bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Firearm Discharge Residue: Analysis of
Authors: Zeichner Arie 
Published: September 2009

AbstractAnalysis of firearm discharge residues (FDR) on relevant exhibits can assist in reconstruction of a crime and might provide evidence against suspects involved. This review discusses the detection and analysis of primer residues (GSR), detection and analysis of gunpowder (propellant) residues, techniques of associating firearms and ammunition with gunshot entries, and estimation of the time since shooting.
Automated Fingerprint Identification System
Authors: Meuwly Didier 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article describes the development and the forensic uses of automated fingerprint identification systems (AFIS). The AFIS technology was initially developed in order to overcome the limitations of the paper‐based fingerprint collections, by digitizing the 10‐print cards in computerized databases. Then technologies to automate the fingerprint feature extraction and comparison were developed, and AFIS systems were implemented on a large scale in order to improve the process of identification of repetitive offenders based on the 10‐print cards. Further development of the AFIS technology allowed for the inclusion of palmprint reference databases and for the processing of fingermarks and palm marks with, as a result, the partial automation of the forensic investigation and intelligence processes. In the field of AFIS, the challenges for the future call for further automation of the feature extraction from low‐quality fingerprint and fingermark images, the improvement of the interoperability of the systems on a global level, and the combination of databases, AFIS technology and scientific methodology in order to further improve the forensic friction ridge evaluation process.
Toolmarks
Authors: Katterwe Horst 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The examination of toolmarks is a special discipline of forensic science. This discipline is directed at the examination and comparative analysis of tools or instruments, and the marks they produce. The primary purpose of comparative analysis as applied to toolmark identification is to determine whether two objects have been in contact with each other, share some class or identifying (accidental) characteristics, or were once part of the same object.
Crime Scene Investigation
Authors: Scott Allan Mathieson 
Published: September 2009

AbstractCrime scene investigation is the forensic examination and search of a scene. It is a dynamic process that starts with the gathering of basic information, then undertaking an independent assessment of the scene. The scene is documented using written notes, photography, and video. Once physical, biological, and trace evidences are recovered, fingerprint development and recovery can take place. As every scene is unique, when photography and video recording are complete, the sequence of recovery processes can vary according to the evidence location. After a scene has been examined, it may be necessary to carry out a detailed search.In line with agency guidelines, minor offenses may not be photographed in detail.
Confirmation Testing: Toxicology
Authors: Drummer Olaf H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Confirmation screening in forensic toxicology is critical to ensure that the results of initial tests can be verified and can be led in a court of law, if necessary. Confirmation testing often determines which one of a class of drugs is present, as well as providing a quantitative result in the specimen. This article describes a number of different chromatographic techniques used with a focus on mass spectrometry, the gold standard for confirmatory testing.
Behavioral Toxicology
Authors: Drummer Olaf H. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractMany drugs and naturally occurring substances can cause significant changes in personality and predispose to behavioral toxicity. These drugs include alcohol, the amphetamines, cocaine, anabolic steroids, benzodiazepines, and the hallucinogens. This article reviews the behavioral changes caused by these substances and outlines the manifestations of such behavior including the increased risk of violence and criminal acts.
Cocaine
Authors: Isenschmid Daniel S. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractCocaine is isolated from coca that is found in the plant,Erythroxylon coca,and is a common drug of abuse. It is a powerful central nervous system stimulant that causes intense euphoric effects by preventing dopamine, a neurotransmitter that stimulates the reward pathways in the brain, from being deactivated. It is sold on the street in two forms—as a hydrochloride salt and as a free base (crack). The salt form is typically abused by nasal insufflation, while crack is smoked. Smoked cocaine causes greater and more rapid euphoria than administration through other means, making crack particularly dangerous. Cocaine is metabolized through a variety of competing mechanisms of chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis. The average half‐life of the drug in the blood is 60‐90 min, depending on the route of administration. Cocaine metabolites typically remain detectable in the urine for 2‐4 days after use, depending on dose and other physiological factors. The parent drug and its metabolites can be detected through a variety of analytical procedures. For forensic purposes, analysis typically includes an initial test such as an immunoassay and a confirmatory test such as mass spectrometry. Increased sensitivity of newer analytical instrumentation has made the analysis of hair and oral fluid for cocaine and metabolites possible. Hair provides longer detection times than traditional specimens, while oral fluid may prove useful in roadside sobriety testing.
