bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
5.—T. R. R. Stebbing, the Challenger and Knowledge of Deep-sea Amphipoda
Authors: Mills Eric L. 
Published: December 2011

SynopsisThe Reverend T. R. R. Stebbing (1835–1926), who monographed the Challenger Amphipoda, was brought up in a literary and historical tradition, but became a convert to Darwinism and a naturalist about 1860. Canon A. M. Norman was responsible for the Challenger Amphipoda being offered to Stebbing in 1882. Stebbing's monograph, in 1888, describes the collections and contains a lengthy and definitive annotated bibliography of the Order. It also contains the first indication that the Amphipoda have evolved by adaptive radiation governed by Darwinian selection. Stebbing's later work on amphipod taxonomy contains no evolutionary speculation, although his scientific essays were uniformly and sometimes acrimoniously pro-Darwinian.Stebbing treated 63 species of presumed deep-sea benthic gammaridean amphipods. Only 44 of these are now believed to be benthic. The Challenger's gear was inadequate for collection of small abyssal animals, and pelagic species make up an increasingly larger fraction of successively deeper ‘benthic’ samples. Consequently most knowledge of deep-sea benthic Amphipoda comes from work in the last 20 years. A deep-sea transect between Massachusetts and Bermuda has at least 108 species, with a maximum of 85 benthic. Distribution is similar to that of a transect off Oregon. Most of the species are in the families Ampeliscidae, Eusiridae, Lysianassidae, Oedicerotidae, Pardaliscidae, Phoxocephalidae and Synopiidae. There is a marked change of species with depth, categorised in six faunal groupings. Endemism is high in the North American basin and there is little affinity to high latitude faunas. Size and biomass decrease with depth.Diversity of deep-sea Amphipoda is high and comparable to that of Polychaeta and Bivalvia. Present explanations for the high diversity (number of species) are all inadequate in the absence of accurate knowledge of the rate of food supply, diversity of selectively important resources, and rate of food supply, and there is little knowledge of reasons for the high genetic variability in deep-sea animals.
28.—Textbooks in the Wake of theChallenger.
Authors: Gordon Bernard L. 
Published: December 2011

SynopsisThe evolution of oceanographic textbooks received tremendous impetus from theChallengerExpedition both directly and indirectly. Direct contributions resulted from the writings of the scientific staff that served on board the epic three and a half year voyage of H.M.S.Challenger. Textbooks resulted indirectly from the writings of numerous marine scientists, ashore, who studied and worked on the data, samples and specimens from the 362 stations in three oceans collected by the Expedition. The immense mass of new facts revealed by theChallengerExpedition stimulated the development of new facets of marine science research found in all oceanography texts of the twentieth century.
37.—The Thermodynamic Description of the CO2System in Sea Water: Development and Current Status.
Authors: Edmond John M. 
Published: December 2011

Two thermodynamic schemes have been developed to describe the CO2system in sea water. The ‘pure’ treatment is based on the theory of dilute solutions and is general. The ‘pseudo’ treatment uses ‘stoichiometric’ constants related to the acidity constants of Bronsted (1928). It is empirical and specific to the medium in which the measurements are made. The pure thermodynamic treatment developed from the early attempts to characterise the various equilibria involving CO2, carbonic acid and its anions and was much influenced by the work of biochemists and physiologists on the blood plasma system. These attempts were initiated before the concepts of complete dissociation or of activities were developed. The subsequent application of these concepts was immediate and fruitful. By 1927, especially as a result of the work of Warburg and of Hastings and Sendroy, a consistent scheme had been developed for the NaCl—NaHCO3—Na2CO3system. This work had also been extended to phosphate, citrate and blood plasma solutions and the discrepancies between the apparent activity coefficients discussed and tentatively ascribed to complex formation.Johnston and co-workers developed the thermodynamic treatment of the carbonate system in natural waters and by 1920 understood the relation between ΣCO2, alkalinity and carbonate solubility and had identified and solved the major analytical difficulties.The discovery of the interference due to complexing prompted various workers to determine empirical 'apparent' or stoichiometric constants. These are derived from the experimental data by assuming that a function analogous to the pure constant, but defined in terms of total species concentrations rather than activities, will behave like the pure constant over the temperature, salinity and pressure range of interest and will not vary with the concentration of any of the species it describes. Starting with the work of Moberg and Buch in the early 1930s, a complete scheme has been developed based on this treatment. The apparent constants for carbonic and boric acids in sea water are now known with sufficient accuracy to allow detailed study of the effect of water chemistry on the formation and dissolution of carbonates under any oceanic conditions.
38.—Development of Ideas concerning the Carbon Dioxide System in Sea Water up to 1940.
Authors: Lyman John 
Published: December 2011

