bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Creolization
Authors: Knörr Jacqueline 
Published: March 2012

AbstractDiscourses on the etymology and meaning of the term “creole” and its correlates “creolization” and “creoleness” vary according to the social, historical, and cultural context and in relation to which group is engaging with these terms (Stewart 2007). The criteria that are applied to denote a phenomenon or a person as creole range from origin and phenotype (“race”) to social and cultural features. They are as dependent upon worldviews as are the etymologies of the ethnonyms of various creole groups and the criteria and reasons brought forth to demonstrate creole identity. Using recent examples of various etymologies for the term “creole,” Chaudenson 2001 revealed the basic ideologies they are based on and explains that — in contrast to the “old” etymology, which traces the term back to the Spanishcrioulo— they do not hold up to scientific scrutiny (pp. 1—3). These ambivalent and contradictory discourses on the relevant terminology, ethnonyms, and etymologies are carried out in the public sphere as well as in various academic disciplines. They indicate the social relevance of creole identity, particularly in postcolonial societies where the ambivalence associated with it is largely due to the attending colonial history as part of which creolization took place. In order to reveal and tap the full heuristic potential of the creole terminology, it must be liberated from its normative baggage — not least by situating its etymology in social and historical context.
Crime
Authors: Karstedt Susanne 
Published: March 2012

AbstractCrime without doubt represents the “other” or “dark” side of globalization (Urry 2002; Abraham & van Schendel 2005). The ever‐increasing list oftransnational crimesincludes terrorism; drugs and arms trafficking; smuggling and trafficking of women and children for sexual exploitation and prostitution, of immigrants, antiquities, and endangered species; corruption and state crimes; cyber crime and theft of intellectual property (Nelken 2004). Others have addedinternational crimesagainst humanity and coordinated racial violence, andcrimes of globalization(Friedrichs 2007: 10) to this list. A recent report issued by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC 2010) rates transnational organized crime as a most serious threat affecting all member states and “one of the world's most sophisticated and profitable businesses” (UNODC 2010: ii). Illegal transactions thus mirror the “bright side” of globalization with its enormous opportunities for exchange, trade, communication, and business. As illegal entrepreneurs take advantage of these opportunities, organized and transnational crime has been expected to overtake growth in the legal global economy. Global crime equally thrives on the “inability of the criminal law to globalize” (Nelken 2004: 381) and to generate global and transnational instruments of crime control and criminal justice. Criminal justice systems are entrenched in the nation‐state and operate locally rather than across borders, and consequently the UNODC report states that “purely national responses are inadequate” (UNODC 2010: ii).
Critical Regionalism
Authors: Campbell Neil 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Critical regionalism originates in architectural theory to describe the relationship between the universal and the local in architectural styles. It asserts the need to be critical of the local and regional to avoid a tendency toward naïve inwardness and nostalgia, while at the same time being critical of an overly prescriptive “universalism” that sweeps away the significant contributions of the local and the regional in favor of standardization.
Cultural Imperialism
Authors: Tomlinson John 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The term cultural imperialism refers most broadly to the exercise of domination in cultural relationships in which the values, practices, and meanings of a powerful foreign culture are imposed upon one or more native cultures. In this broad sense cultural imperialism could be used to describe examples of the enforced adoption of the cultural habits and customs of actual imperial occupying powers from antiquity down to nineteenth and twentieth century European colonialism. In practice, however, the term is nearly always applied to relations between sovereign nation‐states from the mid twentieth century onwards. There is, however, a significant connection between the context of colonial occupation and these contemporary relations, insofar as the term has commonly (though not exclusively) been used to criticize the continuing exercise of Western cultural power in the context of postcolonialism.
Developing countries
Authors: Kiely Ray 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Much of the argument about the relationship between globalization and development is based on a misunderstanding of the nature of globalization. Some tend to regard globalization as simply being an opportunity for developing countries, to be embraced in order to promote growth and reduce poverty (Giddens 2000; World Bank 2002). This is not only associated with the neoliberalism of the 1980s, but also the supposedly post‐neoliberal, post‐Washington consensus and third way of the 1990s and beyond. The argument made is that developing countries should carry out reforms which make themselves more open economies, such as trade and investment liberalization, which involve concrete policies of tariff reductions, removal of import controls, the reduction of subsidies, and non‐discrimination against foreign capital. Some also draw on earlier arguments that the liberalization of finance will allow developing countries to attract large amounts of the world's savings, as capital will flow from capital‐rich to capital‐poor areas (McKinnon 1973; Shaw 1973).
Development
Authors: Kiely Ray 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The relationship between globalization and development is a problematic one, not only in the real world, but also because there is a lack of clarity over both terms in the debate. For example, the study of development rose to prominence in the period after 1945, but classical political economy's focus on the wealth of nations had been effectively concerned with development. In the postwar period, development was something which largely focused on the nation‐state, but it was also a global phenomenon, much of which was concerned, as we will see, with whether the global context hindered or boosted developmental prospects. Most of the debate, however, is concerned with the relationship between the globalization of the past 30 years, and developmental prospects for poorer countries. But even this is complicated by the fact that there are different meanings of development, particularly as in recent years some critical thinkers have questioned the idea that development is desirable (Escobar 1995). The bulk of this entry will focus on the relationship between globalization and development in recent years, but to do this, some consideration of the postwar period is also needed. There are therefore three sections: the first examines development in the postwar period up until the neoliberal turn in the late 1970s and early 1980s; second, the question of globalization is briefly examined, and related to the development debate and, specifically, renewed modernization theory; and third, the relationship between contemporary globalization and development is examined in some depth, in part through a defense of the debates over development theory that are too often regarded as being out of date in the global era.
Diffusion, cultural
Authors: Tomlinson Alan 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Diffusion, a term with powerful connotations whether as noun, verb, or adjective, has usually been used to refer to the transmission or transfer of social practices and cultural values between societies. Its strength is its broad applicability to almost unlimited historical and societal contexts; its weakness is the pseudo‐neutrality that is widely assumed in the usages in which an apparently descriptive category in fact veils a theory and/or an interpretation.
Disembedding
Authors: Stones Rob 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Disembedding refers to the way in which contemporary social practices can no longer be primarily defined by their grounding, or embeddedness, in the local context of a restricted place and time. Social practices are now, in large part, removed from the immediacies of context, with the relations they involve typically being stretched over large tracts of time and space. Local experiences and events are shaped by processes taking place on the other side of the world, and vice versa. These are processes, moreover, that are primarily impersonal and abstract.
Disneyization
Authors: Andrews David L. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Most readily associated with the work of Alan Bryman (1999, 2003, 2004), the concept of Disneyization refers to the multifaceted process whereby “the principles of the Disney theme parks are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world” (Bryman 1999: 26). In short, Bryman's conceptualizing uses the Disney theme park as an environment illustrative of the “large social changes … in economy and culture … which are discernible in and have implications for late modernity” (1999: 29).
Economic Globalization
Authors: Tonkiss Fran 
Published: March 2012

