bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
How the possibility of error affects falsification on a task that models scientific problem solving
Authors: Gorman Michael E. 
Published: April 2011

This paper reports an experiment in which groups of four subjects attempt to solve two related rules when they know that 0–20 per cent of the feedback they receive may be in error. Groups were randomly assigned to one of three strategy conditions: confirmatory, in which subjects were urged to propose experiments consistent with their hypotheses; disconfirmatory, in which subjects were encouraged to propose experiments at variance with their hypotheses; and a control strategy, in which subjects were merely urged to test their guesses by proposing more experiments.In a previous study using the same rules and strategy conditions, but no error, Gorman et al. (1984) found that disconfirmatory groups performed significantly better than groups in other conditions. In the study described here, this performance difference did not arise. About 60 per cent of the time groups immunized their hypotheses against disconfirmation by classifying disconfirmatory results as error. About 40 per cent of the time groups correctly recognized that there was no error, but spent so much of their time replicating experiments to make sure that there was no error that they failed adequately to test their hypotheses. The few successful groups used a strategy that combined disconfirmation with replication. Detailed examples of how groups handled error are discussed, as are the implications of these results for future research.
Understanding face recognition
Authors: Bruce Vicki , Young Andy 
Published: April 2011

The aim of this paper is to develop a theoretical model and a set of terms for understanding and discussing how we recognize familiar faces, and the relationship between recognition and other aspects of face processing. It is suggested that there are seven distinct types of information that we derive from seen faces; these are labelled pictorial, structural, visually derived semantic, identity‐specific semantic, name, expression and facial speech codes. A functional model is proposed in which structural encoding processes provide descriptions suitable for the analysis of facial speech, for analysis of expression and for face recognition units. Recognition of familiar faces involves a match between the products of structural encoding and previously stored structural codes describing the appearance of familiar faces, held in face recognition units. Identity‐specific semantic codes are then accessed from person identity nodes, and subsequently name codes are retrieved. It is also proposed that the cognitive system plays an active role in deciding whether or not the initial match is sufficiently close to indicate true recognition or merely a ‘resemblance’; several factors are seen as influencing such decisions.This functional model is used to draw together data from diverse sources including laboratory experiments, studies of everyday errors, and studies of patients with different types of cerebral injury. It is also used to clarify similarities and differences between processes responsible for object, word and face recognition.
Pictorial communication of abstract verbs in relation to human‐computer interaction
Authors: Rogers Yvonne , Oborne D. J. 
Published: April 2011

Graphic symbols, commonly known as icons, are becoming increasingly popular as a medium to present information about computer systems and their command operations. This paper considers the extent to which such pictorial representations can be generated for verb actions like those used at the computer interface and, subsequently, how effective they are in communicating their intended meaning.An initial experiment showed that the majority of subjects were able to produce drawings for a set of verbs, but found it much easier to do so for high imagery verbs compared with low imagery verbs. Furthermore, drawings produced for the high imagery verbs were considered to be the most representative and also had the highest stereotype strength. The types of representation found in these drawings were generally complex, depicting concrete objects in conjunction with conventional symbols and various line supplements. The results from this study are discussed in relation to various factors which contribute to the production of pictorial images and how these may affect the communicativeness of such images when used as icons at the computer interface.
Patterns of visual—spatial performance and ‘spatial ability‘: Dissociation of ethnic and sex differences
Authors: Mayes J. Terence , Jahoda Gustav , Neilson Irene 
Published: April 2011

Is there a common basis for the ethnic and sex differences that are characteristically obtained on psychometric tests of spatial ability? Three experiments approached this question by observing subject differences in the recognition and reconstruction of visual‐spatial displays. The pattern of performance on these experimental tasks was compared with that on a traditional spatial ability test.In the first experiment, two samples of 40 students, balanced for sex, from Zimbabwe and Scotland respectively, attempted a forced‐choice recognition task for meaningful scenes. Both ethnic groups and both sexes showed equivalent performance. The same subjects then undertook a task involving the reproduction of an arrangement of blocks into two‐dimensional plan and elevation views. On this task, involving spatial reorientation, the Zimbabweans made over three times as many errors as the Scots. In a third experiment the requirement for spatial reorientation was added to the original recognition task and this was performed by a further 40 subjects. A significant difference between ethnic groups now emerged and this effect covaried with spatial ability. Again, however, no sex difference was observed.The overall pattern of results points to spatial reorientation as a major factor in the cross‐ethnic differences. The absence of a sex difference on the experimental tasks contrasts with its appearance in both samples on the spatial ability test and represents a puzzling obstacle to our current understanding. This dissociation of sex and ethnic differences provides evidence against the hypothesis that they stem from the same source.
Typographic influences on reading
Authors: Lewis Clive , Walker Peter 
Published: April 2011

