bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cantata
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

A vocal/choral musical genre originating in Italy during the Baroque era, the nomenclature of the cantata is indicative of a song to be sung, in contrast to a
sonata
, or a song to be played on instruments. Cantatas are multi‐movement works generally comprised of a series of sung recitatives, arias, ariosos, duets, and choruses accompanied by instruments. They can employ either sacred or secular texts and were originally composed in celebration of a particular person or event.
Cardinal Virtues
Authors: Horner David A. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

This is the traditional designation, beginning with St. Ambrose (c.339–397), for the four central moral virtues of wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance. According to Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–1274), they are called “cardinal” from the Latin
cardo
, meaning “hinge,” because, like hinges upon a door, these virtues permit entrance to human life. Other moral virtues (Aquinas identifies some 90) may be seen as subsidiary or more specific expressions of these principal virtues.
C
arey,
W
illiam (1761–1834)
Authors: Williams Will 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
English Baptist pastor, orientalist, and proclaimed “Father of Modern Missions,” William Carey was born on August 17, 1761, in Paulerspury, Northamptonshire, England. He was apprenticed to a shoemaker in nearby Piddington and, influenced by a fellow apprentice, began to attend a Dissenter prayer‐meeting. In 1783, his readings of the Bible persuaded him of Baptist principles, and Carey was baptized in North‐ampton by John Ryland Jr.
Carmelites
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The brothers and sisters of Our Lady of Carmel are popularly known as the Carmelites. It is a contemplative religious order which combines prayers with an active life of service. The Rule of the Carmelite order requires its members to pledge allegiance to Jesus Christ. They also show devotion to Our Lady whose Carmelite scapular they wear. Their apostolate calls for a life of prayer and service. Their model is Elijah, the prophet who lived on Mount Carmel. His rallying cry “With zeal I have been zealous for the Lord of Hosts” is the motto of the Carmelites.
Carpenter Gothic
Authors: Whytock Jack C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Carpenter Gothic, sometimes also Carpenter's Gothic, is the term used for both ecclesiastical and domestic architecture of the 19th century wherein, through the medium of wood, elements of the Gothic Revival style were employed. Gothic Revival building occurred throughout Britain, the British Empire, and the United States. In England stone and brick were the chief materials employed, but in North America, given the abundance of timber and the cost factor, many churches and houses were built or decorated with wood in the Gothic Revival style. Some have referred to this variant of the Gothic Revival style as “Carpenter Gothic.” This is common language in the United States, but it equally applies to many buildings, both ecclesiastical and domestic, in Canada as well as in New Zealand and Australia. In essence, carpenters used wood rather than stone.
Catacombs
Authors: Thompson Glen L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Catacombs (the origin of the word is uncertain) were underground burial chambers used by early Christians. While they are found in various areas (e.g. Naples, Sicily, Malta, and Tunisia) the approximately 60 catacombs at Rome are the most famous, with miles of tunnels and tens of thousands of burials. A special type of tufa rock (
pozzolana
), excavated by the Romans as a building material and to make mortar, allowed for the creation of long multilayered corridors and chambers that were resistant to collapse. Since the government required burial outside the city walls, the areas outside the main gates soon were filled with family burial plots of the rich. Space became even more precious by the 2nd century when Romans gradually moved from cremation to inhumation. Wealthy Christians then began to allow tunnels beneath their plots to provide burial sites for their fellow Christians. The majority of the burials date to the 3rd and 4th centuries. Contrary to popular legend, the catacombs were not constructed as places of refuge during persecution, nor were they used for regular worship, although eventually they were used for memorial services for the dead.
Cathars
Authors: Huey Whitney 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Cathars, also known as the Albigensians, thrived in France and northern Italy during the 12th and 13th centuries. They were considered heretical by the church because of their dualism, the belief in two gods — a God of goodness and a God of evil, a belief thought by many scholars to have its roots in Manichaeism and the beliefs of the Bogomils. The Cathars rejected free will, the sacraments, church hierarchy, and the existence of purgatory and hell. They believed that matter was evil and had to be rejected. The Cathars divided themselves into two groups: the
perfecti
, the perfect ones, and the
credentes
, the believers. The
perfecti
were often simply referred to as the “pure ones” because they were able to reject the material world and all that bound their souls to earth. There was a strict process for becoming a
perfectus
. During a period called the
abstinentia
,
candidates were assigned to a current perfectus
for training. When they were considered ready, they became full
perfecti
in a ceremony called the
consolamentum
, which was a second baptism
.
