bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Corinthian War (395–387 BCE)
Authors: Potts Samuel 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The Corinthian War was the first major conflict between the city‐states of Greece in thefourth century
BCE
. It represented the first attempt by the cities of Greece to break theSpartan hegemony established after the Peloponnesian War (431–404), and the first time sincetheir crushing defeat in that war that the Athenians took an active role in a military campaign.The Corinthian War set the pattern for the inter‐polis conflicts that would typify the fighting of the fourth century
BCE
: Greek city‐states forming shortterm alliances against the current most powerful city; many skirmishes and battles but few decisive and lasting victories; and the Great King of Persia intervening to try and stabilize affairs in Greece by creating a common peace treaty. The Corinthian War also saw the use of certain tactics and troop types that were to play an increasingly important role in warfare throughout the century and beyond.
Crimean War (1853–1856)
Authors: VAN DER OYE DAVID SCHIMMELPENNINCK 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
An important European war between Russia and Turkey, which was joined by Great Britain, France, and Sardinia. The fighting eventually focused on the Allied campaign to take Sevastopol, the tsarist Black Sea naval bastion on the Crimean Peninsula. Russian defeat marked the end of its post‐Napoleonic primacy on the Continent.
Cristero War (1926–1929)
Authors: José María Herrera 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Cristero War was a Catholic conservative reaction to post‐Mexican Revolution anti‐clericalism. Throughout the early history of Mexico, the Catholic Church had traditionally aligned itself with conservative forces, and this was generally no different during the revolution. In consequence, the victorious revolutionaries incorporated anti‐clerical measures when they drafted the Constitution of 1917. This effort, designed to curb the power and influence of the Catholic Church (especially over education and the public sphere), created considerable friction in the mostly Catholic country.
Crusade, Fifth (1218–1221)
Authors: Marvin Laurence W. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
What scholars call the Fifth Crusade occurred at the height of crusade activity in western Europe. Its planners avoided the pitfalls that derailed earlier efforts, yet the crusade ended with the army's humiliating departure from Egypt. The genesis of the Fifth Crusade lay in the failures of the Third and Fourth Crusades, the latter called by Pope Innocent III (r. 1198–1216). By 1213 the possibility of another crusade reemerged. In 1212 the Aragonese and Castilian kings decisively defeated the Almohads at Las Navas de Tolosa, strengthening Christian Spain. For Innocent the Albigensian Crusade had largely succeeded, so he withdrew the indulgence for outside participation in it or on the Iberian Peninsula. In April 1213 he issued the encyclical Quia Major, the most comprehensive papal statement on crusading to date. Innocent requested that Europe's elite either personally crusade or provide men and finances for a three‐year period. The encyclical called on maritime ports to provide assistance. Innocent promised a plenary indulgence for direct participation or for those who sent men at their own expense. Even ordinary people could earn a lesser indulgence simply by giving money or other aid. Thus Innocent sought the highest possible involvement for his initiative. Plans for the expedition were refined at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. Innocent pledged direct papal financial support through a tax on himself, and taxation Europe‐wide on clerical incomes for three years. The council decreed a departure date for 1217 from certain Italian ports, undoubtedly to prevent the logistical issues that had almost doomed the Fourth Crusade before it even began.
Cynoscephalae, Battle of (197 BCE)
Authors: JIM TUCCI 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Battle of Cynoscephalae was the culminating event of the Second Macedonian War, fought between the Roman Republic and the Macedonian king Philip V at the beginning of the second century BCE. The battle proved decisive on two counts, one military and one political. Militarily, Roman legions defeated the Macedonian phalanx, which had been the dominant army formation in the eastern Mediterranean since the age of Alexander. Politically, the Republic's victory at Cynoscephalae ensured that Rome would replace Macedon as hegemon of the Greek world.
