bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Deception
Authors: Rogers Richard 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Deception is the broadest term used in psychological practice to refer to intentional distortion in self‐presentations. Most often deception is discussed in the framework of court‐ordered evaluations and adversarial contexts; however, even clients proactively seeking services can be less than completely forthcoming. Moreover, deceptions may occur (see Rogers, 2008) as a result of internal conditions (e.g., cognitive distortions of a sex offender), identity issues (e.g., stigmatization of mental disorders), or external motivations (e.g., impression management for job interviews).
Defense Mechanisms
Authors: Cramer Phebe 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
A defense mechanism may be defined as a cognitive operation or form of thinking that functions to protect a person from undue anxiety or loss of self‐esteem. These mental mechanisms and their function operate outside of awareness, so that people do not realize why they are thinking in a particular way. For example, when Johnny says “Grandma doesn't like me” in the absence of any objective evidence that this is the case, it may well be that Johnny does not like his Grandma, but cannot recognize this emotion in himself, because it would be an unacceptable feeling. In this case, Johnny is attributing his own unacceptable feeling to someone else and would be displaying the defense mechanism of projection to hide his true feelings, while at the same time he is providing an explanation for why he avoids his Grandma.
Delusions
Authors: Gipps Richard G. T. , Fulford K. W. M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
There is no widely accepted definition of delusion. Delusions are often described in textbooks as being defined since Karl Jaspers as false, subculturally atypical beliefs, strongly maintained in the face of counterargument. Yet such definitions fail to capture either the rich diversity or key features of delusions.
Dementia
Authors: Molinari Victor , Volicer Ladislav 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Dementia is a syndrome characterized by progressive irreversible generalized cognitive decline that must include memory impairment (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000). Most symptoms of dementia begin in old age, with varied estimates of its prevalence due to different methodologies and analytic strategies employed, diverse types of assessments used, and disparate screening assessment cut‐off points applied. The incidence of dementia is strongly correlated with age; a recent study suggests that 5% of adults over the age of 71 and perhaps 37.4% over 90 have dementia (Plassman, Langa, Fisher, et al., 2007).
Denmark, Psychology in
Authors: Elle Birgitte 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Copenhagen University was founded in 1479 and reconstituted in 1539, after the Reformation. Here psychology was established as an independent discipline near the end of the nineteenth century; previously it had been taught in connection with other subjects, such as theology, philosophy, and psychiatry. Through the nineteenth century Danish philosophers pursued psychological studies in connection with such topics as sensory perception, thinking, and the psychology of personality. Among them was the renowned philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, whose writings inspired the existentialists of a later period. It was within philosophy that psychology first had a place, with Harald Høffding (1843–1931) a central figure. In 1882 he published the first Danish textbook in psychology,
Psykologi i omrids på grundlag af erfaringer
(Outlines of Psychology), which went into 11 editions, the last in 1930, and was also issued in several foreign languages: German, Russian, French, English, Polish, Japanese, and Italian. Høffding's psychology conforms to nineteenth‐century positivism and relies on the classical division of the mind into cognition, emotion, and will.
Dependency
Authors: Mongrain Myriam 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
All human beings depend on others: at first for survival and later, for support and companionship. The need to belong and be supported is one of the most basic needs. Some individuals may manifest a more extreme need for support and be intensely preoccupied with obtaining care or being close to their significant other. Dependency refers to a core motivation to obtain and maintain nurturing and supportive relationships (cited in Pincus & Wilson, 2001), and it involves a range of traits that can be either adaptive (e.g., valuing relationships) or maladaptive (e.g., people pleasing or passivity). This personality style is often associated with emotional difficulties and maladaptive relationships (see Bornstein, 2005) and, as a result, has received a great amount of attention from clinicians. Dependent personality disorder is a recognized diagnosis in the DSM‐IV. It is important to note that this diagnosis is applied only when the dependent individual's submissiveness, need to be taken care of, and fears of separation interfere with her or his functioning and cause significant distress.
Depth Perception
Authors: Riener Cedar , Proffitt Dennis 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
How do people perceive the three‐dimensional qualities of the world and the objects in it? Most investigators believe that the primary information for perception is the images projected onto our retinas. The problem of depth perception would thereby seem to be intractable; our visual system gets information limited to two dimensions (the projected retinal images), which does not uniquely determine any single three‐dimensional characteristics of the world. Yet we somehow perceive the three‐dimensional world that made those projections, and quite accurately in most circumstances. The two‐dimensional images are inherently ambiguous as to size and distance (e.g., large objects that are distant create the same projection as small objects that are close) as well as orientation (a rectangle and a trapezoid can both create the same retinal projection). People solve this problem, called the inverse projection problem, by combining four types of information, or depth cues: (1) oculomotor, (2) stereo, (3) pictorial, and (4) motion cues.