Since they were the teachers and leaders of the communities,
perfecti
lived a strict ascetic lifestyle — they rejected meat and eggs, wore plain clothing, abstained from sexual relations, and studied religious works. Some practiced
endura
, which was to stop eating. Many scholars have argued whether or not this was intentional suicide. The
credentes
were to support the
perfecti
and to try to live less sinful lives. Catharism was particularly popular in the politically unstable region of southern France. In his efforts to eliminate heresy, Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade in the early 13th century, which caused great turmoil in southern France but failed to eradicate the heresy. The Inquisition was then established in the region to root out the Cathars. Over time the Cathars also became associated with witchcraft and numerous bizarre occult practices leading to their further oppression.
C
atherine of
S
iena (1347–1380)
Authors: Weppler Amanda , Murray K. Sarah‐Jane 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Caterina di Iacopo di Benincasa was born in 1347 in Siena. At age 6, Catherine experienced a vision of Christ dressed in papal robes. This first vision influenced her decision at a young age to be dedicated to Christ as a virgin and Dominican. After the experience she began ascetic practices.
Celibacy
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Celibacy is conventionally defined as a person's voluntary pledge to refrain from marriage for religious reasons. The Roman Catholic Church requires celibacy of all its priests. The most important Roman Catholic documents regarding celibacy are
Presbyterorum ordinis
,
Optatam totius
,
Sacerdotalis caelibatus
,
Ultimis temporibus
, and
Novo incipiente nostro
. The Orthodox Church permits both celibate and married priests although marriage is not permitted after ordination as a sub deacon. However, only celibate priests are named bishops. The Eastern Church recognized celibacy and continence at the Quinisext Council (Trullo) in the year 691.
Central
A
frican Christianity
Authors: Sanders E. Randall 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The countries that make up the region of Central Africa — Angola, Burundi, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Rwanda — are an amalgamation of large and small nation‐states in the tropical equatorial zone of Africa. The region has one of the highest percentages of Christian affiliation in the entire world. Central Africa is also the most Catholic region in Africa as at least half of the population of each country, except for the Central African Republic, are members of the Roman Catholic Church.
CentralAmerica
Authors: Wilson Everett A. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractFrom the Conquest of the 16th century to the armed conflicts of the 20th, religion has been a major determinant in Central America's historical travail. The process began with the Spaniards' effort to impose on the native populations the fervent Catholicism of the Reconquest, the 15th century Spanish expulsion of the Muslim Moors from the Iberian Peninsula, that was carried with the same passion to the conquest of Spain's New World possessions. For the next five centuries religion reflected the ethnic‐cultural composition of each of the social groupings.
Chant
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Monophonic liturgical plainsong in unmeasured meter (
cantus planus
), chant is also referred to as
plainchant
and is common in both eastern and western traditions. It is widely believed that the practice of chanting in the Christian tradition developed from the Jewish practice of incantation employed in synagogue worship for the recitation of scriptures from the Torah.
C
hapman,
J
.
W
ilbur (1859–1918)
Authors: Thoennes Erik 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Born in Yale, Illinois, J. Wilbur Chapman would no doubt be more well known if he had not been overshadowed at the beginning of his ministry by his mentor D. L. Moody, and at the end by his apprentice Billy Sunday. With degrees from Lake Forest University and Lane Seminary, he was better educated than any other evangelist of his time. His writings include over 30 books, including a 555 page biography of Moody. Some of his most notable works include
Light on the Way
,
The Secret of a Happy Life
,
The Surrendered Life
,
Revivals and Missions
,
The Minister's Handicap
, and
Received Ye The Holy Ghost?
He wrote several hymns, the most well known being “Jesus What a Friend of Sinners,” and also compiled hymnals.
Charismatic Movement
Authors: Cartledge Mark J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Charismatic Movement usually refers to the adoption of Pentecostal spirituality within the mainstream Christian denominations in the 1960s, marking its influence within different strands of Christianity, as well as the emergence of House Churches or New Churches around the same period. This spirituality is usually associated with a post‐conversion crisis experience (baptism in the Spirit), often but not always marked by “speaking in tongues” or glossolalia, and the use of spiritual gifts, e.g. prophecy and healing, as well as modern musical accompaniment to songs and hymns and the use of drama and dance within worship. It marks and is associated with an empowerment and greater involvement of the laity in the life of the church.
C
harles
V
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Charles V, as he became known when he was crowned emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in June, 1519, was born February 24, 1500, in Ghent (modern Belgium). He was the last emperor to be crowned by the pope. He also served as king of Spain, where he was called Carlos I. His paternal grandfather was Emperor Maximilian I, whom he succeeded as emperor, and one of his aunts was Catherine of Aragon, King Henry VIII's first wife. His son Philip was married to Mary Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII.
