bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Navigation of the S.S.T.
Authors: Villiers J. 
Published: January 2010

As a general rule the navigational function is aimed at determining the position of the aircraft in order to resolve three types of problem:(1) To subject the aircraft's flight path to an optimum trajectory calculated before departure or progressively adapted in course of flight to the circumstances encountered.(2) To choose at each point of the selected flight path the flight system best adapted to the safety and economy of the flight.(3) Taking into account the presence of other aircraft in the airspace, to know and make known the actual position and the information allowing provision to be made for future positions, so as to permit effective air traffic control.Departures of the actual from the chosen flight path penalize the flight by a lowering of economy (in flying time or fuel consumption). It does not seem, however, that the problems raised from this point of view by S.S.T. are by nature or in difficulty any different from those which affect conventional aircraft. Taking into account the present-day precision of navigational aids there is every reason to believe that departures of the actual flight path from the optimum flight path will introduce a penalization which it is possible to ignore when compared with the penalization due to the inaccuracy of the knowledge of the elements (winds, temperatures, pressures) which have, in fact, served to determine this optimum flight path.
The Supersonic Aircraft and Air Traffic Control
Authors: Pailhas L. 
Published: January 2010

It its early work, the Working Group decided to study amongst other subjects the problems of bringing the S.S.T. into a traffic control system; almost certainly there will be an effect on the flight profile of the S.S.T. and on the requirements for accuracy of the navigation. In the absence of special information on the characteristics and performance of the S.S.T., a study has been made of the trends in A.T.C. handling of terminal area traffic (T.M.A.). The term terminal area has been interpreted in its broader sense, that is to say the region in which present-day transport aircraft and a fortiori supersonic aircraft are not in the cruise phase but are either descending towards the destination airport or climbing from the departure airport. With this definition, the most important terminal areas (those in countries overflown by heavy traffic and in which there is a plenitude of radio navigation aids and control), have in practice the same limitations as the flight information regions in which they find themselves.If we try to look ahead ten years to the period from 1965 to 1975, it is precisely in this period, in the countries overflown by heavy traffic, that the instruments and systems which have been recently devised and experimentally used to meet the problems of subsonic traffic control will, in fact, become operational. With these points in mind the following notes refer to the possible evolution of traffic control in the future.
Collision and Stranding at Sea
Authors: Deacon D. 
Published: January 2010

Having studied marine statistics for a number of years, especially those concerning casualties at sea and in particular collisions between ships, the opening paragraph of the Traffic Separation Working Group's report (this Journal, 19, 4) is, to say the least, lacking confirmatory evidence on two counts.I refer to the general statements which allege that:(i) ‘The main risk at sea today arises not as it used to from stranding and shipwreck, but from collision’.(ii) ‘In the open sea, where nearly 30 per cent of all collisions occur…’As both include the words ‘at sea’ or ‘open sea’ it is not unreasonable to suppose that they imply freedom to manœuvre under own power unhampered by depth of water or similar navigational restriction.This being so, and not an irrational definition of the area of concern to the Working Party, what are the facts and how exactly do casualties at sea compare with those in other areas of marine interest throughout the world.To find the right answer to the global problem is not easy and there are no short cuts, such as for example making a sample analysis in a limited area where traffic density is high, in order to arrive at fairly large numbers which are then used to deduce the statistical probability applicable to all areas.
Radio-astronomy, Radiometry and Infra-red Techniques
Authors: Cade C. M. 
Published: January 2010

The year 1932 was one which had no great apparent significance for navigators, and yet it saw the commencement of two new lines of research which today, after an interval of more than a quarter-of-a-century, promise important contributions to the safety of navigators both at sea and in the air.The two lines of research were superficially quite unrelated, but fundamentally they relied upon the same principle—the detection of radiant energy emitted by objects solely as a result of their temperature. The first of these small beginnings was the discovery by K. G. Jansky that radio waves could be detected from extra-terrestrial sources: the second was the commencement by the U.S. Signal Corps Engineering Laboratories of an intensive study of infra-red devices with the object of obtaining night vision without illumination of the field of view.From Jansky's discovery has sprung the whole science of radio astronomy, which has revolutionized our ideas about the universe, and brought in its wake, as one practical benefit, the radio sextant. From the work of the U.S. Signal Corps there resulted a number of very useful infra-red components, including the pneumatic detector, better known as the Golay cell.
III—The Potential Application of Doppler to Air Navigation
Authors: Williams J. E. D. 
Published: January 2010

