bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Kellogg–Briand Pact (1928)
Authors: Webster Andrew 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The International Treaty for the Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy, more commonly known after its two main creators as the Kellogg–Briand Pact but also as the Treaty of Paris and the Paris Peace Pact, was signed in the French capital on August 27, 1928. Its mere three articles were dramatic in their brevity and simplicity. Article 1 consisted of a solemn declaration that the signatory states “condemn recourse to war for the solution of international controversies, and renounce it as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another.” Under Article 2 they agreed that “the settlement or solution of all disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them, shall never be sought except by pacific means.” Under Article 3 the treaty was to remain open “as long as may be necessary for adherence by all the other Powers of the world” (Friedman 1972: 468–469). War was no longer to be a legitimate means for states to settle disputes or to advance their own national interests.
Kennan, George F. (1904–2005)
Authors: Miscamble Wilson D. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
George F. Kennan's significance derives mainly from his role in formulating the so‐called containment doctrine during the early Cold War and from his service as director of the policy planning staff in the state department in 1947–1949. Born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Kennan attended Princeton University and joined the United States Foreign Service in 1926. Over the next two decades he labored as a diplomat in relative obscurity at postings in Riga, Moscow, Vienna, Prague, and Berlin. He earned some reputation for expertise on the Soviet Union, but had minimal influence on foreign policy.
Khalkhin Gol, Battle of (1939)
Authors: Glantz David M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Battle of Khalkhin Gol, named after the Khalkhin River by the Soviets and after the nearby village of Nomonhan by the Japanese, was the second and more serious of two border conflicts between the Soviet Union and the Japanese Empire during the late 1930s. Both clashes resulted from conflicting Soviet and Japanese territorial interests in northeastern Asia. The Japanese Empire, which began pursuing an aggressive policy of expanding its territory on the Asian continent in the 1930s, occupied the Chinese province of Manchuria by force in 1932, ostensibly to protect its economic interests in the region, in particular, the Chinese Eastern Railroad. Japan then transformed the former province of China into the puppet state of Manchukuo. Although Manchukuo had its own emperor, Henry Pu‐i, in reality it remained under the control of the Kwantung Army, the Japanese army's most powerful ground force. Urged on by this army to expand its territories further, Japan invaded China in 1937, beginning a war that would last for eight years. The Kwantung Army, which espoused a continental military strategy in opposition to the Japanese navy's maritime (Pacific) strategy, then “flexed its muscles” in the late 1930s by provoking a series of border incidents with Manchukuo's neighbors, two of which produced significant armed clashes. The first of these clashes took place in July and August 1938 in the Lake Khasan region situated along the border between the USSR's Far East province and Japanese‐occupied Korea, when a small Japanese force crossed the border and seized several small hills in territory claimed by the Soviet Union. After both sides escalated the brief armed clash, the incident ended in stalemate, when the two sides signed an armistice.
King Philip's War (1675–1678)
Authors: Pulsipher Jenny Hale 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
King Philip's War has been called the bloodiest conflict in American history, based on the proportion of the Indian and English population killed, wounded, or driven from the area. Named for the Indian sachem (leader) who instigated it, the war involved Native Americans and English colonists across much of colonial New England; by its end, the English had established lasting dominance over Indians in the region. While King Philip's War has often been described as a racial conflict, Indian combatants fought on both sides.
Kitchener, General Horatio Herbert, 1st Earl Kitchener (1850–1916)
Authors: Woodward David R. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Field Marshal Kitchener was Britain's most acclaimed soldier prior to World War I. With the outbreak of war, the government chose him as secretary of state for war and quickly produced a recruiting poster depicting a stern‐looking Kitchener, his right arm extended and one finger pointing above the words “Your Country Needs You.” This recruiting poster became the most popular ever circulated by a British government.
