bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Access to Justice in the WTO
Authors: Nordström Håkan , Shaffer Gregory 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The current dispute settlement system of the WTO creates a particular challenge for WTO Members with limited exports because litigation costs are more or less independent of the commercial stakes involved in a dispute. Small Members with small trade stakes may therefore find it too costly to pursue legitimate claims. Reviewing the aims and practices of small-claims procedures at the national and supranational level, this chapter analyzes whether a similar institution could be introduced at the WTO. It makes a prima facie case that the current dispute settlement system effectively discriminates against small claims and hence owners of small claims, and thus, in particular, against least-developed countries, small-island economies, and low-income developing countries. It explains what small-claims procedures are at the national level, what purpose they serve, how they are organized in different jurisdictions involving alternative design features, and what challenges they have faced. The chapter also explores the issues raised by adding a small-claims procedure in the WTO context and indicates specific design features that could address them.
With a Little Help From Our Friends?
Authors: Busch Marc L , Reinhardt Eric 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter explains why and discusses what might be done to minimize the negative impact of third parties on effective use of dispute settlement by developing countries. The chapter proceeds as follows. First, it discusses what the DSU (Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes) allows by way of third-party participation. Second, it elaborates a hypothesis on how third parties shape rulings, conditional on the fact that they first undermine early settlement, and then turn to our findings. Third, it looks at the evidence concerning third-party participation in cases filed by poor complainants. The chapter concludes by examining the various proposals for reforming third-party rights under the DSU and how these might bear on developing countries, in particular.
Economic Development and the World Trade Organization
Authors: Lee Yong-shik 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The regulatory framework for international trade currently represented by the WTO affects the ability of developing countries to adopt trade related development policies. It has previously been examined how the current regulatory framework for international trade facilitates the economic development of developing countries. This examination revealed the inadequacy of the current system. Alternative provisions were proposed, intended to facilitate economic development, including Development-Facilitation Tariff (DFT) and Development-Facilitation Subsidy (DFS). The need for a new regulatory treatment of development facilitation was thus reasoned, tentatively called the “Agreement on Development Facilitation” (ADF), as well as the necessity to create a new body within the WTO to oversee trade and development issues, namely “the Council for Trade and Development” (the Development Council). This chapter, reiterating the need for the ADF and the Development Council, provides a more detailed account of the possible elements of the ADF, including DFT and DFS and the role of the proposed Council.
Trade and Competition Policy in the Developing World
Authors: Gifford Daniel J , Kudrle Robert T 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter examines the possible expansion of the jurisdiction of the WTO to include competition issues. First, it focuses on the developing nations, asking whether, and to what extent, such an expansion would further the welfare of the developing nations or would further the combination of domestic interests that are ascendant in their governments and governing institutions. Second, following from the first point, it distinguishes between welfare and institutionalized national interests, recognizing that it is the latter that effectively determine a nation's objectives. Third, it identifies differences between the developing nations and their developed counterparts that may be likely to affect their approaches toward an international competition regime. Fourth, it identifies differences in established competition policies among the developed nations, and explores how these differences may affect the position of the developed nations toward the establishment of an international competition regime.
1 Social Capital and Organizational Embeddedness
Authors: Small Mario Luis 
Published: September 2009

AbstractStandard models of social capital have said little about how actors form the ties that generate social capital. This chapter proposes a model based on three assumptions: Actors may form ties either purposely or non‐purposely; forming either purposely or non‐purposely depends on the context of social interaction; and the context of interaction can be shaped significantly by routine organizations. The model theorizes how organizations can affect not only the formation of ties but also the trust they exhibit, the obligations they carry, and the resources they exchange. The model discusses not merely social but also organizational ties. The chapter concludes by explaining why childcare centers are an especially strategic site to explore this model, and identifying the book’s four major data sources: a national survey of mothers of young children, a survey of childcare centers in New York City, an in‐depth interview study of about 65 mothers in New York, and in‐depth case studies of 23 centers in the city.
2 Childcare Centers and Mothers’ Well‐Being
Authors: Small Mario Luis 
Published: September 2009

AbstractUsing national data on mothers of young children, this chapter examines whether mothers who enrolled their children in centers thereby enlarged their own social networks, particularly the number of friends they reported. It also asks whether these networks improved mothers’ wellbeing. Results are consistent with expectations: mothers who patronized childcare centers tended to make new friends there, and making friends in centers was strongly and robustly associated with lower material hardship and mental hardship.