Alcohol
Authors: Jones Alan W. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractScientific investigations dating back more than 100 years established a functional relationship between the concentration of alcohol in blood or urine and the signs and symptoms of drunkenness. The blood‐alcohol concentration (BAC) achieved after drinking has become universally accepted as the most objective way to judge the effects of this depressant drug on a person's performance and behavior. Alcohol easily crosses the blood‐brain barrier to disrupt the balance between inhibitory and excitatory influences. Drinking large amounts of alcohol leads to progressively higher BAC and more pronounced behavioral changes and negative effects on the individual, such as disinhibition, ataxia, sedation, coma, and finally death by paralysis of the respiratory centers in the brain. This article reviews the disposition and fate of alcohol in the body and the factors influencing the BAC reached after drinking alcoholic beverages. Knowledge about the physiology, pharmacology, and toxicology of alcohol is vital to allow a proper understanding of how this drug influences behavior and how a person's BAC should be interpreted for research, clinical, and forensic purposes. The relationships between the concentrations of ethanol in blood and other body fluids from both living subjects and forensic autopsies are also examined and discussed.
Trauma Causation: Analysis of Automotive
Authors: Liptai Laura L. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Biomedical engineering applies engineering principles to biological systems, holistically utilizing knowledge in engineering, biology, and medicine. The cross‐disciplinary field integrates engineering (e.g., external force applied) with biomedical sciences (e.g., tissue tolerance) and clinical input from health care providers (e.g., medical diagnosis). Written for those familiar with forensics, this article introduces biomedical engineering by explaining how it integrates medicine and engineering. Scientific methodological approaches for the analysis of trauma causation and the specific applications to forensics are outlined. Common interactions or relationships with other forensic and medical disciplines illustrate how biomedical engineering uniquely contributes to forensics. The section on design and proper use of experimentation outlines applications of standardized automotive crash tests to specific cases. In situations where the scale of the analysis does not allow for customized full‐scale testing, and when the use of crash test databases is not appropriate, the proper design of engineering subsystem experimentation is illustrated. Lastly, an alternative method for force quantification in trauma causation analysis, computerized mathematical modeling, is illustrated.
Computers
Authors: van Waalwijk van Doorn K. , den Dunnen M. , Geradts Zeno 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Computer forensics is a fast growing area. In businesses and in law enforcement, the number of people involved is growing rapidly. Computer forensics can be described as “the use of specialized techniques for recovery, authentication, and analysis of electronic data with a view to present evidence in a court of law”. Within law enforcement, some of the objectives are to find information that might contribute to an insight into what has happened in an investigation, and who was responsible. Important issues are that the data on the seized computers are not altered and that a clear chain of evidence is documented.
Traditionally, a distinction is made between computer forensics (hard drives), mobile phone forensics, and video. Nowadays, mobile phones and personal digital assistants like the IPAQ or Blackberry are like computers with a hard drive and therefore are dealt with in mostly the same way. Standard software mostly used within law enforcement for these products are “Encase”, “Ultimate Toolkit”, XRY, and Tulp 2G (developed at the Netherlands Forensic Institute).
Digital video is still a different field because, although they are basically like computers with a hard drive, the problem with proprietary systems is so great that different techniques need to be used.
Length Measurement
Authors: Edelman Gerda , Alberink Ivo 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
In forensic practice, frequently requests arrive for height measurement of persons in digital images. Results can be used to exclude or gather evidence against suspects and, as such, are interesting to the police, judges, and lawyers. Typical complicating factors in the above are camera parameters (location, orientation, and lens distortion) and characteristics of the questioned person (pose, footwear, and headwear). Methods used in the literature include single‐view metrology (on the basis of vanishing points) and 3D modeling of either the perpetrator or the crime scene. For any method used, results need to be validated by doing a reconstruction with persons of known height posing in front of the same camera under identical circumstances. The systematic and random error made in measurements is then modeled, and confidence intervals for the questioned person's height may be determined. Likelihood ratios (LRs), which quantify evidential value, need to be studied in more detail. Moreover, camera dependency of the results needs to be studied, and the different methods need to be compared in actual casework.
