bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Relativistic Mechanics
Authors: Johns Oliver 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
It was apparent from its beginning that special relativity developed as the invariance theory of electrodynamics would require a modification of Newton’s three laws of motion. This chapter discusses that modified theory. The relativistically modified mechanics is presented and then recast into a fourvector form that demonstrates its consistency with special relativity. Traditional Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics can incorporate these modifications. This chapter also discusses the momentum fourvector, fourvector form of Newton’s second law, conservation of fourvector momentum, particles of zero mass, traditional Lagrangian and traditional Hamiltonian, invariant Lagrangian, manifestly covariant Lagrange equations, momentum fourvectors and canonical momenta, extended and invariant Hamiltonian, manifestly covariant Hamilton equations, the Klein-Gordon equation, the Dirac equation, the manifestly covariant N-body problem, covariant Serret-Frenet theory, Fermi-Walker transport, and example of Fermi-Walker transport.
Generating Functions
Authors: Johns Oliver 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In the previous chapter, several conditions were given that could be used for testing transformations to see whether they were canonical or not. But no methods, other than trial and error, were given for actually creating the canonical transformations to be tested. In this chapter, methods for creating transformations that will automatically be canonical are presented. Canonical transformations can be created by first choosing what are called generating functions. Using one of these generating functions in the formalism to be described will generate a transformation that will be canonical by construction. The generating functions can be quite general, leading to a wide selection of possible canonical transformations. This chapter also discusses proto-generating functions, examples of generating functions, mixed generating functions, simple generating functions, traditional generating functions, standard form of extended Hamiltonian recovered, differential canonical transformations, active canonical transformations, phase-space analog of Noether theorem, and Liouville theorem.
Molecular Aggregation
Authors: Gavezzotti Angelo 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Intermolecular interactions stem from the electric properties of atoms. Being the cause of molecular aggregation, intermolecular forces are at the roots of chemistry and are the fabric of the world. They are responsible for the structure and properties of all condensed bodies — the human body, the food we eat, the clothes we wear, the drugs we take, the paper on which this book is printed. In the last forty years or so, theoretical and experimental research in this area has struggled to establish correlations between the structure of the constituent molecules, the structure of the resulting condensed phase, and the observable properties of any material. As in all scientific enterprise, the steps to follow are analysis, classification, and prediction, while the final goal is control; which in this case means the deliberate design of materials with specified properties. This last step requires a synthesis and substantial command of the three preceding steps. This book provides a brief but accurate summary of all the basic ideas, theories, methods, and conspicuous results of structure analysis and molecular modelling of the condensed phases of organic compounds: quantum chemistry, the intermolecular potential, force field and molecular dynamics methods, structural correlation, and thermodynamics. The book also exposes the present status of studies in the analysis, categorisation, prediction, and control, at a molecular level, of intermolecular interactions in liquids, solutions, mesophases, and crystals. The main focus here is on the links between energies, structures, and chemical or physical properties.
Crystal symmetry and X-ray diffraction
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The study of crystal symmetry started as a study of the symmetry of macroscopic crystalline objects, mostly minerals. When it was realised that external symmetry reflected the internal symmetry of the disposition of atoms and molecules within the crystal, mathematical methods were applied to the classification of all possible combinations of symmetry operations under the condition of periodic translational repetition, within the framework of group theory. The study of molecular crystals from a structural point of view requires neither abstract lattices nor group theory. This chapter discusses bottom-up crystallography, space group symmetry and its mathematical representation, scattering by one or two charge points, the atomic scattering factor, the molecular structure factor, the structure factor for infinite periodic systems, Miller indices and Bragg's law, and the electron density in a crystal. Some examples in which X-ray diffraction is used to study the internal structure of a condensed phase are given.
Periodic systems: Crystal orbitals and lattice dynamics
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
A molecular crystal is an array of molecular objects related by symmetry operations, including pure translation: a system endowed by periodic translational symmetry. This chapter considers atomic orbitals and the crystal orbital approach for the construction of the periodic wavefunction and electron density of a crystal, and for the derivation of its electronic structure, as well as the description of periodic collective molecular oscillations, in an approach which has appropriately been called lattice dynamics. The mathematical description of crystal periodicity is discussed, along with equivalent positions and systematic absences in diffraction patterns, reciprocal space, wave vector, Brillouin zone, Bloch functions, the electronic structure of solids, band structures, electronic density of states, lattice vibrations, periodic vibrations in infinite crystals, and measurement of lattice-vibration frequencies.