Abstract“Economic globalization” refers to the increasing integration of circuits of goods, production, images, information, and money across national borders. The concept of economic globalization suggests that current networks of transnational circulation are more extensive across space, more intensive in volume, and more accelerated in time than earlier patterns of cross‐border exchange. Economic globalization is characterized not only by high levels of trade, but by increasing levels of foreign direct investment and outsourcing, as well as the complex linkage of financial transactions across space.
Emerging Societies
Authors: Pieterse Jan Nederveen 
Published: March 2012

AbstractEmerging societies are achieving the status of developed countries. In business and finance they are referred to as emerging markets, in global political economy, as newly industrializing economies (NIEs), and in international politics, as emerging powers. Their emergence is also talked about as the rise of the “second world” and the “rise of the rest” (Amsden 2001).
Environmental Change
Authors: Stehr Nico , Rhomberg MarCus 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Many contemporary environmental issues such as climate change have to be considered to represent both global as well as regional phenomena. However, throughout much of history, human impacts on the natural environment had only local or regional reach. The first “natural” catastrophe that generated a worldwide sympathetic response for those affected was the Great 1775 Lisbon Earthquake. During historical times, the impact of nature on societies had been considerable. For many historians, philosophers, geographers, and economists, the natural circumstances, such as climate conditions, shaped in an almost fate‐like manner the existential conditions of humankind. The perspective of geographical determinism is a major representative of such views (e.g., Huntington 1924). More recently, geographical determinism has fallen into disrepute. From the onset of industrial society, it would be possible to write human history as the history of its
emancipation
from natural variability and change. Significant populations of humans now live in all climatic zones of the world.
Environmental Globalization
Authors: Grainger Alan 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Environmental globalization increases global uniformity and connectedness in the language, regulations, and practices of environmental management. It is just one of many dimensions of globalization, the most well‐known of which is economic globalization (Gills 2004). Interactions are possible between different dimensions. Thus, economic globalization has significant environmental impacts (Bridge 2002), but these should not be confused with environmental globalization itself.
Environmental Protection Movement
Authors: Caniglia Beth 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe environmental movement has been a major source of pro‐environmental reform. In fact, some scholars believe that the environmental movement is the best hope for surmounting the myriad of environmental problems we face today (Buttel 2003). Most scholars argue that the environmental movement is far from a unified front. Instead, a diversity of movements are focused on environmental issues. Sometimes these groups converge around particular environmental struggles to support a common set of policies; other times, they conflict with each other over either the causes of or solutions to particular environmental problems and find each other at odds over which policies or actions are needed.
Ethical Consumption
Authors: Timms Jill 
Published: March 2012