4 Weak and Strong Ties
Authors: Small Mario Luis 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines the closeness of the friendships that mothers tended to make in centers—that is, whether they were generally weak or strong ties. Using national survey data, it finds that most mothers who made friends in centers made close friends, not merely acquaintances. However, deeper probing based on in‐depth interviews finds that the friendships were close, or intimate, in two different senses. Some mothers made standard intimate ties, family‐like relations that served as sources of all‐around support. These relations exhibited the characteristics that network sociologists have associated with “strong” ties. Other mothers made compartmentally intimate ties, relations that, violating expectations of some network theorists, were both strong and domain‐specific, with talk, conversation, and activity strictly limited to the domain of families, children, and the center. The chapter shows that compartmentally intimate ties were made possible because the organizational context, through the institutions shaping interactions in the centers, performed much of the work required to sustain strong relations, while providing a focus of activity.
7 Organizational Ties and Neighborhood Effects
Authors: Small Mario Luis 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines which childcare centers were likely to exhibit those organizational ties that provided resources useful to mothers. The chapter pays special attention to neighborhood context, examining whether childcare centers tended to be more or less connected when located in poor neighborhoods. It finds that many actors played a role in the prevalence of organizational ties, including parents, powerful external non‐profit organizations, and the state. In addition, using survey data on nearly 300 childcare centers in New York City, it finds that childcare centers tended to have more, not fewer connections if they were located in high poverty areas.
8 Extensions and Implications
Authors: Small Mario Luis 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter contrasts the organizational embeddedness perspective to the standard social capital perspective. It argues for a focus not merely on structure and position but also on context, everyday interaction, and routine organizations. After summarizing the mechanisms by which childcare centers brokered social and organizational ties, the chapter specifically examines the operation of these mechanisms in other organizations studied by social scientists, including neighborhood restaurants, hair salons, prisons, churches, grocery stores, and bathhouses. The chapter concludes by discussing the implications of the embeddedness perspective for three critical questions in the study social inequality: how people find jobs, how they acquire health insurance, and how they respond to conditions in their neighborhoods.
Artifacts in Behavioral Research
Authors: Rosenthal Robert , Rosnow Ralph L. , Alan E. Kazdin  
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This book is really three-books-in-one, dealing with the topic of artifacts in behavioral research. It is about the problems of experimenter effects which have not been solved. Experimenters still differ in the ways in which they see, interpret, and manipulate their data. Experimenters still obtain different responses from research participants (human or infrahuman) as a function of experimenters' states and traits of biosocial, psychosocial, and situational origins. Experimenters' expectations still serve too often as self-fulfilling prophecies, a problem that biomedical researchers have acknowledged and guarded against better than have behavioral researchers; e.g., many biomedical studies would be considered of unpublishable quality had their experimenters not been blind to experimental condition. Problems of participant or subject effects have also not been solved. Researchers usually still draw research samples from a population of volunteers that differ along many dimensions from those not finding their way into our research. Research participants are still often suspicious of experimenters' intent, try to figure out what experimenters are after, and are concerned about what the experimenter thinks of them. That portion of the complexity of human behavior that can be attributed to the social nature of behavioral research can be conceptualized as a set of artifacts to be isolated, measured, considered, and, sometimes, eliminated. This book examines the methodological and substantive implications of sources of artifacts in behavioral research and strategies for improving this situation.
6 Interpersonal Expectations: Effects of the Experimenter's Hypothesis
Authors: Rosenthal Robert 
Published: September 2009

AbstractArtifacts not directly associated with the interaction between the experimenter and the research subjects include interpreter and observer biases, whereas interactional artifacts include biosocial biasing effects, psychosocial biasing effects, situational biasing effects, modeling biasing effects, and experimenter expectancy effects. This chapter discusses examples of each type in studies with humans or animals, presents estimates of the magnitude of such biases, and discusses a model of the mediation of experimenter expectancy effects and further implications beyond the laboratory.
7 Experimenter Modeling
Authors: Rosenthal Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses an “attribute” of the experimenter which, like those considered just before, is also defined in terms of the particular experiment being conducted. That attribute is the performance of the experimenter himself of the same task he sets his subjects. For some experiments, this experimenter attribute will be a more enduring characteristic, such as intelligence or authoritarianism. For other experiments, this attribute will be a less enduring one, such as an opinion on a timely public issue, though such less enduring attributes may often be related to more enduring ones. When there is a significant relationship between the experimenter's own performance of the particular task he requires of his subjects and the performance he obtains from his subjects, we may speak of an experimenter's “modeling” effect. The evidence for this effect comes from the literature of survey research, clinical psychology, and laboratory experiments.