The research reported here comprises an empirical investigation of the phenomenon of typographic allusion. In a preliminary study, subjects rated the perceptual qualities possessed by different typefaces (e.g. heavy‐light, fast‐slow). The results indicated that subjects agreed as to typeface characteristics and that typefaces were distinguished by such qualities. In Expt 1, subjects undertook a speeded decision task in which they responded according to which one of four adjectives appeared tachistoscopically. Each word appeared in a typeface whose qualities were either consistent or inconsistent with its meaning. Reaction times for inconsistent stimuli were significantly slower than those for consistent trials. In preparation for Expt 2, the same rating procedure was used to elicit subjects’ judgements of the attributes of different animals. Subjects agreed as to animals’ qualities and such qualities reliably distinguished between the animals. The names of these animals were then used as targets in a binary decision task and each one appeared in a typeface possessing qualities which were either congruent or incongruent with those of the animal. Subjects responded according to whether they considered the animal presented on each trial to be heavy or light, or fast or slow moving. Responses on trials in which the animal and typeface possessed conflicting attributes were significantly slower than responses when animal and typeface qualities were congruent.These results are discussed in relation to current views regarding the processing of written English. We argue that typographic features of words are able to access a semantic code and that this code can interact with the derivation of a linguistic code specifying a word's meaning and/or with post‐lexical access decision processes.
Immediate memory in the orally trained deaf: Effects of ‘lipreadability’ in the recall of written syllables
Authors: Campbell Ruth , Wright Helen 
Published: April 2011

Immediate recall of written lists was compared in strictly orally trained born‐deaf teenagers and in hearing controls. The lists were of syllables of CV form (e.g. SHA NA ZA DA). The deaf subjects showed a significant effect of consonant ‘lipreadability’. Syllable lists containing consonants like D, SH and Z whose place of articulation is not visibly distinctive and which are therefore hard to lipread are less well recalled than (phonetically and orthographically matched) syllable lists containing consonants like F, TH and B which are produced with the tongue, teeth and lips in visible configuration. We conclude that for these deaf youngsters the phonological representation of written consonants is less secure for speech sounds that are hard, rather than easy, to lipread. The oral training of these youngsters has had an effect on their internal representation of written speech.Hearing subjects showed no ‘lipreadability’ effect in their recall of these lists. Reading‐age matched controls (aged 8−10 years) showed significantly shorter span for both list types than the deaf group. Older hearing controls (14−16 years) matched the deaf group in span and tended to recall most accurately written syllables which are not easily lipread. We discuss these comparisons and conclude that while this group of deaf subjects is using a phonological code in the recall of written syllables, it is qualitatively different from that used by hearing subjects in this task. In particular, not only hard‐to‐lipread consonants but also vowels may be less strongly represented in these deaf readers’ ‘inner voice’.
New light on novice—expert differences in physics problem solving
Authors: Priest A. G. , Lindsay R. O. 
Published: April 2011

It is now widely accepted that intelligent problem solving requires access to a source of domain‐specific knowledge, and the existence of a control system to constrain the manner in which domain knowledge is searched. An example of a domain which has been intensively investigated is problem solving in physics. A number of researchers have proposed mutually incompatible theories to explain the search control strategies used in this area. This paper looks at backward inference, schema‐guided forward inference, and planstacking (a form of meta‐level backward inference followed by forward inference at the object level). It also considers a proposal to introduce neural network modelling into the short‐term memory component of a production rule‐based problem solver.One widely reported finding (Larkin, McDermott, Simon & Simon, 1980), is that novice problem solvers in the domain of physics use backward inference as a search control technique, while experts use forward inference. The backward‐to‐forward inference shift has indeed become so entrenched that attention has already shifted from whether to how it occurs. In spite of its widespread acceptance, the empirical basis for this claim is somewhat fragile, and a major aim of the present study was to re‐examine it using much larger samples of experts and novices than have been employed in the past, and a methodology which does not depend upon protocol analysis.Our data show that both experts and novices exhibit a forward inference rather than a backward inference order of equation generation. Experts were more likely to be able to plan their solutions at a descriptive meta‐level than novices. While existing theories are able to account for some of these findings, none of them is completely satisfactory in explaining the full range of data.
Differences in vividness ratings of perceived and imagined patterns
Authors: Giusberti Fiorella , Cornoldi Cesare , De Beni Rossana , Massironi Manfredo 
Published: April 2011