Chartres Cathedral
Authors: Murray K. Sarah‐Jane 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Cathedral of Chartres, dedicated to the Virgin Mary (Notre Dame) and situated approximately 80 kilometers from Paris, is one of the finest examples of Gothic architecture in France and a popular place of pilgrimage due to the presence of the
Sancta Camisa
, a tunic said to have belonged to the Virgin Mary and given to the church in 876. (Modern research has revealed that the cloth is consistent with the type of fabric woven in Syria in the first century
ad
.) When the first cathedral burned down, the relic was feared lost. However, legends recount how three days later a priest miraculously emerged from the ruins with the relic intact. The (admittedly convenient) rediscovery of the
Sancta Camisa
increased the popularity of Chartres as a pilgrimage site and ensured financial support for the rebuilding of this important site of worship from all corners of Europe.
C
hemnitz,
M
artin (1522–1584)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Martin Chemnitz was born in 1522 in Brietzen, or Treuenbrietzen, in Germany, and died in 1584.From the age of 14 to 16, he lived in Wittenberg,where he heard Martin Luther preach. He returned to Wittenberg in 1545 and remained there until 1547, where he had some contact with Philip Melanchthon and some exposure to Luther. Between 1550 and 1553, he studied theology independently, while residing in Königsberg, East Prussia. In 1568 he received his doctorate in theology from the University of Rostock.
Chilean Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Catholicism began in Chile with the arrival of the first priests in 1541 and the creation of the diocese of Santiago as a suffragan of Lima in 1561. The first seminary was built in 1584. Catholicism was recognized as the state religion when Chile became independent in 1810 and it remained so until 1925 when church and state separated.
Christian and Missionary Alliance
Authors: King Paul L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Christian and Missionary Alliance (C&MA) was founded in New York City in 1887 as two interdenominational parachurch organizations, the Christian Alliance and the Evangelical Missionary Alliance, by Albert Benjamin Simpson (1843–1919), a former Canadian Presbyterian minister. His purpose was to bring together people from all denominations, with a common bond of emphasizing holiness, faith, healing, and missionary vision — what he and others called “the higher Christian life.” Merged together as The Christian and Missionary Alliance in 1897, it eventually evolved into a denomination many decades later.
Christmas
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Christians commemorate and celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ that occurred in Bethlehem about 5 or 6
bc
. According to the Gospel of Luke, he was born of the Virgin Mary, who became pregnant not by having sexual relations with her betrothed husband Joseph but by the Holy Spirit. Jesus' birth and its miraculous manner were predicted in the Old Testament. The Prophet Isaiahwrote, “Behold, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel”(Isa. 7:14). In the New Testament, Matthew, a disciple of Jesus, corroborated Isaiah's prophecy by quoting its exact words (Matt. 1:22–23). The purpose of Jesus' birth is also stated in the Bible. The Gospel of John, for instance, states, “For God so loved the world that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believes in him should not perish but have eternal life” (John 3:16).
Christological Controversies
Authors: Gomes Alan W. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
During the first six or seven centuries, the church was forced to oppose a variety of false teachings about Christ that had set themselves against a biblical, orthodox position. As a result of these errors, the church clarified and refined its teaching about Christ, drawing out more fully the biblical implications of his person. The battle over the correct Jesus was waged on two related fronts that overlapped chronologically. One set of controversies dealt primarily with the relationship of Jesus to God the Father. The key issues here focused on how Jesus' deity was to be conceived in relation to that of the Father in light of the demands of biblical monotheism. The disputes in this class are typically referred to as the trinitarian controversies. A second, associated set of issues focused on the incarnate Christ, particularly on the relationship between his divinity and his humanity.
Chronos: Christianity and Time
Authors: Vondey Wolfgang 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Christian discussion about time is generally carried out under the category of history and from the perspective of the gospel of Jesus Christ, which divides all of history into the periods “before Christ” (bc) and “after Christ” (ad). Time is seen as the fluctuation of history, in contrast to the eternity of God, and as the framework that makes possible the revelation of God in creation. Birth, life, and death are the constituents of the time of the individual, while the whole of creation moves toward the consummation of time at the end of history, when time is subsumed into eternity.
Separation of Church and State
Authors: Leinweber David 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In the United States, the phrase “separation of Church and state” draws literally from a famous 1802 letter by Thomas Jefferson to the Danbury Baptists advocating a “wall of separation between church and state.” Contrary to some popular conceptions, the phrase is not found in the United States Constitution. More generally the phrase “Separation of church and state” represents one of the most important and long‐lasting themes in Christian history.
Church Architecture
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

In the years immediately following the crucifixion and the ascension, Christians met in private homes for worship and fellowship. The term church originally meant the congregation or the people of God and only later came to be applied to the building where the congregation met. Churches were distinct from pagan temples that housed gods without reference to their devotees. They were also different from the Jewish temple or synagogue since it had no outer court and inner court or the holy of holies into which only the high priest could enter. The formal model was the Upper Room in which the disciples gathered to celebrate the Last Supper. Thus all later churches were in one sense Upper Rooms where as in Acts 13–14 believers constantly devoted themselves to prayer. Paul refers to the faithful meeting in house‐churches, the hyphen indicating that wherever the believers met was
eo ipso
a church. In Rome, house‐churches were known as title churches (
tituli
) which had the name of the owner inscribed on a slab.