DariusI(ca. 550–486BCE)
Authors: Hyland John 
Published: November 2011

AbstractDarius (Old PersianDârayavaush) was the most successful ruler of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, and was responsible for the establishment of administrative and economic institutions that would stay in place for a century and a half after his death. After a violent seizure of power, Darius built the imperial capitals at Susa and Persepolis, commissioned the creation of an Old Persian script to record his decrees, and extended Persian control from the Indus Valley in the East to Macedonia in the West. From the Greek point of view, Darius is best known for the suppression of the Ionian Revolt and Persia's defeat by Athens at the Battle of Marathon. These localized problems on the northwest frontier, despite their prominence in the western historiographical tradition, do not seem to have undermined the overall stability of Darius' imperial system.
Díaz de Vivar, Rodrigo (“The Cid”) (d. 1099)
Authors: Amiel Angeles J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, also known as El Cid, from the Arabic word “Sayyid” or “lord,” and also as the Campeador, from the Latin
campi doctor
or “master of war,” is best known as the hero of the epic poem
Cantar del Mio Cid
, or
The Song of My Cid,
a “song of deeds” like the
Song of Roland
. Like other “songs of deeds,” the
Cantar del Mio Cid
celebrates the knightly virtues of the early Middle Ages, such as loyalty to one's lord, largesse toward one's followers, and prowess as a warrior. The poem also celebrates the opportunities presented by the circumstances of the Reconquista during the early Middle Ages, when Moorish Spain was often divided into
taifa
kingdoms, small principalities that emerged whenever central Muslim authority collapsed. Though wealthy, the
taifa
kingdoms were divided and militarily weak, and the Christian kingdoms to the north began to retake lands lost to the Muslims in the eighth century. This was also an opportune time for intrepid Christian knights, who could sell their services to the
taifa
as mercenaries, join the Christian kingdoms and be rewarded with land and booty, or simply set out on their own. In the
Cantar del Mio Cid,
El Cid is portrayed as using his skills as a warrior and leader to successfully navigate the political and military world of early medieval Spain to gain fame, wealth, and power, serving as a model of chivalry for many generations of Spaniards.
Easter Rising of 1916
Authors: Leeson David 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In Irish history, the Easter Rising was an armed rebellion against the British government in April 1916, in the midst of World War I. The origins of this conflict can be traced back to the pre‐war Home Rule Crisis of 1912–1914. Twice in the late nineteenth century, Liberal governments headed by W. E. Gladstone had attempted to satisfy the demands of Irish nationalists by legislating Home Rule for Ireland. The first attempt, in 1886, was defeated in the House of Commons; the second, in 1893, was rejected by the Conservative‐dominated House of Lords.
Economic warfare
Authors: Dobson Alan 
Published: November 2011

AbstractEconomic warfare generally supplements strategies of conventional warfare. As such, it is usually distinguished from economic sanctions, such as those laid against Italy in the 1930s in retaliation for its invasion of Abyssinia, and the sanctions authorized by the United Nations (UN) against Iraq between 1990 and 2003 in an attempt to curb Saddam Hussein's power ambitions. The former were largely ineffective because the League of Nations excluded the most vital of strategic commodities — oil; something that would not have happened if it had been at war with Italy. On the other hand, there are often similarities between sanctions and economic warfare, for example in the Iraq case, the terrible consequences for innocent third parties: the mass of people in Iraq. Drawing on the ideas of David Mitrany, Margaret Doxey tries to draw a clear distinction between sanctions and other types of economic forms of coercion by asserting that “international sanctions are properly defined as penalties threatened or imposed as a declared consequence of the target's failure to observe international standards or international obligations” (Doxey 1996: 9). And while this might be slightly procrustean, it does capture the more specific and narrow focus of sanctions compared to economic warfare.
Eisenhower, General Dwight D. (1890–1969)
Authors: Sharp Wells Anne 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
As Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force, Dwight David Eisenhower directed the defeat of the German army in western Europe from June 1944, when the Allies invaded northern France, to May 1945, when Germany formally surrendered to end World War II in Europe. Earlier in the war he had commanded the Anglo‐American invasions of North Africa (1942), Sicily (1943), and southern Italy (1943). A skilled organizer, manager, and diplomat, he held the often contentious multinational coalition together throughout the war, while presenting a positive image of the Allied effort to the public. Promoted in December 1944 to general of the army, the highest US military rank, Eisenhower received his nation's top civilian post eight years later, when he was elected the 34th president of the United States (1953–1961).
