bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
6 Risks
Authors: Quinlan Michael 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter reviews a range of risks commonly believed, rightly or wrongly, to arise from the existence of nuclear weapons. It examines first the concept of stability, in two forms—deterrent stability and crisis stability. There follows an extended section on the idea of nuclear escalation, bringing out that though the possibility cannot be wholly excluded and is indeed a component of deterrence, suppositions of its inexorability are unfounded. The next section discusses whether risks of nuclear war by accident, miscalculation, or misunderstanding are substantial, and argues that they are not. The final section looks at the risk of nuclear terrorism. It considers what hurdles a would-be terrorist would have to surmount, and notes ways of keeping such hurdles as high as possible.
9 Easements and Escape Routes
Authors: Quinlan Michael 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter surveys various radical concepts put forward at one time or another for removing or greatly alleviating the risks and costs of nuclear deterrence. It first discusses the idea of ‘no first use’ promises, and argues that though policy should certainly strive to keep the eventuality of needing to consider first use as remote as possible, formal and unconditional promises cannot be dependable under stress and may even be unhelpful to war-prevention. The next section considers whether there are alternative-defence concepts for effective resistance to a determined nuclear aggressor that need not entail the possession of nuclear weapons, and argues that no universally reliable such possibilities exist. There follows a discussion, again reaching sceptical conclusions, about ideas of ‘minimal’ or ‘virtual’ nuclear armouries. Finally, this chapter recalls President Reagan's 1983 ‘Star Wars’ aspiration to render nuclear weapons entirely impotent by impermeable defence against ballistic missiles, and notes that this aspiration remains unrealistic.
Interactions between TCF7L2 genotype and growth hormone‐induced changes in glucose homeostasis in small for gestational age children
Authors: De Kort Sandra W. K. , Mook‐Kanamori Dennis O. , Jaddoe Vincent W. V. , Hokken‐Koelega Anita C. S. 
Published: May 2009

SummaryContext  The Transcription factor 7‐like 2 (TCF7L2) rs7903146 gene polymorphism has been associated with risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM), possibly by decreasing insulin secretion. Small for gestational age (SGA) birth has been associated with type 2 DM in later life. Growth hormone (GH) treatment reduces insulin sensitivity and increases insulin secretion. Therefore, GH‐treated SGA children are an ideal group to investigate whether the TCF7L2 rs7903146 genotype is associated with changes in glucose homeostasis.Objective  To determine the impact of the TCF7L2 rs7903146 polymorphism on changes in insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity during 4 years of GH treatment in children born SGA.Subjects  A total of 246 Caucasian short children born SGA, with a median age of 7·8 years.Outcome measures  Insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion were measured by the frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test (FSIGT) (n = 68) and homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) calculations (all).Results  There was no association between rs7903146 genotype and insulin sensitivity or insulin secretion at baseline but after adjustment for possible confounders, insulin secretion was higher in the CT/TT group than in the CC group. During GH treatment, carriers of the rs7903146 T allele had an increase in insulin secretion similar to that of carriers of the CC genotype. The decrease in insulin sensitivity was only significant in the CT/TT group, but the difference in decrease between genotype groups did not reach significance (P = 0·06). The disposition index (insulin secretion × insulin sensitivity), which is an estimate of beta cell function, was not associated with genotype and did not change during GH treatment.Conclusion  The TCF7L2 rs7903146 polymorphism is not associated with the change in insulin secretion during GH treatment in short SGA children.
Evolution, origin and age of lineages in the Californian and Mediterranean floras
Authors: Ackerly David D. 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis paper addresses some of the conceptual issues involved in the analysis of the age and origin of mediterranean‐climate plant taxa, paying particular attention to three topics: (1) the importance of an explicit time frame in the definition of biogeographical origins, (2) the distinction between the age of traits and the age of taxa, and (3) the idea of mediterranean‐type ecosystems as environmental islands. (1) In California, recent analyses demonstrate that the diversity of species derived from different biogeographical origins is significantly correlated with temperature and precipitation gradients. These patterns support the hypothesis that niche conservatism is an important factor structuring modern diversity gradients. However, depending on how far back in time one looks, a species may be assigned to different origins; future discussions of biogeographical origins need to address the appropriate time frame for analysis. (2) Past research has demonstrated distinctive trait syndromes among woody plants of the Mediterranean, Chile, California and Mexico, and proposed that the syndromes are associated with lineages of different age in these floras. Reanalysis of individual traits demonstrates greater variability among regions than previously reported. The classification of plants into ‘old’ and ‘new’ genera is re‐evaluated, and it is suggested that greater attention be paid to the age of traits, rather than to the age of taxa, especially at an arbitrary rank such as genus. (3) The idea of mediterranean‐climate regions as ‘climatic islands’ is examined. Space–time diagrams of climate enable one to view the emergence of distinctive climatic regions in a continental context. The terms ‘synclimatic’ and ‘anticlimatic’ are proposed, referring to migration routes that parallel climate contours in space and time versus those that cross contours (including the case of geographic stasis in the face of climate change), respectively. Mediterranean‐climate regions have served as important case studies in plant ecology and evolution, and merit continued close examination in the light of continued advances in phylogenetics and palaeoecology.
Exploring the multi‐scale structure of printing paper – a review of modern technology
Authors: CHINGA‐CARRASCO G. 
Published: May 2009