Korean War (1949–1953)
Authors: Lee Steven Hugh 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The ideological foundations of the Korean War lie in the pre‐1945 era, in the evolution of diverse and divisive strands of Korean nationalism, efforts by Koreans to eliminate Japanese colonial rule from the Korean Peninsula, the impact of the Russian Revolution on Asia, and the influence of Christianity and ideas of constitutional governance on Koreans. The conjunction of forces that led to the Korean conflict, however, were rooted in the immediate post‐World War II era, in Soviet and American objectives toward Korea, the global beginnings of the Cold War, and the creation and consolidation of two rival Korean regimes.
Landwehr
Authors: Wilson Peter H. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe wordLandwehris an old German term associated with local defense. During the Middle Ages it often applied to physical defenses, like boundary ditches, but was later also used as one of several designations for the militias organized by the German territories. It assumed real significance during the Napoleonic Wars as the label given to the Prussian and Austrian response to the French ideal of universal military service exemplified by thelevée en masse.Prussia and Austria had recruited their regular armies from volunteers supplemented by conscripts drawn from their poorer rural and urban subjects. The scale of France's success and the difficulty of matching French numbers prompted reformers to suggest broadening military service by abolishing the economic and social exemptions from conscription. These suggestions were immediately controversial, as they occurred alongside calls for proposed universal conscription to sustain a large regular army commanded by professional officers. In Germany, this version was closely associated with the defense of absolute monarchy and the socioeconomic preeminence of the landed aristocracy who continued to dominate the officer corps. The liberal alternative envisaged patriotic citizens‐in‐arms who would mobilize only when their homeland was threatened. The Landwehr came to represent this liberal ideal in both Prussia and Austria, but its actual implementation was steered by conservative political and military objectives.
Latter Three Years' War (1083–1087)
Authors: Friday Karl 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Latter Three Years' War, a dramatic sequel to the Former Nine Years' War of 1051–1062, laid the foundations for a four‐ generation near‐satrapy in northeastern Japan under the Ōshū Fujiwara family. Like the insurrections of Taira Masakada (?–940) and Taira Tadatsune (?–1031) in the mid‐ tenth and eleventh centuries, the conflict began as an intra‐familial squabble that drew the attention of the provincial govern‐ ment. In contrast to these earlier incidents, however, the imperial court remained reso‐ lutely on the sidelines throughout, rendering the Latter Three Years' War a private affair from start to finish—in spite of repeated efforts by the provincial governor to obtain state sanction for his involvement.
Lawrrence, Thomas Edward (1888–1935)
Authors: Hughes Matthew 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Thomas Edward Lawrence, sometimes referred to as Lawrence of Arabia, was a British adventurer, soldier, and author. Born in Wales on August 16, 1888, one of five boys, two of whom would die in World War I, Lawrence grew up in Oxford, where his parents settled in 1896. Schooled at Oxford City High School (1896–1907), in October 1907 Lawrence went up to Jesus College Oxford to study for his bachelor's degree; he secured a First in Modern History in 1910.
Laws of War
Authors: Green James A. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The term “laws of war” is generally used to refer to the two related but distinct areas of international law applicable to warfare: the
jus ad bellum
, also known as the “law on the use of force,” and the
jus in bello
, also known as either “international humanitar‐ ian law (IHL)” or the “law of armed con‐ flict.” These two areas of law are together crucial for the regulation of warfare.
Lay of Igor's Campaign (twelfth century)
Authors: Shepard Jonathan 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In 1185 a host of Polovtsy wiped out a Rus' expedition led by Prince Igor Sviatoslavich not far from the Donets River. The belligerence of this nomad grouping, based on the Donets and on the Lower Don, had led the Rus' to dub them “Wild Polovtsy.” This was in contrast to the rather more amenable Polovtsy, who occupied the steppes on the west bank of the Dnieper River, and some of whom served as borderers for princes of Kiev.