The present research focuses on the different subjective experiences evoked by perceived and imagined matrices of letters of the alphabet. In three experiments adult subjects were asked to rate the vividness of a letter included in a matrix of letters which varied due to manipulations in colour, rotation and movement. Subjects were asked to observe (perceptual modality), draw and observe (drawing modality), retrieve (memory modality) or imagine (imagery modality) the matrices. For some manipulations of the critical letter (in particular, 45 degrees inclination and high contrast colour), the perceptual modality produced comparatively higher vividness ratings than the other two modalities. The perceptual effect of inclination was also duplicated with the memory modality group.It is argued that different visual processes, either immediate and pre‐attentive, or sequential and attentive, may be operating under voluntary control. Although visual imagery varies in some ways from immediate visual perception, the similarities found, between the drawing and imagery modalities, on the one hand, and the perceptual and memory modalities, on the other hand, suggest that they share some common underlying processes.
Psychology and information technology: The study of cognition in organizations
Authors: Clegg Chris 
Published: April 2011

This paper reviews a range of psychological research into the development and use of information technology (IT) at work. The overall purpose is to use this field of inquiry to argue the need to study cognition in organizations. The paper includes reviews of the literatures on human–computer interaction, the wider organizational aspects of IT, metaphors in use within organizational psychology, empirical studies of the development and use of IT, and some emerging work on situated action and distributed cognition.The paper ends with an outline of some topics that should be included in the study of cognition in organizations, describing some ideas on the interdependencies between organizational and cognitive issues, a worldview to guide this research, and a framework based on the division of cognitive labour.
Individual differences and strategy selection in reasoning
Authors: Roberts Maxwell J. , Gilmore David J. , Wood David J. 
Published: April 2011

Although individuals may use different strategies in order to solve reasoning problems, few attempts have been made to understand the processes that lead to strategy choice. One exception to this is work with the sentence‐picture verification task in which it has been found that high spatial ability individuals tend to use a strategy that involves spatial representations while low spatial ability individuals tend to use a strategy that involves verbal representations.The first study reported here attempted to see whether these findings would generalize to another simple reasoning task with a particularly inefficient spatial strategy. This was found not to be the case; low spatial ability individuals used the spatial strategy while high spatial ability individuals avoided using it. Three explanations were suggested for this based upon (a) spatial ability, (b) intelligence or (c) knowledge. Results of two further studies favoured the spatial ability explanation; individuals do not have explicit prior knowledge of the most effective strategy for this task, and the level of spatial ability determines the degree to which they are able to develop and evaluate the more effective non‐spatial strategies.
Can animals detect when their owners are returning home? An experimental test of the ‘psychic pet‘ phenomenon
Authors: Wiseman Richard , Smith Matthew , Milton Julie 
Published: April 2011

In his book, Seven Experiments That Could Change The World, Rupert Sheldrake suggested that the public carry out experiments to test whether pets can psychically detect when their owners are returning home. The first of these tests was undertaken by an Austrian television company and involved an owner in the northwest of England, Pam Smart (PS) and her dog (Jaytee). The test appeared remarkably successful and seemed to show Jaytee responding when PS set off to return home from a remote location.Rupert Sheldrake and PS asked the authors if they would like to carry out their own investigation into Jaytee's abilities. This paper outlines various ‘normal’ explanations that might account for the phenomenon and presents an experimental design that minimizes these possibilities. The paper then details the procedure and results of four experiments. Analysis of the data did not support the hypothesis that Jaytee could psychically detect when his owner was returning home. Finally, the paper discusses a possible reason for the difference in results of these studies and those carried out by the Austrian television company.
Pilot case–control study of paediatric falls from windows
Authors: Johnston Brian D , Quistberg D Alexander , Shandro Jamie R , Partridge Rebecca L , Song Hyun Rae , Ebel Beth E 
Published: April 2011

BackgroundUnintentional falls from windows are an important cause of paediatric morbidity. There have been no controlled studies to identify modifiable environmental risk factors for window falls in young children. The authors have piloted a case–control study to test procedures for case identification, subject enrolment, and environmental data collection.MethodsCase windows were identified when a child 0–9 years old presented for care after a fall from that window. Control windows were identified (1) from the child's home and (2) from the home of an age- and gender-matched child seeking care for an injury diagnosis not related to a window fall. Study staff visited enrolled homes to collect window measurements and conduct window screen performance tests.ResultsThe authors enrolled and collected data on 18 case windows, 18 in-home controls, and 14 matched community controls. Six potential community controls were contacted for every one enrolled. Families who completed the home visit viewed study procedures positively. Case windows were more likely than community controls to be horizontal sliders (100% vs 50%), to have deeper sills (6.28 vs 4.31 inches), to be higher above the exterior surface (183 vs 82 inches), and to have screens that failed below a threshold derived from the static pressure of a 3-year-old leaning against the mesh (60.0% vs 16.7%). Case windows varied very little from in-home controls.DiscussionCase–control methodology can be used to study risk factors for paediatric falls from windows. Recruitment of community controls is challenging but essential, because in-home controls tend to be over-matched on important variables. A home visit allows direct measurement of window type, height, sill depth, and screen performance. These variables should all be investigated in subsequent, larger studies covering major housing markets.
Why and how do journals retract articles? An analysis of Medline retractions 1988–2008
Authors: Wager Elizabeth , Williams Peter 
Published: April 2011