Anthropology: Age Determination of Remains
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina 
Published: September 2009

AbstractContrary to sexing, determining the age at death of human remains is much easier when the remains belong to subadults. In this age range, in fact, aging is based on the analysis of the morphological and metric characteristics of bones and teeth and on the stage of development, since each single structure grows and develops at a different rate and in a different manner. Aging, in these cases, is based on the degree of bone growth (e.g., diaphyseal length), epiphyseal fusion, dental eruption, and tooth mineralization. At around 20 years of age (taking into account the influence of ancestry, nutrition, and health status), dental and bone development terminates (apart from areas such as the clavicle). After 25 years of age, one needs to switch to parameters, which rely on degeneration or alteration in time of bony or dental tissues. The most popular methods of age estimation after 25 years use the pubic symphysis, the fourth rib, and the auricular surface of the ilium. Evaluation of cranial sutures is, on the other hand, very variable and less reliable. Degeneration related to age can also be assessed in teeth, where periodontosis and root translucency can provide fairly accurate age estimation. The microscopic study of bone sections may also provide data concerning age through the evaluation of the number of osteons and secondary osteons, of osteon fragments, and of primary osteons by regression formulae. Finally, chemical methods such as aminoacid racemization also have been tested.
Identification of Human Remains
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , Porta Davide , Angelis Danilo De 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Once there is a suspicion of identity—in other words, we think we know whom the skeleton belonged to—definite positive identification can be performed by DNA analysis, by odontological methods, and also by forensic anthropology via the comparison of bone shape. This may be done, for example, by comparing the shape of specific bones visible in an antemortem X ray of the missing person with the same bones visible in a postmortem X ray of the skeleton. The most popular areas for this type of comparison are the frontal sinuses and the vertebrae, although every skeletal area can be compared. There is, however, no unanimous indication on which and how many characters are necessary in order to achieve personal identification, so some subjectivity still exists. The recurrence of discordant characters settles the case, by excluding the identity; the occurrence of several concordant characters, commonly observed within the population, does not allow one to express a final judgment on identification, whereas even a few characters rarely observed can lead to a personal identification. Craniofacial superimposition may also be performed, though it is much less reliable. Fingerprint analysis may provide a correct identification of human remains if the subject has a criminal record and can be restored even in cases of advanced decomposition.
Trauma Analysis of Skeletal Remains
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , Porta Davide 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn the study of skeletonized human remains, as in the case of well‐preserved cadavers, identification and interpretation of signs of trauma is crucial for indicating possible cause and manner of death. However, the task for the anthropologist may be more challenging since bones do not have any soft tissue, which may help interpret the traumatic scenario. In fact, as regards the timing of lesions with respect to the time of death, anthropologists are limited to distinguishing between antemortem (inflicted several days or weeks before death), perimortem (around death), and postmortem (a long time after death) trauma. It is impossible at the moment to verify whether a bone lesion that can be classified as perimortem actually occurred a little before or a little after death. On the other hand, bone is a good substrate for tool mark analysis and other signs of trauma. Thus blunt force injury, sharp force injury, and gunshot wounds give a good degree of information and can be studied in great detail. Within bone, one can also find signs of drowning and also of poisoning via microscopic and toxicological analysis, though these must be interpreted with great caution.
Anthropology: Aging the Living
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThere is a growing section of forensic anthropology, which concerns the study of living individuals, in particular, the problem of aging and that of identifying living subjects for legal purposes. In subjects who have committed crimes and do not possess effective identification documents, it is of utmost importance to verify their imputability, which usually implies determining whether they are underage or adults. Such age thresholds change according to the country of interest; however, bone and dental development are crucial for solving this problem. The main techniques for age estimation in the living consider wrist and hand X‐ray analysis and tooth mineralization. More age assessments are being performed on adult subjects coming from poorer countries who have no certified documents and who, for example, want to know how old they are in order to request old‐age pensions or other benefits. This age range in the living poses considerable problems and only certain new dental techniques may provide a solution. Lately, due to the increase in pedo‐pornographic material, in many countries, anthropologists, pathologists, and pediatricians must now tackle the issue of aging children from photographic material.
Genomics and Behavioral Evidence
Authors: Bernet William 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article summarizes the history and current status of testimony regarding behavioral genetics and genomics. Depending on the case specifics, testimony regarding a person's genetic makeup may constitute evidence of a particular psychiatric diagnosis, may simply support the diagnosis in a general way, or may help explain the person's behavior. In criminal trials, testimony regarding behavioral genomics—including gene and environment interactions—is most likely to be relevant as mitigation in sentencing hearings. Ordinarily, genotyping a defendant is only one part of a comprehensive psychiatric and psychological forensic evaluation.