SummaryPrinting paper is an important communication and information medium affecting our daily activities in several ways. The structure of paper may affect its optical, mechanical, fluid transport and print properties. In order to achieve a complete understanding of these processes a comprehensive characterization of relevant surface and bulk structures of paper is necessary. The paper grades considered in this study are newsprints, super calendered and coated papers. A detailed description of several image acquisition techniques used to assess the printing paper structures is given, including desktop scanners, profilometry, light microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, focused‐ion‐beam, X‐ray microtomography and transmission electron microscopy. The presented methods cover a wide range of structure sizes, from the macro‐ to the sub‐nano level. The complementary capabilities of the image acquisition techniques for assessing structural details of paper and prints are discussed.
Evidence that CT694 is a novel Chlamydia trachomatis T3S substrate capable of functioning during invasion or early cycle development
Authors: Hower S. , Wolf K. , Fields K. A. 
Published: May 2009

Summary Chlamydia trachomatis is an obligate intracellular parasite, occupies a membrane‐bound vacuole throughout development and is capable of manipulating the eukaryotic host by translocating effector molecules via a type III secretion system (T3SS). The infectious chlamydial elementary body (EB) is metabolically inactive yet possesses a functional T3S apparatus capable of translocating effector proteins into the host cell to facilitate invasion and other early cycle events. We present evidence here that the C. trachomatis protein CT694 represents an early cycle‐associated effector protein. CT694 is secreted by the Yersinia T3SS and immunodetection studies of infected HeLa cultures indicate that CT694‐specific signal accumulates directly adjacent to, but not completely overlapping with EBs during invasion. Yeast two‐hybrid analyses revealed an interaction of CT694 with the repeat region and C‐terminus of human AHNAK. Immunolocalization studies of CT694 ectopically expressed in HeLa cells were consistent with an interaction with endogenous AHNAK. Additionally, expression of CT694 in HeLa cells resulted in alterations in the detection of stress fibres that correlated with the ability of CT694 to interact with AHNAK. These data indicate that CT694 is a novel T3S‐dependent substrate unique to C. trachomatis, and that its interaction with host proteins such as AHNAK may be important for aspects of invasion or development particular to this species.
Coupling of the biosynthesis and export of the DNA gyrase inhibitor simocyclinone in Streptomyces antibioticus
Authors: Le Tung B. K. , Fiedler Hans‐Peter , Den Hengst Chris D. , Ahn Sang Kyun , Maxwell Anthony , Buttner Mark J. 
Published: May 2009