9 Human Subjects
Authors: Rosenthal Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The evidence presented up to this point that the expectancy of the experimenter may in part determine the results of his research has been at least somewhat equivocal. Some of the evidence has been anecdotal. Some has required the untenable assumption that the expectancy of the experimenter, and not some correlated variable, had led to the effects observed. The most clear-cut evidence for the effects of the experimenter's expectancy, therefore, must come from experiments in which experimenters are given different expectancies. Of the studies examined, that by Stanton and Baker (1942) comes closest to meeting this requirement of the experimental induction of an expectancy. That study does require, however, the assumption that experimenters will expect the subjects to answer correctly the items being presented. The same assumption is required to interpret the case of Clever Hans as an experiment in expectancy effects. This chapter describes experiments that appear to be fairly straightforward tests of the hypothesis of the effects of the experimenter's expectancy on his research results.
11 Subject Set
Authors: Rosenthal Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses various subject sets as they complicate the effects of the experimenter's expectancy. The experiments described have served in part to extend the generality of the effects of the experimenter's expectancy. More particularly they have shown the combined effects of the experimenter's expectancy and the subject's set or his perception of the demand characteristics of the experimental situation. The examination of such joint effects is only just now being mapped out for inquiry. But from what data there are—both quantitative and qualitative—the conclusion seems warranted that what is in the head of the subject and in the head of the experimenter can unintentionally affect the results of psychological research.
12 Early Data Returns
Authors: Rosenthal Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
In the last few chapters the effects of the experimenter's expectancy on his subjects' responses was considered. This chapter reverses the direction of the predictions and considers the effects of the subjects' responses on the experimenter's expectancy. Except in the most exploratory of experimental enterprises, the experimenter's expectancies are likely to be based upon some sort of observed data. These data need not have been formally acquired. They may derive from quite casual observations of behavior made by the experimenter himself or even by another observer.
14 Structural Variables
Authors: Rosenthal Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter addresses the following questions: Are there some experimenters who, more than others, unintentionally affect the results of their research? Are there some subjects who, more than others, are susceptible to the unintentional influence of their experimenter's expectancy? The answers to these questions should increase our general understanding of the effects of the experimenter's expectancy and perhaps provide us with some clues to the effective control of these effects. In addition, the answers to these questions may suggest to us whether the unintentional influence processes under study are facilitated by factors similar to those that facilitate the more usually investigated processes of social influence.
16 Communication of Experimenter Expectancy
Authors: Rosenthal Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter addresses the question: How does the experimenter inform his subject what it is he expects the subject to do? Data from several studies including the leisurely analysis of films suggests that no gross errors are responsible. Experimenters do not tell their subjects in words or even in any obvious gestures what it is they expect from them. Errors of observation and of recording, although they do occur, occur so rarely as to be trivial to any explanation of experimenter expectancy effects.
17 The Generality and Assessment of Experimenter Effects
Authors: Rosenthal Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the generality of experimenter effects. It presents more formal definitions of certain operating characteristics of the experimenter. It then considers the “real” world of research, with experimenters conducting experiments that, because of differences in subject sampling, instrumentation, and procedure, cannot reasonably be compared directly to any other experiments.
18 Replications and Their Assessment
Authors: Rosenthal Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses replication. The crucial role of replication is well established in science generally. The undetected equipment failure, the rare and possibly random human errors of procedure, observation, recording, computation, or report are known well enough to make scientists wary of the unreplicated experiment. When we add to the possibility of the random “fluke,” common to all sciences, the fact of individual organismic differences and the possibility of systematic experimenter effects in at least the behavioral sciences, the importance of replication looms larger still to the behavioral scientist.
20 Experimenter Behavior
Authors: Rosenthal Robert 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
In Chapter 19, some techniques for the control of experimenter expectancy effects were suggested which depended on the determination of experimenter behavior, expectancy, and other attributes before the data collection process began. This chapter considers some related controls which, however, depend on the determination of experimenter behavior, expectancy, and other attributes during and after the data collection process.
