It is argued that the weight of the evidence suggests that the Hymn was in fact composed of two originally separate poems.
The Earliest Phases in the Reception of theHomeric Hymns
Authors: Nagy Gregory 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter examines the earliest phases of the transmission and reception of the Homeric Hymns from the perspective of oral poetics and performance. Particular attention is given to the long Homeric Hymn to Apollo and the quotations and commentary on that Hymn by the fifth‐century historian Thucydides. Close attention is given to the performance context of the Homeric Hymns and their relationship to longer epic recitation. It is argued that the hymn did not form an independent genre in its earliest attested phases.
Lessons from the Past? Northern Ireland, Terrorism Now and Then, and the Human Rights Act
Authors: McColgan Aileen 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter dramatically recounts the history of civil rights violations in Northern Ireland and uses this to illustrate the continuing inability of judges to make a significant impact on civil rights outcomes. Recent responses to anti-terrorist laws and the use of torture demonstrate the same pattern of failure to intervene to prevent abuses of human rights. The fact that we are currently dealing with a repetition of the human rights situation in Northern Ireland provides little confidence in the capacity of any branch of government of civil society to avoid similar disappointments.
Parliamentary Review with a Democratic Charter of Rights
Authors: Campbell Tom 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses a type of bill of rights that draws on a political conception of human rights according to which the enumerated rights serve as a basis for enacting specific legislation. The proposed human rights regime is one in which a statutory bill of rights is used institutionally, not to service judicial review, but to provide the terms of reference for a variety of political mechanisms for agendizing, prioritizing, and developing a polity's human rights commitments within the mainstream democratic process. This chapter addresses the problem of how to arrive at a conception of human rights that is not tied to human rights law. It argues that human rights are best understood as a moral concept with a social, economic, and political focus, whose official articulation should be democratic and hence legislative. This involves identifying key human rights values together with those political and social institutions and practices essential for their effective realization, the prioritization and coordination of which is a matter for ongoing political debate and decision-making.
Beyond the Human Rights Act
Authors: Gearty Conor 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
In the context of current debates in the UK concerning the introduction of a bill of rights for Britain to replace or supplement the Human Rights Act 1998, this chapter examines how the language of rights has been deployed politically over the last ten years. It asks about the future of human rights in a Britain in which governing elites advertise their estrangement from the very idea. The government is more committed to the responsibilities of Britishness than the rights accorded to every human in the jurisdiction. The Conservative party prefers a more British-based bill of rights, focussing on liberties rather than political correctness. While we might consider replacing the language of rights by that of values and social justice, just as human rights extremists lost the battle over the Human Rights Act 1988 (not getting the judicial supremacy they desired) so a new bill of rights for Britain could be made into something that can help rather than hinder the democratic process.
12 Representational Semiotics
Authors: Auletta Gennaro 
Published: October 2011

AbstractAfter a short introduction on the meaning of representation, the crucial problem of the origin of representation is dealt with. Then, the main forms of representational process are considered. An important issue is that of connectionism and distributed networks. The classification of different types of representations (schemata and categories) as well as the issue of animals’ communication are also crucial. Then, this problem is considered from a slightly different point of view and dealt with together with the three main systems of representation.
Frege on Definitions
Authors: Horty John 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis book explores the difficulties presented for Gottlob Frege's semantic theory, as well as its modern descendents, by the treatment of defined expressions. The book begins by focusing on the psychological constraints governing Frege's notion of sense, or meaning, and argues that, given these constraints, even the treatment of simple stipulative definitions led Frege to important difficulties. This book suggests ways out of these difficulties that are both philosophically and logically plausible and Fregean in spirit. This discussion is then connected to a number of more familiar topics, such as indexicality and the discussion of concepts in recent theories of mind and language. The latter part of the book, after introducing a simple semantic model of senses as procedures, considers the problems that definitions present for Frege's idea that the sense of an expression should mirror its grammatical structure. The requirement can be satisfied, the book argues, only if defined expressions—and incomplete expressions as well—are assigned senses of their own, rather than treated contextually. The book then explores one way in which these senses might be reified within the procedural model, drawing on ideas from work in the semantics of computer programming languages. With its combination of technical semantics and history of philosophy, the book tackles some of the hardest questions in the philosophy of language.
Reported paediatric adverse drug reactions in the UK 2000–2009
Authors: Hawcutt Daniel B. , Mainie Pramod , Riordan Andrew , Smyth Rosalind L. , Pirmohamed Munir 
Published: October 2011