Deviancy
Authors: Davidson William , Onifade Eyitayo 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Deviancy is a central concept in the study of human behavior and cognition. It underscores the primary focus of personality theory, clinical psychology, and social psychology. Deviancy in psychology describes behavior and thought patterns that are significantly different from what constitutes the norm in a population. These differences in cognition, behavior, and performance can be consistent and fixed or varying over time and situation. They are generally described as too much of an undesirable behavior or too little of a desired behavior. Alternately, these differences can occur as high‐intensity isolated events, as in the cases of violence or mental illness.
D
ewey,
J
ohn (1859–1952)
Authors: Haynie N. A. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educator. He attended the University of Vermont, after which he taught high school and independently studied philosophy. He entered the graduate program at Johns Hopkins University and received his doctorate in philosophy in 1884. He taught at the University of Michigan and the University of Minnesota before going to the University of Chicago in 1894, the same year as James Rowland Angell. Dewey remained at Chicago for 10 years, and his and Angell's influence made the university a center for functional psychology. Dewey started an experimental laboratory school at Chicago, a new approach to educational methods that made him both famous and controversial. When he left, the leadership of the functionalist school passed to Angell. From 1904 to 1930 Dewey was at Columbia University, working on applications of psychology to educational and philosophical problems.
Disaster Psychology
Authors: Reyes Gilbert 
Published: January 2010

AbstractDisasters severely disrupt or destroy environments on which people depend for their survival, and they may thus have extensive social and psychological consequences. The origin of a disaster may lie in natural phenomena such as heat, wind, precipitation, fire, tides, and seismic activity (e.g., droughts, famines, tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, blizzards, wildfires, tsunamis, and earthquakes). Disasters may also be brought about by unusually rapid changes in the prevalence and distribution of life forms, leading to infestations of destructive species and epidemics of infectious disease. Human activities may also cause massive destruction, whether inadvertently or by intent. Technological failures are an increasingly worrisome cause of death and destruction, most notably perhaps in the category of failures of transportation conveyances (e.g., aircraft, ships, trains), but failures of architectural structures can also be massively destructive (e.g., dams, levies, pipelines, and large buildings). Manufacturing that involves explosive or toxic substances also requires technological safeguards that may fail (e.g., chemical plants, oil refineries, and nuclear power plants), and major failures can lead to long‐term environmental damage and the injury or death of workers or others living nearby.
Discrimination
Authors: Sechrist Gretchen B. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Discrimination is negative behavior directed at individuals or at groups of individuals because of their social group membership. Discrimination is based on social categories to which individuals do not generally choose to belong. Such social categories include gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, stigma, age, and physical appearance. Although it is normal to favor people who are similar to us (e.g., young children frequently play within gender groups and people date and marry primarily within their own race), discrimination involves unfair, unwarranted, and unjustifiable treatment of others.
Dissociative Identity Disorder
Authors: Gleaves David H. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractDissociative identity disorder (DID) is a psychiatric condition that was formerly known as multiple personality disorder (MPD). DID is viewed as the most complex and severe of the dissociative disorders, a category that also includes dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, and depersonalization disorder (see Cardeña & Gleaves, 2007 for a discussion of other dissociative disorders). Although it is controversial and long regarded as exotic and rare, a wealth of research has been conducted on DID in recent years, particularly since the 1980s.
Dynamic Psychology
Authors: Wolitzky David L. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
A dynamic psychology considers mental experience and behavior as a function of the interaction of motivational, affective, and cognitive variables of different degrees of intensity or strength. There have been a variety of theories in the history of psychology that fall under the rubric of dynamic psychology. These theories, which have waned in influence in the past half‐century, include general systems theory, behaviorist theories (e.g., Hull), Lewin's field theory, cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger), family systems theories, Henry Murray's need‐press theory, and a variety of psychodynamic theories (e.g., Freud, Adler, Rank, Horney, Sullivan). Although differing in important respects, these theories have in common a focus on the intensity and direction of motivational forces and conflicts involved in adaptive and maladaptive goal‐directed behavior. For example, approach‐avoidance conflicts involve the dynamic interaction of competing needs, motives, fears, and goals.
