bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Framework for Investigating Event Occurrence
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter introduces the essential features of event occurrence data, explaining how and why they create the need for new analytic methods. Section 9.1 provides a context by describing three studies of event occurrence, each conducted in a different discipline. Section 9.2 identifies the three major methodological features of each study: a well-defined “event” whose occurrence is being explored; a clearly identified “beginning of time”; and a substantively meaningful metric for clocking time. Section 9.3 concludes by highlighting the hallmark feature of event occurrence data that makes the new statistical methods we soon discuss necessary—the problem known as censoring.
Describing Discrete-Time Event Occurrence Data
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents a framework for describing discrete-time event occurrence data. Section 10.1 introduces the life table, the primary tool for describing event occurrence data. Section 10.2 introduces three essential statistical summaries of the life table—the hazard function, the survivor function, and the median lifetime—and demonstrates that these ingenious statistics, which deal evenhandedly with censored and noncensored cases, are intuitively appealing as well. Section 10.3 applies the new techniques to four empirical studies, to help you develop intuition about the behavior, interpretation, and interrelationships of life table methods. Section 10.4 focuses on sampling variation, showing how to estimate standard errors. Section 10.5 concludes by showing how to compute all these summaries using standard cross-tabulation programs available in every major statistical package.
Fitting Basic Discrete-Time Hazard Models
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractGood data analysis involves more than using a computer package to fit a statistical model to data. To conduct a credible discrete-time survival analysis, one must: specify a suitable model for hazard and understand its assumptions; use sample data to estimate the model parameters; interpret results in terms of your research questions; evaluate model fit and test hypotheses about (and/or construct confidence intervals for) model parameters; and communicate your findings. This chapter illustrates this entire process using the “age at first intercourse” study introduced in section 10.3. This sets the stage for a subsequent discussion of how to evaluate the assumptions underpinning the model and how to extend it flexibly across many circumstances in Chapter 12.
Extending the Discrete-Time Hazard Model
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe basic discrete-time hazard model invokes assumptions about the population that may, or may not, hold in practice. This chapter examines its assumptions, demonstrating how to evaluate their tenability and relax their constraints when appropriate. Section 12.1 revisits the original specification for the main effect of TIME in the discrete-time hazard model—which, in the previous chapter, was specified using a system of time indicators—and compares it with other specifications that constrain the shape of the baseline hazard function in different ways. Section 12.2 re-examines the logit link that used to relate hazard to predictors in the previous chapter and compare it to an alternative—the complementary log-log link—which yields an important correspondence with the continuous time hazard models that we will describe subsequently. Section 12.3 deals with time-varying predictors, showing how to include them in the discrete-time model and discussing inferential difficulties that their inclusion raises. Sections 12.4 through 12.6, examines three important assumptions embedded in the discrete-time hazard model—the linear additivity assumption (“all predictors operate only as main effects”); the proportionality assumption (“the effects of each predictor are constant over time”); and the no unobserved heterogeneity assumption (“population hazard depends only on predictor values”). Section 12.7 concludes by describing analytic strategies for “residual” analysis to accompany model fitting.
Oral Health
Authors: Allukian Myron , Horowitz Alice M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes the impact of social injustice on oral health. It defines oral health and describes the oral disease epidemic. A box in the chapter describes social inequalities in oral health internationally. The chapter discusses national priorities, local and state priorities, school programs, dental public health infrastructure, the dental workforce, and practices of the food and tobacco industries. It describes what needs to be done to improve oral health and reduce the impact of social injustice on oral health.
Promoting Social Justice Through Public Health Policies, Programs, And Services
Authors: Plough Alonzo 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses promoting social justice through public health policies, programs, and services. It describes public health agencies and social justice and the roles that they can play in promoting social justice. It presents two case studies in which public health practice was oriented to social justice. The chapter puts forward an action agenda for a social justice core competency in public health practice.
Finding Care
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter explores how persons with disabilities find doctors and other health care professionals to provide primary and specialty care. It presents information about health care services used by persons with disabilities. It looks at different approaches for paying for health care services and describes how persons with disabilities must pay considerable costs out-of-pocket. The costs of accommodating disabilities, such as expenses for sign language interpreters, are also described. The chapter addresses a particularly challenging problem, as young adults with disabilities try to transition from the pediatric health care settings of childhood into the adult health care sector.
