bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Agriculture and Agricultural Biotechnology
Authors: Castle David 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article explores a number of issues in agriculture and agricultural biotechnology putting a special emphasis within the philosophy of biology which is a fruitful area of study. The ecological impact of agriculture and the potential for humans to make novel contributions to genetic diversity raises questions about biodiversity. Thousands of years of selective breeding and food production using microorganisms in wine, bread, and cheese qualify as agricultural biotechnology. There are various disputes regarding genetically modified food, between products of agricultural biotechnology, and their conventional counterparts. The agricultural revolution also raises many ethical issues including concerns about corporate control, intellectual property rights, and use of traditional biological knowledge. We are on the threshold of the life sciences revolution. Unrevealing these mysteries of science will increase our knowledge and provide understanding of the world around us. Thus, it should lead to a better quality of life.
The Rhetorical Dimension of Stephen Jay Gould's Work
Authors: Barahona Ana , Cachón Vladimir 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article throws light on an important topic of study that is rhetoric, which is debated as neutral tool for bringing about agreements, or an immoral activity that ends in manipulation. There are different versions of rhetoric given by various scientists. It has important social roles such as the testing of ideas, giving shape to knowledge, and deducing responses from someone having an opposing view. Gould's articles help us to understand the use of specific rhetorical strategies and tools, during the debate around the theory of punctuated-equilibria. This is done by using a philosophical approach which distrusts the interpretation of fossil records given by most paleontologists, by using specific visual representations that suggested that the competing theory was committed to the idea of slow evolution at a constant rate, and by presenting the theory of paleontology along with modern synthesis. Rhetorical communication is intimately involved in the assessment of claims and discoveries.
Epic
Authors: Nagy Gregory 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines the epic as a literary genre. It describes the works of Homer and Virgil and discusses the views of ancient philosophers on this genre including Aristotle, Socrates, and Plato. It suggests that the clearest way to view something as a genre is to keep looking at Homer synchronically as he is understood in the historical period of Plato and Aristotle. It also argues that without the genre of epic, the poet of epic can be emulated at will, without rules, since the poet seems to have no rules.
Pastoral
Authors: Payne Mark 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article looks at the history of pastoral literature. It examines some decisive moments in the growth and decline of pastoral in order to identify the characteristic attractions of a genre that was once a canonical element of the Western literary tradition and considers the reasons and circumstances under which a genre ceases to be viable. It describes Edmund Spenser's The Shepheardes Calender, Virgil's Eclogues, and The Idylls of Theocritus.
The Novel
Authors: Cascardi Anthony J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article considers the history of the novel and its relation to philosophy. It suggests that though disagreements about the generic identity and historical origins of the novel may be unresolvable, they nonetheless register something important for an understanding of its relationship of this genre to philosophy. It argues that while novels may well concentrate on the reality of experience in the present, they are built around the realization that all experience is historically formed and that our consciousness of experience is inseparable from the forms through which it is told. It discusses several philosophers' thoughts about the novel including René Descartes, György Lukács and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.
Emotion, Memory, and Trauma
Authors: Most Glenn W. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article considers the role of emotion, memory, and trauma in literature. It analyzes the lead characters in Salman Rushdie's novel Fury and Homer's Iliad and suggests that the traumatic childhood experiences of Professor Malik Solanka and Achilles significantly influenced their anger and rage in their adult lives. It also discusses Sigmund Freud's thoughts about trauma and explains that his theory is based on the three basic concepts of repression, deferral, and overdetermination.
Literature and Knowledge
Authors: Gibson John 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article presents thoughts about the role of literature as a source of knowledge. It is common to claim that in works of literature we find some of the most powerful representations of reality our culture has to offer. According to this view, the literary perspective is the definitive human perspective and works of literature represent cognitive achievements and embody ways of knowing the world. This article attempts to give a sense of how powerful the arguments against the cognitivist view of literature are and to bring to light how the philosopher beholden to it might respond to them. It argues that we must accept that literature's particular manner of engaging with reality is sui generis because it constitutes its own form of cognitive insight and shows that literature's cognitive achievements are intimately bound up with its aesthetic achievements.
