bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Interaction Trap/Two‐Hybrid System to Identify Interacting Proteins
Authors: Golemis Erica A. , Serebriiskii Ilya , Finley Russell L. , Kolonin Mikhail G. , Gyuris Jeno , Brent Roger 
Published: December 2011

AbstractThe yeast two‐hybrid method (or interaction trap) is a powerful technique for detecting protein interactions. The procedure is performed using transcriptional activation of a dual reporter system in yeast to identify interactions between a protein of interest (the bait protein) and the candidate proteins for interaction. The method can be used to screen a protein library for interactions with a bait protein or to test for association between proteins that are expected to interact based on prior evidence. Interaction mating facilitates the screening of a library with multiple bait proteins.Curr. Protoc. Cell Biol. 53:17.3.1‐17.3.35. © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Methods for Growing and Titrating African Swine Fever Virus: Field and Laboratory Samples
Authors: Carrascosa Angel L. , Bustos M. Jose , de Leon Patricia 
Published: December 2011

AbstractGrowing African swine fever virus (ASFV) isolates obtained mainly from the field, but also engineered in the laboratory, is a critical step for diagnosis, titration, or virus infection studies. This unit describes a set of methods and protocols to produce and titrate any ASFV strain in cell cultures. The procedures include (1) basic techniques to prepare virus‐sensitive target cells; (2) strategies for growth, concentration, and purification of virus stocks; and (3) the semi‐quantitative (end dilution) and quantitative (plaque) assays for the determination of viral titers, and the use of different ASFV‐sensitive cells as targets for virus production and titration. Curr. Protoc. Cell Biol. 53:26.14.1‐26.14.25. © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Aluminum: Inorganic Chemistry
Authors: Apblett Allen W. 
Published: December 2011

AbstractAluminum is the most abundant metal to be found in the earth's crust (8.1%). It is component of gemstones and many common minerals such as granite and clays. Aluminum is a very reactive metal and is not found in an uncombined form in nature. However, the use of its compounds has a very long history. For example, the ancient Greeks and Romans used alum as an astringent and as a mordant in dyeing. The pure metal was isolated first by Wohler in 1827. The modern method for obtaining aluminum metal is the electrolysis of alumina dissolved in cryolite. Aluminum can also be produced from clay, but the process is not economically feasible at present.Pure aluminum, a silvery‐white metal, possesses many desirable characteristics. It is light, nonmagnetic, and nonsparking, and is second amongst all metals in the scale of malleability, and sixth in ductility. It is extensively used for kitchen utensils, outside building materials, airplanes, and in thousands of industrial applications where a strong, light, easily constructed material is needed. Pure aluminum is soft and lacks strength, but when it is alloyed with small amounts of copper, silicon, magnesium, manganese, or other elements these shortcomings can be circumvented. The aluminum compounds of greatest importance are aluminum oxide, aluminum sulfate, aluminum potassium sulfate (alum), and aluminum halides. The oxide, alumina, occurs naturally as ruby (Al2O3), sapphire, corundum, and emery, and is used in glassmaking and refractory ceramic materials. Synthetic ruby and sapphire are used in lasers for producing coherent light. Aluminum nitride, phosphide, and antimonide are important materials for the semiconductor industry. Aluminum halides and oxides are also very important catalyst supports.
Analytical Chemistry of the Transition ElementsBased in part on the article Analytical Chemistry of the Transition Elements by Harry M. N. H. Irving & Alan T. Hutton which appeared in theEncyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, First Edition.
Authors: Hutton Alan T. 
Published: December 2011

