bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Transubstantiation
Authors: Macy Gary 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Christians have held from earliest times that Jesus, since his resurrection from the dead, is present as the risen Lord in the community. Christians claim that this presence makes itself felt powerfully in the ritual meal of blessed bread and wine known as the Eucharist or Lord's Supper. In the 11th century Christian writers began to discuss in earnest how this presence in the Eucharist might be possible. Transubstantiation emerged from these discussions as one way of describing how this might occur. Most basically, transubstantiation posits that the
substantia
(substance) of the bread and of the wine is replaced by the
substantia
of the body and of the blood of the risen Lord during the blessing of the bread and wine in the ritual of the Eucharist.
Substantia
although not understood in the same way by all medieval theologians, generally referred to the Aristotelian category of “
ousia
” or the essential reality that underlies individual things. Transubstantiation and a belief in the real presence, although sometimes confused, are quite distinct. Belief in the real presence asserts
that
the risen Lord is present in the Eucharist; transubstantiation attempts to explain
how
that is possible. Belief in the real presence was considered a requirement for orthodox Christian belief among most Christian groups. It is not clear that transubstantiation was ever so required by any Christian group, except when denial of transubstantiation was understood to entail denial of the real presence.
T
roeltsch,
E
rnst (1865–1923)
Authors: Green Todd 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Ernst Troeltsch was a German theologian associated with the History of Religions School. After studying at the universities in Erlangen and Göttingen, Troeltsch taught briefly in Göttingen and Bonn before accepting a position at the University of Heidelberg in 1894. In 1915 he accepted the Philosophy chair in Berlin, where he remained until his death in 1923.
T
yndale,
W
illiam (
c
.1494–1536)
Authors: Maas Korey D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

William Tyndale, English Bible translator and theological reformer, was born in Gloucester‐shire circa 1494 and educated at the University of Oxford (and perhaps for a time at Cambridge). Tyndale first received public attention when, employed as a tutor in his native Gloucestershire (1522–1523), he translated Erasmus'
Enchiridion
into English. The opposition aroused by this modest indication of reformist leanings was intensified by his subsequent proposal to translate the Bible into English — a project Erasmus himself had supported but never undertaken.
Ukrainian Christianity
Authors: Steeves Paul D. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractLegend connects Ukrainian Christianity with the Apostle Andrew, brother of St. Peter, who was reported to have visited the site of the Ukrainian mother city, Kiev, and to have planted a cross on the hill overlooking the Dniepr river while predicting the eventual dawn of the gospel light over Slavic lands. More substantial historical evidence places early Christians in Ukraine among the resident Slavs and conquering Norsemen (Varangians) in the early 10th century, including the consecration of a church to St. Elijah. This story includes the first conversion of a regent, Princess Olga, around mid century.
V
an
D
er
K
emp,
J
ohannes (1747–1811)
Authors: Maclean Iain S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A Dutch medical doctor and early missionary of the London Missionary Society (LMS) from 1799 in the Cape Colony, South Africa. One of the first LMS missionaries sent to the Cape and the first to work among the Xhosa. He gained a lasting reputation as a defender of the indigenous inhabitants, the Khoi‐San (known until recently as Hottentots) and as an opponent of slavery.
v
an
R
uusbroec,
J
an (1293–1381)
Authors: Nieuwenhove Rik Van 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Jan van Ruusbroec (Ruysbroeck) was born near Brussels in 1293. He became chaplain at St. Gudula but in 1343 he withdrew into the Zonien Forest in the Groenendaal valley to pursue a more secluded life. He died in 1381 and was beatified in 1909. All his works were written in Middle Dutch. His most important works are
Die Geestelike Brulocht
[The Spiritual Espousals],
Een Spieghel der Eewigher Salicheit
[A Mirror of Eternal Blessedness],
Dat Rijcke der Ghelieven
[The Realm of Lovers], and
Van den Geesteliken Tabernakel
[The Spiritual Tabernacle], besides a range of smaller treatises. Ruusbroec's works have been published in a trilingual edition as
Jan van Ruusbroec. Opera Omnia
(1981–2006). For a more indepth study of Ruusbroec's mystical theology, see Van Nieuwenhove 2003.
