bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Justice and Equality from Rationality Alone
Authors: Louaas Alexis 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Building on the contractarian tradition, this chapter shows how the norm of justice can be interpreted as a constraint on the strategies of players in an indefinitely repeated prisoner’s dilemma. Indeed, a too unequal division of the cooperative surplus prevents cooperation and leads to an uncooperative state akin to Hobbes’s war of all against all. An individual with high bargaining power is, therefore, better off constraining his claim over total wealth in order to preserve cooperation. This strategic behavior is observationally equivalent to an altruistic behavior pattern. Therefore, the model developed in this chapter offers a possible rationalization of individuals’ demands for equality and justice based on the existence of an equity-efficiency complementarity.
How Governments Borrow
Authors: Cormier Ben 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Sovereign debt composition enhances or limits the capacity of an Emerging Market (EM) government to contribute to social and economic development. Many EMs depend on foreign currency debt. How much external debt an EM government owes, the cost of that debt, the maturity of that debt, and the conditions attached to that debt all determine the political and economic opportunities and risks associated with a government’s borrowings. EMs borrow from different sources each year, leading them to build different sovereign debt structures over time. Some prioritize cheap yet conditional official credit, which constrains policy autonomy but enhances debt sustainability. Others prioritize comparatively expensive bond markets, which enhances policy autonomy but brings more expensive repayment obligations on to national balance sheets. As countries accumulate debt, the borrowing choices they make come to have important effects on fiscal space, debt sustainability, and development. How Governments Borrow shows how annual borrowing decisions are informed by domestic politics. The book traces the annual fiscal policymaking process in EMs to show how a government’s partisan policy preferences are a primary determinant of annual external borrowing decisions and thus patterns of debt accumulation. That sovereign debt composition has partisan political roots provides insights for scholars in political science, international relations, economics, sociology, and public administration that work on sovereign debt.
Setting the Pay of Frontline Care Workers in Practice
Authors: Elliott Robert 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
This chapter details the way in which the pay of frontline care workers in the UK is set, the data required for pay setting, and the shortcomings of the data currently available. It documents what has happened to the weekly pay and the lifetime pay of the largest frontline health occupations in the UK relative to that of other workers. It details the substantial deterioration of the weekly pay of hospital doctors relative to those of other workers over the period since 2005. It further reveals that, over a longer period, the relative weekly pay of nurses and care workers has marked time, when it might have been expected to improve. The chapter also reports the results of the limited research into ethnic pay gaps.
Of Little Constitutional Interest
Authors: Schneiderman David 
Published: April 2024

AbstractIf extractivism has been a priority for the political branches in Peru, its apex court—the Peruvian Constitutional Tribunal—seems disinterested in disturbing the primacy accorded to foreign investment. Although the Tribunal has, in some instances, pushed back against a powerful executive branch and has enforced some social and economic constitutional commitments, it has fallen mostly into line with executive branch priorities. These include commitments made to foreign traders and investors via new free trade and investment agreements. The Tribunal’s response to the threat of diminished constitutional space due to investment treaty law and arbitration, following upon a series of recent constitutional cases, is one best described as a stance of hard deference. For the most part, the Tribunal has deferred to—even embraced—the potential diminution of policy options otherwise constitutionally available to the Peruvian state. Two influences seem to be at work. First is the Tribunal’s submission to the desires of Peru’s powerful executive branch. Second is the influence of investment law disciplines themselves—as on at least one occasion judges eagerly incorporated the investment law doctrine of indirect expropriation into Peruvian constitutional law. On the whole, the Constitutional Tribunal has chosen to ignore the diminution of Peruvian constitutional space.
Conclusion
Authors: Schneiderman David 
Published: April 2024

AbstractTaking into account interests not otherwise heard is offered as a key rationale for protecting foreign investors. Constitutional interpretation that disrupts this dominant trendline, it is argued, should be resisted in favour of review that smooths integration in accordance with value system associated with economic globalization. On what grounds should judges yield to preferences granted to some of the most powerful economic actors in the world today despite the complex and sometimes delicate compromises that are entrenched in constitutional text? Is it not, after all, the ‘province and duty’ of apex court judges to enforce constitutional obligations in the face of obvious constitutional transgressions? Or do judges, as some scholars suggest, have an obligation to yield to the executive branch embrace of international investment law edicts irrespective of national constitutional settlements. The Conclusion examines proposals that argue for ‘conditional coexistence’ or ‘dialogue.’ Most of these contributions call upon apex courts to succumb to the investment law regime. Yet constitutions are not mechanisms for imposing uniformity but spaces for dialogue and negotiation over constitutional meaning. International investment law, on the other hand, is built to serve as a prophylactic for foreign firms to guard against political risk, namely, state action that renders their investments less profitable. The regime is reluctant to crowd these rights with countervailing interests. Instead, it is a regime that aspires to uniformity and homogeneity rather than a legal order that listens to all sides. It is not a model worthy of constitutional respect.