AbstractThis article is concerned with the determination of what transition elements are present in a sample and their concentration. After considering the general nature of the problems confronting the analyst, a historical overview is given describing the development of the analytical chemistry of the transition elements from biblical times through to the nascent technologies of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. After a brief consideration of the treatment required by materials to get them in a form suitable for analysis, for example, sampling and digestion, the classical methods of gravimetry and titrimetry are discussed, with special emphasis on the use of organic reagents and on complexometric determinations using ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). The role of organic reagents is also seen to be important in spectrophotometric analysis or absorptiometry. Consideration is next given to the various modern instrumental techniques available for analysis of the transition elements, starting with various forms of atomic emission spectroscopy but giving emphasis to the inductively coupled plasma (ICP) sources. The widely used technique of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is next described, along with its many applications for the determination of transition elements in many diverse materials, from body fluids to engine oils. The modern day importance of X‐ray fluorescence (XRF) is highlighted in a discussion of X‐ray methods, while the technique of neutron activation analysis dominates the section on activation methods, this approach being of particular importance where a nondestructive analysis is essential, for example, of a museum artifact. Finally, brief consideration is given to the importance of the platinum group metals (PGMs) and the special analytical problems that they present.
Antimony: Organometallic ChemistryBased in part on the article Antimony: Organometallic Chemistry by Alan Berry which appeared in theEncyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, First Edition.
Authors: Breunig Hans Joachim 
Published: December 2011

AbstractThis article presents a concise overview on the chemistry of organoantimony compounds containing one or more Sb–C bonds. It deals with homoleptic molecules where Sb is bonded exclusively to organic groups R, for example tri‐ or pentorganyls of antimony, and with heteroleptic derivatives where RnSb groups (n = 1, 2, 4) are bonded to other elements. Not only compounds with single bonds between Sb and C but also molecules with double bond character are considered.
Arsenic: Organoarsenic Chemistry
Authors: Krannich Larry K. , Watkins Charles L. 
Published: December 2011

AbstractThis review surveys the chemistry, reactivity, spectroscopic, and structural aspects of several major classes of organometallic arsenic compounds over the time period of 1760 through 2003. These compounds are the core of the field and represent the major areas of research thrusts during this period. We draw heavily from several books, monographs, and review articles to review the primary synthetic routes and reactivity. The primary literature is referenced for all developments that have occurred since the last published review articles. After an extensive review of the fully substituted and AsH bond containing organoarsenic compounds, the focus is on compounds containing AsHalogen, As group 13, As group 14, As group 15, and AsO bonds. Because of the efforts to synthesize As group 13 bonded compounds of the heavier group 13 elements, tables listing the known compounds synthesized after 1985 and their method of preparation are provided.
Bismuth: Inorganic Chemistry
Authors: Whitmire Kenton H. 
Published: December 2011

AbstractSolid state and molecular compounds of bismuth have many interesting and useful properties. In addition to bismuth alloys, this article describes simple binary compounds such as the bismuthine, bismuth halides, carboxylates, alkoxides, thiolates, dithiocarbamates and oxides are described in addition to coordination compounds based upon them. Some of these compounds have antibacterial and/or antifungal properties. They have also been used to treat gastrointestinal diseases. Also described are reduced bismuth cluster compounds and transition metal cluster compounds incorporating.
Bismuth: Organometallic Chemistry
Authors: Whitmire Kenton H. 
Published: December 2011

AbstractBismuth readily forms a variety of tri‐ and pentavalent organic derivatives by the reactions of bismuth halides with Grignard, organolithium, organozinc, or organoaluminum reagents. Bismuth(III) triaryl compounds are readily oxidized by chlorine and bromine to triaryl dihalides, while iodine reacts to produce aryl bismuth iodides. Some organobismuth compounds are Lewis acidic, showing the ready formation of higher coordination number adducts with traditional ligands. A variety of organobismuth compounds with bismuth–bismuth and bismuth–transition metal bonds are described. Organobismuth(V) have found uses as selective oxidants and aryl transfer reagents.
Bonding Energetics of Organometallic Compounds
Authors: Dorta Reto , Nolan Steven P. 
Published: December 2011

