bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Export Processing Zones
Authors: Engman Michael , Farole Thomas 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Export processing zones (EPZs) are spatially delimited areas in which manufacturers produce goods that are largely aimed for export markets. EPZs generally offer export‐oriented investors a host of advantages in relation to the domestic investment environment. Trade transaction costs are normally reduced by allowing for a combination of duty‐free imports of raw materials, intermediate goods, and capital goods as well as streamlined and onsite customs services. Fiscal incentives like corporate tax holidays and various subsidies, for example for training of new staff, are often provided for a limited time period to reduce start‐up costs and accelerate the payback period. In addition, most EPZs offer a simplified administrative environment, enhanced infrastructure, access to land and factory shells, and reliable utility services. By overcoming national investment climate barriers within a limited area, the government seeks to avoid the adjustment and political costs of implementing the reforms at the national level. The objectives of EPZ policy are to create new jobs, boost growth in exports and foreign exchange earnings, facilitate economic diversification and industrialization, and provide access to foreign technology and management expertise.
Failed States
Authors: Bøås Morten 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe “failed state” concept is commonly used to describe and categorize states such as Afghanistan and Somalia that are perceived as failing with regard to some basic conditions and responsibilities as a sovereign state. These include, but are not exclusive to, lack of control over own territory, widespread corruption and criminality, huge economic recession and/or hyperinflation, failure to provide basic services, and large flows of refugees and internally displaced persons. Whereas the intellectual foundation of the concept can be traced back to Max Weber's idea that the minimal criterion for a state is that it has monopoly on the legitimate use of force within its territory, prior to September 11, 2001, the United States and Western Europe paid little systematic attention to the phenomenon that analysts termed “state failure.” However, the attacks on New York and Washington, DC – and particularly the fact that al‐Qaeda planned the attacks in the safe haven provided by Afghanistan, considered to be a “failed state” – pushed the issue to the very top of the security agenda in Western capitals.
Fair Trade
Authors: Linton April 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
After a trip to Nicaragua in 1985, Paul Katzeff, the owner of the Thanksgiving Coffee Company, changed his company's slogan to “Not Just a Cup, but a Just Cup,” and labeled the Nicaraguan beans he roasted as “Coffee for Peace.” When the Reagan administration banned the import of all Nicaraguan goods, Katzeff evaded the embargo by having Nicaraguan beans shipped to Canada and roasted there. A year later, three men who had met while working in a food co‐op formed Equal Exchange. Their first product was “Café Nica,” Nicaraguan coffee brought to the United States via the Netherlands (Equal Exchange 2008). Following the lead of European activists, organizations such as the Thanksgiving Coffee Company and Equal Exchange built a small niche market of socially conscious coffee drinkers in the United States.
Families
Authors: Beck Ulrich , Beck‐Gernsheim Elisabeth 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

How do the concepts of family and love change in the global age? The belief in the Either/Or, which was once taken as self‐evident fact – either we or they, either here or there – seems to be on the wane or has actually disappeared from the horizon of love. Nothing now seems to separate human beings any more in any absolute way, neither skin color, nor national hostility, religious differences, the distance between continents, and so on. On the contrary, people are susceptible to the attractions, the lure even, of the unlimited possibilities in the global other, in those who are far away:
long‐distance love
(Beck & Beck‐Gernsheim 2011). This spells the disappearance of unbridgeable chasms, for since they now appear bridgeable they turn out, therefore, to be in the process of being bridged.
Fédération Internationale
de
Football Association
Authors: Roderick Martin 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) is the international governing body of
football
(soccer) and the ultimate power within the football world. Formed in 1904 in Paris, seven nations attended FIFA's first meeting: Belgium, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. There are now 208 national associations recognized by FIFA, which has more member states than the United Nations. The “global game” spans culturally diverse societies in all continents, and figures estimate that there are 250 million participants in the game; the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany had a total cumulative television audience of 26.29 billion. FIFA organizes and controls football's World Cup finals and other competitions differentiated according to age and gender. FIFA's greatest asset, and football's flagship tournament, the men's World Cup, has become one of the biggest media spectacles and profitable cultural events in the world; valued also by politicians intent on nation‐building.
Feminization of Labor
Authors: Richer Zach 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe feminization of labor is a term used to describe the generally observed phenomenon of women's increased participation in labor markets worldwide since the 1980s. Though various explanations have been offered for this trend, it was originally conceived by the economist Guy Standing (1989, 1999) as a result of the global regulatory environment put in place under the administrations of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan.