Epilogue: A theory of crystallization?
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In molecular crystallisation there are no first-rate laws, very few second-rate laws and many third-rate laws. The first-rate laws of thermodynamics become in such a context third-rate laws because the concept of phase is ill-defined in most if not all of the transformations involved in the evolution from a disperse molecular system to a molecular aggregate. There is a wide gap between the ever increasing ease with which the aggregation and crystallisation phenomenon can be studied thanks to calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, nuclear magnetic resonance, atomic force microscopy, molecular simulation, and the degree of understanding and control that may be gained from these experiments. If even laws are weak, the way to a theory seems even more problematic. This chapter examines whether a theory of crystallisation currently exists, laws and theories in chemistry, stages of molecular aggregation in oligomers, nanoparticles and mesoparticles, aggregation of macroscopic crystals, and the thermodynamics, kinetics, and symmetry of molecular aggregation.
Introduction
Authors: LUCY WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This introductory chapter situates the question about the nature of private law and the philosophical responses to it by doing two things. First, and somewhat predictably, by attempting to define key terms. It clarifies the meaning of ‘philosophy’ and then elucidates the meaning of ‘private law’. It then sketches the contours of contemporary philosophy of private law and the structure of the book.
Corrective Justice
Authors: LUCY WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter elucidates and evaluates three matters that any corrective justice account of the normative foundation of private law must address. The first two matters raise the key issues identified in the last chapter, since they concern the adequacy with which each account plays the role of normative foundation and the nature of the obligation to correct. The third matter is, however, more specific. It examines what both Weinrib and Coleman have to say about the relationship between corrective and distributive justice.
1. Structural Foundations
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of liability for wrongdoing, showing how it became focused on the causation of loss. This became the general central feature of the action of trespass, and it has remained the central feature of the English law of tort. The chapter then discusses Glavill and the law of debt and covenant and a law of contract.
6. Tort, Property, and Reputation: The Expansion of the Action on the Case
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the development of nominate torts to protect property interests and reputation. From its earliest roots, the action of trespass protected property rights. So long as there had been an invasive interference, a ‘trespass’ in the modern legal sense of the word, an action would lie against the alleged wrongdoer. The difficulty with the use of these trespassory remedies was that in theory, they provided the successful plaintiff with damages rather than the land in issue. This was sidestepped in the 16th century by the use of the action of ejectment, an action designed to protect the lessee rather than the freeholder, in which specific recovery of the land could be achieved.
13. The Decline of the Will Theory: Legal Regulation and Contractual Fairness
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the decline of the Will Theory. Continental and transatlantic scholars took the lead the gradual erosion of confidence in the Will Theory and doctrines derived from it. As an intellectual structure the Will Theory was too brittle to bear the weight placed on it, it did not fit easily with commercial practice, and its fundamental idea of party autonomy clashed with widely held principles of social justice. Despite tentative attacks, the main doctrines associated with the Will Theory survived; but they were overlaid with new principles, most importantly those generated by considerations of fairness and justice, and in places the older ideas were reinterpreted in the light of the new.
Introduction
Authors: ALVAREZ JOSÉ E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the concept of ‘International Organizations’ and the reasons for the book's focus on them. International Organizations tend to share characteristics that make legal generalization possible, form a cognizable subject because they more readily fit the categories that lawyers are comfortable using, and are usually accorded ‘international legal personality’ due to their quasi-government status. It also provides definitions of International Organizations and details an intellectual history on their origins. Establishment of international organizations should be by international agreement between states, of at least one organ distinct from member states and capable of so acting, and under international law. The following viewpoints can be used to study the history of International Organizations: functionalist theories, realism, disaggregationists, critical theory, and constructivism. The chapter ends with a discussion of lawyers and the competing schools of thought on International Organizations.