Dysthymic Disorder
Authors: Klein Daniel N. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractDysthymic disorder is a form of mood disorder that is characterized by mild, chronic depression. The current diagnostic criteria require chronic depressed mood (i.e., depressed most of the day, for more days than not, for at least two years). In addition, the individual must experience at least two of the following six depressive symptoms: (1) low self‐esteem, (2) feelings of hopelessness, (3) low energy or fatigue, (4) difficulty concentrating or making decisions, (5) sleep disturbance (insomnia or sleeping too much), and (6) appetite disturbance (poor appetite or overeating). The symptoms must be persistent (i.e., never without depressive symptoms for more than two months at a time during this period), have a gradual (or insidious) onset (i.e., no major depressive episode during the first two years), and cause significant distress or impairment in social or occupational functioning. Finally, the diagnosis cannot not be made if the individual has a psychotic or bipolar (manic‐depressive) disorder, or if the symptoms are due to medication, substances of abuse, or a general medical condition (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
Early Childhood Development
Authors: Vashchenko Myrna V. , Wertlieb Donald , Spetter Dante 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Childhood is a culturally defined period in human development between birth and adulthood, and, in a historical perspective, is a relatively new social construction. Appreciation of childhood as a “special” time of life began to develop some 400 years ago, marking the beginning of a gradual move toward recognition of children's rights and their special needs for protection. Definitions of early childhood, an important subperiod of childhood, vary as to the ages that mark its beginning and end. The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) includes ages from birth to eight, whereas other sources prefer to view infancy as a separate period or to exclude middle‐childhood years (school age) from the definition of early childhood. Emerging classifications consider youth as ages 0 to 25 years.
Eating Disorders
Authors: Richardson Jodie , Steiger Howard 
Published: January 2010

AbstractAnorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and binge eating disorder (BED)—the commonly recognized eating disorder (ED) variants—are all characterized by abnormal thoughts and behaviors surrounding eating, weight, and body image. AN is defined by an intense fear of weight gain, leading to caloric restraint and abnormal thinness. BN occurs in relatively normal‐weight or overweight individuals who display recurrent eating binges followed by such compensations as self‐induced vomiting, laxative misuse, fasting, or intensive exercise. The most widely known of other ED variants is BED, which involves regular eating binges without compensatory behaviors.
Educational Psychology
Authors: Miller Gloria , McCormick Christine , Jordan Staci 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The discipline of educational psychology, broadly defined, focuses on the application of psychology to the understanding of learners and learning environments. From its inception, the field has reflected a unique interdisciplinary tapestry of interwoven textures and hues representing a balance of psychological theory with respect to learning and application for educational practice. Educational psychology has been defined as the branch of psychology concerned with “the development, evaluation, and application of theories and principles of human learning, teaching, and instruction, and theory‐driven educational materials, programs, strategies, and techniques that can enhance lifelong educational activities and processes” (Wittrock & Farley, 1989).
Emotional Disturbances
Authors: Kring Ann M. , Goodkind Madeleine S. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Emotional disturbances are found in nearly all disorders in the current version of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000), the official diagnostic system used by mental health professionals. These disturbances span positive and negative emotions and include excesses of emotion (e.g., too much anxiety), deficits in emotion (e.g., lack of self‐conscious emotions like embarrassment), disconnections among emotion response components (e.g., strong feelings without outward expression), emotion understanding problems (e.g., misinterpreting the emotional intent of others), and regulation problems (e.g., uncontrollable anger outbursts). Not only are emotion disturbances pervasive, but also many of these disturbances cut across traditional diagnostic boundaries.
Enuresis
Authors: Friman Patrick C. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractEnuresis is the technical term used for the regular passage of urine into locations other than those specifically designed for that purpose. The diagnostic criteria in the fourth edition of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000) include repeated voiding of urine into clothing or bed at least twice a week for at least three months. If the frequency is less than that but the voiding is a cause of significant distress or impairment to social, academic, or occupational functioning, it satisfies diagnostic criteria.
E
rikson,
E
rik
H
omburger (1902–1994)
Authors: Staff  
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Erik Homburger Erikson was born in 1902 to unmarried Danish parents living in Germany. In 1904, his mother married a pediatrician, Theodor Homburger, who adopted Erik in 1911. Subsequently, and probably following Scandinavian traditions, he changed his name to Erik Homburger Erikson.
Eriksonian Developmental Stages
Authors: Berzonsky Michael D. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The developmental theory of Erik Erikson builds upon and extends Sigmund Freud's classical account of psychosexual stages. Noteworthy in this regard is the fact that Erikson was analyzed and influenced by Freud's daughter, Anna. According to orthodox Freudian psychoanalytic theory, personality development is completed by at least adolescence and is relatively independent from positive environmental influences. Moreover, ego development is considered to be defensive in nature; the ego emerges to control and regulate the id, which comprises biologically determined instincts, needs, urges, and the like.