Challenges to Interpersonal Communication
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter starts by describing the importance of interpersonal communication and relationships between patients and clinicians for ensuring high quality health care, drawing upon numerous studies that report better clinical outcomes with better communication. It then presents various challenges to interpersonal communication between patients with disabilities and clinicians, ranging from issues such as attitudes of clinicians to lack of accommodations for persons who are blind, experience low vision, deaf, or hard of hearing. The chapter presents examples of inadequate or damaging interpersonal communication. It raises particular concern about discussions of potentially sensitive topics, such as sexuality and reproductive health, mental health, and substance abuse.
Self-Management and Advocacy
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractShifting the paradigm of care from traditional roles of clinicians directing patients to a model of collaboration in care has gained currency as a strategy for improving both health care quality and outcomes. This chapter describes self-management and collaborative care programs, which are well developed for certain chronic conditions (such as arthritis and diabetes). It then discusses various considerations in moving toward a self-management and collaborative care approach for persons with disabilities. The core to any such effort is for clinicians to listen to and learn from their patients with disabilities, who are often the experts about their health and needs. The chapter looks at accessibility of self-management and resources and technologies to aid self-management.
The Internet and Information Technologies
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractElectronic health information technologies and the Internet are playing increasing roles in health care and the ways that patients obtain information about their conditions and options for care. This chapter reviews how these electronic sources are used by health care consumers and makes a case that these information technologies could offer potentially enormous benefits to persons with disabilities. Despite this, persons with disabilities may confront obstacles to accessing information through electronic sources and to sorting through voluminous information to evaluate its accuracy and utility. The chapter reviews guidelines about how clinicians and their patients might safely and effectively communicate via secure Internet portals.
Infectious Disease in the Age of Globalization
Authors: Saker Lance , Lee Kelley , Cannito Barbara 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter explores the links between globalization and infectious diseases in relation to changes in four major spheres—economic, environmental, political and demographic, and technological. It highlights areas where the evidence suggests that processes of globalization have led to changes in the distribution, transmission rate, and, in some cases, management of infectious diseases.
Population Movements
Authors: Allotey Pascale , Zwi Anthony 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter analyzes migration and health with a focus on a broadly defined concept of forced or “compelled” migration. It highlights the influence of structures created through globalization on the level of agency of mobile populations. It argues that globalization has had a paradoxical effect on migration and the health particularly of the migrating populations. The primary focus of the discussion is on the ethical and humanitarian challenges presented by the “othering” of migrant groups.
Summary Measures of Population Health: Controversies and New Directions
Authors: Reidpath Daniel D. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter offers a critique of summary measures of population health status (e.g., disability-adjusted life years and health-adjusted life expectancies) that have been promoted by the WHO and other bodies as tools for priority setting in health policy. The measurement of population health is a case study of globalization. Where the term “globalization” tends to stand as a marker of certain approaches to economic engagement and global trade, here it stands as a marker for the global management of an idea. The idea is that there exists a universally (i.e., cross-culturally) accepted notion of health as an attribute intrinsic to the individual based on loss of bodily function or structure that is unrelated to the social, cultural, or physical environment. This idea may seem self-evident, and the evidence supporting it is scant. It has, nonetheless, resulted in an intensive effort to develop measures of population health that are based on it, and to repudiate ideas that stand in opposition to it.
Health Policy and the World Trade Organization
Authors: Bloche M. Gregg , Jungman Elizabeth R. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter argues that the portrayal of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and its associated agreements as implacable threats to the health of people constitutes pessimism bordering on panic. Not only does this portrayal overlook potential synergies between trade and health, it all but ignores recent developments within the WTO that have affirmed member states' power to promote health.
Why Americans Don’t Trust the Government and Don’t Trust Healthcare
Authors: Blendon Robert J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The United States has had a history of having increasing levels of distrust of the government, from the founding fathers to the Vietnam War to scandals in recent years. This chapter demonstrates how the changes in trust levels in the U.S. healthcare system parallel the changes in trust of the US government. These changes can be correlated to historical events and have similar dynamics. The chapter draws parallels from other sectors of society to healthcare on the personal, institutional, and organizational levels, and looks at why the healthcare sector is experiencing—and deserves—the decline in trust.