AbstractThis contribution gives an overview of solution calorimetric studies carried out on organometallic complexes in the last decade. A special focus has been put on a close investigation of metal–ligand exchange reactions involving different ligand and metal systems. Ligand substitution reactions are at the heart of many catalytic transformations, since creation of vacant coordination sites often require liberation of one or more ligands from the coordination sphere of the metal. Detailed analyses of phosphine‐, phosphite‐, and NHC‐ (NHC = N‐heterocyclic carbene) ruthenium, rhodium, and platinum systems show that enthalpies of ligand substitution reactions are associated to electronic and/or steric variation of the ligands. They can be explained in terms of different amounts of these two contributions to the overall enthalpy. Extensive calorimetric studies on ligand substitutions showed that cis disposition of the ligands leads to an overwhelmingly steric contribution to the enthalpy of ligand substitution, whereas trans disposition of the ligands gives enthalpy values that are highly dependent on the electronic nature of the ligand systems studied. Thermodynamic studies of addition reactions of organic molecules to metal fragments are equally crucial in catalysis and gave valuable thermodynamic data for CO, H2, aldehyde, acyl chloride addition reactions to catalytically relevant rhodium systems. Thermodynamic data for different reductive cleavage reactions of organic fragments involving molybdenum systems are also presented.
Boron–Nitrogen CompoundsBased in part on the article Boron–Nitrogen Compounds by Robert T. Paine which appeared in theEncyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, First Edition.
Authors: Bakus Ronald C. , Atwood David A. 
Published: December 2011

AbstractThe majority of this article details the many synthetic routes and compounds that can be accessed in combinations of boron reagents with amines. Lewis acid‐base adducts are the simplest type of compounds, and lead into the more complex aminoboranes and iminoboranes. Owing to their widespread importance and usage, the borazines, pyrazaboles, and polypyrazaolyborates are covered in separate sections. The newly emerging fields of boron–nitrogen cations and boron nitride solid‐state materials are covered in detail.
Cadmium: Inorganic & Coordination Chemistry
Authors: Borsari Marco 
Published: December 2011

Abstract

This article provides an overview on the chemistry of cadmium. Cadmium is a naturally occurring metal elements, being the 67th most abundant element in the earth's crust, and it is found in several minerals. Occurrence, production and applications have been surveyed, also in the light of toxicological and environmental risks joined to uses of cadmium. The usual oxidation state of cadmium is 2+ and its chemistry closely resembles that of zinc. The versatile coordination ability allows a wide variety of structure. Therefore, emphasis is placed on stereochemical aspects of cadmium chemistry, in particular on 1D, 2D, and 3D architectures resulting from assembly of Cd
2+
–ligand(s) units. The main compounds and complexes, ordered by metal oxidation state and ligand donor atom, have been examined in their properties and structural aspects, both in solution and in solid state.
Calcium‐Binding ProteinsBased in part on the article Calcium‐Binding Proteins by Natalie C. J. Strynadka & Michael N. G. James which appeared in theEncyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, First Edition.
Authors: Yang Jenny J. , Yang Wei 
Published: December 2011

AbstractCa2+is an important second messenger in the regulation of cell life cycle in addition to being an essential component in biomineralization. Ca2+mediates its action in regulation by binding to Ca2+receptors/proteins that in turn regulate signal transduction, enzymatic activity, and protein stability. During the past few years, owing to the fast progress in genomic information and structural biological studies, our understanding of calcium‐binding proteins has been greatly expanded. Since 1991, the structures of calcium‐binding proteins have been extended to more than 1000 today and calcium‐binding proteins are found in every cellular compartment. In this article, we will first summarize the current knowledge about the common properties of calcium‐binding proteins. We then will highlight recent developments in structural biology and biological functions of calcium‐binding proteins.
Carbides: Transition Metal Solid‐State ChemistryBased in part on the article Carbides: Transition Metal Solid State Chemistry by Peter Ettmayer & Walter Lengauer which appeared in the
Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, First Edition
.
Authors: Lengauer Walter , Eder Alexander 
Published: December 2011

Abstract
Basic properties and use of transition metal carbides and carbonitrides are presented in this article. Starting from crystal chemistry, bonding, and preparation, the article also briefly discusses analytical chemistry of chemical and physical carbon analysis as well as thermodynamics. Updated versions of phase diagrams of group 4, 5, and 6 transition metals with carbon as well as phase diagrams of FeC and MnC are presented together with those of the most important transition metal carbonitride systems TiCN and ZrCN. A large part is devoted to the solid‐state properties because they make carbides and carbonitrides interesting materials for application. The presentation of these properties includes hardness, thermal properties, conductivities, carbon diffusivity, and elastic properties. Some ternary and quaternary carbonitrides are also discussed. Several of these properties are given as a function of temperature and composition. Examples for application of carbides in modern hardmetal types such as recent development in fine‐grained hardmetals and functional gradient hardmetals are included. The topic is closely connected to the article Nitrides: Transition Metal Solid State Chemistry.
Cation‐Activated Enzymes
Authors: Glusker Jenny P. 
Published: December 2011