Lee, General Robert E. (1807–1870)
Authors: Holden Reid Brian 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The premier general of the Confederacy, Lee was born on January 19, 1807, the fifth child of the Revolutionary cavalry commander and politician, Henry “Light Horse Harry” Lee, and Ann Hill Carter. He was educated at the Alexandria Academy and the United States Military Academy at West Point, graduating second in his class in 1829 (returning as superintendent, 1852–1855). In 1831 he married Mary, the daughter of George Washington Parke Custis, the first president's adopted son. The high‐water mark of his early career came in Mexico where he served with distinction in 1847 on the staff of Winfield Scott during the advance on Mexico City.
Lieber, Francis (1798–1872)
Authors: Neff Stephen C. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Born in Berlin, Francis Lieber had his first experience of war as a teenaged volunteer in the Prussian army during the final stages of the Napoleonic Wars—experience that included participation in the Battle of Waterloo. In the post‐war period, he joined various patriotic student societies, which supported German unification. As a result, he was imprisoned when these societies were suppressed in a crackdown in 1819 and also prohibited from entering any Prussian universities. (He attended the University of Jena, which was in the Grand Duchy of Saxe‐Weimar.) His liberal tendencies then took him to Greece in 1821, in the cause of Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire. He then spent nearly two years in Italy. Following a brief return to Germany, and further incarceration there, he departed for Great Britain in 1826 and then for the United States the following year, where he remained for the rest of his life.
Llywelyn the Great (ca. 1173–1240)
Authors: Brough Gideon , Marsden Richard 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Llywelyn ap Iorwerth, called Llywelyn the Great after his death, was prince of Gwynedd in north Wales. He was a skilled diplomat and gifted war leader who shrewdly handled King John of England, established an alliance with Philip Augustus of France, and brought most of the native Welsh nobility under his influence. He also extended the territories of Gwynedd to a greater extent than any leader of the previous two hundred years.
Longbow
Authors: Phillips Gervase 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The longbow is a wooden bow, generally measuring 1.82–2.13 meters in length, constructed from a single stave of wood and distinguished from other bow staves by its deep D‐shaped section. The bow's performance is largely dependent on the quality of wood used in its manufacture and medieval bowyers particularly favored yew; the springy sapwood, able to resist considerable tension, lay on the “back” of the bow (away from the archer, on the outside of the bend), while the “belly” of the bow was composed of the strong, dark hardwood. This gave the longbow naturally occurring composite characteristics that contributed mightily to its formidable range and power.
Louis XIV of France (1638–1715)
Authors: Bonney Richard 
Published: November 2011

AbstractLouis XIV's martial interests were probably inherited from his grandfather, Henri IV, rather than his father, Louis XIII — who disliked the idea of commanding the army in person and mostly avoided doing so. As early as 1654, at the age of 15, Louis XIV displayed rather too much interest in the exchange of cannon fire along the border with the Spanish Netherlands for the liking of his guardian, Cardinal Mazarin, who was concerned at the personal danger involved.
Lyautey, Marshal Louis Hubert (1854–1934)
Authors: Dean William Thomas 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Lyautey was born to an upper‐middle‐class family in Nancy in 1854. He attended an elite Jesuit college and the military academy at Saint Cyr. From the late 1870s until 1894 he spent most of his time with French metropolitan cavalry units. He did serve a two‐year tour in Algeria where Lyautey developed a lifelong respect for Arab civilization. In 1891 he wrote an influential article, “The social role of the officer in universal military service,” for the
Revue de Deux Mondes
. Here he argued that the French army was too rigid and formal and missed an opportunity to use the army to regenerate the young. His superiors were not pleased and sent him to Indochina.
MacArthur, General Douglas (1880–1964)
Authors: Wells Anne Sharp 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
As supreme commander for the Allied Powers, Douglas MacArthur accepted the surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945, marking the end of World War II. He then headed the Allied occupation of Japan and in 1950, at the age of 70, received the additional charge of directing the United Nations' response to the North Korean invasion of the South. Less than one year later, President Harry S. Truman abruptly removed the general from his commands, causing a huge uproar in the United States, where MacArthur addressed a joint session of Congress and congressional committees investigated his dismissal. The controversy and drama that surrounded MacArthur's removal were far from unprecedented in his long career: as a general officer in peace and three major wars, he was frequently in the public spotlight and the focus of sharply differing opinions.