V
an
T
il,
C
ornelius (1895–1987)
Authors: Oliphint K. Scott 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Cornelius Van Til was born the sixth of eight children, in the village of Grootegast, in the province of Groningen, in the Netherlands. Van Til's parents, Ite and Klazina, moved the family to the United States in 1905, when Van Til was only 10 years old. The family were farmers by trade, and Van Til was the first of the eight children to receive a higher education.
V
atican
I
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The 20th Ecumenical Council, also known as Vatican I, was convoked by Pius IX in 1868 in Rome to deal with the issues faced by the Catholic Church in the mid 19th century. It sat from December 8, 1869 to July 18, 1870, when it was closed at the outbreak of the Franco Prussian War and the occupation of Rome by Italian troops.
V
atican
II
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

On January 25, 1959 Pope John XXIII announced his intention to summon an ecumenical council 90 years after the conclusion of Vatican I. Unlike previous councils, Vatican II was not convened to fight heresy or to deal with a serious threat to the unity of the church. In an earlier encyclical
Ad Petri Cathedram
, the pope said that he had church unity at heart and that he hoped that one day other Christians would return and that there would be one fold and one shepherd. The principal aims of the council would be “to promote the growth of the Catholic faith and a salutary renewal of morals among Christian peoples, to bring ecclesiastical discipline up to date, according to the needs of the times.” In June 1960 he established 10 preparatory commissions and 2 secretariats, all responsible to a central commission charged with preparing the agenda. By the following December a total of 728 persons were appointed to the commissions and secretariats, including 48 cardinals, 215 patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops, 217 prelates, 240 priests and religious, and 8 laypeople, some of them in the capacity of
periti
, or scholars. The remits of the 10 commissions were: (1) theology, (2) bishops and the government of dioceses, (3) discipline of clergy and laity, (4) religious, (5) discipline of sacraments, (6) sacred liturgy, (7) studies and seminaries, (8) Eastern Churches, (9) missions, and (10) apostolate of the laity. The remits of the two secretariats were (1) press, radio, and television and (2) Christian unity. Nearly 71 percent of the members were Europeans.
V
enezuelan
C
hristianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Dominican and Franciscan priests arrived in the northeastern part of Venezuela in 1513 and opened cocoa, coffee, and sugar plantations as a prelude to evangelization. Between 1658 and 1758 the Capuchins founded 100 stations in the plains around Caracas, while the Jesuits opened missions along the Orinoco. The diocese of Caracas was established in 1637, becoming a metropolitan see in 1803.
V
enn,
H
enry (1796–1873)
Authors: Olabimtan Kehinde 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
English administrator of the Church Missionary Society and its mission theorist in the 19th century, Henry Venn was born in Clapham into a long line of clerics. His father, John Venn (1759–1813), was pastor to members of the Clapham Sect, the evangelical abolitionist movement that emerged in late 18th century England, and presided at the meeting in 1799 where the CMS was formed as a missionary society of the Anglican Church. Henry Venn trained at Queen's College, Cambridge, and was ordained a deacon in 1819 and a priest in 1821. He enrolled as a member of the CMS in 1820. After serving at the parishes of Drypool, Hull, where he married Martha Sykes in 1829, and St. John's, Holloway, he was made a prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral in 1846. He assumed the office of CMS clerical secretary in 1841 and served the mission body for three decades, shaping its policies and making definitive contributions to the fledgling movement.
Vermigli,PeterMartyr (1499–1562)
Authors: McAlhaney Timothy M. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractPeter Vermigli was born on September 8, 1499 in Florence, Italy, to a wealthy shoemaker named Stephano Vermigli. Although Peter was christened Piero Mariano, he took the name of the saint Peter Martyr of Verona upon entering the Order of Augustinian Canons in 1514. Here he became acquainted with the Scholastics but soon moved beyond the medieval doctors to the early church fathers and then ultimately to scripture. To this end he took up the study of Hebrew while in Bologna. While serving as prior at St. Peter's in Naples, Vermigli read works by Zwingli, Bucer, and Melanchthon. He was also influenced by Juan de Valdés, whose lectures on 1 Corinthians pushed Vermigli toward a Protestant view of justification. Vermigli's exegesis of 1 Corinthians 3:11–13 earned him a ban from preaching. Influential friends, however, had the ban lifted and in 1540 he was made a visitor by the Augustinian canons and given broad reforming power in Italy.