When motor-cars were first invented, they were sometimes called horseless carriages, so naturally some early automobiles were designed to look (as far as possible) like a horse and carriage without the horse. We may be in danger of making similar errors. Some Doppler Navigators appear designed to perpetuate methods of navigation which doppler itself should help to render obsolete.Basically, the doppler phenomenon, measured in the aircraft, gives the aircraft's velocity relative to the reflecting terrain as a vector referenced to the aircraft's axes. In other words, angle of attack, drift and ground-speed are measured directly.The possible application of this information to improved methods of aircraft operation is almost infinite in its variety. The ways of applying, for example, accurately measured angle of attack, to the take-off, approach and landing phases, or to performance analysis, are numerous. Perhaps the most wildly esoteric suggestion for the application of angle of attack information was that aircraft could be weighed in flight by doppler given equivalent air-speed and the lift/drag polar of the aircraft; unfortunately the question of how to obtain a usable accuracy was not precisely explained! Of course, if sufficient accuracy were possible in this application, we could have a rather novel fuel flow-meter since, on all well conducted flights, fuel flow = rate of change of aircraft weight.
The Presentation of Height Information in Aircraft
Authors: Honick K. R. , Stratton A. 
Published: January 2010

The problem of presenting barometric height in aircraft altimeters is discussed. The alternative methods of presenting a numerical value are outlined and their characteristics analysed with reference to available comparative evidence providing a quantitative assessment. The properties of various methods of presentation are examined with reference to the varied uses of the altimeter. The conclusions are discussed with relation to the recommendations of the U.K. Altimeter Committee.It is concluded that no single means of presenting height information will meet all of the roles in which the altimeter is used and that the recommended solution is a combination of a digital counter presentation giving an unambiguous height value combined with a circular scale and pointer rotating once per 1000 ft. providing rate and angular cue information for control purposes. Freedom of choice in presentation can only be achieved by the use of a servo-operated display.
Decca Speed Trials
Authors: Verstelle J. Th. 
Published: January 2010

The Decca method of conducting speed trials and its considerable advantages over other methods have been described in this Journal and elsewhere. Decca is nowadays widely and successfully used for acceptance trials (speed, calibration of (Sal) log, turning circles and (crash) stopways) by Royal and Merchant Navy ships of Britain, the Netherlands, France, Denmark, Sweden and probably of other nations.The results of speed trials of Netherlands Merchant Navy ships are given in the present paper. Those of the equally successful turning circles and stopways are not given here, since their numerical results would be of little interest to the reader; a pictorial representation—among other things allowing for a comparison between various interesting turning habits of different ships—would be more suitable, but would occupy too much space.Short Description of the Method. Each speed determination consists of 4 to 6 runs, alternatively in opposite directions. In each run 20 photographs of the decometers are taken at 30-second (or, for very high speeds of 30 kt. or more, 15-second) intervals and one single run therefore takes 9½ minutes. Specially calibrated Decca receivers are used to ensure a much higher accuracy than is achieved (and needed) for normal navigational purposes.With the aid of special, large-scale, Decca charts or special tables, all these decometer readings—80 in 4 runs or 120 in 6 runs—are converted into rectangular coordinates X, Y.
‘Manœuvres to Ensure the Avoidance of Collision’
Authors: Calvert  
Published: January 2010

Following the publication of E. S. Calvert's Manœuvres to Ensure the Avoidance of Collision (Journal, 13, 127) a number of people closely concerned with the problem of collision at sea were invited to comment on Mr. Calvert's ideas. This comment was published in Vol. 13, Nos. 3 and 4 (pp. 350–352 and 455–464). Mr. Calvert here replies to some of the criticisms. The paper he refers to as his latest will be published in the October number of the Journal.to Captain H. D. HarriesWithout a more precise definition of ‘open sea’ and ‘crowded waters', I doubt if any figure for the proportion of collisions in each has much meaning. (The same kind of difficulty arises in defining a ‘near miss’.) More precise figures might possibly be obtained by giving the proportion of collisions which occur within so many miles of the mouth of a channel, a channel being defined as an area where local or ‘edge’ rules are in force, or where the traffic is controlled. However, I doubt whether the use which could be made of such statistics would justify the trouble of collecting them. In my latest paper, i.e. the one to be published in the next issue of the Journal, I have given what I believe to be the only possible solution to the crowded-water situation, in so far as rules can provide a solution.
The Accuracy of Predictions from Primary Radar and Secondary Radar
Authors: Marshall F. 
Published: January 2010

In conditions of poor visibility it is common practice to plot radar measurements of the range and relative bearing of other ships with respect to own ship and to deduce the relative tracks and passing distances. Radar equipment is available which can to a greater or lesser degree relieve the navigator of the tedium of plotting, and which could be developed into aids of considerable sophistication within the limits set by their cost. However, errors in measurement limit the precision with which relative tracks and passing distances can be computed. An alternative to radar plotting would be a data link between ships to broadcast measurements of course and speed on demand; a radar transponder would transmit the required information in coded form.This suggestion is highly controversial, but it seems worthwhile to derive the mathematical relationship between errors in the data and the ensuing error in the calculated passing distance and to compare the errors using radar data and transponder data. The value of the comparison is however limited because likely errors in the data are not accurately known. The analysis of the radar plotting method is probably of interest in itself because the deficiencies of the method are derived with some rigour.
Error Synthesis
Authors: Lord R. N. 
Published: January 2010