Field
Authors: Robertson Roland 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The global field is a term first used by Roland Robertson, with JoAnn Chirico, in 1985 to indicate the form, or the pattern, of the world as a whole and elaborated more fully in his
Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture
(1992). The global field has been regarded as an alternative to concepts such as world system, world society, global society, global system, and others. The rationale for this is that the concept of field is more fluid than such alternatives. The idea of a “field” was inspired particularly by the work of Georg Simmel.
Flexibilization
Authors: Taplin Ian M. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Flexibility remains a powerful force in economic and organizational change, particularly in the area of work and employment relations (Thompson & McHugh 1990). Firms have historically sought flexibility with their labor force in a number of ways, each designed to give them operational gains and enhance their competitive advantage. Such flexibility can entail simply adjusting the size of the workforce, adding workers when needed or reducing their numbers whenever production needs are scaled back. This is referred to as
numerical
flexibility and is a constituent part of the flexible labor force that one finds in neoliberal economies. Notably, it occurs when institutional frameworks permit easy hiring and firing of labor, thus allowing firms to adapt very quickly to changing market conditions. It is also a part of broader (Fordist) management strategies to exert greater control over the production process as managers seek to downgrade, de‐skill, and sub‐divide labor (Taplin 1992).
Flows
Authors: Inda Jonathan Xavier 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
One of the key concepts in scholarly thinking about globalization is the idea of flows. Indeed, it is quite common to characterize globalization as involving flows of various kinds – from capital and people to goods, images, and ideologies. Significantly, these flows are said to be producing an intensely interconnected world – one where borders and boundaries have become increasingly porous, allowing more and more peoples and cultures to be cast into intense and immediate contact with each other.
Football Violence
Authors: Esposti Piergiorgio Degli 
Published: March 2012

AbstractFootball was until recently considered to be a European and South American sport, even though the first football World Cup took place in 1930. Not until the World Cups in England in 1966 and Mexico in 1970 did football become a global phenomenon. From that point onwards, the football movement started to become increasingly managed like a global corporation. As more nations became involved in the World Cup, interest in football increased, along with the economic development of the countries involved, television rights, and potential marketing opportunities which all became key components in the process of football globalization (Foer 2004).
Fragmentation
Authors: Pumar Enrique S. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Fragmentation denotes the incremental erosion of norms of social solidarity and the fractioning of institutional arrangements over time. The term fragmentation implies that while the stability and integrity of society endure, the forms of association, the trust for authority, and the rules sustaining socialization gradually change. Fragmentation also accounts for rising social tensions short of civil strife and for the mechanisms that attempt to mediate these cleavages. History has demonstrated numerous times that even if societies are fragmented, this does not mean that they are on the verge of breakdown. A case in point of this paradoxical situation is that of Indonesia. Here, multiple ethnic and religious groups compete, but the identity of the nation is rooted precisely in its multiculturalism. Hence, it is often true that social groups compete among race, ethnicity, gender, social class, religious resources, or even political posture differences. Yet societies continue to safeguard some semblance of working social order and the integrity of the nation‐state endures.
Gastronationalism
Authors: DeSoucey Michaela 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Gastronationalism is a new concept that describes the use of food production, distribution, and consumption to create and sustain the emotive power of national attachment. Furthermore, gastronationalism addresses the use and influence of nationalist sentiments in the production and marketing of food. From the standpoint of gastronationalism, food is a fundamental aspect of collective identity. As such, the concept is especially useful in the context of global and transnational markets, as it throws into sharp relief the political dynamics of connecting localized food cultures with nationalist projects (DeSoucey 2010).
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
Authors: Ritzer George 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was a system for the liberalization of trade that grew out of Bretton Woods and came into existence in 1947. It operated until 1995 when it was superseded by the World Trade Organization (WTO). While GATT focused on trade in goods, the WTO also took on responsibility for the increasingly important trade in services. While GATT was simply a forum for the meeting of representatives of countries, the WTO is an independent organization.
G
eneva Conventions
Authors: Epps Valerie 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The four Geneva Conventions of 1949 (75 U.N.T.S. 31, 85, 135, & 287) and the two Additional Protocols of 1977 (1125 U.N.T.S. 3 & 609) contain the modern framework for the laws of armed conflict, both international and non‐international, and expand the protections provided for victims of conflict. Before outlining the provisions of the treaties, a brief introduction to some basic distinctions in this area of law are necessary.
