bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Beta-2 Oscillations
Authors: Roger Roger D. , Whittington Miles A. 
Published: May 2010

AbstractNeuromodulatory substances evoke beta2 oscillations in motor and secondary somatosensory cortex, that depend on gap junctions. In the latter case, the oscillations are only weakly dependent on synaptic transmission. Beta2 is most prominent in intrinsically bursting layer 5 pyramidal cells (some of which are expected to contribute to the pyramidal tract, at least in primates). The oscillation is an emergent phenomenon, in that individual neurons are not oscillators at beta2 frequency. The period is determined in part by the “M” type of K+ current. Oscillations in deep and superficial cortical layers interact with one another. Gap junctions mediating beta2 are probably located on axons.
Epileptiform Discharges In Vitro
Authors: Roger Roger D. , Whittington Miles A. 
Published: May 2010

AbstractVFO precedes electrographic seizures in vitro, as well as in vivo. The in vitro VFO is gap junction dependent, and is observed most readily in conditions when synaptic transmission is suppressed. One hypothesis as to seizure initiation is that synaptic excitation recovers prior to synaptic inhibition, so that classical synaptically mediated seizure discharges can arise. Epileptiform discharges in vivo can also be preceded by gamma oscillations, and there is an in vitro model in which gamma activity and bursting activity alternates. The alternating activity appears to arise because of use-dependent alterations in synaptic excitation and inhibition.
3 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Models of Judicial Reasoning
Authors: Bartels Brandon L. 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis essay offers a perspective on how social psychological insights regarding the cognitive processes of judgment can help enrich our understanding of judicial decision making. Such a focus facilitates a greater understanding of a key inquiry in the study of judicial decision making: when ideology and legal considerations will exhibit greater or lesser effects on judges’ choices. I posit a theoretical framework of judging focusing on top-down versus bottom-up reasoning processes. The theoretical perspective is primarily aimed toward explaining decision making by Supreme Court justices, but the arguments are relevant to judges at other levels of the judiciary.
6 The Supreme Court, Social Psychology, and Group Formation
Authors: Devins Neal , Federspiel Will 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThe Justices of the Supreme Court function not just as individuals but also as members of a group. Political science models of Supreme Court decision making, however, focus on the legal and policy goals of individual Supreme Court Justices. By not taking into account what role intra-group dynamics may play in Court decision making, political science models provide an incomplete and inaccurate picture. For example, when there is an ideologically simpatico majority coalition on the Court, the preferences of the Court's median Justice often give way to intra-group preferences. In this chapter, we employ social psychology literature to examine both the importance of and the obstacles to group formation. By comparing differences in decision making of the (largely simpatico) New Dal Court and the (very diverse) Rehnquist Court, we illustrate how social psychology can contribute to an understanding of Supreme Court decision making.
8 Features of Judicial Reasoning
Authors: Sherwin Emily 
Published: May 2010

AbstractJudges confront rules in two ways, as rule-makers and as rule-followers. When a judge decides a case that is not governed by an existing rule, the judge must formulate a rule of decision and calculate the effects of the rule in future cases. Rule-making is a highly deliberative process, in which the judge must select the rule that will best realize relevant values over the range of cases to which it applies. When a judge decides a case that is governed by a precedent rule, the judge is expected to treat the precedent rule as authoritative. To do this, the judge must follow the rule mechanically, without reflecting on the relationship between the outcome of the rule and the values on which the rule is based. These two tasks — rule-making and rule-following — make different, and possibly conflicting, cognitive demands on judges.
10 Judges, Expertise, and Analogy
Authors: Spellman Barbara A. 
Published: May 2010

AbstractPolitical scientists have shown that one can anticipate how a judge will decide a case more often than chance, or a reading of the facts, might allow by using various predictors such as party affiliation, gender, or the judge's own decisions on earlier similar cases. The simplest explanation for such behavior is that judges first decide what they want the outcome of the case to be, then go back to find the precedents that justify their opinions. This chapter considers a more nuanced version of the process: judges may choose relevant case analogies as better or worse, applicable or inapplicable, not because of any particular desired outcome but because of their own pre-existing knowledge. The influence of such knowledge on the decision process may be entirely unconscious; therefore, judges may, in fact, be following the idealized decision-making process to the letter, and be unmotivated toward finding a particular result, yet may usually still reach the predicted result.
12 Every Jury Trial Is a Bench Trial: Judicial Engineering of Jury Disputes
Authors: Rowland C. K. , Traficanti Tina , Vernon Erin 
Published: May 2010