Plato on Love
Authors: Kraut Richard 
Published: September 2009

AbstractEros and Philia are the two Greek words, which can be translated as love in English. This article focuses on the idea that Plato weaves around the emotion of love. On the one hand, there is the verb philein and its cognates (philia is the noun, philos the adjective)—a word we use all the time when we talk about philanthropy, philosophy, philharmonic, and the like. On the other hand, “to love” is also the proper translation of the verb eran. Eros is the name of this psychological force, erastês designates a lover, and erômenos is the one who is loved. Erôs is characterized here as a desire. That does not mean that whenever someone wants something, he loves it. The relationship goes in the other direction: whenever someone loves, he wants. This thesis says nothing about what kind of desire one has, when one loves. It may be a desire that Plato would locate in the appetitive part of the soul, but it need not be. The word Plato most often uses for desire in the passage examined in this article, as so often, is epithumia. But an epithumia can be any sort of desire—it is not necessarily an “appetitive” desire for food, drink or sex.
Plato's Politics
Authors: Bobonich Christopher 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe dialogues of Plato that are of the most obvious importance for his political philosophy include the Apology, the Crito, the Gorgias, the Laws, the Republic, and the Statesman. Further, there are many questions of political philosophy that Plato discusses in his dialogues. These topics include, among others: the ultimate ends of the city's laws and political institutions and who should rule, and the forms of constitution and their ranking. Plato draws upon Socrates' idea of Apology where the former stalwart compares himself to a gadfly, which is placed upon the great horse of Athens. What is especially worth noting here is that Socrates claims to benefit Athens by benefiting its citizens, and this benefit consists in getting them to examine themselves and their lives with regard to virtue. Since Plato, throughout his career, believed that virtue was by far the most important contributor to happiness, and that the ultimate end of all of a person's rational actions is that person's own greatest happiness, such encouragement to virtue seems a reasonable way to proceed for anyone seeking really to benefit his fellow citizens. The middle dialogues and the. late dialogues wind up Plato's idea of a perfect state. However, the major idea that Plato draws upon is citizen's happiness, which will result in an ideal state.
TheSophiston Statements, Predication, and Falsehood
Authors: Brown Lesley 
Published: September 2009

AbstractOf the later dialogues of Plato, the Sophists stand out. This article highlights the concept of sophist as propounded by Plato. A didactic approach runs through the text. Socrates harps on the relation between sophist, philosopher and a statesman. Are they three different or they are the same. The basic idea that Plato wants to convey is, both features highlight some of the key enigmas of the dialogue: What is the relation between the outer and middle parts? How seriously are we to take the outer part? And is there a genuine, and successful, attempt to say what the sophist is? The article focuses on two key problems discussed and solved in the middle part: the late-learners' problem (the denial of predication), and the problem of false statement. The article also discusses communion of kinds and Plato's idea of the four quartets.
Cartesian Skepticism: Arguments and Antecedents
Authors: Bermúdez José Luis 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines the basis of Cartesian skepticism as contained in René Descartes' Meditation 1. It traces the complex argumentation of Meditation 1 and explores the differences between Cartesian skeptical arguments and the skeptical arguments discussed in the ancient world. It suggests that the radical nature of the doubts raised by Descartes is rooted in the radical error that Cartesian science posits in our everyday experience of the world and the hypothetical and morally certain nature of the scientific edifice that is proposed to replace the commonsense view of the world enshrined in Aristotelian science.
Live Skeptical Hypotheses
Authors: Frances Bryan 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines some examples of live forms of skeptical hypotheses. It highlights some objections to the live skeptic's argument. These objections fall into two classes. First, there are reasons for thinking that we do not have to be able to rule out the error theories in order to know truths obviously inconsistent with them, and second, one can admit the ruling-out requirement but argue that it is actually pretty easy to do the ruling out. This article also discusses the liveness-mortality premise, the nature of live skepticism, and the real and academic threats of skepticism.
Berkeley's Treatment of Skepticism
Authors: Pappas George 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article examines Bishop Berkeley's view and treatment of skepticism based on the content of his books Principles of Human Knowledge and Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous. It explains that the Principles of Human Knowledge was not well received when it was published in 1710 because readers and reviewers understood his denial of the existence of material substance as supporting skepticism. In his second book, Berkeley showed how he was opposed to skepticism. He also showed that there were some common principles of philosophers, and that these principles, either individually or jointly, lead to skepticism of some form.