SummaryBecause most antibiotics are potentially lethal to the producing organism, there must be mechanisms to ensure that the machinery responsible for export of the mature antibiotic is in place at the time of biosynthesis. Simocyclinone D8 is a potent DNA gyrase inhibitor produced by Streptomyces antibioticus Tü 6040. Within the simocyclinone biosynthetic cluster are two divergently transcribed genes, simR and simX, encoding proteins that resemble the TetR/TetA repressor–efflux pump pair that cause widespread resistance to clinically important tetracyclines. Engineered expression of simX from a strong, heterologous promoter conferred high level simocyclinone D8 resistance on Streptomyces lividans, showing that simX encodes a simocyclinone efflux pump. Transcription of simX is controlled by SimR, which directly represses the simX and simR promoters by binding to two operator sites in the simX–simR intergenic region. Simocyclinone D8 abolishes DNA binding by SimR, providing a mechanism that couples the biosynthesis of simocyclinone to its export. In addition, an intermediate in the biosynthetic pathway, simocyclinone C4, which is essentially inactive as a DNA gyrase inhibitor, also induces simX expression in vivo and relieves simX repression by SimR in vitro.
Convergent evolution and orphan genes in the Fur4p‐like family and characterization of a general nucleoside transporter in Aspergillus nidulans
Authors: Hamari Zsuzsanna , Amillis Sotiris , Drevet Christine , Apostolaki Angeliki , Vágvölgyi Csaba , Diallinas George , Scazzocchio Claudio 
Published: May 2009

SummaryThe function of seven paralogues phylogenetically related to the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Fur4p together with a number of functionally related transporters present in Aspergillus nidulans has been investigated. After deletion of the cognate genes we checked the incorporation of radiolabelled substrates, utilization of nitrogen sources, resistance to toxic analogues and supplementation of auxotrophies. FurA and FurD encode allantoin and uracil transporters respectively. No function was found for FurB, FurC, FurE, FurF and FurG. As we failed to identify Fur‐related transporters for uridine, pyridoxine or thiamine, we deleted other possible candidates for these functions. A FCY2‐like gene carrying in its 5′ UTR a putative thiamine pyrophosphate riboswitch, and which encodes a protein similar to the pyridoxine transporter of yeast (Tpn1p), does not encode either a major thiamine or a pyridoxine transporter. CntA, a member of the concentrative nucleoside transporter family, is a general nucleoside permease, while no function was found for PnpA, a member of the equilibrative transporter family. Phylogenetic analysis shows that within the ascomycetes, the same transport activity could be catalysed by totally unrelated proteins and that within the Fur subfamily convergent evolution towards uracil and allantoin transport activity has occurred at least three and two independent times respectively.
Compensation and interaction between RISBZ1 and RPBF during grain filling in rice
Authors: Kawakatsu Taiji , Yamamoto Masayuki P. , Touno Satoru M. , Yasuda Hiroshi , Takaiwa Fumio 
Published: May 2009