Reconstituting intervention
Authors: Quinton-Brown Patrick 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
When we write about intervention in International Relations, we usually have in mind a particular sort of event, with particular characteristics, fitting into a particular frame. Less typical is an acknowledgement that this was not always so. In 1967, James Rosenau opened a conference at Princeton University devoted to the concept of intervention and the developing states. This chapter uses the story of Rosenau’s paper presentation, and its eventual uptake by the English School of International Relations theory, to illustrate certain basic insights of anti-naturalist explanation and concept formation. In doing so it exposes not only the naturalistic tendencies of prevailing writings, but also the complicities of the classical academic definition of intervention with historical foreign policies of Western Great Powers and recurring politics of colonialism and vassalage.
‘Friendly’ intervention and the Special Committee
Authors: Quinton-Brown Patrick 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
The 1960s and 1970s involved a tumultuous campaign to institutionalize what it meant to intervene in international relations, not a pure and simple retreat to non-interventionism. At no other point in history was the composition of the intervention concept so directly and systematically contemplated by statespeople, in a single forum and at such great length. If a theory of intervention as dictatorial or coercive interference had been accepted as a matter of state-based duty in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War, then the period leading up to the Friendly Relations Declaration should be construed as an encounter between incompatible dictatorial and anti-colonial theories. Learning to disentangle interventionism from internationalism in historical international society is helpful in making sense of the solidarist ambitions of its members. According to anti-colonial theories of non-aligned states, to commit ‘intervention’ is, by the nature of the act itself, to violate human rights.
Liberal intervention and the Responsibilities to Protect
Authors: Quinton-Brown Patrick 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
This chapter reconsiders how and to what extent intervention secured an international legitimacy in the post-Cold War period, and the ways in which the idea of the Responsibility to Protect (RtoP) came to be contested by developing states. It turns our attention away from the ‘right’ to ‘responsibility’ narrative, and not only because the changing character of sovereignty and domestic jurisdiction has long implied duties, including international duties involving forms of coercion, to protect strangers. The chapter suggests instead that while liberal-solidarist accounts of RtoP and an emerging norm of ‘sovereignty as responsibility’ served significant political purposes in the post-Cold War period, to focus on agreement alone would be to overlook a deeper, more primary change in meaning, even to miss the point of this recent stage of the global intervention debate.
The Uneven Path to Recovery
Authors: Danquah Michael , Ebrahim Amina , Were Maureen 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
COVID-19 cases were first confirmed in Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa in March 2020. These countries put in place several stringent measures, including lockdowns. Various policies were rolled out to mitigate adverse impacts, particularly on the vulnerable, and to revive the economy. This chapter discusses the evolution of the pandemic and containment measures, the subsequent policy responses, and the effectiveness of these policies. The moderate relief and economic stimulus packages introduced in these countries to support individuals and businesses seems to have helped some workers—however, there seems to have been an uneven recovery in employment and earnings following from these interventions. The experiences also show that more needs to be done to mitigate the impact of the pandemic and similar shocks on informal workers, particularly women. These include adequate relief to the poor and vulnerable in a quick, safe, and effective manner.
Informal Employment and an Inclusive Recovery
Authors: Mhlana Siviwe , Moussié Rachel , Roever Sally , Rogan Michael 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Throughout 2021, fiscal stimulus packages were introduced to jump-start the ‘post-pandemic’ economic recovery process. While calls for economic recovery packages that promise to ‘build back better’ have come from many directions, the under-allocation of recovery resources directed at workers in the informal economy threatens the recovery of livelihoods for the majority of the world’s workforce. This chapter analyses the economic recovery approaches of Bangladesh, Kenya, South Africa, and Thailand. The chapter assesses the economic recovery responses in light of what is known about the impact of the crisis on informal workers globally. The chapter assesses national recovery packages with particular attention to the largest segments of informal employment and those where women are over-represented. It concludes that more needs to be done to ensure that national-level economic recovery packages can support the livelihoods of the majority of workers in emerging and developing countries.