AbstractCation‐activated enzymes are those that require a cation for maximal activity but which still have some activity in the absence of the cation, that is, the activating cation is not an essential part of the enzyme mechanism. The cations involved are generally metal or ammonium ions. The metal ions used are generally Na+, K+, Mg2+, or Ca2+, those that are abundant in nature. In the last 10 years, many crystal structures of cation‐activated enzymes have been determined and, in these studies, potassium is the most common activating cation. The geometry of binding and possible conclusions about this activity are the subject of this review. Chosen for description are thrombin (a sodium‐activated enzyme), pyruvate kinase, dialkylglycine decarboxylase, diol dehydrase, inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase, and tryptophanase (all potassium‐activated enzymes), and alkaline phosphatase (a magnesium‐activated enzyme). In some enzymes, the activating cation is near the active site, but in others it is distant. This implies that its function in these two possibilities involves the modification of the charge distribution in the reaction center or else stabilization of the enzyme conformation most suited to the reaction to be catalyzed. These studies provide information on one way in which nature controls enzyme activity, and hopefully further studies will help us learn more possibilities for utilizing these enzyme‐control strategies in medicine.
Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, & Astatine: Inorganic ChemistryBased in part on the article Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, & Astatine: Inorganic Chemistry by Jacob Shamir which appeared in theEncyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, First Edition.
Authors: Lang Jian‐Ping 
Published: December 2011

AbstractThis chapter summarizes the occurrences, atomic structures, and molecular properties of the elements of group 17, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. The charge‐transfer complexes of halogens with different inorganic or organic compounds are outlined. The interhalogen compounds, especially those of polyiodides, are discussed with respect to their preparation and their structure varieties. The halogen oxides such as halogen oxide cations, halogen oxide fluorides, oxoacids and oxoacid salts, and halogen derivatives of oxoacids are discussed. Finally, organic polyvalent halogen derivatives, mainly including those of iodine (I), iodine (III), and iodine (V), are mentioned.
Chromium: Organometallic Chemistry
Authors: Theopold Klaus H. , Kucharczyk Robin R. 
Published: December 2011

AbstractStarting with Hein's investigation of the reaction of CrCl3with PhMgBr in the beginning of the twentieth century, chromium organometallic chemistry is now marked by an ever increasing diversity of compound types and formal oxidation states. Organochromium compounds such as Cr(CO)6, (η6‐C6C6)2Cr, and (OC)5CrC(OMe)Ph represent milestones in the development of organometallic chemistry as a whole. The lower oxidation states (−IV to +II) are dominated by chromium carbonyl complexes with 18 electron configurations, while midvalent compounds (+II, +III) often feature cyclopentadienyl rings and exhibit unpaired electrons. Organometallic compounds of chromium in its highest oxidation states (+IV to +VI) are still relatively rare, but this has been a growing area of late. Much of the interest in chromium alkyls is due to the metal's important role in the catalysis of olefin polymerization. Homogeneous model systems for the Union Carbide catalyst (Cp2Cr/SiO2) and the Phillips catalyst (CrO3/SiO2) still motivate much synthetic work. Applications of organochromium chemistry in organic synthesis are also becoming more numerous and useful.
Coordination Chemistry: History
Authors: Kauffman George B. 
Published: December 2011

AbstractThis article discusses a chronological history of the major discoveries, both theoretical and experimental, of coordination chemistry from antiquity through 2003. In view of Alfred Werner's central role in the field, considerable space is allotted to his achievements, but contributions of lesser‐known pioneers are also included. Some of the most historically significant coordination compounds are first discussed, along with several pre‐Werner theories of their formation, constitution, and configuration, followed by Werner's theory and his most important discoveries.
Copper: Hemocyanin/Tyrosinase ModelsBased in part on the article Copper: Hemocyanin/Tyrosinase Models by Nobumasa Kitajima which appeared in the
Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, First Edition
.
Authors: Shearer Jason , Karlin Kenneth D. 
Published: December 2011