SummaryThe rice (Oryza sativa L.) basic leucine Zipper factor RISBZ1 and rice prolamin box binding factor (RPBF) are transcriptional activators of rice seed storage protein (SSP) genes in vivo. To ascertain the functions of these trans‐activators in seed development, knock‐down (KD) transgenic rice plants were generated in which the accumulation of RISBZ1 and RPBF was reduced in an endosperm‐specific manner by co‐suppression (KD‐RISBZ1 and KD‐RPBF). The accumulation of most SSPs changed little between individual KD mutants and wild‐type plants, whereas a double KD mutant (KD‐RISBZ1/KD‐RPBF) resulted in a significant reduction of most SSP gene expression and accumulation. The reduction of both trans‐activators also caused a greater reduction in seed starch accumulation than individual KD mutants. Storage lipids were accumulated at reduced levels in KD‐RISBZ1 and KD‐RISBZ1/KD‐RPBF seeds. KD‐RPBF and KD‐RISBZ1/KD‐RPBF seeds exhibited multi‐layered aleurone cells. Gene expression of DEFECTIVE KERNEL1 (OsDEK1), CRINKLY4 (OsCR4) and SUPERNUMERARY ALEURONE LAYER 1 (OsSAL1) rice homologues was decreased in the KD mutants, suggesting that these genes are regulated by RISBZ1 and RPBF. These phenotypes suggest that combinatorial interactions between RISBZ1 and RPBF play an essential role during grain filling. The functional redundancy and compensation between RISBZ1 and RPBF possibly account for weak effects on the SSP levels in single KD mutants, and help maintain various processes during seed development in rice. Physical interaction between RISBZ1 and RPBF may ensure that these processes are carried out properly.
Gene activation cascade triggered by a single photoperiodic cycle inducing flowering in Sinapis alba
Authors: D’Aloia Maria , Tamseddak Karim , Bonhomme Delphine , Bonhomme Françoise , Bernier Georges , Périlleux Claire 
Published: May 2009

SummaryMolecular genetic analyses in Arabidopsis disclosed a genetic pathway whereby flowering is induced by the photoperiod. This cascade is examined here within the time course of floral transition in the long‐day (LD) plant Sinapis alba induced by a single photoperiodic cycle. In addition to previously available sequences, the cloning of CONSTANS (SaCO) and FLOWERING LOCUS T (SaFT) homologues allowed expression analyses to be performed to follow the flowering process step by step. A diurnal rhythm in SaCO expression in the leaves was observed and transcripts of SaFT were detected when light was given in phase with SaCO kinetics only. This occurred when day length was extended or when a short day was shifted towards a ‘photophile phase’. The steady‐state level of SaFT transcripts in the various physiological situations examined was found to correlate like a rheostat with floral induction strength. Kinetics of SaFT activation were also consistent with previous estimations of translocation of florigen out of leaves, which could actually occur after the inductive cycle. In response to one 22‐h LD, initiation of floral meristems by the shoot apical meristem (SAM) started about 2 days after activation of SaFT and was marked by expression of APETALA1 (SaAP1). Meanwhile, LEAFY (SaLFY) was first up‐regulated in leaf primordia and in the SAM. FRUITFULL (SaFUL) was later activated in the whole SAM but excluded from floral meristems. These patterns are integrated with previous observations concerning upregulation of SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CO1 (SaSOC1) to provide a temporal and spatial map of floral transition in Sinapis.
Intronic regulatory elements determine the divergent expression patterns of AGAMOUS‐LIKE6 subfamily members in Arabidopsis
Authors: Schauer Stephen E. , Schlüter Philipp M. , Baskar Ramarmurthy , Gheyselinck Jacqueline , Bolaños Arturo , Curtis Mark D. , Grossniklaus Ueli 
Published: May 2009

SummaryThe screening of enhancer detector lines in Arabidopsis thaliana has identified genes that are specifically expressed in the sporophytic tissue of the ovule. One such gene is the MADS‐domain transcription factor AGAMOUS‐LIKE6 (AGL6), which is expressed asymmetrically in the endothelial layer of the ovule, adjacent to the developing haploid female gametophyte. Transcription of AGL6 is regulated at multiple stages of development by enhancer and silencer elements located in both the upstream regulatory region and the large first intron. These include a bipartite enhancer, which requires elements in both the upstream regulatory region and the first intron, active in the endothelium. Transcription of the AGL13 locus, which encodes the other member of the AGL6 subfamily in Arabidopsis, is also regulated by elements located in the upstream regulatory region and in the first intron. There is, however, no overlapping expression of AGL6 and AGL13 except in the chalaza of the developing ovule, as was shown using a dual gene reporter system. Phylogenetic shadowing of the first intron of AGL6 and AGL13 homologs from other Brassicaceae identified four regions of conservation that probably contain the binding sites of transcriptional regulators, three of which are conserved outside Brassicaceae. Further phylogenetic analysis using the protein‐encoding domains of AGL6 and AGL13 revealed that the MADS DNA‐binding domain shows considerable divergence. Together, these results suggest that AGL6 and AGL13 show signs of subfunctionalization, with divergent expression patterns, regulatory sequences and possibly functions.
Nonhuman primate dermatology: a literature review
Authors: Bernstein Joseph A. , Didier Peter J. 
Published: May 2009