Churches of Christ
Authors: Brenneman Todd M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Churches of Christ is one of three religious groups that are descended from the union of the movements of Barton W. Stone and Alexander Campbell. The group was committed to the unification of Christians by the breaking down of denominational barriers, as well as a primitivism that claimed to restore New Testament Christianity in the 19th century. Claiming the Bible alone as their guide for faith and practice, the group was able to draw members from other denominations interested in the removal of denominational names and an individualism that promoted the ability of the person to read and understand Scripture unaided.
Cinema, Christian
Authors: Carrigan Henry L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Until the 1960s, the phrase “Christian cinema” would have been an oxymoron. Most Christian groups frowned upon the movies, either because, in the eyes of these groups, the movies subverted Christian doctrine or because they encouraged youth to engage in behavior of which the church did not approve. The Roman Catholic Church expanded its Index of Prohibited Books to include films, thus banning, as part of official church practice and governance, many movies and forbidding moviegoing. Protestants, especially Baptists and Methodists, lumped moviegoing into the same moral categories as gambling, dancing, smoking, and card playing. Although Protestants did not have an Index that was binding on their behavior, they did associate movies with disreputable social behavior and unseemly witness to the gospel and so forbade (and many still forbid) their congregants to darken the doors of movie theaters. Sheer entertainment was the devil's playground, and Satan could corrupt innocent youth in those dark palaces of sin.
Clement of
A
lexandria (
c
.160–215)
Authors: Harmon Steven R. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
As Titus Flavius Clemens wrote little about his life, his biography is dependent on sources written centuries after his death and conjectures on the basis of hints in his own writings. In his sole autobiographical comment he mentioned briefly the Christian teachers with whom he had studied: an Ionian Greek, a Syrian, an Egyptian, an Assyrian, a Palestinian Jew (probably a Jewish Christian), and finally, “the true Sicilian bee” in Egypt whom Clement considered his most influential teacher. While Clement did not name these teachers, the “Sicilian bee” was in all likelihood Pantaenus, regarded as the founder of the Christian catechetical school in Alexandria.
Cloud of Unknowing, The
Authors: S.J Harvey D. Egan, 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Scholars have been able to identify the anonymous author of the highly celebrated
Cloud
of
Unknowing
(c.1345–c.1386) only as a 14th century Carthusian recluse from a monastery in the East Midlands, England. Yet this unknown monk's mystical depth, theological acumen, psychological shrewdness, soundness of spiritual direction, and literary prowess are such that he is considered to be the mystical genius of 14th century England.
C
olumbus,
C
hristopher (1451–1506)
Authors: Coulter Michael 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christopher Columbus, whose voyages to the New World greatly changed the world's history, was born in Genoa, Italy, in 1451, the son of a middle‐class merchant. As a young man, he apprenticed as a business agent for a trading company, and his travels took him as far as Ireland. Europe had long been interested in asea passage to the Far East because the longoverland trip was not very economical. Contrary to popular belief, Columbus did not discover that the world was spherical. Columbus, however, is credited with discovering the trade winds and believed that a journey to the Orient by sea was possible. Late in his life he believed that God had opened his mind to a journey to the New World.
C
omenius,
J
an
A
mos (1592–1670)
Authors: Atwood Craig D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Jan Comenius, best known as an educational theorist, was also a theologian, bishop, and social reformer. Born Jan Amos Komensky in Moravia, he was raised in the Unitas Fratrum, a small but influential Hussite church. He was orphaned at a young age, but his intellectual gifts were noticed by the church, and he was sent to Herborn Academy in the Netherlands. There he studied with the luminaries Althusius, Piscator, and Alstead. He also attended the University of Heidelberg and there established a lasting friendship with Johan Valentin Andreas, who probably wrote the famous Rosicrucian Manifestos. During those formative years, Comenius was persuaded that reform of ecclesiastical, pedagogical, scientific, and political organizations could usher in the millennial age. He later called this vision of universal reform “pansophy,” or universal wisdom.
Conditional Immortality
Authors: Gomes Alan W. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Conditional immortality is the teaching that the soul is not naturally immortal but dies together with the body. However, God may choose to bestow immortality as a special gift, i.e. at the resurrection. Conditionalist David A. Dean explains the position as follows: “By conditional immortality, I mean the teaching that immortality is not a present characteristic of any human being but a gift which God will bestow only on those who meet his conditions” (1989: 3). “Conditional immortality stresses that conditions must be met before the sinner can receive everlasting personal existence” (Dean 1977: 114–115).