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT• Use of off‐label and unlicensed medicines in children is associated with a higher risk of adverse drug reactions (ADRs).• Spontaneous reporting systems such as the UK Yellow Card Scheme run by the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) are important in identifying signals of ADRs.• Up to 95% of all ADRs are not reported, despite current MHRA advice to report all suspected paediatric ADRs.WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS• Despite under‐reporting, the Yellow Card Scheme receives more than 2000 reports per year on patients <17 years.• Vaccines are the most commonly reported therapeutic class in children.• Nurses now report more suspected ADRs in children than any other healthcare professional.AIMS The UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) runs a national spontaneous reporting system (Yellow Card Scheme) to collect ‘suspected’ adverse drug reaction (ADR) data. MHRA advice is to report all suspected ADRs in paediatric (<17 years) patients.METHODS Data on all ADRs reported to the MHRA in patients <17 years from the years 2000–9 were supplied in two datasets, inclusive and exclusive of vaccines.RESULTS Of 222 755 ADR reports received by the MHRA from 2000–9, 31 726 (14.2%) were in children <17 years. The number of reports in 2000 was greater than in subsequent years (12 035) due to a national vaccination programme (Meningococcal Serogroup C conjugate vaccine). The median number of ADR reports per annum (2001–2009) for children was 2146 (95% CI 1801, 2575). Vaccines were included in 22 102 (66.5%) paediatric ADR reports, with Meningococcal Serogroup C conjugate vaccine reported most frequently (12 106 reports) and headache the commonest symptom (3163). Excluding vaccines, methylphenidate (653 reports) and atomoxetine (491) were the most commonly reported medications, and the most commonly reported symptom was vomiting (374). Reporting by nurses increased from 396 in 2001 to 1295 in 2009 (41.8% of all reports); reporting by doctors stayed constant. Reports from patients, parents or carers more than doubled but remained infrequent (1.5% in 2005, 4.0% in 2009).CONCLUSIONS Although under‐reporting is probably common, the Yellow Card Scheme in the UK receives more than 2000 reports per year on patients <17 years. Nurses now report more suspected ADRs in children than any other healthcare professional.
Subclinical Cushing’s syndrome: definition and management
Authors: Terzolo M. , Pia A. , Reimondo G. 
Published: October 2011

SummarySubclinical Cushing’s syndrome is an ill‐defined endocrine disorder that may be observed in patients bearing an incidentally found adrenal adenoma. The concept of subclinical Cushing’s syndrome stands on the presence of ACTH‐independent cortisol secretion by an adrenal adenoma, that is not fully restrained by pituitary feed‐back. A hypercortisolemic state of usually minimal intensity may ensue and eventually cause harm to the patients in terms of metabolic and vascular diseases, and bone fractures. However, the natural history of subclinical Cushing’s syndrome remains largely unknown. The present review illustrates the currently used methods to ascertain the presence of subclinical Cushing’s syndrome and the surrounding controversy. The management of subclinical Cushing’s syndrome, that remains a highly debated issue, is also addressed and discussed. Most of the recommendations made in this chapter reflects the view and the clinical experience of the Authors and are not based on solid evidence.
Antimicrobial effect of endodontic solutions used as final irrigants on a dentine biofilm model
Authors: Ordinola‐Zapata R. , Bramante C. M. , Cavenago B. , Graeff M. S. Z. , Gomes de Moraes I. , Marciano M. , Duarte M. A. H. 
Published: October 2011