Genocide
Authors: Karstedt Susanne 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Genocide is a global phenomenon. Harff (2003) identified 37 genocides and “politicides” between 1955 and 2001, which took place in Europe, across Asia and Latin America. During the first decade of the twenty‐first century, mass atrocities in Africa and Asia have been added to this count with an estimated more than a million of victims of violence, violent ethnic cleansing, and serious sexual violence. The twentieth century started with genocides in Africa (the genocide of the Hereros by the Germans) and in Asia (the massacre of the Armenians in Turkey), and in its first half saw the genocide of the European Jews by the German Nazi‐State. Estimates for the victims of genocide and mass killings as distinguished from war deaths range from 60 to 150 million for the twentieth century alone (Valentino 2004: 1), with most estimates at about 80 million, and some considerably higher (Rummel 1998). For the second half of the twentieth century since 1945, estimates range between 9 and 20 million in more than 40 episodes of genocide (Gurr 1993; Valentino 2004: 255). Genocide has been termed the crime of the twentieth century, and in many ways it epitomizes this “age of extremes” (Bauman 1989; Hobsbawm 1994).
Geopolitics
Authors: Steinmetz George 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe word geopolitics points to the interface between two distinct ontological realms and scientific disciplines, geography, and politics. The first of these root words, “geography,” is not necessarily restricted in this context to traditional geographic concerns like climate or the Earth's physical surface, but entails a much broader spatial perspective concerned with scale and location, the size, shape, and boundaries of territories, and the processes by which territories are socially defined. The other root word, “politics,” points toward subfields of political science like international relations which are also focused on states and empires, borders and frontiers, international alliances and polarizations, the balance and imbalance of global power, and war, imperialism, and diplomacy (Burchill & Linklater 1996).
Global Age
Authors: Albrow Martin 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
“Global age” refers to a period of time when there is a prevailing sense of the interconnectedness of all human beings, of a common fate for the human species and of a threat to its life on this Earth. It has featured frequently in the titles of books, conferences, and lectures since the 1960s and has become popular as a framing device in political rhetoric since the 1990s.
Green Revolution
Authors: Elliott David L. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe origin of the Green Revolution is attributed to Norman Borlaug. Dr Borlaug earned a PhD in plant pathology in 1941 and began work as a research scientist at the Rockefeller Foundation Cooperative Mexican Agricultural Program in 1944. In his position at the Mexican Agricultural Program, Borlaug addressed the problem of feeding Mexico's – and the world's – rapidly growing population by developing high‐yield strains of wheat through cross‐breeding. The resultant crops required closely regulated irrigation water, high levels of chemical fertilizers, high levels of pesticides, and in many cases the use of mechanized equipment in farming. The high‐yield varieties contributed to the tripling of Mexico's wheat harvest by 1960, a technological innovation that was quickly applied to rice and maize, and spread to India, Pakistan, and other developing countries. By 1970, the “father” of the Green Revolution, Norman Borlaug, had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for work that had saved countless lives from hunger and malnourishment. Even before 1970, and especially since the 1990s, the Green Revolution has been questioned, particularly its impact upon the environment and its association with economic globalization.
Group of Eight
Authors: Higo Masa 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe Group of Eight (hereafter G8) refers to the eight member countries – France, the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, Germany, Japan, Italy, and Canada – which hold annual summit meetings aiming to address a wide range of global issues. The summit's agenda include issues pertaining to economic and social development, trade, energy, environment, foreign affairs, law and justice, and security and terrorism (Hajnal 2007). At the summits, the G8 also considers and takes on new global policy initiatives, and mass media around the world closely observe each summit as a major international event (Smith 2007).
H
eterogeneity
Authors: Van Der Bly Martha C.E. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Heterogeneity
is a generic term derived from the ancient Greek

signifying “other” or “different,” and

meaning “race” or “type, class.” In the globalization debate the term “heterogeneity” is generally used to describe a quality of cultural diversity, mostly as antidote of the cultural convergence‐thesis, which proposes an increasing homogenization of culture through globalization. Conceptualizations of heterogeneity are largely related to the interpretation of what culture and cultural identity are comprised of, as well as what globalization entails.
Hollywood
Authors: Miller Toby 
Published: March 2012

AbstractHollywood – shorthand for the mainstream United States film and television drama industry – has always been at the center of globalization, in three ways. First, export markets have always been crucial to it. Second, it has long drawn on creative labor from overseas, and shot movies overseas, in search of economies of production. And third, its export success has led to concerns about the exercise of cultural imperialism.
