bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
M
esopotamian Christianity
Authors: van den Berg Heleen Murre‐ 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christianity, which has been in Iraq from its earliest times, has played several important roles in its history. Northern Mesopotamia saw the growth of early Christianity around what today is Arbil, while southern Mesopotamia saw Christian churches flourish in Basra. The center of the Church of the East between the 5th and 8th centuries was Seleucia Ctesiphon, not far from Baghdad, to which city it moved when the Abbasids made it their capital in 749. Today Baghdad is the center of the largest Christian church in Iraq, the Chaldean Church, although sectarian violence has induced Christians once again to leave for the safer regions of northern Iraq. Continuous emigration makes any figures necessarily outdated; before the fall of the Baath regime in 2003 the percentage of Christians in Iraq was estimated at about 3 percent of the population (c.550,000 people). Roughly 50 percent of these belong to the Chaldean Church, 30 percent to the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East, 15 percent to the Syrian Orthodox and Syrian Catholic Church, while the remaining 5 percent are distributed between the smaller Orthodox churches and the Latin, Protestant, and evangelical churches. The census for the year 1951, however, gave a figure as high as 6.4 percent of the population, suggesting a gradual decline due to emigration over the second half of the 20th century. Present rates of emigration make observers fear for the complete disappearance of Christianity from Iraq.
M
etzger,
B
ruce (1914–2007)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
An internationally distinguished textual critic, and scholar and translator of the Bible, Bruce Manning Metzger was born the son of Maurice and Anna Metzger in Middletown, Pennsylvania, 9 February 1914, and died of respiratory failure at the University Medical Center at Princeton, 13 February 2007. At the time of his death, he was New Testament professor emeritus at Princeton Theological Seminary. He earned a bachelor's degree in Greek and textual criticism from Lebanon Valley College in 1935. In 1938, he earned a bachelor's in theology from Princeton Theological Seminary. He was ordained in the United Presbyterian Church (PCUSA) in 1939. His 46 year career at Princeton began during the years 1938–1940, wherein he was teaching fellow in New Testament Greek at Princeton. He continued to teach and study, earning a Ph.D. in Greek and Latin classics from Princeton University in 1942. From 1940 to 1944, he was instructor in New Testament, and appointed assistant professor from 1944 to 1948, associate professor from 1948 to 1954, and professor from 1954 to 1984. In 1964, he was named the George L. Collord Professor of New Testament Language and Literature. Metzger received several honorary degrees in America and overseas. He was awarded the D.D. from St. Andrews, the D.Theol. from Muenster, Germany, and the D.Litt. from Potchefstroom, South Africa. He married Isobel Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of John Alexander Mackay, the third president of Princeton Theological Seminary.
Missionary Aviation
Authors: Buss Dietrich Gotthilf 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Missionary aviation has been an arm of the church since the 1920s. The oldest continuous service was started by the Australian Inland Mission when it launched the Flying Doctor Service in 1927. Dr. K. St. Vincent Welch was the first flying doctor. He flew a DH50 and in the first year logged 20,000 miles in 50 flights serving 255 people. Renamed the Royal Flying Doctor Service in 1955, the program had by 2007 grown to a fleet of 31 Beechcraft that operate from 13 centers. The 1920s saw many individuals take to the air in support of Christian work. Notable among these was Episcopal bishop Harry R. Carson who flew in Haiti.
M
offat,
R
obert (1795–1883)
Authors: Maclean Iain S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A Scotsman, born on December 21, 1795 at Ormiston, sent by the London Missionary Society (LMS) to southern Africa in 1817. He became a pioneer missionary and linguist among the Tswana and Ndebele, and so a Bible translator. After acceptance as a missionary by the LMS, in 1816 he set out for South Africa. Prevented by political intrigue from traveling to Great Namaqualand, north of the Orange River, he returned to the Cape Peninsula and studied Dutch at Stellenbosch. He also traveled to other LMS stations with Dr. George Thom, another LMS missionary later to become a Dutch Reformed minister and educationalist. When permission came to cross the colonial frontier, he left Cape Town in October 1817, reaching Great Namaqualand and the peoples of Jager Afrikaner. After extensive travels in the region north of the Orange River, he returned to Cape Town in 1819, discovering there a deputation of two LMS missionaries, Dr. John Philip and John Campbell, prepared to investigate allegations against the LMS. Moffat joined them as the Dutch interpreter, but the deputation's work was halted by the outbreak of the Fifth Frontier (or Xhosa) War on the eastern frontier of the colony. On the return to Cape Town, Moffat's fiancée Mary Smith had arrived, and they were married in December 1819. The LMS persuaded Moffat to move from Namaqualand and so the Moffats arrived at Dithakong in 1820 to work among the Tswana.