SynopsisMarcet reported in 1822 that sea salt contained lime, and several investigators confirmed its presence in sea water in the 1830s. Darondeau found dissolved CO2in sea water in 1838, and von Bibra in 1851 considered sea water to be slightly alkaline. Tornöe in 1880 pointed out that this condition required part of the CO2to be bound chemically, and Hamberg applied the mass action law to the CO2-system in sea water in 1885. For nearly 50 years, however, despite the development of the concepts of pH and activity, attempts to apply the law in detail failed, first because the behaviour of H2CO3and HCO3−as weak acids is strikingly different in pure water, sea water or NaCl solutions, and secondly because the presence and role of another weak acid, boric acid, was not recognised fully until 1933. Investigators often attributed their failures to some mysterious ability of the sea to disregard or evade the laws of physical chemistry. Buch in 1933 and 1938 finally laid this hobgoblin to rest, and his results are still accepted with only minor modifications.
40.—The Theories of August Putter.
Authors: Johnston R. 
Published: December 2011

The German professor of physiology, August Pütter, is remembered especially for his theories on the nutrition of marine animals. His major papers, ‘The nutrition of aquatic animals’ and ‘Organic matter in the sea’, appeared in 1907, followed by numerous other papers until 1925. He died about 1935. Ranson (1935,1936), Assistant at the Paris Museum of Natural History, gives the essence of the works of Pütter as follows (translated from the French):1. Aquatic animals are not able to capture by the means which they possess enough organisms or planktonic materials to cover their nutritional requirements.2. There is a very large amount of dissolved organic matter in sea water which, alone, is broadly sufficient to sustain the needs of the animals.3. This soluble organic matter has as its source the activity of algae and bacteria.4. The fundamental part of the nutritional requirements of aquatic animals is derived from dissolved organic matter; plankton plays only a secondary role.5. Aquatic animals absorb this organic matter not only by their digestive apparatus which is often rudimentary, but by the whole exterior surface of their bodies and especially by simple epithelial tissues such as the gills.
Habitat Selection and Animal Distribution in the Sea: the Evolution of a Concept
Authors: Meadows P. S. , Campbell J. I. 
Published: December 2011

SynopsisThis paper considers the evolution of the concept that the local distribution of animals in the sea is largely determined by the habitat preferences and behaviour of the animals themselves. Examples are mainly taken from studies on invertebrate animals. Nineteenth-century investigations on the behavioural responses of micro-organisms to such variables as light, salinity and oxygen, stimulated analogus investigations on the behaviour of marine invertebrates. From 1920 onwards, various lines of research have developed, notably on the settlement of marine larvae, but also on habitat selection by adult planktonic and benthic invertebrates, and on host finding by parasites and commensals.Attention has been drawn to the relevance of genetic studies on behaviour, and to the significance of investigations on terrestrial animals. A synoptic view of habitat selection has been advanced in which animals respond to a complex of interacting stimuli from their physical, chemical and biological environment.Simple models have been presented which consider the influence of dilution of the preferred habitat by less preferred alternatives, alteration of the rate of change of a habitat, the relation between habitat preferences and lethal limits, and the colonisation of new habitats.
The History and State of the Study of Medusae and Hydroids
Authors: Edwards C. 
Published: December 2011