BackgroundJournal editors are responsible for what they publish and therefore have a duty to correct the record if published work is found to be unreliable. One method for such correction is retraction of an article. Anecdotal evidence suggested a lack of consistency in journal policies and practices regarding retraction. In order to develop guidelines, we reviewed retractions in Medline to discover how and why articles were retracted.MethodsWe retrieved all available Medline retractions from 2005 to 2008 and a one-in-three random selection of those from 1988 to 2004. This yielded 312 retractions (from a total of 870). Details of the retraction including the reason for retraction were recorded by two investigators.ResultsMedline retractions have increased sharply since 1980 and currently represent 0.02% of included articles. Retractions were issued by authors (63%), editors (21%), journals (6%), publishers (2%) and institutions (1%). Reasons for retraction included honest error or non-replicable findings (40%), research misconduct (28%), redundant publication (17%) and unstated/unclear (5%). Some of the stated reasons might have been addressed by corrections.ConclusionsJournals' retraction practices are not uniform. Some retractions fail to state the reason, and therefore fail to distinguish error from misconduct. We have used our findings to inform guidelines on retractions.
RAMAN FREQUENCIES CALCULATED FROM THE VOLUME DATA AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE AT HIGH PRESSURES FOR THE DISORDERED PHASE II OF NH4I
Authors: YURTSEVEN H. , KAVRUK D. 
Published: April 2011

In this study, we calculate the Raman frequencies as a function of temperature for the fixed pressures of 706, 1080 and 6355 bars using the volume data for phase II of ammonium iodide. The Raman frequencies calculated here are for the translational optic ν5 TO M (125 cm -1) lattice mode that is located at the zone boundary (M point) of the Brillouin zone of phase II for NH 4 I . For this calculation the volume data obtained at zero pressure, is used through the mode Grüneisen parameter for the disordered phase II (β phase) which has the CsCl structure of NH 4 I . Our predicted frequencies of the ν5 TO M (125 cm -1) mode can be compared when the Raman data for this lattice mode is available at various temperatures for fixed pressures of 706, 1080 and 6355 bars in the disordered phase II of ammonium iodide.
In vivoInhibition of Human CD19-Targeted Effector T Cells by Natural T Regulatory Cells in a Xenotransplant Murine Model of B Cell Malignancy
Authors: Lee James C. , Hayman Erik , Pegram Hollie J. , Santos Elmer , Heller Glenn , Sadelain Michel , Brentjens Renier 
Published: April 2011

AbstractHuman T cells genetically modified to express chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) specific to the B cell tumor antigen CD19 can successfully eradicate systemic human CD19+ tumors in immunocompromised SCID (severe combined immunodeficient)-Beige mice. However, in the clinical setting, CD4+ CD25hi T regulatory cells (Treg) present within the tumor microenvironment may be potent suppressors of tumor-targeted effector T cells. In order to assess the impact of Tregs on CAR-modified T cells in the SCID-Beige xenotransplant model, we isolated, genetically targeted and expanded natural T regulatory cells (nTreg). In vitro nTregs modified to express CD19-targeted CARs efficiently inhibited the proliferation of activated human T cells, as well as the capacity of CD19-targeted 19-28z+ effector T cells to lyse CD19+ Raji tumor cells. Intravenous infusion of CD19-targeted nTregs into SCID-Beige mice with systemic Raji tumors traffic to sites of tumor and recapitulate a clinically relevant hostile tumor microenvironment. Antitumor efficacy of subsequently infused 19-28z+ effector T cells was fully abrogated as assessed by long-term survival of treated mice. Optimal suppression by genetically targeted nTregs was dependent on nTreg to effector T-cell ratios and in vivo nTreg activation. Prior infusion of cyclophosphamide in the setting of this nTreg-mediated hostile microenvironment was able to restore the antitumor activity of subsequently infused 19-28z+ effector T cells through the eradication of tumor-targeted nTregs. These findings have significant implications for the design of future clinical trials utilizing CAR-based adoptive T-cell therapies of cancer. Cancer Res; 71(8); 2871–81. ©2011 AACR.