Monasteries
Authors: Peters Greg 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe institution of monasticism is not unique to Christianity and there are also monasteries outside of the Christian tradition. Generically, the word “monastery” applies to any place where men and/or women pursue a monastic lifestyle. Etymologically, the wordmonasterionis derived frommonos(“alone”) because originally a monk lived in a hut or a cave away from others and was known as an anchorite, from the Greek wordanachōreō, meaning “to separate oneself, withdraw.” By the 4th century, groups of monks were living together in communal dwellings, being referred to as coenobites, from the Greekkoinobiosmeaning “dwelling in community.” It is common practice today, though not etymologically necessary, to refer only to those structures where men and/or women are living in community as “monasteries.” Current canon law of the Roman Catholic Church proscribes that “A religious community must live in a house (domo) legitimately constituted under the authority of the superior designated according to the norm of law; each house is to have at least an oratory in which the Eucharist is celebrated and reserved so that it truly is the center of the community” (C 608). That said, most monasteries today in the Roman Catholic Church are called either “abbey,” “independent priory,” “dependent priory,” or “mission,” depending on its juridical status and purpose. Again, the term “monastery” is used sparingly even in canon law documents. By relying exclusively on the etymological root of “monastery,” there are several distinct types throughout Christian history.
Monastic Orders
Authors: Peters Greg 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

This schema was followed around the year 1000 by other Anglo‐Saxon authors, including Aelfric and Wulfstan of York. In a letter to Wulfstan, Aelfric says that there are three orders in the church of God:
laboratores
,
bellatores
, and
oratores
. The first produce food, the second defend the land against hostile incursions, and the third order, those who pray, include priests, monks, and bishops who choose to function as spiritual knights to always serve the church, preach the Catholic faith, and defend the holy gifts against the infidels (Whitelock et al. 1981: 252). Wulfstan in his own works also used the same tripartite division as Aelfric. A continental reference to this tripartite division is first found in a poem of Adalbero of Laon (d. 1090): “The house of God which is thought to be one is therefore triple. Now [some] pray, others fight, and others work” (Constable 1995: 284).
Moral Theology
Authors: Laing Jacqueline 
Published: January 2012

AbstractMoral theology is the study of how man must live in order to achieve his highest end, which is union with God. It is a species of theology, the study of things divine, and is distinct fromdogmatictheology by virtue of its focus. Whereas dogmatic theology concentrates upon doctrines and articles of faith, moral theology relates, more specifically to the actions of human beings and their relations to God. Moral theology naturally involves a discussion of ethics and the natural law, since this law is recognized also by divine revelation. It is not, however, co‐extensive with moral philosophy, since its subject matter derives generally from revelation and theological sources.
M
ore,
H
annah (1745–1833)
Authors: Crouse Jamie S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Despite humble beginnings as the daughter of a village schoolmaster, Hannah More rose to become on of the most prominent women in England during her time. Her career took many forms, from educator to bluestocking and socialite, poet and playwright to political activist to social and moral reformer. She was the fourth of five daughters born to Jacob and Mary More in 1745. The More daughters were educated well in order to become teachers, and it was as a young teacher at her sister's school that she composed her first play,
The Search after Happiness
(1762). Her interest in the stage took her to London in 1773, where she was introduced to such notables in the literary scene as David Garrick, Dr. Johnson, Edmund Burke, Horace Walpole and the Bluestockings. She wrote several dramas as well as poems and ballads that launched her to celebrity status, but she became disillusioned with the stage, the fashionable world, and the fame she had gained.
Mormonism
Authors: Smith David E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Mormonism was born in early 19th century America. Although distinctly American in certain ways, it has become a global religious movement. The Mormon story begins with Joseph Smith Jr. (1805–1844). As a child in upstate New York, Joseph was confused by the multiplicity of Christian denominations. When he was 14 years old, he prayed about which church to join. At this point, he began to have a series of religious experiences that he claimed were divine revelations. God reportedly told Joseph not to join any of the existing churches because they had all become theologically corrupt. Joseph was to start a new church that would represent the restoration of true Christianity. In 1830 he and his followers founded what they would eventually call the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter‐Day Saints (LDS), the mainstream version of Mormonism. It was this version that flourished in Utah under the direction of Brigham Young and his successors in the late 19th century and afterwards. At the turn of the 21st century, the LDS Church claimed a global membership of over 10 million. Other smaller varieties of Mormonism emerged after the death of Joseph Smith, the most significant being the Community of Christ, formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter‐Day Saints, with its headquarter in Independence, Missouri.
M
uggeridge,
M
alcolm (1903–1990)
Authors: Watts Thomas D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Malcolm Muggeridge was a British author, journalist, satirist, and later in life Catholic convert and Christian apologist. His father was a prominent Labour Party councilor and, for a brief time, member of parliament. He attended Selhurst Grammar School and Selwyn College at Cambridge University, graduating in 1924 with a degree in natural sciences. He began his career as a teacher in India, later in Egypt, and at various times at the John Ruskin Central School, Croydon, where his father was chairman of the governors. He married, and later began his long journalistic career, first with the
Manchester Guardian
.