This paper discusses the drawbacks of observational methods of analysing navigational errors and shows the advantages of a synthesizing technique, whereby the effect of any change in the magnitude and distribution of a component error upon the overall resultant error can be evaluated and examined. To this end a computer program has been developed which is capable of accepting both analytical and numerical statistical distributions, representing errors in the components, and combining them to yield the overall effective error. A new error distribution better representative of many navigational error distributions is introduced. The work described is applicable to the investigation of any error which depends upon the interaction of many component errors and is not restricted to the navigation field. An extension of the method to mixed samples is indicated.The paper describes the final step in the development of a universal computer program aimed at synthesizing navigational errors in order that they can be used in evaluating their effect on any proposed A.T.C. system. The investigation was commenced at the College of Aeronautics in 1963 and has been the subject of several published papers during the interim period.
Some Comments on the Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972
Authors: Wylie F. J. 
Published: January 2010

A careful study of Parts A and B of the new Regulations as far as the application of the Steering and Sailing Rules is concerned leaves one disappointed and apprehensive. The first because an opportunity for considerable rationalization has not been fully used and the second because the corner-stone of the edifice of safety which for many years has supported the careful seaman has been knocked out. Apart from these there is a number of ambiguities.It will be realized at once, of course, that these words are being written by one of the old school who has for several years opposed the more fundamental changes and to whom, since he first went to sea some sixty years ago, the old Rules covered with a minimum of verbiage the infinite variety of maritime circumstances and conditions. Additionally, having studied most of the collisions which have brought shipowners to Court, he has found none in which the Rules were faulted, but a vast majority in which human frailty in the form of misappraisal of the circumstances or conscious disobedience of one or more of the simple Rules had been the cause of disaster.The corner-stone referred to above was the clear division of responsibility between the two parties to a situation involving collision risk in both the crossing and overtaking encounters.
The Future of the Knot as a Unit of Speed
Authors: White G. J. A. , Stewart O. 
Published: January 2010

Stewart very rightly draws attention to the practical value of the knot as a measure of velocity. In so doing he underlines one of the defects of SI: the essential simplicity and uniformity so attractive when considered in abstract becomes rather blurred when put into practice. The knot falls completely foul of SI; neither the unit of length nor that of time is an SI unit. The practical application of both units illustrate the difficulties well.The choice of a standard set of prefixes to units, each separated by a factor of 1000, is both logical and convenient. One need never write down a number less than unity or greater than 999·999. … If the number is 1000 or more, it is divided by 1000 until it does lie within these limits and the appropriate prefix added to the unit. If it is less than unity, multiplication is substituted for division. For length measurements one starts with the metre and goes up to the kilometre, or down to the millimetre, micrometre and so on. Perhaps the only person whom this does not suit is the astronomer who is likely to prefer the light-year (approximately 10 metres, the index 16 being outside the range of prefixes) or the parsec (2·46 light-years).The world, however, is not a linear one and difficulties start when one measures areas.
An Anti-collision Indicator
Authors: Mitrofanov O. 
Published: January 2010

The problem of collision-avoidance at sea by means of radar is constantly under discussion in maritime circles within the U.S.S.R. This paper, and that of Captain Bukhanovski (Journal, 20, 247,), describe one direction of research that has been actively pursued in the Soviet Union.The device described was developed by the Central Scientific Research Institute for Water Transport for the Ministry of Merchant Marine and sea trials were carried out in the Black Sea during the summer of 1962. The present paper describes the principles of the device and the performance during trials. It has been prepared for publication in the Journal in collaboration with Captain G. Shoomayko.Articles on the prototype have appeared in Morskoi Flot (no. 122, 1959, no. 2, 1964), Die Seewarte (Hamburg, October 1961) and Navigation (Paris, July 1962).
A Controlled Azimuth Avoidance Manœuvre
Authors: Lord R. N. 
Published: January 2010

The advantages of a standardized avoidance manoeuvre as distinct from a late collision avoidance manoeuvre are discussed with reference to passenger comfort. The general use of plan type displays suggests the possibility of having a standard manoeuvre based upon turning one aircraft on to a new heading.An analysis of this manœuvre was undertaken in order to obtain data as to the closest permissible approach between pairs of aircraft on various collision courses. Results show that the permissible closure is smallest if the faster of the two aircraft is manœuvred, and that little is gained by changing the heading by more than 30°. The results of this type of analysis can assist also in the programming of the computer in a future automated A.T.C. system.
Long-range Navigation Techniques for the Supersonic Transport
Authors: Waldman R. H. 
Published: January 2010