Emergency Powers Acts (1920, 1926, 1939–1940, 1964)
Authors: Leeson David 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Before 1914 one of the more unusual features of the United Kingdom's unwritten constitution was its lack of any specific provision for civil and military emergencies: in particular, the government lacked the power to proclaim a state of emergency, and thereby free itself to govern by regulation, suspend civil liberties, and impose martial law. Under the common law the British government's emergency powers were wide but poorly defined. According to English jurist and constitutional theorist A. V. Dicey, the crown and its servants had the right and the duty to restore peace and order by any means necessary: “they are, each and all of them, authorized to employ so much force, even to the taking of life, as may be necessary for that purpose, and they are none of them entitled to use more” (Dicey : 289). But servants of the crown whose actions exceeded the demands of the situation were liable to prosecution afterward — and in such cases, obedience to superior orders was no defense. “Hence,” as Dicey admitted, “the position of a soldier is in theory and may be in practice a difficult one. He may, as it has been well said, be liable to be shot by a court martial if he disobeys an order, and to be hanged by a judge and jury if he obeys it” (Dicey 1960: 303).
Epic literature
Authors: Nicholson Helen J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Epic literature describes the martial deeds of a group of people, typically focusing on one hero among them. Epics are narrative poems, usually describing historical events. They were often composed to commemorate a great victory or disaster, especially the latter, or to describe an ongoing conflict between peoples. Epic literature also records incidental information which was taken for granted by its original audience, such as whether warriors fight on foot or on horse‐back, and expectations on the taking and sharing of booty. For this reason epics are important sources of information about methods of warfare in pre‐modern societies.
Eritrea–Ethiopia Conflict (1998–2000)
Authors: Phillips Gervase 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The war of 1998–2000 waged between Eritrea and Ethiopia had a peculiar irony: the respective governments of the rival nations, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) of Prime Minister Meles Zenawi, and the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) led by President Isaias Afewerki, were former allies, who had driven the dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam from Addis Abeba in 1991. Yet, even during that conflict, the condescending attitude of the veteran Eritrean fighters towards the less experienced Tigrean People's Liberation Front (who had gone on to establish the EPRDF) had often caused friction. So too did the Eritrean vision of their own future as an independent nation, confirmed by popular vote in 1993, that ran counter to Ethiopian hopes for confederation. By 1997, landlocked Ethiopia smarted over the costs now incurred in accessing the Eritrean ports of Assab and Mitsiwa. Meanwhile, in the Eritrean capital of Asmara, there was concern as the EPRDF strove to regulate the entire regional economy. The Ethiopians refused to accept parity between their currency, the
birr
, and the new Eritrean
nakfa
. There was another element to the growing tension: their border was poorly demarcated and sovereignty over much territory remained disputed. When war finally came, the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU), and the Organization of African Unity (OAU) would all prove humiliatingly impotent as two of the poorest countries in the world squandered millions of dollars on expensive military equipment. For the Eritreans and Ethiopians themselves, the conflict had one more terrible irony: it killed tens of thousands; it displaced hundreds of thousands; it settled nothing.
Eugene of Savoy (1663–1736)
Authors: McLAY K. A. J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Born in Paris the fifth of eight children to Eugene Maurice, prince of Savoy‐Carignan (subsequently count of Soissons) and Olympia Mancini (one of Cardinal Mazarin's three nieces), Eugene of Savoy was destined for the church but instead rose to supreme military command in the Holy Roman Empire. Aged 19 Eugene sought a career in the armies of Louis XIV but the king rejected his request for a commission. Undoubtedly Eugene's unprepossessing physique influenced Louis's decision, but it was mainly attributable to the loss of the king's favor by Eugene's mother, one of Louis's former mistresses, and her subsequent flight from the country when she became embroiled in the allegations of poisoning within the French court, the so‐called
affaire de poisons.
Thus spurned, Eugene left France and presented his military ambitions to the emperor, Leopold I, who, as with one of Eugene's elder brothers, recognized the diplomatic potential in commissioning a second cousin of the duke of Savoy.