M
üntzer,
T
homas (1488/89–1525)
Authors: Blakeley James J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
German. Sixteenth‐century, radical reformer, revolutionary, theologian, and leader of the rebels in the Peasants' War. Thomas Müntzer was born in Stolberg in central Germany in 1488 or 1489. He studied at the University of Leipzig in 1506/07 and received the M.A. and a lower degree in biblical studies from the University of Frankfurt on the Oder during the winter semester of 1512/13. He was ordained in the Halberstadt diocese and the town council of Brunswick nominated him to a beneficed altar at St. Michael's Church.
M
urillo,
B
artolomé
E
steban (1617–1682)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Spanish painter, native of Seville. His earliest paintings are from 1645 and include the
Angel Kitchen
(1646),
Flight into Egypt
(1649), and
Holy Family with Bird
(1650). Murillo's paintings of the Virgin with Child popularized this form of painting and his most favorite theme was the Immaculate Conception. He avoids gory scenes such as martyrdoms, with the exception of the
Martyrdom of St. Andrew
. His crucified Christ is not shown on Calvary but rather as part of a vision and his
Prodigal Son
is the closest he comes to suffering and pain.
Music, Early and Medieval
Authors: Yardley Anne Bagnall 
Published: January 2012

AbstractMusic has been an integral part of Christian worship throughout its history. This history is woven together with that of the liturgy; much of the same source material provides the basis for our understanding of both music and liturgy. Very little actual music can be reconstructed from before the 10th century when adequate forms of musical notation were devised. From early sources, however, we can gain insights into the philosophical understanding of music in early Christianity as well as the occasions and types of music adopted by the early Christians and the place of music in Christian worship. The fluidity of the early liturgy, the variations due to geographical location, and the lack of musical notation often leave the scholar with more questions than answers.
Negro Spirituals
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Negro Spirituals, sometimes referred to as
corn ditties
and
work songs
, are rhythmic American folk songs commonly associated with African‐American church congregations in the South. These songs originated in the United States before the abolition of slavery in 1865 and their lyrics contained codes denoting a slave's personal relationship with God and reliance on God for deliverance from a life of oppression.
Neo‐Orthodox Theology
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A hugely influential Protestant school of thought between World Wars I and II, neo‐orthodox theology was associated particularly with the names of Karl Barth (1886–1968) and Emil Brunner (1889–1966). The viewpoint, also known as “crisis theology,” has continuing (though considerably less) impact today, its disciples being found especially in Scottish and Swiss Protestant theological faculties.
Ninety‐Five Theses
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
“Out of love and zeal for the elucidation of truth, the following theses will be debated … in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ.” So began the Ninety‐five Theses that Martin Luther, an Augustinian monk, on October 31, 1517, reportedly tacked to the door of All Saints Church (also known as the Castle Church) in Wittenberg, Germany.
N
orth African Christianity
Authors: Culpepper Scott 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christianity in North Africa was characterized by strong perseverance under persecution, controversies over ecclesiastical concerns, and a rich theological heritage that has disproportionately influenced the development of western Roman Catholic and Protestant Christianity. North African theologians such as Tertullian, Cyprian of Carthage, and Augustine of Hippo strongly shaped the Latin tradition of Western Christianity. At the same time, the Greek tradition of Eastern Christianity was influenced by North African theologians and pastors from Alexandria such as Athanasius and Origen. Inspiring stories of courage in the face of Martyrdom, such as the anonymous tale of Perpetua and Felicitas, have inspired the devotion of Christians to the ultimate degree throughout the ages. Though Christianity in North Africa was eclipsed by the Muslim influence that dominated the region after the 7th century, North African Christians have made significant contributions to the shape and course of Christianity.
N
orwegian Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christianity was introduced into Norway about 900 in the Oslo‐fjord region through missionaries from the Bremen‐Hamburg archbishopric in Germany. It became the official religion of the country under King Hakon the Good (935–960), who received a Christian education as a youth in England. Over the next century, the pagan influences died out and were replaced by the Catholic Church.
Ontology of the Church
Authors: Chan Simon 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe nature or being of the church needs to be understood as an issue concerning God's relation to the world, more specifically, the relation of nature and grace. Reformed theology in general has tended to keep an absolute distance between Creator and creation. The church viewed as a part of the created order is therefore also ontologically distinct from God. Consequently, the unity of Christ and his church is usually explained in legal terms, as seen in federal theology. In such a context, a sociological model is all that is needed to explain the nature of the church. For example, the metaphor of the body of Christ is understood at best as a reference to the social dynamics and interpersonal relationship in the Christian community. This distancing may be due to its strong emphasis on divine sovereignty. There is concern that too close an identification of God and church would undermine the Protestant principle ofsolus Christus(Bloesch 2002), or give the church a power it does not possess. The church, therefore, should be seen as no more than an “echo” of the trinitarian life (Gunton 1989).