AbstractFor decades virtually every scholarly work on trial judges began by lamenting the unfortunate tendency of students of judicial behavior to concentrate almost exclusively on appellate courts generally and the U.S. Supreme Court in particular. Fortunately, although this imbalance is still present to a degree, a nascent body of research has ameliorated the disparity and enhanced greatly our understanding of civil trial courts, trial judges, and the psychology of trial judging over the last decade. We review this research and conclude, first, that this research collectively suggests a value-based exercise of judicial discretion that may reflect intentional or unintentional bias in trial judging when the dispute involves ideological issues and, second, that when faced with science-based standards, statistical evidence, and other risk-assessment tasks, judges are susceptible to many of the same limits on objectivity and accuracy that plague jurors and all human decision makers faced with difficult judgments.
16 Expertise of Court Judges
Authors: Shanteau James , Dalgleish Len 
Published: May 2010

AbstractWe argue that expert performance is not best understood and assessed in terms of general characteristics applying across all domains. Rather, it should be analyzed in the context of the specific tasks that experts in a particular domain are called on to accomplish. Drawing on a substantial line of research from psychology, we argue that considerable empirical evidence supports this domain-specific view of expert competence, that there are reasons to believe this view holds with respect to court judges, and that, to be as fair and useful as possible, assessments of judicial performance should incorporate this view.
Moral Development and Journalism
Authors: Coleman Renita 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter looks at how people develop into ethical beings, with special emphasis on Lawrence Kohlberg's moral-development theory. It explores ethical development in the professions, including journalism. Just as medical professionals develop proficiency in areas unique to their work, such as ensuring patient confidentiality and avoiding harm, journalists develop special expertise in such topics as ensuring privacy, avoiding plagiarism and deception, and keeping promises. New journalists find that organizations, codes, and colleagues continue to shape their moral fiber. The chapter also examines the current research on the most important influences on journalists' quality of ethical reasoning. Above and beyond things such as religion and education, moral development for journalists is influenced by factors such as professional autonomy and experience with investigative reporting.
Press Freedom and Responsibility
Authors: Craft Stephanie 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter proceeds from an American point of view, though many of the issues apply to democratic systems more broadly. First, it explores what democracy needs from the press, what the press requires to meet those needs, and whether, in the United States, the press and democracy are getting what they need. Next, it focuses on the kinds of moral obligations the press might have, given the essential democratic role it plays and the freedom it has to do so. Finally, it considers the future of press freedom and responsibilities in the face of old constraints and new technological realities.
Who Is a Journalist?
Authors: Black Jay 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
Today the majority of individuals who call themselves journalists are not full-time employees of traditional news media; they work (sometimes as freelancers, sometimes without pay) as reporters, videographers and commentators on Weblogs, cable outlets and 'zines, locally, regionally, nationally, and internationally. This raises the question of who, then, qualifies as a journalist. This chapter explores the ethical and legal parameters of traditional journalism as historically understood. From this background and analysis, it concludes that the best characterization of “journalist” is rooted in the performative and guided by the ethical: to be a journalist is to engage in particular activities and to perform them ethically.
Is Objective News Possible?
Authors: Figdor Carrie 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
The structure of this chapter is as follows. It briefly explains the nature of objective news and of the debate regarding its possibility. It then assesses the main arguments for the unattainability of objective news. A close examination of these arguments shows that, contrary to widespread belief, journalists who try to provide objective news are not striving in vain. The chapter discusses the effect of competing journalistic aims and other limitations on our efforts to generate objective news. It suggests that the unwarranted skepticism regarding the possibility of objective news is an artifact of the changing priorities of journalists and inadequate journalistic methods, and that the only real issue is how we can better train those journalists who want to generate objective news.
Journalism’s Tangled Web: Business, Ethics, and Professional Practice
Authors: Richards Ian 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter argues that in a world of global corporations and the globalization of the practice of journalism, journalism ethics has little choice but to become global. This is not straightforward for many reasons, not least because journalism is a culturally established practice that has developed in the particular historical circumstances of each country where it is practiced. However, ethics can be both universal and rooted in particular contexts, and it is possible to accommodate considerable differences. For going global to be effective, it will be necessary for the awareness and appreciation of journalism's primary values to extend beyond journalism practitioners.
The Decline of the News Business
Authors: Edmonds Rick 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
With dismal 2008 results and 2009 expected to be worse still, there was, at the time of this book's publication, no bounce left in the newspaper industry's step. Clearly, newspapers entered a race against time to trim costs as quickly as print advertising revenues were tumbling; more than 15 percent year-to-year as deep recession played out. At the same time, newspaper execs were pressed to experiment to find new, sustaining revenue streams. Success was by no means assured. Serious discussion has began to turn to which prominent metro paper would fail first. Print, some new media critics have said, could be largely a relic by early in the decade beginning 2010. This chapter examines the factors that contributed to this decline.
Understanding and Respecting Privacy
Authors: Gauthier Candace Cummins 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter addresses the practical conflicts for journalists, their employers, the owners of news organizations, and the public regarding issues of privacy in reporting the news. Privacy will be understood here as control over access to oneself and to certain kinds of information about oneself. First, the chapter discusses the relevant interests of the public, journalists, and news organizations. Then, ethical principles are recommended for considering, discussing, and resolving issues of privacy in journalism. Finally, these principles are applied to news stories and images that invade the privacy of public officials, celebrities, and ordinary citizens.
The Ethical Obligations of News Consumers
