bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Defences Arising from Changes in the Defendant's Circumstances
Authors: Virgo Graham 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Sometimes the defendant's circumstances will change to such an extent after he or she has obtained a benefit that it is no longer just for the defendant to make full restitution of the benefit received. In such cases, the defendant may be able to rely on one of three defences to defeat or circumscribe the claimant's restitutionary claim, namely, estoppel, payment by an agent to his or her principal, and change of position. The availability of each defence will depend on the reason why the defendant's circumstances have changed. This chapter discusses the conditions for establishing the defence of estoppel, including reliance by the defendant, change of circumstances, and the justice of the case; consequence of the claimant being estopped; transfer of a benefit by an agent to his or her principal; and relationship between change of position and other defences such as estoppel, the agent's defence, and bona fide purchase.
Passing On and Mitigation of Loss
Authors: Virgo Graham 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Whereas the defences of estoppel, transfer by an agent to his or her principal, and change of position are assessed by reference to changes in the circumstances of the defendant, usually after he or she has received a benefit, this chapter examines whether there are, and if not whether there should be, any defences in English law which operate by reference to changes in the circumstances of the claimant after the receipt of the benefit by the defendant. There are two possible defences which, if they are recognised, would operate in this way: passing on and mitigation of loss. The general principle of passing on is discussed, along with judicial examination of the defence (recognition or rejection of the defence), and whether the defence of passing on should be recognised.
The Personal Employment Contract
Authors: Freedland Mark 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book is an analytical study of the current English law of traditional contracts of employment and of other personal employment contracts. Concentrating on the common law basis of individual employment law, it takes full account of relevant British and European Community legislation up to and including the Employment Act 2002, and considers the impact of the Human Rights Act 1998 and of the developing law of human and social rights more generally. This book takes account of the very considerable amount of case-law, legislation, and legal writing which has affected the law of the contract of recent employment. This book addresses a wide range of employment relationships; in fact, it argues for and is constructed around a whole new category of employment contracts, which includes not only contracts of employment but also other ‘personal employment contracts’, a concept which the book articulates and justifies. Within that novel conceptual framework, many of the major features of the law of employment contracts are re-examined and presented in unfamiliar and challenging terms. Thus, the employer is re-conceptualized as the ‘employing enterprise’, the bilateral structure of employment contracts is re-evaluated, and new explanations are advanced for the functioning of the law of termination of employment contracts and of remedies for wrongful termination.
Definition and Personal Structure
Authors: FREEDLAND FBA MARK R. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter begins with an analysis of how employment law came to be organized around the category of the contract of employment, to which a false unity was attributed. It explains how the contract of employment came to be systematically contrasted with another contract type, that of the contract for services, arguing that this distinction has proved to be an equally false or unsatisfactory one. As a result, it has become difficult to decide whether certain employment relationships, or sets of arrangement for employment, fall into any of those contractual categories and if so which of them. The second section of the chapter suggests a set of definitions and distinctions which might provide greater clarity and coherence in the foundational aspect of the law of employment contracts. The third section demonstrates the gains in clarity of analysis which can be obtained by operating within the expanded category of personal employment contracts rather than within the traditional and narrower category which has dominated employment law.
Towards a Codification of Personal Work Contracts—Relation and Contract in Employment Law
Authors: FREEDLAND FBA MARK R. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter argues that the expansion and restatement of the law of the contract of employment is a feasible and useful project. However, the complete execution of it would consist of an authoritative codification of the law of personal work or employment contracts. If that larger project would be undertaken in the future, this would involve a heavy investment of creative energy on the part of those concerned with the theoretical and practical development of employment law. The chapter considers whether the preliminary work has indicated that this would be a sound investment both in practical and theoretical terms.
The Decline of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East and the ‘Arab Awakening’ before 1914
Authors: Fieldhouse D. K. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
One historic development that took place before the Arab Middle East became what it was after 1914 was the decline of the power of the Ottoman empire that had ruled the region from varying dates in the 16th century. This chapter examines how far the dissolution of the Ottoman empire could be attributed to a new and explosive awakening of Arab nationalism, a desire to cast off Turkish rule and form new nation states. In particular, this chapter explores whether there was an ‘Arab Awakening’ (a phrase associated with George Antonius) before 1914 and between then and 1918, how strong it was, and whether it could, by itself, have brought about the dissolution of the Ottoman Arab empire.