Ordinola‐Zapata R, Bramante CM, Cavenago B, Graeff MSZ, Gomes de Moraes I, Marciano M, Duarte MAH. Antimicrobial effect of endodontic solutions used as final irrigants on a dentine biofilm model. International Endodontic Journal, 45, 162–168, 2012.AbstractAim  To evaluate the residual biovolume of live bacterial cells, the mean biofilm thickness and the substratum coverage found in mixed biofilms treated with different endodontic irrigant solutions.Methodology  Twenty‐five bovine dentine specimens were infected intraorally using a removable orthodontic device. Five samples were used for each irrigant solution: 2% chlorhexidine, 1% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), 10% citric acid, 17% EDTA and distilled water. The solutions were used for 5 min. The samples were stained using the Live/Dead technique and evaluated using a confocal microscope. Differences in the amount of total biovolume (μm3), number of surviving cells (μm3), mean biofilm thickness (μm) and substratum coverage (%) of the treated biofilms were determined using nonparametric statistical tests (P < 0.05).Results  Similar values of biovolume total, biovolume of live subpopulations and substratum coverage were found in 2% chlorhexidine, 10% citric acid, 17% EDTA and distilled water‐treated biofilms (P > 0.05). The lower values of the studied parameters were found in 1% NaOCl‐treated dentine (P < 0.05) with the exception of the mean biofilm height criteria that did not reveal significant differences amongst the irrigant solutions (P > 0.05).Conclusions  One per cent sodium hypochlorite was the only irrigant that had a significant effect on biofilm viability and architecture.
Sensitive cardiac troponin in the diagnosis and risk stratification of acute heart failure
Authors: Arenja N. , Reichlin T. , Drexler B. , Oshima S. , Denhaerynck K. , Haaf P. , Potocki M. , Breidthardt T. , Noveanu M. , Stelzig C. , Heinisch C. , Twerenbold R. , Reiter M. , Socrates T. , Mueller C. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract.  Arenja N, Reichlin T, Drexler B, Oshima S, Denhaerynck K, Haaf P, Potocki M, Breidthardt T, Noveanu M, Stelzig C, Heinisch C, Twerenbold R, Reiter M, Socrates T, Mueller C (University Hospital, Basel). Sensitive cardiac troponin in the diagnosis and risk stratification of acute heart failure. J Intern Med 2012; 271: 598–607.Background.  The aim of our study was to investigate the diagnostic and prognostic value of a sensitive cardiac troponin I (s‐cTnI) assay in patients with acute heart failure (AHF).Methods.  Sensitive cardiac troponin I was measured in 667 consecutive patients at presentation to the emergency department with acute dyspnoea. Three s‐cTnI strata were predefined: below the limit of detection (<0.01 μg L−1, undetectable), detectable but still within the normal range (0.01–0.027 μg L−1) and increased (≥0.028 μg L−1, ≥99th percentile). The final diagnosis was adjudicated by two independent cardiologists blinded to the s‐cTnI levels. Median follow‐up in patients with AHF was 371 days.Results.  Levels of s‐cTnI were higher in patients with AHF (n = 377, 57%) compared to patients with noncardiac causes of acute dyspnoea (median 0.02 vs. <0.01 μg L−1, P < 0.001). In patients with AHF, in‐hospital mortality increased with increasing s‐cTnI in the three strata (2%, 5% and 14%, P < 0.001). One‐year mortality also increased with increasing s‐cTnI (21%, 33% and 47%, P < 0.001). s‐cTnI remained an independent predictor of 1‐year mortality [adjusted odds ratio 1.03 for each increase of 0.1 μg L−1, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.02–1.05, P < 0.001] after adjustment for other risk factors including B‐type natriuretic peptide. The net reclassification improvement was 68% (P < 0.001), and absolute integrated discrimination improvement was 0.18 (P < 0.001). The diagnostic accuracy of s‐cTnI for the diagnosis of AHF as quantified by the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.78 (95% CI, 0.75–0.82).Conclusions.  Sensitive cardiac troponin I is a strong predictor of short‐ and long‐term prognosis in AHF that helps to reclassify patients in terms of mortality risk. Detectable levels of s‐cTnI, even within the normal range, are independently associated with mortality.
A conserved haplotype controls parallel adaptation in geographically distant salmonid populations
Authors: MILLER MICHAEL R. , BRUNELLI JOSEPH P. , WHEELER PAUL A. , LIU SIXIN , REXROAD CAIRD E. , PALTI YNIV , DOE CHRIS Q. , THORGAARD GARY H. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractSalmonid fishes exhibit extensive local adaptations owing to abundant environmental variation and precise natal homing. This extensive local adaptation makes conservation and restoration of salmonids a challenge. For example, defining unambiguous units of conservation is difficult, and restoration attempts often fail owing to inadequate adaptive matching of translocated populations. A better understanding of the genetic architecture of local adaptation in salmonids could provide valuable information to assist in conserving and restoring natural populations of these important species. Here, we use a combination of laboratory crosses and next‐generation sequencing to investigate the genetic architecture of the parallel adaptation of rapid development rate in two geographically and genetically distant populations of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Strikingly, we find that not only is a parallel genetic mechanism used but that a conserved haplotype is responsible for this intriguing adaptation. The repeated use of adaptive genetic variation across distant geographical areas could be a general theme in salmonids and have important implications for conservation and restoration.
Vulnerability curves by centrifugation: is there an open vessel artefact, and are ‘r’ shaped curves necessarily invalid?
Authors: SPERRY JOHN S. , CHRISTMAN MAIRGARETH A. , TORRES‐RUIZ JOSE M. , TANEDA HARUHIKO , SMITH DUNCAN D. 
Published: October 2011