SynopsisThe growth of knowledge of medusae and hydroids is attributable to the labours, from the beginning of the eighteenth century onwards, of numerous naturalists and zoologists, amateur and professional, to whom we are indebted for studies of the structure, biology and systematics of these animals, and to the many investigations at sea, by geographical and oceanographic expeditions and by fisheries and other institutions, from which we have derived knowledge of the occurrence and distribution of the species in the seas and oceans. The study of invertebrates gained great impetus in the latter part of the eighteenth century and in the nineteenth century with the accumulating observations and material collected, but only gradually were the true affinities and proper classification of the invertebrate groups recognised. The major advances in the systematic study of medusae and hydroids were the recognition of the true relationships between them and of their distinction from other coelenterates and the full understanding of their reproductive and other structures. Knowledge of the rich variety of species and their world distribution has been gained especially by oceanic expeditions and fisheries investigations. The importance of medusae as ‘indicators’ of hydrographic conditions is well recognised.
Accidents and travel
Authors: Mason J. K. 
Published: December 2011

SynopsisThis paper considers the hazards of getting to and from one's destination; the subject of accidents occurring as part of a holiday is too broad for present consideration.The symposium is mainh concerned with travel abroad but, since one has to reach the definitive means of travel, the epidemiology of road traffic accidents is first considered. An unusually optimistic view is taken of the current position as regards fatalities. Emphasis is placed on the importance of recent legislation in the prevention of injury. Overall, the chances of being killed on the roads are now not much greater than those of suffering an accidental death in the home. The effect of alcohol and common drugs on the holiday motorist are discussed and mention is made of the hazards of carbon monoxide poisoning.Death and injury due to travel by boat or train is so unusual as to eliminate them from useful discussion and most interest probably centres on the accidental hazards of air travel.The major anomaly here is that, on a passenger-mile basis, the worldwide chances of being killed in an accident involving a scheduled air carrier are about the same as for travelling on British Rail. The relationship of aircraft accidents to fatalities is discussed and reasons advanced for the remarkable improvement in both. Potentially survivable accidents are commonest at take off and landing. It is in such accidents that the hazard of fire is of maximal importance though adequate restraint is also highly significant. Suggestions are made for increased safety.The wholly fatal accident is commonly associated with a catastrope in flight and some of the dangers of exposure to high altitude are considered. There is considerable public interest in sabotage as a cause of aircraft accident and its incidence is briefly considered. The overall message is that air travel is quite remarkably safe and that the unduly widespread fear of flying is related, in the main, to the publicity which inevitably surrounds the occasional disaster.
Antlers and their regeneration—a study using hummels, hinds and haviers
Authors: Lincoln G. A. 
Published: December 2011

SynopsisThe mechanism involved in the control of antler growth was studied in three experiments using red deer living at Reedie Hill Deer Farm in Fife. Scotland. Observations were made on three congenitally polled stags (hummels) captured from the wild, one female red deer (hind) induced to grow antlers by treatment with testosterone, and four castrated stags (havicrs). The overall results support the view that in the stag it is the increase in secretion of testosterone by the testes at puberty which stimulates the initial development of the antler pedicles, and it is the subsequent seasonal cycle in the secretion of testosterone which dictates the seasonal casting and regeneration of the antlers. The high blood levels of testosterone in the autumn cause the calcification and death of the antler tissue, and also prevent the process of rejection of this tissue for the remainder of the breeding season. The dead antlers can thus act as an insensitive fighting weapon when rival stags compete for access to females during the rut. When the testes become fully regressed in spring, it is the withdrawal of testosterone which allows the old antlers to be cast off. and the wound on the surface of the antler pedicles triggers the regeneration of new antlers. In hummel stags which have failed to complete the initial growth of the antler pedicles, it is possible to trigger the development of antler tissue by wounding the rudimentary pedicle, and once this tisue has formed it is cast and regrown annually due to the seasonal evele in the activity of the testes.
Habitat selection and impact of red (Cervus elaphus L.) and roe (Capreolus capreolus L.) deer in a Sitka spruce plantation
Authors: Staines Brian W. , Welch David 
Published: December 2011