Dispute Settlement by “Non-judicial” Actors
Authors: ALVAREZ JOSÉ E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses dispute settlement by ‘non-judicial’ actors within the United Nations and in other international organizations. Adjudicative activity within international organizations is frequently a three-ring circus in which all the non-judicial or political components of the institution are involved: the ‘executive’ organ with limited membership, its plenary body, ad its Secretariat. Within the United Nations, ‘non-judicial’ actors include the Security Council, the United Nations Compensation Commission, the General Assembly, the Secretary-General, the Human Rights Commission, and the Secretariat. ‘Non-judicial’ actors in other international organizations include regional organizations, the International Monetary Fund, the International Civil Aviation Organization, and other United Nations specialized agencies. The chapter also illustrates through example how international organizations in non-judicial settings have engaged in dispute settlement. It also enumerates, through necessarily selective examples in distinct institutions, the possibilities for wider normative impact.
Industrial Organization as Networks
Authors: Thompson Grahame F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter looks at the industrial organisation as networks, focusing on interorganisational networks. Some theoretical issues raised by interorganisational networks are discussed, including questions of the limits of an institutional analysis, knowledge with respect to these kinds of networks, the role of complementary and self-organisation, evolutionary approaches to networks, and problems associated with embeddedness and variety production that they pose. The chapter also explores how the network model has been deployed in the specification and analysis of the relationships between firms and other agents that occupy the microeconomic field of economic organisation. The strengths of networks as opposed to other mechanisms of socio-economic coordination, like markets and hierarchies, in organising inter-firm relationships are also considered, along with cooperation and trust between main firms and their subcontractors and suppliers, knowledge and innovation in networks, whether knowledge networks are effective as institutions, neural networks, venture capital and networking, and the evolution, biology, complexity, and self-organisation of networks.
Harrogate, Cheltenham, Bradford
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter details the childhood and family life of H. L. A. Hart. Both of Herbert Hart's parents came from families which had moved to England from central Europe during the course of the late 18th and 19th centuries. The Harts' decision to move away from the much denser Jewish community of East London, and to locate themselves in this very Anglo-Saxon environment, provides some important clues to their own ambitions and to their attitude to their Jewish identity, and to the attitudes with which their four children — Albert, born in 1901, Reggie, in 1902, Herbert, in 1907, and Sybil, in 1915 — were brought up. Even as a child, Herbert's sensitivity gave him a clear view of the vulnerability which underlay the surface orderliness of the adult world, while his outsider's eye and sense of fun lent irony to his perception of Edwardian society.
Discipline, Punishment, and Responsibility
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on H. L. A. Hart's successful career, which had reached its pinnacle with a remarkable list of achievements behind him, and at this point he was still a decade away from the Oxford retirement age of 67. Hart was set for a period of flourishing intellectual creativity in which he would continue to shape the field of English jurisprudence which he already dominated. Beyond Oxford, Hart continued to shape his field through active soliciting of manuscripts for the Clarendon Series. He was reaching a wide academic audience with his publications. In spite of his resolution while in Israel to counter his increasing sense of fatigue by travelling less, he was making frequent trips to lecture at other universities in Britain and abroad. And he was addressing a broader audience through his lecturing and broadcasting on criminal law reform and the abolition of capital punishment.
Animal Trade and Ownership
Authors: Adams Colin 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter assesses the evidence for animal trade and markets in Roman Egypt, and deploys the unique evidence of Egypt, focussing on two small archives of documents relating the exploits of animal traders. It shows that there were particular markets for animals at various locations, specializing in animal trade. It discusses evidence for prices, and argues that, although ownership of animals was common, the cost did put animals beyond the means of the lowest socio-economic classes, and that they and even the wealthy, developed strategies for owning or using animals, including part-share arrangements and animal hire. Investment in animals as capital is also discussed, as is the evidence for the branding of animals in order to protect ownership rights.
Transport and the Land Economy
Authors: Adams Colin 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Transport was of fundamental importance to agriculture, the main economic activity in the ancient world. This chapter analyses evidence in the papyrological record for the use of animals in agriculture, from owners of the largest estates of Egypt to the humble fellahin. A number of important archives preserve extremely valuable evidence for estate management, and show that strategies to keep capital investment in animals to a minimum were employed, and additional animals were at busy times in the agricultural year. Such economic rationalism was not confined to the owners of large estates, but can also be seen at the lowest socio-economic levels, where farmers may share animals. The chapter also considers what impact specialization in transport as an occupation might have on farming.