ABSTRACTVulnerability curves using the ‘Cavitron’ centrifuge rotor yield anomalous results when vessels extend from the end of the stem segment to the centre (‘open‐to‐centre’ vessels). Curves showing a decline in conductivity at modest xylem pressures (‘r’ shaped) have been attributed to this artefact. We determined whether the original centrifugal method with its different rotor is influenced by open‐to‐centre vessels. Increasing the proportion of open‐to‐centre vessels by shortening stems had no substantial effect in four species. Nor was there more embolism at the segment end versus centre as seen in the Cavitron. The dehydration method yielded an ‘r’ shaped curve in Quercus gambelii that was similar to centrifuged stems with 86% open‐to‐centre vessels. Both ‘r’ and ‘s’ (sigmoidal) curves from Cercocarpus intricatus were consistent with each other, differing only in whether native embolism had been removed. An ‘r’ shaped centrifuge curve in Olea europaea was indistinguishable from the loss of conductivity caused by forcing air directly across vessel end‐walls. We conclude that centrifuge curves on long‐vesselled material are not always prone to the open vessel artefact when the original rotor design is used, and ‘r’ shaped curves are not necessarily artefacts. Nevertheless, confirming curves with native embolism and dehydration data is recommended.
The Péclet effect on leaf water enrichment correlates with leaf hydraulic conductance and mesophyll conductance for CO2
Authors: FERRIO JUAN PEDRO , POU ALÍCIA , FLOREZ‐SARASA IGOR , GESSLER ARTHUR , KODAMA NAOMI , FLEXAS JAUME , RIBAS‐CARBÓ MIQUEL 
Published: October 2011

ABSTRACTLeaf water gets isotopically enriched through transpiration, and diffusion of enriched water through the leaf depends on transpiration flow and the effective path length (L). The aim of this work was to relate L with physiological variables likely to respond to similar processes. We studied the response to drought and vein severing of leaf lamina hydraulic conductance (Klamina), mesophyll conductance for CO2 (gm) and leaf water isotope enrichment in Vitis vinifera L cv. Grenache. We hypothesized that restrictions in water pathways would reduce Klamina and increase L. As a secondary hypothesis, we proposed that, given the common pathways for water and CO2 involved, a similar response should be found in gm. Our results showed that L was strongly related to mesophyll variables, such as Klamina or gm across experimental drought and vein‐cutting treatments, showing stronger relationships than with variables included as input parameters for the models, such as transpiration. Our findings were further supported by a literature survey showing a close link between L and leaf hydraulic conductance (Kleaf = 31.5 × L−0.43, r2 = 0.60, n = 24). The strong correlation found between L, Klamina and gm supports the idea that water and CO2 share an important part of their diffusion pathways through the mesophyll.
Minimal influence of G‐protein null mutations on ozone‐induced changes in gene expression, foliar injury, gas exchange and peroxidase activity in Arabidopsis thaliana L.
Authors: BOOKER FITZGERALD , BURKEY KENT , MORGAN PATRICK , FISCUS EDWIN , JONES ALAN 
Published: October 2011

ABSTRACTOzone (O3) uptake by plants leads to an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the intercellular space of leaves and induces signalling processes reported to involve the membrane‐bound heterotrimeric G‐protein complex. Therefore, potential G‐protein‐mediated response mechanisms to O3 were compared between Arabidopsis thaliana L. lines with null mutations in the α‐ and β‐subunits (gpa1‐4, agb1‐2 and gpa1‐4/agb1‐2) and Col‐0 wild‐type plants. Plants were treated with a range of O3 concentrations (5, 125, 175 and 300 nL L−1) for 1 and 2 d in controlled environment chambers. Transcript levels of GPA1, AGB1 and RGS1 transiently increased in Col‐0 exposed to 125 nL L−1 O3 compared with the 5 nL L−1 control treatment. However, silencing of α and β G‐protein genes resulted in little alteration of many processes associated with O3 injury, including the induction of ROS‐signalling genes, increased leaf tissue ion leakage, decreased net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance, and increased peroxidase activity, especially in the leaf apoplast. These results indicated that many responses to O3 stress at physiological levels were not detectably influenced by α and β G‐proteins.