Ascriber Contextualism
Authors: Cohen Stewart 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article describes the concept of ascriber contextualism in relation to skepticism. It explains that ascriber contextualism in epistemology is the view that the truth conditions for sentences containing “know” and its cognates are context sensitive. It discusses the motivations for contextualism, skeptical paradoxes, the mechanism of context shifting, and sensitive moderate invariantism (SMI). It also comments on objections to ascriber contextualism and SMI.
Disjunctivism and Skepticism
Authors: Millar Alan 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article considers the epistemological significance of disjunctivism and its bearing on philosophical skepticism. It explains that disjunctivism is a way of thinking about perceptual experience and perceptual knowledge and it is also the view that judgments that characterize how experience appears to a subject is as if things have disjunctive truth conditions. It discusses the relation of disjunctivism with the tradition of the conception of experience and the concept of recognitional abilities.
Laws, Causation, and Economic Methodology
Authors: Hausman Daniel M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article focuses on the relations between the work of its author on methodology, developments in philosophy of science, and the contributions of other methodologists. It explains how its work derives from philosophy of science, as the subject was understood in the 1970s. It is autobiographical, as its story may help readers to understand the outpouring of writing on economic methodology beginning in the 1970s. It sketches a view of philosophical methodology that articulates the roles that reflection, analysis and study of economics ought to play. It summarizes the views on economic methodology that are developed in the principal contributions of its author. It also relates that work to the contributions of other writers on economic methodology, particularly Uskali Mäki and Alexander Rosenberg.
Why There Is (as Yet) No Such Thing as an Economics of Knowledge
Authors: Mirowski Philip 
Published: September 2009

AbstractOnce upon a time, say around the era of David Ricardo and Karl Marx, political economy was primarily concerned with the production of national wealth. This “classical” notion tended to hang on long into the twentieth century, well after the invention of neoclassical economics in the 1870s. Nevertheless, there was no denying that within neoclassical economics, exchange had displaced production as the primary topic of interest. But subsequently, something rather extraordinary happened around the middle of the twentieth century, gaining momentum as the century waned. More and more, economics at the cutting edge became relatively cavalier about treating trade as static allocation. This article endeavors to point out that all major existing modern traditions of the Economics of Knowledge have encountered their comeuppance solely from within, leading various economists to concede that their own constructions of the epistemology of the agent were structurally incoherent.
Rationality and Indeterminacy
Authors: Bicchieri Cristina 
Published: September 2009

AbstractMuch of the history of game theory has been dominated by the problem of indeterminacy. The very search for better versions of rationality, as well as the long list of attempts to refine Nash equilibrium, can be seen as answers to the indeterminacy that has accompanied game theory through its history. More recently, the experimental approach to game theory has attempted a more radical solution: by directly generating a stream of behavioral observations, one hopes that behavioral hypotheses will be sharper, and predictions more accurate. This article looks at several attempts to address indeterminacy, including the shift to evolutionary models. However, because its goal is to establish whether rational choice models are inescapably doomed to produce indeterminate outcomes, it pays much more attention to the experimental turn in game theory, the difficulty it encounters, and the promising results obtained by more realistic models of rationality that include a social component.
Experimental Investigations of Social Preferences
Authors: Woodward James F. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article surveys some of the philosophical issues raised by recent experimental work on so-called social preferences. More broadly, its focus is on experimental explorations of the conditions under which people behave co-operatively or in a prosocial way or, alternatively, fail to do so. These experiments raise a number of fascinating methodological and interpretive issues that are of central importance both to economics and to social and political philosophy. It is commonly claimed that the experiments demonstrate that (at least some) people not only have selfish preferences concerning their own material payoffs, but that they also have preferences concerning the well-being of others—that is, social preferences. Moreover, the contention is not just that some subjects have such social preferences, but that these can have large and systematic effects on behavior, both in the experiments under discussion and in real life contexts outside the laboratory.
Competing Conceptions of the Individual in Recent Economics
Authors: Davis John B. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article characterizes the Homo economicus conception in terms of three linked properties that are central to it as an atomist conception. On the standard view, individuals: have exogenous preferences; interact only (or almost only) in an indirect manner with one another through the price mechanism; and are unaffected in these two respects by the aggregate effects of their interaction with one another. The new research programs differ in how objectionable they find each of these properties, as befits their different commitments to synchronic or diachronic forms of explanation. Furthermore, this article reviews the role of synchronic and diachronic types of explanations in the possible emergence of a new general research program, discusses embedded individual microfoundations for that general program, and closes with speculations regarding the role of thinking about individuals in a future synthesis of the new research programs.