In this paper, presented by the International Air Navigators Council, and written by its Executive Vice Chairman, the navigation of the S.S.T. is considered from the practising navigator's point of view. Extrapolating from present procedures the conclusion is drawn that navigation system verification should continue to be the responsibility of flight-deck management, that self-contained D.R. systems should be monitored by an externally referenced aid, that raw navigational data should continue to be available to the flight crew and finally that simplicity and reliability in navigation systems should be preferred to finite accuracy.Consideration of an environment in which operational data and experience are limited to the military is a difficult assignment at the best of times. In order to discuss, with some degree of intelligence, the long-range navigation system considered desirable in the supersonic environment, we have relied mainly on the process of extrapolation using existing data and operational ‘know how’ to formulate practical guidelines.
Navigation and Education
Authors: Anderson E. W. 
Published: January 2010

This year, the subject for the Duke of Edinburgh Lecture was chosen by the President and the Council as a result of recommendations made by the Educational Sub-Committee. Although the lecture was to be an individual contribution it was to have the full help and support of the Institute. Without this, the lecture would have been impossible, and therefore it seemed necessary to make acknowledgments at the outset.Help has been given most freely and generously by many Fellows and Members, and in particular by the President, Professor A. Stratton, by Dr. G. E. R. Deacon, F.R.S., the Chairman of the Educational Sub-Committee, and its members, Captain C. H. Cotter and H. E. Smith, by D. H. Sadler, the Chairman of the Membership and Fellowship Committee, by Captain F. L. Main, a member of the Council, and by M. W. Richey, the Executive Secretary. Further invaluable suggestions came from many sources outside the Institute, notably from Dr. A. Clow of the B.B.C., J. A. Edgar of the Department of Education and Science, Dr. H. F. Huddleston of R.A.E., Farnborough, and Professor S. Sutherland of Sussex University. Finally, a very special word of thanks to B. W. Lucke, Schools Inspector, Liverpool. This paper owes a great deal to his ideas and to his inspiration.
Revised Rules for Preventing Collisions at Sea
Authors: Thompson P. A. 
Published: January 2010

In the July number of the Journal there appeared a series of contributions on the revision of the Collision Regulations, preceded by an introductory note which referred to a number of the more important papers on this subject published in the Journal during the last ten years. Partly as a result of this series of contributions, and of a questionnaire recently circulated by the International Chamber of Shipping, Captain Thompson, Master of the S.S. Magara, after discussion with those concerned with the Rules on board his vessel, has drawn up, for general discussion, draft revised Collision Regulations. Naturally they depend heavily on ideas published in the Journal and elsewhere; indeed their particular value is that they take account of many of these ideas and attempt to express them in a practical and seamanlike fashion. Clearly there are loopholes in the draft: it is the work of seamen, not lawyers. What matters at this stage is the intention, which is to provide rules and a code of conduct which are simple, unambiguous and clear. Commander P. C. H. Clissold made some useful comments on the original draft.Of those who took part in the discussion on the Collision Regulations published in the Journal (22, 285), some favour amending the present rules. and others refraining them completely. There are grounds for thinking that a similar dissension exists among seamen.
Sailing Vessels and the Collision Regulations
Authors: Richey Michael 
Published: January 2010

It is to be hoped that before the Collision Regulations are revised in any sense that affects the rights and obligations of sailing vessels, people with practical experience of navigation under sail will be consulted. It looks as though their advice will be needed.One increasingly hears, for example, that under modern conditions steam should no longer be required to give way to sail. ‘It seems quite unreasonable now’—Captain Dickson, for instance, expresses it in the last number of the Journal (22, 448)—‘to expect in most cases that sailing vessels should be required to stand on for power-driven vessels’. But the reason a power-driven vessel is required to give way to sail is not some kind of old world courtesy, but that if there is no wind, the sailing vessel is immobilized: it cannot give way.
Underkeel Clearance
Authors: Dickson A. F. 
Published: January 2010

The problem of underkeel clearance is not new; since time immemorial navigators have been concerned to know the minimum depth of water in which they can sail with a ship of given draught. Until quite recently, underkeel clearance requirements were determined almost entirely empirically, and in many cases the rule of thumb values used can be shown to be greater than the requirement of navigational safety would dictate.In the years since the war the pattern of the oil industry has changed and very large ships are now commonly used to carry crude oil cargoes to a large number of ports around the world. It is obvious that use of these ships, with their deep draughts, has meant that a number of expensive dredging projects have been put in hand to provide adequate access to the ports served. Continuing escalation in size means this will probably continue.