Faqir of Ipi (Mirza Ali Khan) (1897–1960)
Authors: Richard Bonney 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The Faqir of Ipi was “the most determined, implacable single adversary the British Raj in India had to face amongst its own subjects” prior to World War II .Mirza Ali Khan, known to the Pathans as the “Haji Sahib” because he had performed the Haj to Mecca in 1923, was a Qadiriyya
pir
, that is, a holy man of the Qadiriyya Sufi order . The leader of a significant rebellion in 1936–1937, Mirza remained on the run from the British (and, after 1947, Pakistani) authorities. Indeed, he was never caught, nor did he ever formally surrender.
First Jewish War (66–73)
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe First Jewish War was in fact a revolt of the local Jews in the Roman province of Judaea. It was the first of the three famous Jewish revolts in the Roman Empire, the other two taking place in 115–117 and 132–135. The First War changed the provincial organization of Judaea, the subsequent development of Judaism, and the history of imperial Rome, being intimately connected with the establishment of the Flavian Dynasty in Rome (69–96).
Fisher, Admiral John Arbuthnot (1841–1920)
Authors: Seligmann Matthew S. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Admiral of the Fleet Sir John “Jackie” Fisher (later Baron Fisher of Kilverstone), first sea lord from 1904 to 1910 and again from 1914 to 1915, was the most prominent British naval officer of his day. His influence stemmed from his attitude toward technological progress. While new innovations worried many of his contemporaries, who saw only the problems associated with scientific advance, Fisher positively embraced change. Indeed, he regarded it as the Royal Navy's route to salvation.
Flamininus, Titus Quinctius (ca. 228–ca. 174
BCE
)
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Combining the brilliance of a general with good knowledge of Greek diplomatic vocabulary and practices, Flamininus managed to convert Roman military victories in Greece into a long‐lasting political settlement, replacing the two‐century long Macedonian hegemony over Greece with Roman control. The mode of relationship which he enacted with Greek city‐states and leagues established the foundation of Roman policy in Greece for the rest of the republican period.
Fleurus, Battle of (1794)
Authors: Bonura Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Battle of Fleurus demonstrated the superiority of the new French way of war that was an extension of the French Revolution. The new discipline of the citizen soldier brought a mobility and tactical flexibility that overcame the linear warfare of the eighteenth century. The French victory led to a string of successes that resulted in the French occupation of Belgium, the Dutch Republic, and the left bank of the Rhine River.
Free French
Authors: Cogan Charles 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The Free French movement
(La France Libre)
emerged coincident with the flight of Charles de Gaulle to London on June 17, 1940 and his immediate declaration of opposition to the incoming French government of Philippe Pétain, who was in the process of seeking an armistice with Germany, which de Gaulle found reprehensible. It might seem curious that in secular and anti‐clerical France, de Gaulle chose as the emblem of the Free French movement the Cross of Lorraine, in honor of Joan of Arc, who has become appropriated in recent years as a symbol of the neo‐fascist National Front party. But de Gaulle, whose roots were Catholic, as were those of most Frenchmen, intended Joan of Arc as a symbol of driving out an enemy from the country (substitute Germany for England), as in this astonishingly evocative — and provocative — excerpt from a speech he made on May 10, 1941, on the eve of her birthday:
Froissart, Jean (ca. 1337–1405)
Authors: Morillo Stephen 
Published: November 2011

AbstractJean Froissart was one of the most important chroniclers of events in western Europe during the fourteenth century, and hisChroniques(Chronicles) is one of the more valuable narrative sources for the first half of the Hundred Years' War. Although Froissart wrote in French, he documents an aristocratic culture that was centered on chivalric values and that extended across political boundaries. For Froissart and much of his audience, class divisions held greater importance than what might anachronistically be called nationality.