3 Situational Determinants of Volunteering
Authors: Rosenthal Robert , Rosnow Ralph L. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter gives some empirically-based conclusions about situational factors that may influence the extent of volunteering, including material incentives, the nature of the task, normative expectations, public versus private commitment, recruiter characteristics, task importance, personal interest in the task, organizational and institutional bonds, and expectations of favorable evaluations.
The Perfection of Giving
Authors: Penner Hans H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins with the story of Phusati, who after many aeons of rebirths, would become the mother of Gotama, following her marriage to Sanjaya, son of a king named Sivi. It then details the life of the future Buddha, Vessantara and how he mastered all the required perfections and was reborn in Tushita heaven, from where in due course he would descend into his mother's womb and become known as Gotama.
Enlightenment and Liberation
Authors: Penner Hans H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter details Buddha' enlightenment and liberation. At the time of the full-moon night in April/May the future Buddha went toward the tree of enlightenment along a road the gods had prepared with celestial perfumes and flowers; celestial choruses poured forth heavenly music and shouts of acclaim. Gotama seated himself cross-legged at the east side of the tree of enlightenment, known as “the Bodhi tree,” facing the east. The future Buddha had mastered the strict isolation from sensual pleasures and unwholesome states of living for six years. Given this form of life, he began the fourfold set of meditations that he learned from Alara, with the belief that they would become the foundation for gaining wisdom concerning sickness, old age, and death as well as liberation from rebirth.
The Buddha Becomes a Wonder-Worker
Authors: Penner Hans H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins with details of Buddha's arrival at Uruvela. At that time three brothers, all of them ascetics, were living there. One of the brothers was the leader and guide of five hundred matted-hair ascetics, the second brother was leader of three hundred, and the third was the head of two hundred ascetics. The chapter also describes how as the community of monks grew in size, so did the possibility of misunderstanding as the monks discussed the Doctrine among themselves and with other ascetic groups. One day Buddha decided that it was time to clarify two issues: the first concerned wrong views; the second point had to do with the learning and use of the Doctrine.
The Buddha Meets a King and Two Brilliant Ascetics
Authors: Penner Hans H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter details Buddha's meeting with King Bimbisara and two ascetics, Sariputta and Moggallana. After a stay at Bodh-Gaya, the place of his enlightenment, the Buddha decided to take a large number of monks to Rajagaha, the capital city of Magadha. When he finally arrived there he settled near the town in the pleasure garden known as the Bamboo Grove, near a sacred shrine. Rajagaha was the seat of the famous king of Magadha named Bimbisara. The king was told of the Buddha's arrival and decided to visit the Buddha with a vast number of Magadha, Brahmins, and householders. Together with the 250 renouncers, Sariputta and Moggallana also headed for the Bamboo Grove to meet the Buddha.
The Buddha Receives a Gift and Befriends a King
Authors: Penner Hans H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins with details of the departure of Buddha and the community of monks from Kapilavatthu for Rajagaha. On the trip back they stayed at Anupiya, the very first town the Buddha visited after he renounced the world of the householder. It then describes how Bhaddiya, Anuruddha, Ananda, Bhagu, Kimbila, and Devadatta, old friends who had always played together, together with Upali the barber, headed out of town to catch up with the Buddha. It also shows details the friendship between the King Pasenadi and Buddha.
Meeting a Murderer, a Visit Home, and a Quick Trip to Heaven
Authors: Penner Hans H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter details Buddha' meeting with the murderer, Angulimala, who after hearing the Doctrine spoken by the Buddha vowed to abstain from violence forever and became a monk. It describes Buddha's visit to his father, Suddhodana, who was very ill and near death. It also describes Buddha's flight beyond the triple world to Tushita, the heavenly abode of his mother.
Once the Buddha Was a Universal Monarch
Authors: Penner Hans H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter focuses on Buddha telling Ananda the history of Kusinara, a town close to his birthplace. He then informs Ananda that he was once King Mahasudassana, a wheel-turning monarch, a cosmic king, a righteous king who had conquered the four quarters of the cosmos and chose this very town.
The Quest for the Historical Buddha
Authors: Penner Hans H. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The quest for the historical Buddha is a quest for the “original” or “authentic” meaning of Buddhism. This quest is the “received tradition” in the Western study of Buddhism. There are two major problems with this tradition: the first is the problem of evidence, the second is making semantic sense out of the notion of “original” or “authentic” meaning. This chapter investigates both the “received tradition” and the two problems.