Skeptical Patients: Performance, Social Capital, and Culture
Authors: Norris Pippa 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter seeks to explain the decline of trust of social and political institutions through three theories: institutional performance-based accounts, social capital theories, and cultural accounts based on modernization theory. It also sheds light on confidence trends in thirteen institutions from the General Social Survey and suggests factors that can explain these trends. Based on this analysis, the implications for the future of healthcare and patient-doctor relations are explored.
Building Quality in the Healthcare Environment
Authors: Berwick Donald M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The quality of care issues in healthcare has long been recognized and publicized in studies done by the Institute of Medicine and other organizations. This chapter explores the relationship between quality and trust. Quality results can build trust, and the fastest way to rebuild the trust in the healthcare system may be through healthcare quality improvement, but performance change is often blocked by systemic conditions. It explores how looking past Taylorism, accepting responsibility, and developing the skills to pursue an aim are key to generating change.
Medical Errors and Patient Safety
Authors: Leape Lucian L. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Several studies have touted healthcare as hazardous to health. The Institute of Medicine report on medical errors in 1999 publicized the prevalence of medical errors in the United States. While poor quality can undermine trust, the response of providers to poor results is another facet of declining trust in the US. The healthcare system fails to come to grips with problem doctors, and increased professional accountability is the recommended solution. This chapter explores the principles and practices that must be present in order to create a safety culture. In such a culture, providers are able to confront medical errors comfortably and confidently, and provide proper medical error disclosure. As a result, trust will be rebuilt and patient safety enhanced.
Patients’ Trust in Their Doctors: Are We Losing Ground?
Authors: Safran Dana Gelb 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter evaluates the patient-physician relationship's role in declining trust. Previous studies have shown this relationship is a predictor of patient loyalty and trust. The chapter defines a patient's trust in his or her physician as comprising three parts: confidence in their integrity, confidence in their clinical knowledge and skill, and confidence in their promise to put the patient's interests before other financial interests. It describes how the information age, declining morale among physicians, and different models of health insurance can affect this relationship. The ultimate goal of evaluating the quality of patient-physician relationships is to improve both business outcomes and health outcomes. The chapter emphasizes why the patient-physician relationship is a good place to start rebuilding trust, resulting in tremendous payoffs.
Healthcare Research: Can Patients Trust Physician Scientists?
Authors: Koski Greg 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Medical research, and specifically clinical trial research on human subjects, is necessary to make advances in medicine. Such research depends on high levels of trust between the subjects and the physician scientists conducting the trials. This chapter addresses the erosion of public trust in health research, its causes and consequences, and some solutions. Abuses of the past have left a broad legacy of mistrust. Government regulation attempted to impose better procedures to ensure good medical ethics. Institutional Review Boards were formed to monitor federally funded research. However, patient mistrust and conflicts of interest by researchers remain concerns in the field. The chapter recommends moving from a culture of compliance to a culture of conscience, in which people act responsibly because it is the right thing to do. In addition, it discusses the importance of providing incentives for good performance.
Temperature and Humidity
Authors: Jaakkola Jouni J.K. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes the scientific parameters of temperature and humidity and the ways in which they affect comfort and health in schools. Thermal conditions—temperature, relative humidity, and air velocity—have direct effects on the human body and on functional outcomes such as performance, learning, and productivity. Thermal conditions can also indirectly affect indoor air pollutant concentrations, as well as human exposure to these pollutants. Regulation of the thermal environment is necessary to maintain optimal conditions and involves routine monitoring and adjustment of the temperature, relative humidity, and air movement.
Playgrounds
Authors: Moore Robin 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter begins by tracing the history of playgrounds and exploring the philosophies behind the changes. Two major themes emerge. First, playgrounds should be places where children can play without incurring serious injury. Second, playgrounds should be spaces that support healthy child development through the process of active play, learning, and exploration. With regard to playground safety, the chapter reviews trends in injuries and fatalities and presents prevention strategies. Finally, case studies of community-based efforts to create playgrounds and school parks that meet both sets of goals are discussed. Focusing on elementary schools serving children four-twelve years of age (prekindergarten to sixth grade), the chapter offers suggestions on how to optimize playgrounds as educational and developmental settings that are safe for all children.