V
eronese (1528–1588)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Real name: Paolo Caliari or Cagliari. Greatest Venetian decorator before Tiepolo. His first major commission was for both oil and fresco for the church and sacristy of S. Sebastiano, Venice. Three large ovals on the nave and ceiling tell the story of Esther and Ahasuerus, and the walls on the north and south sides of the monks' choir have frescoes of the
Life of St. Sebastian
(1558). Veronese had a large workshop and his output was enormous.
The Marriage Feast at Cana
for the refectory of S. Giorgio Maggiore, Venice, is the first of a series of large religious scenes. Unfortunately his religious pictures were considered irreverent and in 1573 he was summoned before the Inquisition for his painting,
Feast in the House of Levi
(1573). His art was sometimes dismissed as mere decoration but his gift was not evocative or emotive art but rather opulent display. In his
Last Supper
he filled some 40 feet of space with elaborate architecture and scores of figures.
ViennaHofmusikkapelle
Authors: Hettrick Jane Schatkin 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe ViennaHofmusikkapelle(court musical ensemble) is one of the oldest and most distinguished musical institutions in Europe. Officially founded in 1498 (but probably going back 60 years prior) by Emperor Maximilian I (1486–1519) and continuing with few interruptions to the present, the ViennaHofmusikkapelleprovided music for the imperial family for worship and state occasions. Music represented the splendor of the monarchy, rulers ordained by God. It traveled with the emperor to gatherings of the Imperial Diet, coronations, weddings, funerals, oath‐taking, etc. The ensemble, which varied in size over the centuries, consisted of a choir of men and boys accompanied by instruments. TheKapellmeister(director of music) was responsible for the performances; he was also expected to compose music (e.g. masses, graduals, offertories) for regular services in theHofkapelle. During its long history, numerous important composers directed and/or belonged to the ensemble. Maximilian engaged Heinrich Isaac, Ludwig Senfl, and Paul Hofhaimer. Throughout the 16th century, Franco‐Flemish vocal polyphony dominated the ensemble. Arnold von Bruck, Jakob Vaet, and Philipp de Monte served successively asHofkapellmeister, presiding over a growing choir and gradual addition of instrumentalists. When Ferdinand II came to the throne in 1619, he brought with him his mostly Italian ensemble, ushering in the new Baroque style and beginning a period of Italian domination of theHofmusikkapelle. Seventeenth centuryKapellmeisterincluded Giovanni Valentini, Antonio Bertati, and Antonio Draghi. Johann Jacob Froberger served as court organist (1637–1657) under Ferdinand III.
Z
inzendorf,
N
ikolaus
L
udwig, Count
v
on (1700–1760)
Authors: Atwood Craig D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf was one of the most provocative figures of modern Christianity. He was influential in the areas of global missions, ecumenism, community formation, hymnody, hermeneutics, and education. The son of aristocratic parents closely connected to the Pietist leader Philip Jakob Spener, Zinzendorf was sent to the Halle Pedagogium at age 10. There he was mentored by another Pietist leader, August Hermann Francke. When he turned 16, Zinzendorf attended the University of Wittenberg. His formal studies focused on the law and state service, but he also pursued theological study and church history privately. He was devoted to the writings of the young Luther. Zinzendorf spent his
Wanderjahr
making contact with the Mennonite and Jewish communities in the Netherlands, and established a close relationship with the Catholic primate of France, Archbishop Noailles. This ecumenical experience shaped his attitude toward the universal church for the rest of his career. When he came of age in 1721, he purchased the estate of Berthelsdorf in Upper Lusatia (Saxony) from his grandmother, and entered into the service of the King of Saxony.
W
alls,
A
ndrew F. (
b
. 1928)
Authors: Norris Frederick W. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
No other church historian has described world Christianity with such insight and breadth. Born at New Milton, England in 1928 because only there had his father found work, the Scot Andrew Walls is a graduate of Oxford and Aberdeen universities. Beginning in 1952 he served as secretary and librarian of Tyndale House in Cambridge. There his ability to inspire and encourage church leaders emerged.