Optimality Justifications
Authors: Schurz Gerhard 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
The leading idea of epistemology in the Enlightenment tradition was foundation-theoretic: to reach knowledge we must not legitimize our beliefs by external authorities, but justify them by rational arguments. Presently the foundation-theoretic ideal of justification has come under attack, the chief criticism being that been that its universal standards of justification are illusionary because the justificational regress problem is unsolvable. Alternatives to foundation-theoretic epistemology such as coherentism, externalism, or dogmatism have been developed that give up central claims of enlightenment epistemology such as empirical support, cognitive accessibility, or rational justifiability. In this book a new account of foundation-theoretic epistemology is developed based on the method of optimality justifications. Optimality justifications offer a solution to the regress problem. Rather than striving for a priori demonstrations of reliability, which are impossible, they show that certain epistemic methods are optimal in regard to all accessible alternatives, which is more modestly but provably possible. In particular, optimality justifications can achieve a non-circular justification of deductive, inductive, and abductive reasoning. All in all this book pursues two goals: a general renewal of foundation-theoretic epistemology based on the account of optimality justifications, and the advancement of methods of optimality justification in important domains of epistemology and philosophy of science, logic, and cognition. Connected with these two goals is the aspiration of this book to develop new ideas for mainstream epistemology as well as for formal epistemology, philosophy of science, and cognitive science, intended to attract researchers, students, and all other readers interested in these fields.
Foundation-theoretic Epistemology II: Conditional Justification and Non-circularity
Authors: Schurz Gerhard 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
In this chapter, the ‘second half’ of the theory of first-order justification is elaborated: the theory of conditional first-order justification. The developed justification concept is not limited to the narrow boundaries of deductive-monotonic arguments, but it fully accounts for the probabilistic and defeasible nature of inductive and abductive arguments. A further crucial difference between these three kinds of inferences is that while deductions don’t allow the introduction of new relevant non-logical terms in the conclusion, inductive inferences introduce new relevant individual constants and theory-generating abductions introduce new relevant predicates. Contrary to a position that is criticized as ‘naive probabilism’, probabilistic support relations are not logically determined but have to be inductively supported by empirical evidence. A theory of justification nets is developed that allows us to reduce rule-circular justifications to premise-circular ones. It is shown that fully circular argument chains are epistemically worthless because they allow the justification of mutually contradictory beliefs. In contrast, justification circles that are additionally supported by independent evidence, so-called partial circles, are epistemically valuable. In the final section the notion of a conditional justification is formally explicated as similar to the notion of a ‘proof’ in logic as a sequence of propositions, with the difference that the involved rule steps need not be deductive but may also be inductive or abductive in nature, being annotated with associated conditional probabilities.
Solutions of the Boltzmann Equation
Authors: Li Hui , McCourt Frederick R.W. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
The present chapter examines procedures for solving the linearized Boltzmann equation for both pure monatomic gases and binary mixtures, relying upon well-developed techniques for solving linear equations, as relatively little is yet known about obtaining general solutions to equations that involve nonlinear integral operators. The present treatment extends the description beyond the first Chapman–Cowling approximation for the various transport coefficients, giving explicit expressions at the level of the second approximation. Expressions have also been given for all effective cross-sections that appear at the level of the second approximation. Both classical and quantum mechanical evaluations of effective cross-sections have been included. It also includes a discussion of dynamical models for binary atomic collisions, the moment method, and its extension to binary mixtures
Why has trust declined?
Authors: Seyd Ben 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
This chapter extends the descriptive picture of the previous chapter by exploring why levels of trust in Britain have declined over the past four or more decades. The longitudinal analysis identifies changing levels of trust among individuals located in different socio-economic groups within the population. In particular, the findings point to a growing gap in trust between society’s ‘haves’ and ‘have nots’. This analysis is extended to other European countries and provides important clues about why trust has declined in some advanced democracies. At the same time, the evidence from Britain does not suggest that declining trust reflects age or generational effects. Beyond socio-economic and demographic factors, the chapter also considers how far changes in trust reflect people’s attitudes, in particular feelings of political representation and evaluations and expectations of government delivery.