Britain in Mesopotamia/Iraq, 1918–1958
Authors: Fieldhouse D. K. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines British rule in Mesopotamia/Iraq during the years 1918-1958. There were two dominant features of the British position in Mesopotamia (now known as Iraq) that were largely to influence its history until, and in fact after, the end of the mandate in 1932. First, as in the other mandates, Britain’s position there was ambiguous as the very concept of a mandate was new and undefined. The second fundamental feature of post-1918 Iraq was that it had no historical, religious, or ethnic homogeneity. In this chapter, the British experience in Iraq will be examined under four heads: first, the indigenous social structure; second, the early British response to 1932; third, Iraqi politics and society from 1920 to 1941; and finally, the revival, decline, and fall of British influence, 1941 to 1958.
Palestine: The British Mandate, 1918–1948
Authors: Fieldhouse D. K. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the British mandate in Palestine from 1918 to 1948 and why Palestine was arguably the greatest failure in the whole history of British imperial rule. The British, after thirty years of colonial rule, had failed to create a viable indigenous government of any sort in Palestine and could only evacuate the country and leave its future to be decided by civil war. The reasons for this failure are discussed based on the position and reactions of each of the three main actors: the Arabs, the Zionists, and the British. Any one of these might have blocked the road to an agreed inter-communal settlement.
Lebanon and the French, 1918–1946
Authors: Fieldhouse D. K. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter investigates the French mandate in Lebanon from 1918 to 1946. The modern history of Lebanon began in 1920, when the French, the prospective mandatory, created a state which they called Le Grand Lebanon (Greater Lebanon). Since this state had no historic unity its later development depended on whether this amalgam of Ottoman districts and religious sects could hold together and generate a sense of common nationhood. Because this was necessarily largely a political process, this chapter examines political structures and developments by focusing on the establishment of the French mandate and its background and the operation of the mandate to 1945.
Conclusions
Authors: Fieldhouse D. K. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The central question addressed by this book is the effect the mandates held by Britain and France had on the one-time provinces of the Ottoman empire in the Middle and Near East. Although the mandates, or some comparable form of western rule, became inevitable once Ottoman rule had been destroyed, they did not fulfil the expectations of those idealists who drew up the guidelines for the system. Britain and France were there for strategic, economic, and ideological purposes, and it was no part of their ambitions to undertake a fundamental social and political reconstruction that might, in the longer term, have generated truly democratic and stable societies. They left when it was no longer convenient to stay, leaving behind a multitude of unresolved tensions and potential conflicts that would eventually grow into the complex of tensions and despotisms characteristic of modern-day Middle East.
The Universe in a Helium Droplet
Authors: Volovik Grigory E. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThere are fundamental relations between three vast areas of physics: particle physics, cosmology, and condensed matter physics. The fundamental links between the first two areas — in other words, between micro- and macro-worlds — have been well established. There is a unified system of laws governing the scales from subatomic particles to the cosmos and this principle is widely exploited in the description of the physics of the early universe. This book aims to establish and define the connection of these two fields with condensed matter physics. According to the modern view, elementary particles (electrons, neutrinos, quarks, etc.) are excitations of a more fundamental medium called the quantum vacuum. This is the new ‘aether’ of the 21st century. Electromagnetism, gravity, and the fields transferring weak and strong interactions all represent different types of the collective motion of the quantum vacuum. Among the existing condensed matter systems, a quantum liquid called superfluid 3He-A most closely represents the quantum vacuum. Its quasiparticles are very similar to the elementary particles, while the collective modes are analogues of photons and gravitons. The fundamental laws of physics, such as the laws of relativity (Lorentz invariance) and gauge invariance, arise when the temperature of the quantum liquid decreases.
Gravity
Authors: GRIGORY E. VOLOVIK 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThis chapter discusses the Einstein theory of gravity, which consists of two main elements: (1) gravity is related to a curvature of space-time in which particles move along geodesic curves; and (2) dynamics of the metric field is determined by Einstein equations. Sakharov theory of gravity, in which gravity is induced by vacuum fluctuations, reproduces Einstein theory. The effective gravity emerging in quantum liquids is similar to Sakharov gravity, but in quantum liquids only the first element of Einstein theory is present — the effective metric for quasiparticles, while the metric field obeys hydrodynamic type equations instead of Einstein equations. The chapter also introduces the cosmological constant problem. In particle physics, field quantization allows a zero-point energy, the constant vacuum energy when all fields are in their ground states. In the absence of gravity the constant energy can be ignored, since only the difference between the energies of the field in the excited and ground states is meaningful. In the Einstein theory of gravity, however, the gravitational field reacts to the total value of the energy momentum tensor of the matter fields, and thus the absolute value of the vacuum energy becomes meaningful. If the energy momentum tensor of the vacuum is non-zero it must be added to the Einstein equations. The corresponding contribution to the action is given by the cosmological term, which was introduced by Einstein.