Authors: Wyatt Wendy N. 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This book's ethics theory chapter (Chapter 1) claims that journalism and the public should have a collaborative relationship: “The ideal relationship of journalist and audience is to see them as partners in the project of judging what information is needed, what information responds to common social desires, what enhances autonomy, and what builds community.” This chapter — and most of this book — focuses on the journalist's role in the collaborative relationship. It fleshes out the citizen's side of the partnership: the obligations that audiences have to journalism.
The Ethos of “Getting the Story”
Authors: Plaisance Patrick Lee 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses some key ethical implications of the mechanics of news work: the moral questions raised in the process of getting the story. These questions necessarily address the individual and sociological dimensions. That is, they deal with both the decision-making processes of individual journalists, and the strong cultural and professional norms and standards in the newsroom that influence journalists' behavior. Other questions address the realm of media effects: what are intended and unintended impacts on audiences, and how might those impacts inform our decisions and judgments about news work? The chapter's thesis is that, done well — ethically well — “getting the story” is an ennobling activity, one that benefits journalism and the public alike.
Visual Ethics: An Integrative Approach to Ethical Practice in Visual Journalism
Authors: Newton Julianne H. , Williams Rick 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter addresses ethical issues of journalism practice that arise through these processes of visual knowing. It describes an integrative approach to ethics in order to help practitioners and readers develop sound professional and personal guidelines for interpreting and using journalistic images. It argues that the kind of rational, reflective systematic moral analysis (SMA) recommended in this book's opening chapter needs to be supplemented with a method that also focuses on humans' pre-reflective, non-conscious, intuitive cognition and memory. The ultimate goal is to show how an individual's understanding, or “personal truth,” of his or her self story can either hinder or contribute to a more balanced approach to journalism and to a more balanced, sustainable culture.
Law, Economics, and Morality
Authors: Zamir Eyal , Medina Barak 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
Economic analysis of law is a powerful analytical methodology. However, as a purely consequentialist approach, which determines the desirability of acts and rules solely by assessing the goodness of their outcomes, standard cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is normatively objectionable. Moderate deontology prioritizes such values as autonomy, basic liberties, truth-telling, and promise-keeping over the promotion of good outcomes. It holds that there are constraints on promoting the good. Such constraints may be overridden only if enough good (or bad) is at stake. While moderate deontology conforms to prevailing moral intuitions and legal doctrines, it is arguably lacking in methodological rigor and precision. This book examines the possibility of combining economic methodology and deontological morality through explicit and direct incorporation of moral constraints (and options) into economic models. It argues that the normative flaws of economic analysis can be rectified without relinquishing its methodological advantages, and that moral constraints can be formalized so as to make their analysis more rigorous. The book discusses various substantive and methodological choices involved in modeling deontological constraints. It proposes to determine the permissibility of any act or rule infringing a deontological constraint by means of mathematical threshold functions. The book presents the general structure of threshold functions, analyzes their elements, and addresses possible objections to this proposal. It then illustrates the implementation of constrained CBA in several legal fields, including the fight against terrorism, freedom of speech, anti-discrimination law, contract law, and legal paternalism.
The Consequentialist Nature of Economic Analysis
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents welfare economics and its consequentialist nature. It first discusses the main features of positive and normative economic analysis and the meaning of “consequentialism.” It then analyzes the deontological critique of consequentialism, specifically consequentialism's lack of constraints on attaining the best outcomes. It critically examines various attempts at defending consequentialism in general, and welfare economics in particular, against this critique. It concludes that all of the attempts to downplay, deny, or circumvent the deontological critique are doomed to failure. The responses that come closest to actually addressing the critique do so by endorsing deontological constraints (and options) on the factoral level. They imply that agents and policy-makers should only strive to attain the overall best outcomes subject to constraints and that agents sometimes have options not to attain the best outcomes.
The Fight Against Terrorism
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents a constrained cost-benefit analysis of measures taken in the fight against terrorism. It begins by characterizing and criticizing existing normative economic analysis of the fight against terrorism as reflecting a simplified ad-hoc balancing. It then presents the central deontological constraints pertaining to the fight on terror. The chapter discusses threshold functions that should be employed in order to determine the permissibility of such measures as targeted killings and torture. It discusses the factors affecting the evaluation of the act's relevant net benefit, and those determining the amount of net benefit required to justify an infringement. It argues that standard economic analysis fails to take into account critical distinctions. These include the distinction between different goals of anti-terrorist measures; the difference between harms the state inflicts through antiterrorist measures, and those resulting from unthwarted terrorist attacks; and the distinction between intended and unintended harm. Deontologically-constrained CBA, which incorporates all of these distinctions, is shown to be methodically workable and normatively superior.
Contract Law
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses contract law. Ordinarily, market transactions do not involve infringements of deontological constraints. For this reason (and since they usually involve money or easily monetized goods), standard cost-benefit analysis is particularly apt for analyzing contract law. Nevertheless, it is argued that certain deontological constraints apply to contracting behavior and that combining deontological constraints with economic analysis of contract law, may be fruitful. The chapter briefly surveys the deontological constraints pertinent to contract law and critically examines the standard economic response to them. It then demonstrates how deontological constraints may be integrated with economic analysis of the contracting stage, focusing on the doctrines of mistake and misrepresentation. Last, it highlights the differences between economic and deontological analyses of contract performance and breach, and discusses the difficulties facing integration of deontological constraints with the economic analysis of contract remedies, given the current state of the pertinent theories.
1.2 Physiological Basis of the BOLD Signal
Authors: Goense Jozien , Logothetis Nikos K. 
Published: May 2010