The Individual in International Law in the Nineteenth Century, 1789-1914
Authors: Van Hulle Inge 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
The nineteenth century witnessed the dominance of State-centrism in international legal theory, shaping the historiography of international law. However, advancements in communication and transportation technologies expanded individuals’ global horizons, leading to the potential for conflicts and international legal actions. This chapter discusses moments when individuals challenged or reinforced State authority, by focusing on individuals such as theorists, participants, or unwitting law-makers. The first part explores the influence of State centrism on legal doctrine and the emergence of new sub-themes and fields related to individuals’ economic activities overseas. The subsequent sections discuss individuals as practitioners and lobbyists, highlighting diplomatic protection, extraterritoriality, and humanitarianism. Lastly, the concept of ‘vernacular international law’ demonstrates individuals’ relative freedom in crafting international legal instruments. Ultimately, western attempts to control individuals through international law facilitated free trade imperialism and colonialism while selectively benefiting certain groups and repressing others on the fringes of society.
Before Human Rights
Authors: Peters Anne 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
In response to World War I, the Russian revolution, and the dismantling of empires, a gamut of international legal institutions and procedures emerged: international labour law, the mandate system, the regimes for refugees and stateless persons, the rights of option, plebiscites, and the protection of vested rights. Individuals acquired access to international courts and tribunals and were allowed to enforce international treaty-based rights in domestic courts. These practical innovations served macro-political objectives, such as alleviating inter-State tensions, resolving war reparation matters, and serving transnationalised commerce. They inspired a doctrinal debate on the international legal personhood of individuals, embedded in broader paradigms of democracy and solidarity. The internal methodological turn from legal positivism to a more sociological approach and the external shock of the horrors of National socialism and World War II (re-)united the technicalities (including procedures) with more principled considerations on the inviolability of the human person.
L’Invention de l’Universalité du Droit International
Authors: Mégret Frédéric 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Cette contribution s’interroge sur la création de l’« universel » en droit international, entendue comme catégorie spécifique de l’imaginaire juridique occidental. A travers la transformation du droit public européen en droit international à proprement parler, c’est tout le rapport du droit international à son altérité qui est posé. L’invention de l’universalité, dans ce contexte, est bien avant tout au XXème siècle une réponse au défi « régionaliste » notamment du « droit international américain. » Alors que le privilège du droit international avait été dénié aux nations non-européennes, on se précipite au contraire pour opposer l’universalité du droit international à ceux qui veulent désormais échapper à ses poussées impérialistes. Cela implique de réinterpréter le droit international à la lumière des exigences de la vie internationale, comme une nécessité incontournable. Fort de son pluralisme constitutif, le droit international semble bien équipé pour résister aux assauts de la diversité régionale. Mais son ascendance est toute relative face à l’affirmation toujours plus forte de phénomènes de décentralisation. This chapter reflects on the creation of the idea of universality in international law which it understands as a specific byproduct and category of the Western legal imagination. The transformation of a European public law into international law properly so-called raised the question of the relationship between international law and its other. In this context, the invention of universality can be understood as primarily a response to the regionalist challenge, including the so-called “American international law”, that emerged in the first half of the twentieth Century. Whilst the benefit of international law had long been denied to non-European nations, European scholars now rushed to invoke universality to resist those who would have fled international law’s imperialist dimensions. This led to a new understanding of international law no longer as the emanation of European consciousness but as based on the unavoidable necessities of international life. Paradoxically, it may be that today it is thanks to its pluralism, that international law is in a position to withstand the threats of regional diversity. Yet, its ascendency remains relative in relation to growing decentralizing forces.
Human Rights Nationalism as Universality Challenge
Authors: Altwicker Tilmann 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR, the Court) has developed an implicit jurisprudence on human rights universality. In the present context, human rights universality is understood in a normative sense, reflecting three normative qualities regarding human rights norms (their abstractness, inclusiveness, and rationality). In its universality jurisprudence, the ECtHR has operationalized these normative qualities and developed tools to adjust them to individual cases. This chapter argues that the greatest challenge to the abstractness and rationality claims presently comes from the recent wave of human rights nationalism. Human rights nationalism is voiced by a variety of actors (judges, political parties) prioritizing domestic interpretations of human rights over universalizing interpretations at a supra-state level. This trend establishes ‘national relativism–universality’ as a new binary. Human rights nationalism is hard, if not impossible, to accommodate within an international human rights mechanism. It has a tendency to ultimately play out the idea of domestic (democratic) control against the idea of international judicial protection of human rights.