AbstractEthical consumption refers to a set of social practices whereby consumers consciously make decisions based on their own ethical criteria and priorities, and the perceived consequences of a purchase. Consumers constitute themselves as political and moral subjects who can and should “make a difference” through the type and volume of goods and services they select or reject. The ethical credentials of a purchase can be interrogated in terms of who made it or offers it; how it was made, when, and from what; how much it costs; how much it is needed; how any profit is used; where it can be bought and from whom.
Ethnography of globalization
Authors: RØyrvik Emil 
Published: March 2012

AbstractTo speak of an ethnography of globalization, even in the contemporary “global age,” seems to be quite a contradiction in terms. Whereas the sociology and anthropology of globalization have flourished in recent years, “ethnographies of the global” sit uneasily with the ethnographic research conventions of prolonged and deep engagements with everyday life in local situations at single sites. Ethnography's received mandate is a committed localism requiring fieldwork to include participation and observant attention to the everyday, to generate intimate knowledge of communicative interaction of face‐to‐face groups and communities (Gupta & Ferguson 1997; Marcus 1998). Nonetheless, it is not difficult to unearth a strong line of sustained ethnographic approaches to examining aspects of globalization, “world society,” the “global condition,” and the like.
Euro crisis
Authors: Riera‐Crichton Daniel 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The euro crisis is an ongoing period of financial as well as governance tensions in the Eurozone triggered by the global financial crises of 2008–2009 and which threatened the sustainability of the membership to the common currency among member states and potential candidates. At the root of those tensions was the asymmetric response of different European economies to the global financial turmoil initiated by the collapse of the US real estate market after the summer of 2007. While some European economies, such as Germany, weathered the 2009 financial storm reasonably unharmed, other euro members such as Spain, Greece, Portugal, and Ireland saw their real asset bubbles burst leading to crumbling real estate prices, general deterioration of external competitiveness, high unemployment, and suddenly unsustainable fiscal and external positions. Without the possibility of currency devaluations, these countries were left to suffer a grinding general price deflation in their economies. The growing rifts between euro members demanded quick and strong signals of commitment to the common currency from key European powers, such as Germany and France. The late, and sometimes contradictory, statements of support from leaders in those countries led to foreign investors' fears and large investment withdrawals from the problem economies, increasing international debt spreads (the difference between the interest on German bonds and the country's own debt) in those countries. As a result, the possibility of rolling over their current debt obligations or selling new debt became increasingly expensive, leaving countries such as Greece, on the verge of default. The short run costs of the debt crises were a €110bn rescue package for Greece and an additional €85bn for Ireland. However, the long run costs could be substantially higher as the Eurogroup launched a provision of €600bn in the so‐called European Financial Stability Facility, which printed its first Eurobond on January of 2011.
European Union
Authors: Rumford Chris , Buhari Didem 
Published: March 2012