AbstractFunctional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and other non-invasive imaging methods have greatly expanded our knowledge of human brain function. Although MRI was invented in the early 1970s and has been used clinically since the mid-1980s, its use in cognitive neuroscience expanded greatly with the advent of blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) functional imaging, and by now, fMRI is a mainstay of neuroscience research. This chapter gives an overview of the relation between the BOLD signal and the underlying neural signals. It focuses on intracortically recorded neural signals, recorded with microelectrodes.
1.3 Studies of the Human Brain Combining Functional Neuroimaging and Electrophysiological Methods
Authors: Snyder Abraham Z. , Raichle Marcus E. 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
Functional neuroimaging (FNI) techniques, such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), gain access to the activity of the brain through changes in blood flow and metabolism that accompany, with remarkable fidelity, regional changes in the activity of the brain. While the temporal resolution of these techniques falls far below that of the electrophysiological techniques, they do offer full 3D coverage of the human brain at subcentimeter resolution. This chapter focuses on fMRI BOLD imaging, which is now the dominant FNI technique.
2.2 Scanning Strategies for Simultaneous EEG-fMRI Recordings
Authors: Bagshaw Andrew P. , Bénar Christian-G. 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
The simultaneous recording of electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has opened several new perspectives within the field of functional MRI. It allows the detailed temporal and spectral information contained in EEG to be incorporated into the analysis of fMRI signals. In addition, it permits the study of spontaneous brain activity that can only be observed with EEG, such as epileptic spikes, sleep spindles, or alpha waves. However, the price to pay for this technical advance is the deterioration of the quality of both signals, and, in particular, of EEG. This chapter first reviews the pros and cons of sparse and continuous EEG-fMRI. It then introduces advanced recording strategies aimed at improving the quality of EEG within a continuous sampling scheme.
3.3 EEG-Informed fMRI Analysis
Authors: Ullsperger Markus 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter gives an overview of data integration methods for simultaneous EEG-fMRI, in which EEG features are extracted and used to parametrically model the fMRI data. Up to now, variants of EEG-informed fMRI analysis have been most widely and successfully applied. After a brief discussion of the rationale of this approach, its variants for ongoing and event-related EEG phenomena are explained. Studies applying EEG-informed fMRI are reviewed. The advantage of denoising methods such as independent component analysis allowing single-trial quantifications of the EEG phenomena of interest is discussed. To allow clear interpretations of covariations between electrophysiological and hemodynamic measures, further dependent variables such as behavioral data should be taken into account. The chapter closes with an outlook on future questions and ongoing methodological developments.