Effective Theory Of Superfluidity
Authors: GRIGORY E. VOLOVIK 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThis chapter discusses how the effective theory incorporates the low-energy dynamics of the superfluid vacuum and the dynamics of the system of quasiparticles in Bose liquids. The effective theory of two-fluid hydrodynamics was developed by Lev Landau. According to the general ideas of Landau, a weakly excited state of the quantum system can be considered as a small number of elementary excitations. Applying this to the quantum liquid 4He, the dense system of strongly interacting 4Heatoms can be represented in the low-energy corner by a dilute system of weakly interacting quasiparticles (phonons and rotons). In addition, the state without excitations — the ground state or the quantum vacuum — has its own degrees of freedom: it can experience the coherent collective motion. This motion is described by continuity and London equations for superfluid velocity and density. Since superfluid velocity and density of liquid produce effective acoustic metric for quasiparticles, the continuity and London equations represent an analog of Einstein equations for effective gravity in quantum liquids, while quasiparticles represent matter on the background of quantum vacuum. The chapter also considers the role of Galilean transformation, two reference frames for quasiparticles (co-moving and absolute), effect of frame dragging produced by superfluid velocity, and whether the speed of light is a fundamental constant.
Advantages and Drawbacks Of Effective Theory
Authors: GRIGORY E. VOLOVIK 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe energy momentum tensor for the vacuum field which represents gravity is non-covariant, since the effective gravitational field obeys hydrodynamic equations rather than Einstein equations. However, even for the fully covariant dynamics of gravity, in Einstein theory the corresponding quantity ‘the energy momentum tensor for the gravitational field’ cannot be presented in the covariant form. This is the famous problem of the energy momentum tensor in general relativity. One must sacrifice either covariance of the theory or the true conservation law. From the condensed matter point of view, the inconsistency between the covariance and the conservation law for the energy and momentum is an aspect of the much larger problem of the non-locality of effective theories. This chapter discusses the advantages and drawbacks of effective theory, non-locality in effective theory, true conservation and covariant conservation, covariance versus conservation, paradoxes of effective theory, Novikov–Wess–Zumino action for ferromagnets as an example of non-locality, effective versus microscopic theory, whether quantum gravity exists, what effective theory can and cannot do, and universality classes of effective theories of superfluidity.
Microscopic Physics
Authors: GRIGORY E. VOLOVIK 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThis chapter deals with the Fermi systems, where the low-energy effective theory involves both bosonic and fermionic fields. Above the phase transition to the superconducting or superfluid state, the overwhelming majority of systems consisting of fermionic particles (electrons in metals, neutrons in neutron stars, 3He atoms in 3He liquid, etc.) form a so-called Fermi liquid. Below transition new types of fermionic vacua emerge. This chapter discusses the Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) theory for spin-triplet superfluids, which provide examples of different universality classes of fermionic vacua: fully gapped vacua, vacua with stable and marginal point nodes — Fermi points, and vacua with nodal lines — Fermi lines. It also discusses emergent ‘relativistic’ quasiparticles, fundamental constants and hierarchy of Planck energy scales in fermionic systems, problem of vacuum energy and cosmological term in bi-metric gravity, and mass generation for Standard Model fermions.
Universality Classes Of Fermionic Vacua
Authors: GRIGORY E. VOLOVIK 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThis chapter discusses effective theories of quantum fermionic liquids. In the low-energy limit, the type of the effective theory depends on the structure of the quasiparticle spectrum, which in turn is determined by topology in momentum space (p-space topology). The p-space topology distinguishes three main generic classes of the stable fermionic spectrum in the quantum vacuum of a 3+1 fermionic system: vacua with Fermi surfaces, vacua with Fermi points, and vacua with a fully gapped fermionic spectrum. Fermi surface is stable because it represents the topological object — the vortex in momentum space. As a result, Fermi liquids with Fermi surface share the properties of their simplest representative: weakly interacting Fermi gas. The low-energy physics of the interacting particles in a Fermi liquid is equivalent to the physics of a gas of quasiparticles moving in collective Bose fields produced by all other particles. Another topological object in p-space is the hedgehog, which is responsible for stability of Fermi points. Example of vacuum of the Fermi-point universality class is provided by 3He-A. Near the Fermi point the effective relativistic field theory emerges with emerging Weyl fermions, gauge fields, and gravity. The chapter discusses p-space and r-space topology, topological invariant for Fermi surface and Fermi points in terms of Green's function, Landau and non-Landau Fermi liquids, collective modes of the Fermi surface, volume of the Fermi surface as invariant of adiabatic deformations, collective modes of vacuum with Fermi points (electromagnetic and gravitational fields), and manifolds of zeros in p-space of higher dimensions.