SynopsisThe study began in 1978 at Glenbranter Forest, Argyll. Use of habitat by red and roe deer was measured from the accumulation of pellet groups and from observations. Approximately 2000 trees less than 9 years old and 6000 older ones were monitored for damage and response.Habitats in areas dominated by heather in or close to the forest were the most occupied by both species and pole-stage crops the least. However, most dung was found on the extensive areas of recently planted ground. Roe deer were relatively more abundant than red deer in stands of 9 to 15 year-old trees.In summer, red deer ate mainly grasses and roe mainly forbs. In winter, these preferences remained, but Calluna became more important to both.Browsing on leaders was heaviest in winter and May–June. Approximately 50% of leaders on trees less than 6 years old were browsed annually. Most trees regained leaders within 12 months, many becoming multi-stemmed. Of the trees. 1% were bark-stripped per annum. In older stands the smaller trees were most damaged, in younger stands the larger trees.
Rumen Micro-organisms in Red Deer, Hill Sheep and Reindeer in the Scottish Highlands
Authors: Hobson P. N. , Mann S. O. , Summers R. 
Published: December 2011

SynopsisThe micro-organisms in rumen samples from Red deer, hill sheep and reindeer grazing their natural pastures in the Scottish Highlands were examined at different seasons over a number of years. The total counts of bacteria and protozoa varied with the season, and were lowest in winter when fermentative activity was also at its lowest.As is usual in roughage-fed ruminants, viable counts were only a very small proportion of the total counts. The reindeer rumens had the highest concentrations of bacteria.There were no consistent differences in the types of bacteria between seasons, but although there were no bacteria peculiar to any animal species the balance of predominant types varied between the species. The principal types of bacteria were similar to those found in domesticated ruminants. The numbers of protozoa in the Red deer were higher than those in the sheep, and the concentrations in reindeer were higher than those generally reported for domesticated cattle or sheep. A number of species of protozoa were found in each animal and the predominant species differed in the different animals.
The Distribution and Prevalence of Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus in Wild Fish in Loch Awe
Authors: Munro A. L. S. , Liversidge J. , Elson K. G. R. 
Published: December 2011

SYNOPSISA 3-year survey of wild fish in Loch Awe and the surrounding watershed has shown a restricted distribution and low prevalence of infection with infectious pancreatic necrosis virus. No signs of clinical disease were observed in infected fish. The restricted distribution close to a rainbow trout farm is consistent with the virus originating from this farm, where virus infected stocks have been found each year since 1971. The continuing low prevalence is also consistent with virus in wild fish resulting from the spread of infection from the farm. If infection is spreading between wild fish, it is slow within the time scale of the survey. The possible mechanisms of transmission of infection from the farm to wild fish are discussed.
Genetic Improvement in Salmonids
Authors: Gjedrem Trygve 
Published: December 2011

There is considerable interest in the cultivation of salmonids in several countries. In Norway it is now a question of rate of expansion rather than a question of whether this industry will develop or not. Interest is turning more and more towards sea farming based on Atlantic salmon rather than on rainbow trout.One of the most important economic factors in fish fanning is the producing ability of the fish. It is essential for the future expansion of fish farming that one develops a more productive animal which is better adapted to captivity.
International importance of Extremadura, Spain, for overwintering migratory dabbling ducks: a role for reservoirs
Authors: NAVEDO JUAN G. , MASERO JOSÉ A. , SÁNCHEZ-GUZMÁN JUAN M. , ABAD-GÓMEZ JOSÉ M. , GUTIÉRREZ JORGE S. , SANSÓN ESTHER G. , VILLEGAS AUXILIADORA , COSTILLO EMILIO , CORBACHO CASIMIRO , MORÁN RICARDO 
Published: December 2011