AbstractConventionally, discussion of the European Union's (EU) relation to globalization is framed by consideration of the ways in which EU integration has been a successful defensive response to aggressive forms of economic globalization. In contrast, and more recently, the EU has become acknowledged as a global actor capable of giving shape to instruments of global governance and serving as a model for the development of other regions in the world. Despite their obvious differences, these conventional frames of reference share a common viewpoint: that globalization should be seen from a European perspective. Accounts which view the EU from a global perspective are much rarer (Borocz & Sarkar 2005).
Europeanization
Authors: Headley John 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe awkward termEuropeanizationappears to have first been coined by the Germans in the 1970s withEuropäisierungand later given some prominence by Anglophone commentators. The term itself pulls in at least three directions: the first, historically, the movement of European peoples in the wake of the Columbian encounter flooding to the Americas as well as, later, Asia and Africa, reaching a peak in the nineteenth century; the second, the terrain of the political scientist, toward the present efforts within and outside the European Union (EU) to create a more collective reality for Europe, or at least one as real as the former states of Europe; and finally, that of the intellectual historian, one charting a universalizing process attributable to Europe, and more specifically Western Europe, identifying and assessing those characteristics peculiar to Western civilization and understanding thereby the expansive powers of the West, which have extended by a process of globalization throughout the planet. It is the third and last of these meanings that will be examined here. These characteristics create and express a universalizing process that extends beyond the obvious influences of the West's scientific and technological achievements in serving to create a modern civilization insofar as the impact of the West is received and accepted by the countries and peoples of the globe. Indeed, “Europeanization” so thoroughly captures the unique energies of Western civilization – based in Europe yet, since the late eighteenth century, assumed and reinforced by the United States – that it provides the impulse toward globalization itself. Without Europeanization, there is no globalization, for no other civilization has had the capacity for expansion and extension to all humans.
Exploitation
Authors: Dinerstein Ana Cecilia 
Published: March 2012

AbstractIn the social sciences, the term “exploitation” has been used to designate (i) the “use or treat[ment of] somebody/something in an unfair and selfish manner for one's advantage or profit” (Oxford English Dictionary1995: 406) and (ii) the unfair relationship between developing and developed nations. After the first industrial revolution (late eighteenth‐ and early nineteenth‐century Britain), the industrial and commercial uses of “exploitation,” for example, the exploitation of raw material, begun to be applied to people, that is, the exploitation of labor, slavery, exploited classes (Williams 1988: 130). Exploitation now described the exploitation of the working class by capital in the form of wage labor (Encyclopedia of Marxism). Since its emergence in agrarian form, the capitalist system has undergone different stages underpinned by a ceaseless transformation in the forms of production and control of labor, seeking increases in productivity and profit. InCapital(1867/1990), Karl Marx (1818–1883) highlighted that, although exploitation had always existed, it adopts a peculiar form under capitalism, producing the indispensable constituent of accumulation of capital: value. By establishing a contract among practically equal and free citizens in the labor market, the capitalist hires the worker's labor power in exchange for a wage. Thus, under capitalism, labor power is a commodity. At the factory, the worker interacts with raw materials, tools, and other workers and, with the help of technology, produces goods. The working day can be analytically divided into (i) necessary labor time and (ii) surplus labor time. During the former, workers produce enough value to cover the costs of their own reproduction. During the latter, workers generate a surplus value, i.e., an additional value which is appropriated by the capitalist class. The surplus value generated by workers in the labor process will be realized (and then appropriated by the capitalist class) in the sphere of circulation through the exchange of commodities in the market, where commodities are sold.
Exploitation of Labor
Authors: Spector Alan 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The concept of “exploitation of labor” is generally associated with the writings of Karl Marx. Class domination has existed for millennia, and the movement of people (and armies and culture) has existed for millennia; in pre‐capitalist times, however, these were intertwined primarily for the purpose of acquiring land and resources or enslaving populations. It has only been during the development of capitalist economic relations, and especially during the last century or so, that the modern incarnations – capitalist exploitation of labor and globalization – have mutually saturated each other and engulfed the entire planet. According to Marx and others, exploitation is at the core of economic relations under capitalism because the owners pay the workers less than the value of what the workers produce and the owners keep the surplus, which may include expenses the capitalists incur but also includes profit. Advocates of various forms of capitalism generally eschew this concept, arguing instead that free exchange takes place, where the workers agree to sell their labor (actually labor power) for the price that the capitalist employer offers. Critics point out that the exchange is seldom “free” because the capitalists have the state at their disposal to use the courts and even violence to protect the interests of the capitalist class, as well as other, more subtle means, including financial, to favor the capitalists over the working class.
Export Credit
Authors: Skully David 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Export credit in the context of globalization usually refers to credit or insurance provided by government‐supported export credit agencies (ECAs) to facilitate exports (e.g., EXIM Brazil, Euler Hermes Kreditversicherungs‐AG (Germany), EXIMBANK (United States) ). Officially supported export credit usually accounts for about 10 percent of the value of global trade; roughly 80 percent of global trade is financed by private banks and insurers; another 10 percent occurs between segments of transnational firms – where there is no change of ownership – or in long‐standing relationships where payment is certain and external credit is not needed. Because officially supported export credit is an instrument of government foreign and commercial policy, ECA's are subject to domestic politics and are often the source of trade disputes with rival exporting countries and their ECAs.