Maji Maji Uprising (1905–1907)
Authors: Moyd Michelle R. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Maji Maji Uprising is one of the best known cases of mass anti‐colonial resistance in African history. It began in the southeastern portion of German East Africa (today's Tanzania) in July 1905, and spread rapidly across southern and central regions of the colony. Maji Maji fighters had some initial successes against the German colonial army (Schutztruppe), but the Schutztruppe's turn toward scorched earth tactics and summary executions led not only to the rebels' military defeat, but also to massive famine and general devastation in the southern highland region. Maji Maji was remarkable in its geographic scope, as well as in the diversity and number of peoples who became involved in armed resistance against German colonialism. Many joined Maji Maji because of grievances against the German colonial labor regime, taxation practices, and myriad other abuses. Its scope and the perceived unity of purpose among those who fought led nationalist historians of the 1960s and 1970s to describe Maji Maji as a protonationalist moment in Tanzanian history. More recent scholarship reveals, however, that the range of participation in Maji Maji resulted from multiple local circumstances and influences.
Malayan Emergency (1948–1960)
Authors: Farrell Brian P. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Malayan Emergency is widely seen as the most successful counterinsurgency campaign in modern warfare. The Emergency was an armed struggle launched by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) in June 1948 to drive British colonialism out of Malaya and ignite socialist revolution. It was officially terminated in July 1960, although intermittent violence broke out again in later years, and a definitive peace settlement was only concluded in 1989. British, Malayan, and Commonwealth security forces comprehensively defeated armed insurrection in a conflict that made the phrase “hearts and minds” an axiom of counterinsurgency.
Mantuan Succession, War of the (1628–1631)
Authors: Wilson Peter H. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The origins of the War of the Mantuan Succession lie in the intersection of tension between major European powers, whose interests lay primarily outside Italy, and rivalry between ambitious minor princes directly concerned with the fate of the duchy of Mantua. At one level, the war was another stage in the long‐running strife between France and the Habsburg Dynasty in Austria and Spain for predominance in western Europe. Habsburg possessions in northern Italy, centered around the duchy of Milan, had been assigned to Spain when the dynasty split in the mid‐sixteenth century. Spain was soon preoccupied with its rebellious Dutch subjects in what became the Eighty Years' War after 1568. While 17,600 soldiers were sent to reinforce the Spanish Army of Flanders by sea before 1620, another 123,000 marched overland from Milan along a 1,000 km route known as the Spanish Road across the Alps, down the Rhine to the southern Netherlands. France tried to disrupt this route, hoping to forestall a possible Spanish invasion by keeping Spain busy against the Dutch. These efforts had succeeded by 1610 when the defection of the duke of Savoy from his Spanish alliance severed the southern section of the Road.
Marathon, Battle of (490 BCE)
Authors: Potts Samuel 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Battle of Marathon was fought between the hoplite‐based army of the Athenians, along with their Plataean allies, against a much larger and more mixed force of soldiers from the Persian Empire. The stunning and unlikely victory achieved by the Athenians became a central part of their self‐identity in the following centuries. In modern times, a legend concerned with the aftermath of the battle is more famous than the battle itself; the Athenian soldier Pheidippides supposedly ran the 26 miles between the plain of Marathon and the city of Athens, and died at once having delivered news of the victory.
Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (1567–1625)
Authors: Schweizer Karl 
Published: November 2011

AbstractMaurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, Dutch general and statesman, was born at the castle of Dillenburg, Nassau on November 14, 1567, the son of William I (“the Silent”) and Princess Anna of Saxony. Raised by his uncle, Maurice studied briefly, first at Heidelberg and then Leiden, but without earning a degree.