SummaryMany migratory waterbird populations are in decline and loss of natural wetlands is one of the main causes. However, some species may respond positively to artificial wetland recreation. In Extremadura (south-west Europe), several large reservoirs were created for irrigation since the 1960s and some comparatively small reservoirs were built from the late 1990s onwards close to rice fields. Here we analyse the abundance of wintering dabbling ducks (Anasspp.) in Extremadura before (1991–1994) and after (2007–2010) the creation of these new reservoirs in order to address the current importance of the area for this guild within the East Atlantic Flyway (EAF). A mean of 25,277 dabbling ducks wintered in the study area during 1991–1994, increasing to 46,163 individuals during 2007–2010. After controlling for environmental variables, Northern PintailAnas acuta, Common TealA. creccaand Northern ShovelerA. clypeataexperienced significant increases in the area between both periods, and only Eurasian WigeonA. penelopesuffered a significant decrease. MallardA. platyrhynchosand GadwallA. streperapopulations did not show any significant trend. The large older reservoirs experienced overall population decreases between the two periods, with four new reservoirs holding more than 35,000 wintering dabbling ducks. Our results reflect an overall improvement in habitat conditions, driven by the creation of reservoirs near to rice fields that could have resulted in a partial redistribution of wintering dabbling ducks in the EAF. The area emerges as one of the most important wintering sites for dabbling ducks in southern Europe, regularly exceeding two of the Ramsar Convention criteria for the conservation of several populations. The protection of these new reservoirs by legal mechanisms would guarantee the existence of a large functional wetland area, which could also mitigate the loss of natural wetlands for populations using the EAF.
Aśoka's 256-night campaign
Authors: Wright J. C. 
Published: December 2011

The two recent discussions of the chronology of Aśoka's early missionary activities, as described in his first Minor Rock Edict, came to different conclusions. For the idea of a 256-day pilgrimage, which stems ultimately from mistranslation, Falk had sought to substitute a calculation involving 256 non-consecutive Uposatha nights. Without detailed refutation of Falk's arguments, Norman rejected this result and retained the assumption of a date counted in days from the beginning of a regnal year. Falk's Vedic andArthaśāstramaterial points, however, in the right direction. A description of Aśoka as256-rātra-vyuṣṭo“having spent a 256-day season” would date his proclamation to the close of an eight-month campaigning season, corresponding closely withvarṣā-rātra-uṣitaRāma (R 4.19.1), literally ‘having spent the rains season’, but dating the activity in question to the first day of autumn. Late Vedic and epic use ofvyuṣṭaand instances of calculation by binary, apparently solar, weeks of 8 days and months of 32 days (of which eight would yield 256), suggest that Aśoka was seeking to give his proselytizing campaign the status of a religious observance defined in Kṣatriya terms.Arthaśāstraincludes the proposition that a 32-day military month was used for administrative purposes in the field.Just as in rock edicts the phrase [devānaṃpiyena] …abhisitena lekhitedates events to a regnal year, so [devānaṃpiyena] …vivuṭhena sāvanedates Aśoka's MRE proclamation, but with reference to his years of religious seniority. The additive chronology, more than two years plus more than one year, suggested by Norman and upheld by Falk, is supported by the syntax of the passage. It would tend to associate the MRE with Aśoka's 13th regnal year. Aśoka's epigraphs imply that, inspired perhaps by early residence in Ujjain, he was at first drawing on late Vedic and epic calendrical motifs, before starting to display a knowledge of Vinaya calendrical material in the pillar edicts.
GENERAL THREE-POINT QUADRATURE FORMULAS OF EULER TYPE
Authors: FRANJIĆ IVA , PEČARIĆ JOSIP , PERIĆ IVAN 
Published: December 2011

AbstractGeneral three-point quadrature formulas for the approximate evaluation of an integral of a function f over [0,1], through the values f(x), f(1/2), f(1−x), f′(0) and f′(1), are derived via the extended Euler formula. Such quadratures are sometimes called “corrected” or “quadratures with end corrections” and have a higher accuracy than the adjoint classical formulas, which only include the values f(x), f(1/2) and f(1−x) . The Gauss three-point, corrected Simpson, corrected dual Simpson, corrected Maclaurin and corrected Gauss two-point formulas are recaptured as special cases. Finally, sharp estimates of error are given for this type of quadrature formula.