Escape‐Avoidance Learning
Authors: Denny M. Ray 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Avoidance learning and extinction are typically studied in rats with electric foot‐shock as the aversive stimulus. In active avoidance, the rat is often placed in a runway, the floor of which is electrified at one end and is, at least temporarily, safe at the other end. The rat must move to the opposite end to escape or avoid shock. Before shock is delivered, the subject has several seconds in which to respond. A naïve subject, however, fails to avoid and is shocked on at least one trial before escaping the shock chamber. Thus traditional avoidance learning always includes escape behavior and is appropriately called
escape‐avoidance learning
.
Exhibitionism
Authors: Morin John W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Exhibitionism is a psychological disorder listed within the category of sexual disturbances called “paraphilias” in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Exhibitionism is characterized by “recurrent, intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors involving the exposure of one's genitals to an unsuspecting stranger” (p. 569) that persist over a period of at least six months. A person must have acted on these urges, or the urges or fantasies must cause distress or impairment for the person to be diagnosed with the disorder.
Experimental Controls
Authors: Kidd Kathryn , Morgan George A. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Experimental controls are techniques that researchers utilize to minimize the effects of extraneous experience and environmental variables as well as to strengthen the inference that changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable (the ability to infer causality). Does, for example, Treatment X (independent variable) cause a change in Behavior A (dependent variable)? A well‐designed, well‐controlled, and well‐implemented randomized experiment is the best avenue for examining causality.
Face Validity
Authors: Holden Ronald R. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Face validity is a characteristic associated with a psychological test and its individual items. Distinct from more technical types of validity, face validity is the appropriateness, sensibility, or relevance of the test and its items as they appear to the persons answering the test. Do a test and its items seem valid and meaningful to the individuals taking the test? More formally, face validity is defined as the degree to which test respondents view the content of a test and its items as relevant to the context in which the test is being administered.
Factitious Disorder
Authors: Gregory Robert J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Factitious disorder is defined in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
as “physical or psychological symptoms that are intentionally produced or feigned in order to assume the sick role” (American Psychiatric Association, 2000, p. 513). It is differentiated from somatoform disorders on the basis of involuntary production of symptoms in the latter. However, in clinical practice the two types of disorders can be difficult to distinguish, since many patients present with a mixture of voluntary and involuntary symptoms (Feldman, Hamilton, & Deemer, 2001).
False Memory Syndrome
Authors: Depue Brendan E. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractFalse memory syndrome(FMS), although not recognized as a psychiatric disorder in either theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disordersor theInternational Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, which are the two key reference manuals for mental illness throughout the world, is a term widely used in legal and scientific arenas to describe the hypothesis that recovered memories may at times be partially incorrect or altogether false. The False Memory Syndrome Foundation (FMSF) first coined the term in the 1990s in reaction to an abundance of cases during the previous two decades in which patients claimed to be victims of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) or satanic ritual. These recovered memory cases led to criminal prosecutions of alleged abusers, lawsuits against therapists by former clients and parents, and even legislative reform. The 2008 website of the FMSF supplies the following definition for the syndrome.[A] condition in which a person's identity and interpersonal relationships are centered around a memory of traumatic experience which is objectively false but in which the person strongly believes … [T]he syndrome may be diagnosed when the memory is so deeply ingrained that it orients the individual's entire personality and lifestyle, in turn disrupting all sorts of other adaptive behavior.
Family Therapy
Authors: Mirsalimi Hamid 
Published: January 2010

AbstractProfessional therapists, researchers, and other students of psychotherapy have long been curious about many questions relevant to the field: What constitutes a psychological problem, how could that problem be classified, what differentiates that problem from all others, what is the etiology of the problem, what are developmental sequelae of the problem, what is the most efficacious treatment approach, what is resilience, what is mental health, and many others. One particular question of interest has had to do with the unit identified as the patient. Whereas traditionally this unit was an individual, the emergence of the family therapy movement shifted that focus away from the individual and toward the family as the unit and the focus of study and treatment.
F
estinger,
L
eon (1919–1989)
Authors: Staff  
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Leon Festinger received his bachelor's degree from the College of the City of New York, in 1939. He then attended the State University of Iowa, receiving the M.A. and the PhD (1942). There Festinger came under the influence of Kurt Lewin's theories and developed them further, earning a reputation in social psychology.