Maya warfare
Authors: Francis J. Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

In 1937 the great Maya scholar Eric J. Thompson concluded that the Maya “were one of the least warlike nations who ever existed” (Aoyama 2009: 4–5). While Thompson's “peaceful model” of Maya society was never universally accepted, it has had a lasting influence on Maya scholarship and on popular perceptions of the Maya. Only recently have scholars moved beyond the outdated and erroneous assumption that warfare was rare among the pre‐Columbian Maya. Instead, the argument has shifted from a discussion of whether or not the Maya engaged in warfare, to a far more sophisticated debate over the intensity, variability, purpose, and legacy of violence in the historical development of pre‐Columbian Mesoamerica. Warfare is now commonly cited as one of, if not the most important factors that ushered in the “collapse” of the Classic Maya (ca. 900–1000
CE
). Yet despite the general acceptance that warfare was common throughout the course of Maya history, it is also widely acknowledged that military campaigns were less intense and battles less destructive than the warfare practiced in other regions of the world, such as central Asia, Japan, China, and medieval and early modern Europe (Inomata and Triadan 2009: 73–74).
Mercenaries
Authors: Alexandra Andrew 
Published: November 2011

AbstractMercenary soldiers are a feature of war from early in its history. Paradigmatic examples of mercenaries include groups such as the Greek Xenophon and his Ten Thousand in the service of the Persian Cyrus the Younger in the fifth centuryBCE, thecondottieriof fourteenth‐century Italy, or the private military company Executive Outcomes, employed by the Sierra Leone government in the early 1990s to fight against insurgents. (The latter two are discussed further below.) However, it is not always easy, practically or conceptually, to distinguish mercenaries from, on the one hand, brigands, pirates, and the like, who use their skills in coercive force to prey on those around them, and, on the other hand, “regular” troops. Three criteria help identify mercenaries and distinguish them from regulars: financial reward, affiliation, and integration. Let us consider them in turn.
Military intelligence
Authors: Ferris John 
Published: November 2011

AbstractIntelligence does not win wars. It can help generals do so. Intelligence has offered advantages to armies for millennia, though not consistently—here essential to events, there irrelevant. Most states have received some intelligence sometimes, but not always from permanent and specialized agencies for collection, nor through assessment by bureaucracies. They conducted intelligence through systems and traditions—means by which people gather and assess data for specific purposes, as against loose combinations of ideas and practices about how to do so if one must. In response to changes in supply and demand, intelligence might switch from systems to traditions, and back again. Advances might be abandoned by any practitioner, and overlooked by its neighbors. Until 1860, staffs were a secretariat. Kings and commanders, khans and caesars, handled even minor functions of command. They organized the collection of their own intelligence, working throughad hocmeans. This approach had advantages. Decision‐makers could direct their intelligence and receive exactly the information they wanted; on many matters, the best personalized systems matched any bureaucratized ones of the twentieth century, their effect redoubled because their enemies tended to be poor in the field. When intelligence was least common, it offered the greatest return, by making one‐sided relationships more normal. Most pre‐modern systems, however, were worse than mediocre modern ones, since intelligence was not thoroughly handled, while major gaps existed in key areas. Progress in the art was not linear, until 1400 and especially 1914.
Military religious orders
Authors: Nicholson Helen J. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe military religious orders were Christian institutions which first appeared in the early twelfth century. Their members took life time monastic vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience and promised to help defend Christians and Christian territory against non‐Christians. They won great admiration for their military discipline, but in the eastern Mediterranean they were eventually unsuccessful in holding off Muslim resurgence. In the Iberian Peninsula they played an important role in the so‐called Reconquest, and in the Baltic states and Prussia they eventually brought about, by one means or another, the conversion of the pagan peoples to Christianity. In the seven teenth and eighteenth centuries their role declined. Although some of these orders still survive today, they no longer play an active military role.