Genocide
Authors: Bellamy Alex J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Now sometimes labeled the “ultimate crime,” before the end of World War II genocide was—in the words of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill—a “crime without a name.” Terms such as “extermination,” “annihilation,” and “massacre” were used to describe what we now call genocide. For instance, calling for the complete annihilation of Native American groups in the nineteenth century, Frank Baum, author of the children's tale
The Wizard of Oz
, opined in a local newspaper that “our only safety depends on the total extirmination [
sic
] of the Indians … we had better, in order to protect our civilization … wipe these untamed and untenable creatures from the face of the earth” (in Forsyth 2003: 35–36).
Gothic War (376–382)
Authors: Dart Christopher J. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractA war waged by several Gothic groups (principally the Thervingi and the Greuthungi) against the Roman Empire from 376 until 382, when a treaty secured the Goths permanent settlement within the borders of the Roman Empire. The most detailed source for the war is book 31 of the history of Ammianus Marcellinus (covering the period 376 to 378). Though brief, the history of Zosimus covers the entire war. An oration by Themistius is also preserved, which describes the peace agreement in 382. The significance of the Battle of Adrianople (Hadrianopolis) and the war as a whole for the history of the later Roman Empire can be easily exaggerated; however, the mass settlement of Gothic peoples as a semiautonomous group within the traditional bounds of the Roman Empire in 382 was to mark a significant new epoch in Roman history.
Gotland, Conquest of
Authors: Jensen Carsten Selch 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In July 1361 the Danish king Valdemar IV Atterdag (r. 1340–1375) conquered the Swedish island of Gotland. The campaign culminated on July 27, when some 1,800 of the island's peasant militia were slain outside Visby by the king's army. Gotland was a strategically and commercially important island in the Baltic Sea, and Visby belonged to the Hanseatic League. Following a successful military campaign against the Swedes in 1360 in the former Danish provinces of southern Sweden, King Valdemar turned his attention towards Ösel and Gotland, intending to exploit the apparent weakness of the Swedish realm to conquer the two islands. In early July 1361, Ösel was quickly subdued and the king's army sailed for Gotland.
Grandson, Otto of (Otton de Grandson) (ca. 1238–1328)
Authors: Marvin Laurence W. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Otto de Grandson was an influential advisor to two English monarchs. Living until age 90, he spent over fifty years in English service. Born in Savoy in 1238, Otto was the heir of a middling Savoyard noble, the oldest child of 12. Because of his large family, Otto's father sought posts and preferment for his children abroad, so Otto traveled to England with his younger brother in the late 1240s. In 1258 his father died, leaving Otto lord of Grandson, in modern‐day Switzerland. Though Otto retained the patrimony for his long life, he only episodically visited and often left its administration to various relatives.
Graziani, General Rodolfo (1882–1955)
Authors: Baratieri Daniela 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Rodolfo Graziani, remembered both as “the Executioner” (Del Boca 1989: 122) or a top‐ranking general, was born into a lower‐middle‐class family in Filettino. While studying law he opted for the military profession. In 1908, the young officer was assigned to a native battalion in Eritrea and after a brief spell in Rome was stationed in Libya. During the Great War his career thrived—captain of an infantry brigade while engaged on the Carso, and then major, and finally lieutenant colonel at age 36. In 1921, he was posted to Tripolitania. The titles of Graziani's (1948) memoirs will articulate the rest of this entry.
Greco‐Turkish War (1919–1922)
Authors: Pizzo David 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Greco‐Turkish War was a conflict fought in Anatolia between the Kingdom of Greece and the new Turkish Republic in the wake of World War I. The war represented both the final stage of disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and the culmination of the Greek “Megali [Great] Idea” of uniting all Greeks in the eastern Mediterranean under a single Greek state. Early Greek successes seemed to offer the prospect of a panHellenic Greek state on both sides of the Aegean, but the Turkish revolutionaries' military successes of 1921–1922 turned victory into catastrophe, resulting in the collapse of Greek irredentist dreams, large refugee flows, and the destruction of both the Greek communities in Anatolia and Turkish communities in Greece. For the Turkish national movement, on the other hand, the war represented a crucial phase of their war of independence. The negotiations that ended the war also mandated stateorganized population exchanges which profoundly changed the cultural and ethnic composition of the region.