War and Violence, Christian Responses
Authors: Harold Philip J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Christian reflection on the proper response to war and violence begins with the New Testament and the words of Christ. Christ forgave those who were crucifying him from the cross. Our risen Lord's first words to his disciples — “Peace be with you” — are the opposite of anger and hostility toward those who had crucified him. The Sermon on the Mount spoke of peacemakers as children of God. Yet Jesus also said that he gives peace not as the world gives, and he warned his disciples: “Do not think that I have come to bring peace upon the earth. I have come to bring not peace but the sword. For I have come to set a man against his father, a daughter against her mother, and a daughter‐in‐law against her mother‐in‐law; and one's enemies will be those of his household” (Matt. 10:34–36). At the same time Christ commanded us to pray for our enemies and persecutors so as to be children of the Father. In contrast to the
lex talionis
, Christ says to “offer no resistance to one who is evil. When someone strikes you on your right cheek, turn the other one to him as well. If anyone wants to go to law with you over your tunic, hand him your cloak as well” (Matt. 5:39–40). His passion and death strikingly exemplify this teaching.
W
arfield, B. B. (1851–1921)
Authors: Rios Christopher M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A conservative Presbyterian theologian, Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield's rigorous defense of Reformed confessionalism and the plenary inspiration of Scripture helped to establish him as one of the giants of the Princeton theology and put him at odds with much 20th century theology. Born near Lexington, Kentucky to William Warfield and Mary Cabell Breckinridge, Warfield was privately educated and trained in the Presbyterian faith until he entered the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) in 1868. Warfield graduated in 1871 and entered Princeton Theological Seminary, where he was greatly influenced by a mature Charles Hodge. In 1876, Warfield graduated from the seminary, married Annie Pearce Kinkead, and began a period of advanced study in Europe. He began his teaching career at Western Theological Seminary (Pittsburg) in 1878. In 1887, he returned to Princeton Seminary to become professor of didactic and polemical theology, a position previously held by Archibald Alexander, Charles Hodge, and Archibald Alexander Hodge. From this position, Warfield continued the seminary's tradition of expounding Calvinistic theology, a high view of Scripture, and Scottish Common Sense reasoning. Though he never wrote a systematic theology of his own, his prolific output of books, articles, and reviews dealt with nearly every major issue of the day and helped keep many Americans abreast of the developments in Continental theology. Warfield died at Princeton Seminary, having spent nearly four decades defending conservative American religion.
W
arneck,
G
ustav (1834–1910)
Authors: Maclean Iain S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Founder of modern Christian theory of missions or missiology, Gustav Warneck was born in Naumberg, graduated from the Latin Gymnasium in Halle in 1855, and proceeded to study theology at the University of Halle, where he was influenced by F. A. Tholuck's theology. After theological exams, he worked as a tutor and completed his second theological exams before being appointed to pastoral positions in Bitterfeld and Dommitzsch. From 1871 to 1874 he served as theological teacher for the Rhenish Mission Society in Barmen. This marked his only direct engagement in the mission field, yet it ignited a lifelong interest and engagement in developing a science of missions. Thus, in 1874 he founded the journal
Allgemeine Missionszeitschrift
, and returned to parish work in Eisleben. In 1879 after attending a Holiness Conference at Brighton, he established the first Halle Missions Conference. In 1896 he was appointed honorary Professor of the Science of Missions at the Halle Theological Faculty, this being the first appointment in this field in Germany.