The Jurisdiction of International Institutions and Tribunals
Authors: SHELTON DINAH 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers the jurisdiction and competence of the various international institutions and tribunals to afford redress with respect to human rights. Close to a dozen international procedures allow victims to denounce violations of their human rights by a state party to the relevant treaty. To enhance compliance with the human rights obligations contained in the United Nations Charter, public and private procedures address gross and systematic violations of internationally recognised human rights and thematic rapporteurs or working groups appointed by the UN Commission on Human Rights accept complaints or information about violations of specific human rights. Regional systems in Europe, the Americas, and Africa parallel and extend the global efforts. Petitions may be filed only after all effective local remedies have been exhausted and within a limited period following a final judgment of the competent local tribunal. The state thereby is given an opportunity to redress its own violations.
Procedural Issues
Authors: SHELTON DINAH 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
International tribunals have adopted rules and decided cases setting forth the procedural requirements to claim remedies, including standing to file claims and presentation of claims. This chapter reviews the rules and case law on these issues. International tribunals have used their implied powers to ensure that the term ‘victim’ or ‘injured party’ is interpreted to achieve the goal of wiping out the consequences of the harm, even where the consequences are collateral to the immediate injury. In so doing, the Inter-American Court has developed a practice of dividing awards among survivors according to its own view of appropriate succession. This practice unsettles the legitimate expectations of individuals living within a specific legal system that establishes who are their heirs and successors. It also divests spouses of a portion of their marital property. The Court should reconsider its practice.
Non-Monetary Remedies
Authors: SHELTON DINAH 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Non-monetary awards can be difficult to adjudicate, formulate, administer, and enforce. They are also more invasive of state sovereignty. When deciding whether to order a political body to act, courts may ask whether it will be difficult or impossible to secure compliance, probably speculating about this more often at the international level where the courts are relatively young and the habit of compliance is not yet ingrained. Disobedience may cause the court to lose prestige, and provide a disincentive to others to accept the court's jurisdiction. The risk of non-compliance may make courts reluctant to issue an order, especially because the wrongdoer has already shown a disregard for the substantive law. When, however, a court considers the likelihood of obedience in adjudicating remedies, it improperly places the victim's rights at the mercy of defendant's obduracy.
Gross and Systematic Violations
Authors: SHELTON DINAH 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Remedies for gross and systematic violations of human rights differ because of the quality and quantity of the violations. When there are thousands of victims needing justice, both the procedures and the substance inevitably alter. Administrative solutions like sampling or summary procedures can assist in affording swifter resolution of claims for compensation. In most instances of mass violations, however, compensation is not the primary emphasis. Society as a whole and all of the victims need to be fully informed of the truth so that those who suffered and society itself can be rehabilitated. Loss of reputation can be as costly to the individual in esteem and self-worth as any pecuniary loss. Symbolic reparations, through recognition by the government of the wrongs done, are an important element in restoring human rights and the rule of law.
2 Subject-Matter Jurisdiction and Applicable Law – Customary International Law and Treaty Law?
Authors: Mettraux Guénaél 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The statutes of the ad hoc tribunals created for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991 (ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), respectively, contain not much more than the skeletons of the crimes that are within their jurisdictions. The definitions of those crimes and the application of the law of international crimes in general, therefore, call for further refinements to be made by the Court which has been entrusted by the Security Council with the task of applying the Statute whilst ensuring that it was not thereby legislating new international law. This chapter discusses the tribunals’ jurisdiction ratione materiae and jurisdiction ratione personae.
3 Identifying Customary International Law and the Role of Judges in the Customary Process
Authors: Mettraux Guénaél 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Just as it is for judges of the ad hoc tribunals created for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda to weigh the evidence of the facts relating to the alleged crimes when assessing the guilt or innocence of an accused, it is for them to evaluate the extent to which a rule may be said to exist under customary international law in light of existing state practice and opinio juris. As with the weighing of evidence, identifying customary international law is no exact science. And the finding that a norm does indeed form part of customary law must merely be the most reasonable conclusion based on the best available evidence of the existence or non-existence of that rule. International criminal law may owe more to judges than any other part of international law.