AbstractIn general, veterinary dermatologists do not have extensive clinical experience of nonhuman primate (NHP) dermatoses. The bulk of the published literature does not provide an organized evidence‐based approach to the NHP dermatologic case. The veterinary dermatologist is left to extract information from both human and veterinary dermatology, an approach that can be problematic as it forces the clinician to make diagnostic and therapeutic decisions based on two very disparate bodies of literature. A more cohesive approach to NHP dermatology – without relying on assumptions that NHP pathology most commonly behaves similarly to other veterinary and human disease – is required. This review of the dermatology of NHP species includes discussions of primary dermatoses, as well as diseases where dermatologic signs represent a significant secondary component, provides a first step towards encouraging the veterinary community to study and report the dermatologic diseases of nonhuman primates.
Exogenously Applied Nitric Oxide Enhances the Drought Tolerance in Fine Grain Aromatic Rice (Oryza sativa L.)
Authors: Farooq M. , Basra S. M. A. , Wahid A. , Rehman H. 
Published: May 2009

AbstractDrought stress is a severe threat to the sustainable rice production, which causes oxidative damage and disturbs plant water relations, while exogenously applied nitric oxide (NO) may have the potential to alleviate these effects in rice plants. In this study, the role of NO to improve drought tolerance in fine grain aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Basmati 2000) was evaluated. Sodium nitroprusside, a NO donor, was used at 50, 100 and 150 μmol l−1 both as seed priming and foliar spray. To prime, the seeds were soaked in aerated NO solution of respective solution for 48 h and dried back to original weight. Primed and non‐primed seeds were sown in plastic pots with normal irrigation in a greenhouse. At four leaf stage, plants were subjected to drought stress except the controls, which were kept at full field capacity. Drought was maintained at 50 % of field capacity by watering when needed. Two controls were maintained; both receiving no NO treatments as foliar application or seed treatment, one under drought conditions and the other under well‐watered conditions. Drought stress seriously reduced the rice growth, but both methods of NO application alleviated the stress effects. Drought tolerance in rice was strongly related to the maintenance of tissue water potential and enhanced capacity of antioxidants, improved stability of cellular membranes and enhanced photosynthetic capacity, plausibly by signalling action of NO. Foliar treatments proved more effective than the seed treatments. Among NO treatment, 100 μmol l−1 foliar spray was more effective.
Forecasting the flight activity of Lobesia botrana (Denis & Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) in Southwestern Spain
Authors: Gallardo A. , Ocete R. , López M. A. , Maistrello L. , Ortega F. , Semedo A. , Soria F. J. 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis study aimed at elaborating a forecasting tool of the phenology of the serious pest Lobesia botrana in Southwestern Spanish vineyards, by analysing data on male catches in sex pheromone traps recorded over a 12‐year period. Our data confirmed the minor importance of the first generation which appears during flowering time, both in terms of male trap catches and damage of L. botrana to the inflorescences. Therefore, data related to the first flight were not further processed, although they were considered for the computation of degree‐days of the following generations. The outcome of the elaboration of temperature accumulations and data on male captures for the second and third flights was a statistically acceptable linear behaviour obtained by properly transforming the variables. The models established proved to be efficient and may represent a useful tool to improve the efficacy of integrated pest management strategies targeting L. botrana in the studied region.