Cross‐Examination: Impact on Testimony
Authors: Zajac Rachel , Hayne Harlene 
Published: September 2009

AbstractWhen witnesses give evidence in adversarial trials, their testimony is open to scrutiny by the opposing party. This process is known ascross‐examination. Although the goal of cross‐examination is to uncover inaccuracies that may render the witness's testimony unreliable, recent research has cast doubt on cross‐examination as a means of eliciting accurate testimony, especially from children. In fact, the types of questions that lawyers ask witnesses during cross‐examination are the same types of questions that have been empirically shown to promote inaccuracy: leading questions, questions involving complex language, and questions that place strong social pressure on the witness. Under cross‐examination, child witnesses frequently change aspects of their earlier testimony. Laboratory research, however, has suggested that these changes may bear little relation to the truth. That is, children questioned about a staged event using an analog of cross‐examination tend to change both correct and incorrect information, resulting in a considerable decrease in accuracy. Adult witnesses also make changes to their testimony during cross‐examination, raising the possibility that concern about cross‐examination as a truth‐finding mechanism should not be limited to children. In light of these findings, it is crucial that research continues into the effect of cross‐examination on children's and adults' ability to provide accurate accounts of their past experiences.
Criminalization of The Mentally Ill
Authors: Romero Erin G. , Elkington Kate S. , Teplin Linda A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe objective of this study is to review the definition of criminalization of persons with severe mental illness (SMI), discuss possible causes of criminalization of this population, and analyze findings from empirical studies that examine the criminalization hypothesis. At each point in the criminal justice system—the police‐citizen encounter, arrest, court processing, and jail detention—studies have shown that persons with SMI have extensive contact with the criminal justice system. Many studies of the criminalization of persons with SMI were conducted before special programs were developed to divert persons with SMI from the correctional system into the mental health system, e.g., special training programs for police, mental health crisis teams integrated into police departments, jail diversion programs, and mental health courts. Future studies should address the extent to which the recent programs designed to reduce criminalization of persons with SMI have been effective.
Elder Abuse: Policy
Authors: Nerenberg Lisa 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn the quarter century since elder abuse was first recognized, researchers, policy makers, and practitioners have struggled to achieve consensus on how to define the problem and what the appropriate response should be. This article describes the main subcategories of abuse and explains the controversies over definitions. It further describes common risk factors and impediments to assessment. It explains common interventions and emphasizes the need for multidisciplinary responses.
Elder Abuse: Risk
Authors: Anetzberger Georgia J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Because the causes for elder abuse are unknown, we look to risk factors to help us better understand this problem and conditions leading to its occurrence. Risk factors are critical to elder abuse detection, assessment, and prevention. They are most salient in combination and with longer exposure. They also may vary by elder abuse form and setting. Risk factors for which there is substantial supporting research are found in characteristics of the perpetrator (i.e., pathology, dependency), victim (i.e., dementia, problem behaviors), and perpetrator/victim environment (i.e., shared living arrangements, social isolation). Characteristics of the cultural milieu (e.g., ageism, stereotyping of persons with disabilities, etc.) are seen as providing the backdrop for abusive actions.
Premenstrual Syndrome
Authors: Easteal Patricia , Kaye Neil S. , Reed Tom 
Published: September 2009

AbstractWe look at the medical definition and description of the diagnostic symptoms of severe premenstrual syndrome (PMS), which is commonly referred to as premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). We explain how PMS has been used as a basis for insanity, automatism and diminished capacity (responsibility) legal pleas. Such forensic use of PMS in the courtroom has generated controversy with concerns about sexism, potential for stigmatizing all women, its reliance upon acceptance of the legitimacy of PMS and PMDD, the need for expert witnesses and the potential for its misuse.
Error Rates in Forensic Methods
Authors: Moenssens Andre 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
In science, the word “error” has multiple meanings. It can be given its ordinary, colloquial meaning of simply being wrong because of a mistake. Error in everyday life can result as acts of omission (not doing something that should have been done) or commission (doing something that should not have been done). And so it is in the forensic environment. Errors can be introduced at any point from crime scene to the court. This article discusses the impact of error rates on forensic analyses and also discusses the special attention that the American courts have given to error rates in the assessment of reliability of a technique.