Orality and Literacy
Authors: Baltrip Ryan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Throughout history, forms and styles of communication have changed and impacted the way we live and think. In the 2,000 plus years that Christianity has existed, orality and literacy have been the dominant forms of communicating thoughts and ideas and have allowed Christianity to flourish. Orality is the primary means of sharing messages and meanings through verbal expression and emphasizing the spoken word; literacy relies primarily on the written word to communicate. Christianity, as a religion, was birthed in an oral culture, which allowed it to grow rapidly. However, Christianity quickly adapted to the written word and embraced literacy as a means of spreading the Gospel. Today, Christianity continues to share its message through new ways of communicating
Oratorio
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

A large‐scale multi‐movement musical composition originating in the 17th century Baroque era for chorus and soloists. Libretti for oratorios are generally religious or are based on a specific biblical text, character, or story. The term
oratorio
originated in theme as a means to describe the dramatic texts that were set to music and sung in the
oratory
(or “chapel for prayer”) of St. Philip Neri (1515–1595).
Origen (c.185–c.253)
Authors: Kolbet Paul R. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractBorn in Alexandria, Egypt, Origen may well have been the most influential Christian intellectual between St. Paul and Augustine. He received an outstanding education in Greek and Christian literature. His father, Leonidas, was executed as a Christian martyr in 202. Origen subsequently supported his remaining family by teaching grammar and literature. During this early period, Origen acquired expertise in classical philosophy and taught Christianity in a catechetical school in Alexandria. In addition to his teaching, he was a prodigious writer. One of his early works,De principiis(On First Principles) is nothing less than the first systematically articulated Christian hermeneutics analytically relating fundamental theological and philosophical commitments to a coherent reading of the whole Christian Bible. In this work, the basic contours of his intellectually daring spirituality are already present with its emphases on existential freedom, moral rigor, and a personally transformative spiritual reading of the Bible. Origen is without peer in shaping the Christian reading of Old Testament books. Finding profound wisdom in such ancient Jewish texts, Origen's thought would prove to be a steady, comprehensive, thoroughly intellectual rejection of both Gnostic and simplistic forms of Christianity.
O
wen,
J
ohn (1616–1683)
Authors: Anderson Jeffrey 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
John Owen was perhaps the most prolific and influential English Puritan. Following the time of the Protestant Reformation, the Puritans sought to continue spiritual renewal and reformation within the Church of England and the Elizabethan settlement. Spanning from roughly 1564 to 1642 (dates given by Richard Baxter and Thomas Fuller; see Cumming 1965: 288), the Puritans pursued a goal of “completing” the English Reformation by reshaping Anglican worship, introducing church discipline in local parishes, establishing a new level of righteousness in political, domestic, and economic fields, and converting everyone to a “vigorous evangelical faith” (Packer 1990: 28). Among the Puritans, John Owen, known as “the Calvin of England” (this designation was first coined by Ambrose Barns; see Toon 1971: 173), was arguably the greatest (Toon 1971).
Pachomius (c.290–346)
Authors: Smither Edward L. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractPachomius was born into a pagan family in Upper Egypt in the late 3rd century. Though ethnically Coptic, his writings show that he was competent in both Coptic and Greek. Conscripted into the Roman army as a young man, Pachomius was noticeably touched by the care of a Christian during a time of apparent difficulty. Following his release from the army in 313, he returned to Upper Egypt where he was converted and baptized.
P
alladio,
A
ndrea (1508–1580)
Authors: Whytock Jack C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The noted Italian Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio, who greatly influenced Western ecclesiastical and secular architecture, giving rise to what became known as the Palladian style or Palladianism, was born in Padua in 1508 and died in Vicenza in 1580. Palladio began as a stonemason before studying classical literature and architecture under his mentor Trissino, a leading Renaissance scholar. It was from Trissino that he received his new name Palladio — from Pallas, a name for the Greek goddess Athene. Trissino also introduced Palladio to the great architectural history of Rome in 1541. Palladio was subsequently in Rome in 1547, when he met Michelangelo, and again in 1549.
Pantheism and Panentheism
Authors: Emerick Christopher C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Pantheism, literally “all is God” or divine, is the term used to designate those perspectives — religious and philosophical — which identify God or the divine with the world or universe. Panentheism (meaning “all is
in
God”), in contrast, advances a strong connection between God and world but with the important ontological distinction that God transcends the world; that is, the world does not exhaust the divine being.