Abstract

Coupled dinuclear copper(II) centers are found in metalloenzymes such as hemocyanin (Hc), tyrosinase (Tyr), and catechol oxidase (Co), and perform functions such as dioxygen transport,
o
‐phenol aromatic hydroxylations, and dehydrogenation of
o
‐catechols. These enzymes all contain two‐copper centers, each ligated by imidazole nitrogen ligands from histidine residues, and in their oxyforms are bridged by a μ‐η
2
:η
2
‐peroxo moiety. Synthetic model compounds have proven useful in elucidating a number of different aspects of the protein chemistry, such as spectroscopic and structural properties. Also, new coordination chemistry has been developed, such as a new and possibly important equilibrium form of the μ‐η
2
:η
2
‐peroxo‐

$\hbox{Cu}^{{\rm II}}_{2}$

species, namely, the

$\hbox{Cu}^{{\rm III}}_{2}$

‐bis‐μ‐oxo moiety. In conjunction with stopped‐flow kinetic studies, new fundamental reactions involving Cu
I
complexes and dioxygen have also been elucidated, such as the demonstration that an initial Cu
II
‐superoxo species is formed prior to

$\hbox{Cu}^{{\rm II}}_{2}$

‐peroxo formation. Both species are enthalpically favored at low temperatures, but an unfavorable entropy term precludes the isolation of many of these complexes near room temperature. Considerable efforts are directed towards elucidation of detailed mechanistic pictures for substrate oxidations with copper–dioxygen adducts.
Ortho
‐phenol hydroxylations proceed
via
an electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction. The mechanism of Co activity is still widely debated with evidence in model systems pointing towards both proton‐coupled electron transfer pathways, as well as direct hydrogen atom transfer reaction. Such mechanistic inquiries, and determining the differential reactivity of μ‐η
2
:η
2
‐peroxo‐

$\hbox{Cu}^{{\rm II}}_{2}$

and

$\hbox{Cu}^{{\rm III}}_{2}$

‐bis‐μ‐oxo complexes, are of continuing and future interest.
Copper: Inorganic & Coordination ChemistryBased in part on the article Copper: Inorganic & Coordination Chemistry by Rebecca R. Conry & Kenneth D. Karlin which appeared in the
Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry, First Edition
.
Authors: Conry Rebecca R. 
Published: December 2011

Abstract
Copper was one of the first metals used widely because the metal is fairly plentiful (among the 25 most abundant elements in the earth's crust) and can be found in its metallic state. In addition, the metal and its alloys have a number of beneficial qualities including ductility, malleability, strength, corrosion resistance, and high thermal and electrical conductivity, combined with an attractive appearance. Copper is also an essential trace nutrient for organisms ranging from bacteria to mammals.
Copper exhibits a rich coordination chemistry with complexes known in oxidation states ranging from 0 to +4, although the +2 (cupric) and the +1 (cuprous) oxidation states are by far the most common, with +2 predominating. Compounds of copper have found extensive practical usage, including as catalysts in both homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions, as fungicides, pesticides, and wood preservatives, as pigments for paints and glasses, and in the so‐called high‐temperature superconductors.

The coordination numbers and geometries of copper complexes vary with oxidation state. For the spherically symmetric d
10
Cu
I
ion, the common geometries are two‐coordinate linear, three‐coordinate trigonal planar, and four‐coordinate tetrahedral. Cu
I
compounds are diamagnetic and colorless, except where color results from charge‐transfer bands or a counterion; these complexes are often fairly readily oxidized to Cu
II
compounds. The d
9
Cu
II
ion is usually found in a tetragonal coordination environment, with four short equatorial bonds and another one or two longer axial bonds although complexes with other structures are known, including tetrahedral, square planar, and trigonal bipyramidal geometries. Most of the Cu
II
compounds are blue or green because of d–d absorptions in the 600 to 900‐nm region; exceptions generally also have charge‐transfer bands tailing into the visible, causing a red or brown appearance. Cu
III
complexes are typically square planar and diamagnetic.