Vortices In 3He-B
Authors: GRIGORY E. VOLOVIK 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThis chapter discusses the topology of singular topological defects — defects with singular core of coherence length size — in 3He-B and in quantum chromodynamics, such as conventional mass vortices, spin vortices, axion and pion strings, hedgehogs, monopoles, and vortons. The Casimir force between spin and mass vortices in 3He-B leads to formation of a composite defect — spin-mass vortex, which is stabilized in rotating cryostat. Spin-mass vortex serves as string terminating topological soliton. Topological confinement of two spin-mass vortices by soliton leads to another composite object observed in 3He-B — doubly quantized vortex. The chapter also discusses the symmetry of defects, the interplay of symmetry and topology, the symmetry of hedgehogs and monopoles, spherically symmetric objects in superfluids, enhanced superfluidity in the core of hedgehog, spontaneously broken parity, and axial symmetry in the core of 3He-B vortices. Vortex with spontaneously broken parity in the core represents analog of Witten superconducting cosmic string. The observed twist of the core corresponds to supercurrent along the Witten string.
Monopoles and Boojums
Authors: GRIGORY E. VOLOVIK 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThis chapter is devoted to point defects such as hedgehogs, Dirac magnetic monopoles, 't Hooft–Polyakov monopole, and nexus. Some of these objects represent composite defects resulting from a hierarchy of energy scales with different symmetries. Examples are the hedgehog-monopole, which serves as a termination point of vortex-string, and nexus which represents the magnetic pole with emanating flux. In chiral superconductors the magnetic flux to the nexus can be supplied by four half-quantum vortices. Due to topological confinement chiral superconductor represents the natural trap for 't Hooft–Polyakov monopole. The chapter also discusses topology of boojums — point and line defects living at surfaces of the ordered system or at the interface between different vacua. Examples are provided by defects at the interface between 3He-A and 3He-B, including Alice string. In many cases these defects represent composite objects. For example, boojum on the A-phase side of the interface is the termination point of the vortex living on the B-phase side. Vortex sheet is discussed which is formed at the interface between 3He-A and 3He-B in rotating cryostat. It separates the vortex lattice in 3He-A, which experiences the solid body rotation, and the vortex free 3He-B.
Anomalous Non-Conservation Of Fermionic Charge
Authors: GRIGORY E. VOLOVIK 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThis chapter opens the discussion of physical phenomena in the vacuum with Fermi points. The non-trivial topology in the momentum space leads to anomalies produced by the massless chiral fermions in the presence of collective fields such as magnetic field, textures, and vortices. In 3He-A, this gives rise to the anomalous mass current, the paradox of the orbital angular momentum, etc. All these phenomena are of the same origin as the chiral anomaly in relativistic quantum field theories. For example, the momentum exchange between superfluid vacuum and quasiparticles in 3He-A is analogous to electroweak baryoproduction — formation of excess of matter over anti-matter due to chiral anomaly. This allowed for the measurement of the spectral-flow force acting on a vortex-skyrmion in superfluid in 3He-A to experimentally verify the Adler–Bell–Jackiw equation describing chiral anomaly in particle physics. The chapter also discusses the Novikov–Wess–Zumino action, the interplay between r-space and p-space topology relevant for the discussed phenomena, and introduces 3 reactive forces acting on a vortex in fermionic superfluids: Magnus, Iordanskii, and Kopnin forces.
Anomalous Currents
Authors: GRIGORY E. VOLOVIK 
Published: January 2010

AbstractParity violation, the asymmetry between left and right, is one of the fundamental properties of the quantum vacuum of the Standard Model. This effect is strong at high energy on the order of the electroweak scale, but is almost imperceptible in low-energy condensed matter physics. At this scale the left and right particles are hybridised and only the left-right symmetric charges survive. An analog of parity violation exists in superfluid 3He-A alongside related phenomena such as chiral anomaly and macroscopic chiral currents. The fermionic charge of right-handed particles minus that of left-handed ones is conserved at the classical level but not if quantum properties of the physical vacuum are taken into account. This charge can be transferred to the inhomogeneity of the vacuum via the axial anomaly in the process of helical instability. The inhomogeneity which absorbs the fermionic charge arises as a hypermagnetic field configuration in the Standard Model and as vortex texture in 3He-A. This allowed the experimental simulation of magnetogenesis (generation of hypermagnetic field) in 3He-A. Chern–Simons energy term in the Standard Model and in 3He-A is also discussed, where the effective chemical potential for chiral fermions is provided by counterflow velocity: relative velocity of motion of normal component of the liquid with respect to the superfluid one.