Advancing Evolutionary Explanations in Economics: The Limited Usefulness of Tinbergen's Four‐Question Classification
Authors: Vromen Jack 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
In this article, it is argued that Niko Tinbergen's (1963) four-question classification might be an even better antidote than Mayr's distinction against misunderstandings that hamper making headway with evolutionary theorizing in economics. Tinbergen's four-question classification, it is argued, can be seen as a further refinement of Mayr's distinction. Tinbergen's classification is used here as a sorting device. It is used not only to dispel misunderstandings of evolutionary theorizing, but also to warn against sketching all too simple evolutionary scenarios in evolutionary explanations. Tinbergen's classification might also help in understanding what evolutionary explanations can and cannot explain. It might be instrumental in sorting out different sorts of questions that might legitimately be asked about behavior and that might call for different answers.
Computational Economics
Authors: Humphreys Paul 
Published: September 2009

AbstractComputational economics is a relatively new research technique in economics, but it is inexorably taking its place alongside the more traditional methods of general theory, abstract modeling, data analysis, and the more recent experimental economics. Perhaps because of its relative newness, the term computational economics currently has no determinate meaning. In contemporary use, it refers to a heterogeneous cluster of techniques implemented on concrete digital computers ranging from the numerical solution of the Black-Scholes partial differential equation for pricing options through automated trading strategies to agent-based computer simulations of the evolution of cooperation. Because of this heterogeneity, it is not possible to provide a comprehensive coverage of the topic in this article. Another reason for this restricted scope is that many of the methods used in computational economics have considerable technical interest but no particular philosophical relevance.
Explaining Growth
Authors: Kincaid Harold 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The aim of this article is to make explicit the kinds of arguments provided for evidence and explanations of the causes of growth, while paying some attention to the complexities and differences in interpretation of the models and data at issue. While its examples focus on growth, the practices described here are common and not peculiar to work on growth. Along the way, this article discusses such deep issues as the probability foundations of econometrics, the place of non-statistical evidence, conceptions of economics as a separate science, and complex kinds of causality. The issues are big and hard ones, thus they are not assessed completely. However, at the end this article tries to give a clearer understanding of two important research traditions in economics and their relation to issues in the philosophy of science.
What Is Welfare and How Can We Measure It?
Authors: Dowding Keith 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article steps back from the traditional route of discussing the philosophical issues of welfare economics. The problem with that general approach is that the account and problems inherent in seeing welfare in terms of choice-based utility (whether ordinal or cardinal) or experiential utility are discussed prior to discussing other ways of examining human welfare. Problems with welfarism and utilitarianism, then, lead to the discussion of other approaches as though they avoid such problems when, in reality, their proponents rarely even stand them up to the issues. Any welfare economics or political philosophy that does not tell how to address public policy issues is not worth the name, and that means there must be a way of comparing the welfare of different people in some manner in order to make judgments about where to spend public money. All approaches suffer from interpersonal comparability problems.
Interpersonal Comparison of Utility
Authors: Binmore Ken 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
There are at least as many views on how the welfare of individuals should be compared as there are authors who write on the subject. An indication of the bewildering range of issues considered relevant in the literature is provided by the book Interpersonal Comparisons of Well-Being (Elster & Roemer 1991). However, this article plans to interpret the interpersonal comparison of utility narrowly. Although it reviews some traditional approaches along the way, its focus is on what the modern economists mean when they talk about units of utility and how can such utils be compared. It is widely thought that utils assigned to different individuals cannot sensibly be compared at all.
Epistemological Duties
Authors: Feldman Richard 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article uses three main questions to illuminate the topic of epistemological duties. First, it asks what the epistemological duties are. After suggesting that epistemological duties pertain to the development of appropriate cognitive attitudes, it asks the second question which argues about making a duty epistemological. Some of the quotations given in this article suggest that certain duties or obligations are epistemological (or epistemic) duties or obligations. Epistemological duties apparently differ from other sorts of duties, such as moral duties. This raises a question about what makes a particular duty an epistemological duty. This article suggests that a duty is epistemological if it is carried out with the goal in mind of being a rational believer. The third question in this article asks how these epistemological duties interact with other kinds of duties.