Healthy School Travel
Authors: Crider Linda B. , Hall Amanda K. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses the physically active aspect of school travel, such as walking and bicycling. Walking and bicycling offer important health benefits to children, but the proportion of children who walk and bike to school has declined in recent years. Safe Routes to School is a set of strategies designed to promote walking and biking to class by providing safe, appealing pedestrian routes and encouraging their use. These strategies include engineering and environmental changes, enforcement of applicable laws, education of children, parents, and motorists, and encouragement (social marketing). Important elements of Safe Routes to Schools programs include team approach, surveys to assess needs before implementing the program, and program evaluation once the program is in place.
6 Rational and Irrational Beliefs in Human Feelings and Psychophysiology
Authors: David Daniel , Cramer Duncan 
Published: September 2009

AbstractPeople can be analyzed with respect to at least four interrelated levels: (1) biological structure (i.e., anatomy and physiology), (2) behavioral output, (3) cognitive processes, and (4) subjective experience. Psychologists typically focus on the other three levels: (1) behaviors (e.g., observable and measurable operant reactions of the organism), (2) cognitions (e.g., information processing), and (3) subjective experience (e.g., feelings and emotions). Psychologists also study physiological reactions (e.g., unconditioned and conditioned responses) that are often defined as behaviors, and discussed in connection with either behaviors or feelings. This chapter considers such physiological reactions in the course of the discussion of feelings.
Establishing Validity and Reliability of Physical Activity Assessment Instruments
Authors: Bassett Jr. David R. , Fitzhugh Eugene C. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter aims to provide an understanding of how to evaluate critically the validity and reliability of survey instruments for measuring physical activity. If an existing instrument were to be chosen, the first step would be to search the literature for studies that have been performed to establish its validity and reliability. If there is sufficient evidence that the chosen instrument is a robust measure of physical activity in the population of interest, then the research can proceed. However, if validity and reliability studies are lacking, then the researchers should conduct studies to address these issues. The results of the validity and reliability studies can be affected by a number of factors, including the type of validation criteria selected, the characteristics of the population being studied, the measurement time frame, and the methods of statistical analysis used. These factors are discussed in detail.
Development as Change of System Dynamics: Stability, Instability, and Emergence
Authors: Schöner Gregor 
Published: September 2009

AbstractDynamical systems thinking can provide metaphors that help ask new questions, generate new experimental paradigms and measures, and lead to new kinds of explanations. This chapter reviews dynamical systems theory (DST) as a set of concepts that formalizes such metaphors and thus becomes a scientific theory of considerable rigor. It considers five concepts: (1) Behavioral patterns resist change; that is, they are stable. This may be mathematically characterized by considering behavioral patterns as the attractor states of a dynamical system. (2) Behavioral change is brought about by a loss of stability. (3) Representations possess stability properties, as well, and can be understood as the attractor states of dynamic fields, that is, of continuous distributions of neuronal activation. (4) Cognitive processes emerge from instabilities of dynamic fields. (5) Learning occurs as changes in behavioral or field dynamics that shift the behavioral and environmental context in which these instabilities occur.
Brain, Body, and Mind: Lessons from Infant Motor Development
Authors: Corbetta Daniela 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the role that the body plays in the process of brain and mind formation. It begins by reviewing some theoretical concepts about embodiment and the dynamic systems approach. It then considers three examples of infant motor development that illustrate the strong coupling existing between the body and the mind in development, and that highlight the usefulness of accounting for the body and its properties when investigating a developmental question. The concluding section of this chapter extends the theme to situations that do not involve motor activities per se, to illustrate that even such activities can be embodied. The chapter shows that development is a process marked by continuous perceptual and sensorimotor experiences, which involve a brain with a body that can act and sense. It argues that those perceptual and sensorimotor experiences are crucial for brain, mind, and behavioral development, and that they create the foundation of many forms of thinking in development.