W
esley,
J
ohn (1703–1791)
Authors: Castelo Daniel 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The son of Anglican parents of a nonconformist background, John Wesley is most often remembered as the principal founder and organizer of the Methodist movement. Born in a rectory at Epworth, Wesley was a priest in the Church of England for most of his adult life, seeking renewal among the Anglicans of his day through a number of religious and social endeavors. After attending Charterhouse School, London, he went on to Christ Church, Oxford and eventually became a fellow of Lincoln College. During his Oxford days, he began to read certain writers on Christian piety, including Thomas à Kempis, Jeremy Taylor, and William Law, with the aim of deepening his practical piety. By 1729 he began to lead a small group at the university that became known as the “Oxford Methodists,” noted in particular for their regular meetings for study and devotion and their programs to assist the poor of the surrounding area. This period at Oxford, later termed by Wesley the “First Rise of Methodism,” was followed by a missionary stint (1736–1738) in the English colony of Georgia in the New World (what he would later call the “Second Rise of Methodism”) and eventually a return to England, when he experienced his famous “heart‐warming” experience at Aldersgate Street, London on May 24, 1738. This moment marked the pinnacle of what became a tumultuous relationship with the Moravians, the fallout relating to heretical tendencies he found within the Fetter Lane Society, London. The split was a difficult one since the founding of this society marked for him the “Third Rise of Methodism.”
West African Christianity
Authors: Wilson Douglas K. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
West Africa presently consists of 15 countries. The two island nations are the Cape Verde islands in the far west and former Portuguese holdings São Tomé and Principe farther south. Along the coast are Mauritania, Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria. The interior countries include Mali and Niger.
Westminster Confession
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Westminster Confession document is a Reformed confession of faith with strong theological underpinnings of Calvinism. In 1643 the Parliament of England (controlled by Presbyterians) issued an ordinance requiring an assembly of clergy and laity to meet at Westminster in order to formulate articles of doctrine for the Church of England. This meant that the Thirty‐Nine Articles of the Church of England (1571) would likely be replaced with the aim of getting the Church of England to abandon its high church practices, along with the episcopacy, and thus bring it in line with the Calvinistic doctrines of the Church of Scotland (Presbyterian). The English parliament thought producing a confessional document favorable to the Scottish church would obtain Scotland's help against King Charles I, whom the Presbyterians despised.
W
hite,
E
llen G. (1827–1915)
Authors: Hasel Frank M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Ellen Gould White, nee Harmon, was one of the cofounders of the Seventh‐Day Adventist Church and made a lasting impact as a Christian writer, lecturer, counselor and health reformer. Even critics acknowledge that “the best proof of the healthy mind of EGW is her impressive amount of even, continuous work, produced by her through almost seven decades” (Lindén 1978: 162). Her prophetic ministry was instrumental in founding the Sabbatarian Adventist movement that gave rise to the Seventh‐Day Adventist Church, which today is one of the fastest growing Protestant churches around the world.
W
hitefield,
G
eorge (1714–1770)
Authors: Pasquier Michael 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
George Whitefield, an Oxford‐trained Anglican minister, was an itinerant preacher in England and the American colonies who was largely responsible for the emergence of a transatlantic revival movement throughout the 18th century. He popularized the idea of “New Birth” among English‐speaking audiences and served as a key figure in the intercolonial, interdenominational movement of the Great Awakening. He was involved in the formative stages of the religious group known as Methodism, though his impact as a revivalist was more influential in laying the groundwork for modern evangelical Protestantism.
Willaert,Adrian (c.1490–1562)
Authors: Stoltzfus Philip 
Published: January 2012

AbstractFlemish composer of the Italian Renaissance. Hailed as “the new Pythagoras” by his student Gioseffo Zarlino, Willaert developed a reputation as one of the most celebrated European musicians of the 16th century. Through his post as choir master at the basilica of St. Mark's in Venice, Willaert founded the Venetian school, known for the antiphonal and polychoral style of its sacred music, and for decisively shaping the stylistic shift from the Renaissance to the Baroque.
Winthrop,John (1588–1649)
Authors: Buss Dietrich Gotthilf 
Published: January 2012

AbstractJohn Winthrop was the founding governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony. He was born in Edwardston, Suffolk, England on January 22, 1588, one of nine children of a Puritan family. His father, Adam Winthrop, was a successful lawyer. Winthrop attended Trinity College, Cambridge where his Puritan upbringing matured into lifelong convictions. He withdrew before earning a degree to be married to Mary Forth who bore him six children. Winthrop was appointed justice of the peace at 18 and held his first court in Groton Hall. In 1626 he was appointed one of the attorneys in the Court of Ward and Liveries. This advancement brought him in contact with Parliament and writing bills for legislative committees. Mary's death after 11 years led him to three successive marriages, all as a widower.