Immaterial Labor
Authors: Ieven Bram 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Immaterial labor refers to those forms of work that produce immaterial goods such as communication, information, management, and cultural products. It is seen as the dominant form of labor in postindustrial societies, in which a transition took place from an industrial economy to a service economy (Bell 1973). Although the term may suggest otherwise, immaterial labor does not imply that all forms of labor are becoming immaterial or that there are no longer industrial forms of labor. All labor is material to some extent and there is still plenty of hard labor and industrial production (agriculture, mining, and production of cars and other goods). The dominance of immaterial implies, however, that all of these branches of hard labor are restructured by the immaterial practices of communication and management, which are becoming increasingly important in all production sectors. Communication and management are thus becoming the nexus of the economic system.
Imperialism
Authors: Brewer Anthony 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Imperialism is the establishment and maintenance of a system of political and military dominance over other countries, peoples, or territories. There have been empires almost since the beginning of recorded history, but it is the European colonial empires which reached their peak in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries that are relevant to the history of globalization. The word “imperialism” has come to be applied mainly to modern European empires, while “empire” retains a much wider meaning.
Security–insecurity
Authors: Béland Daniel 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Globalization is widely associated with a broad range of security concerns from terrorism and nuclear proliferation to poverty and climate change. In the mind of many citizens, the very idea of globalization has become a source of insecurity. Like any other form of insecurity, global threats are at least in part social and political constructions because they only become prominent when actors make sense of them and push them onto the social and political agenda. Although most scholars would agree that many global threats are “real,” there is no consensus about the level of social and political construction associated with these threats. Although the debate on global security and insecurity is far from over, it is possible to stress the relationship between the concrete threats and their discursive amplification or denial (Béland, 2007). This means that global forms of insecurity are contested. From climate change to international terrorism, global forms of insecurity are political issues that are not immune from discursive manipulations, while reflecting cultural and institutional factors that shape the perceptions of these apparent threats. From social movements and journalists to state bureaucrats and elected officials, many actors are involved in the construction of global threats, which takes place at both the national and the supranational levels. With the advent of the Internet and other transnational media, the propagation of information and discourses about these threats is itself more global than ever before, which increases the risk of worldwide fears and political chain reactions. Increased transnational population mobility and the emergence of broad environmental issues like climate change exacerbate this globalization of collective insecurity.
Simulation
Authors: Korsten Frans‐Willem 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Simulation is a noun indicating a form of action that originally goes back to the Latin
simulare
: to imitate, to feign, to depict in a visual way. The fact, however, that simulation is much more than simply faking or feigning is indicated by “to imitate.” If done correctly or radically enough, imitation can become indiscernible from what it is supposed to imitate, and in the case of simulation the idea is, indeed, to get as closely as possible to “the real thing.” This is why simulation is tied up with one of the most vexing and troubling or pivotal issues in the metaphysical, theological and political thought of the Middle East and Europe: the double structure and ambiguous dynamic of representation. Whereas representation is supposed to represent the real, or something that is the real origin of what is represented, the domain of this originally “real” has been hard to pin down, conceptually speaking. In this context simulation plays with the dynamic of representation, while at the same time not being truly representational. In trying to get as close as possible to something “real” simulation partly functions as a stand‐in. In this sense it represents. At the same time it is analogous to the real, and this analogy may go so far that the notion of the real becomes indistinguishable from simulation. Or to put this slightly differently: simulation is real itself. This is how one can understand that there is also such a thing as dissimulation, which means to dissemble, to cloak, to disguise. The bridge between the two might well be called fiction, from Latin
fingere
: to fake, dissemble or make. Fiction, as it is understood in modern times, is not “real” in terms of empirical reality, but can be very real nevertheless.
Slow Food Movement
Authors: Galli Anya M. , DegliEsposti Piergiorgio 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Slow Food is an international movement opposed to the “standardization of taste and culture, and the unrestrained power of the food industry multinationals and industrial agriculture.” It envisions globalization as a process in which small and local farmers and food producers should be simultaneously protected from and included in the global food system: its web site claims, “we believe that everyone has a fundamental right to the pleasure of good food and consequently the responsibility to protect the heritage of food, tradition and culture that make this pleasure possible” (
www.slowfood.com
). Unlike many “anti‐globalization” movements that oppose global processes and markets, Slow Food encourages the global adaptation of local and traditional.