bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
On the Origin of Valley-lakes, with especial reference to the Lakes of the Northern Alps
Authors: Irving A. 
Published: October 2009

This paper is intended as nothing more than a supplement to a paper by the author on the Mechanics of Glaciers. The main strength of the position taken up by the advocates of the glacier-excavation theory is derived from arguments which labour to show that it is the only feasible hypothesis. I have endeavoured to show in my previous paper that this hypothesis is inadmissible on mechanical and physical grounds; all I attempt to do here is to show that we are not shut up to the hypothesis; for many agencies can be pointed to which may have cooperated to form lake-basins, some of which have hardly been considered with sufficient care, while others would appear to have been ignored. In dealing more especially with the lakes of the Northern Alps, I have simply selected a region which abounds in lakes occupying expansions of river-valleys which I know pretty intimately from direct observation, including a district already treated more in detail by Prof. Bonney. Nor do I pretend either that all which is here advanced is new to geology, or that I am able to give an exhaustive account of all the agencies which have helped to form lake-basins past and present. Many lakes also, for example such as those which occupy the craters of extinct volcanoes in the Eifel and elsewhere, are excluded from consideration here by the title of the paper.
I shall first draw attention to what appear to me defects in the arguments of the excavationists
On Generic Characters in the Order Sauropterygia
Authors: Owen Richard 
Published: October 2009

The progress of knowledge of the species of Reptilia associated by De la Beche under the collective name Enaliosauria, led to the subdivision of that maritime group into the orders Ichthyopterygia and Sauropterygia, these terms being significative of their characters of resemblance respectively to Fishes and to Saurians.
Large accessions of species have since been made known in both orders. With regard to the first, I have not deemed the modifications in the dentition, in the shape and structure of the sterno-coraco-scapular frame, in those of fins, or the gradations of general bulk, sufficient, as satisfactory characters, for generic subdivision.

In the Sauropterygia, besides gradations of size, ranging, for example, from
Pleisiosaurus Hawkinsii
to
Ples. Cramptoni
, there is a difference in the proportional lenght of the neck and number of its vertebræ relating to the size of the head it supports. In
Pleisosaurus homalospondylus
, for example, the cervical vertebræ are thirty-eight in number; in
Ples. rostratus
they are twenty-four. This character alone would not have obtained a generic separation: but a shortening of the neck, due not only to decreasing number but to altered proportions of the cervical vertibræ when associated with a well-marked modification of the teeth, of the sterno-coraco-scapular frame, and of the paddle-bones, called for separation of the Sauropterygia into
Pliosaurus
was proposed, indicative of the nearer approach which its species made to a generalized Saurian type.

In the Crocodilia, for example, a common character of the teeth is to have the usually simple conical crown, whether finely ridged or not, provided with a pair of enamel-ridges stronger than the rest, and placed on opposite sides of the crown.
On the Lower Carboniferous Rocks of the Forest of Dean, as represented in Typical Sections at Drybrook
Authors: Wethered E. 
Published: October 2009

In this paper I shall first refer to a series of arenaceous and calcareous shales which lie between the Old Red Conglomerate and Lower Limestone Shales, and which represent the true basis of the Carboniferous rocks in Gloucestershire. (2) I shall refer to some beds in the Lower Limestone Shales which may serve as horizons for correlation with other coalfields. (3) I shall consider some features in the Millstone Grit.

1.
The Old Red Conglomerate at Dry brook dips to the south-east at an angle of 38°. It is made up of “vein-stone” quartz pebbles, grains of ordinary quartz, measuring about ·021 of an inch in diameter, plates of mica, and a little felspar. Of the quartz grains about fourteen per cent. can be recognized as crystals; but the rest are waterworn. The grains are coated with oxide of iron; but on this being removed by acid, cavities are exposed to view, some of which contain bubbles. In addition to the deposition of oxide of iron on the grains, silica is often found attached to them in minute well-defined and clear crystals.
The Old Red Conglomerate passes conformably into a series of loose sandy beds and light and greenish-coloured calcareous shales, dark shales being absent. A section of these beds, carefully measured by the late Mr. John Jones and Mr. W. C. Lucy, F.G.S., showing 247 feet and 108 divisions, appeared in the Proceedings of the Cotteswold Club for 1867. They are there termed “Transition Beds.” Sir H. de la Beche
The Age of the newer Gneissic Rocks of the Northern Highlands
Authors: Callaway C. 
Published: October 2009

Introduction
In the summer of 1880 I commenced an investigation into the relations between the fossiliferous limestone of Darness and the great gneissie series which was alleged to overlie it. A portion of my first results I communicated to the Society in a paper in which I endeavoured to show that the sections at Durness and in Assynt did not display a true ascending series, the limestone in both localities being separated by a fault from the rock which was supposed to conformably succeed it. On the relation of the limestone to the quartzite I formed no opinion ; but in the two sections described I found them brought together by faults. As the quartzite passed with apparent conformity below the eastern gneiss on the east of Loch Erriboll, I hinted, in accordance with the views of Murchison, which I had not then seen reason to abandon, that the quartzite might belong to the metamorphic series. From these limited observations I carefully abstained from drawing a general conclusion ; and I was convinced that no satisfactory result could be achieved without a detailed survey. Accordingly I devoted a fortnight in 1881, and two months in 1882, to the districts which appeared most promising ; and I have now the honour to submit the conclusions to which I have been led.

The published theories on the relation between the Durness limestone and the eastern gneiss are the following :—

1.
1. That the eastern gneiss conformably overlies the limestone
Notes on a series of Rocks from the North-west Highlands, collected by C. Callaway, Esq., D.Sc., F.G.S.
Authors: Bonney T. G. 
Published: October 2009

In describing this interesting series of rocks I shall endeavour, as far as possible, to gather them into groups in order to save the repetition of details. A lengthy description will in most cases be unnecessary, because the majority of the specimens belong to types which have already been described with considerable fulness by Mr. T. Davies and myself.
The first group is a series of coarse, rather granitoid gneisses, generally admitted to be representatives of the Hebridean series. These rocks are rather coarsely crystalline in texture, generally not conspicuously foliated, containing a variable amount of hornblende or of black mica, but occasionally having a white mica as the third constituent.
Under the microscope, the minerals are well crystallized internally, but do not, as a rule, exhibit externally a definite crystalline form. Those ordinarily occurring are quartz, felspar, mica, and hornblende, with commonly some sphene and epidote, and, occasionally, apatite. Some granules of magnetite, hæmatite, or, perhaps, ilmenite are usually present.
The quartz occurs as rounded to rather elongated grains of variable size, often grouped. Commonly, as seems to be usual in these very ancient rocks, they contain so many minute enclosures as to have a rather “dusty” aspect. Some of these may be microliths of various minerals (a micaceous one among them); but others are certainly cavities, not seldom very irregular in form. These frequently contain bubbles relatively as well as absolutely of very small size, which move freely.
The felspar occurs in grains
Fossil Chilostomatous Bryozoa from Muddy Creek, Victoria, &c.
Authors: Waters Arthur Wm. 
Published: October 2009

The fossils to be described were collected by Mr. J. Bracebridge Wilson, of Geelong, who obtained them from Muddy Creek, Hamilton; Bird Rock, near Geelong; and Waurn Ponds,—all from the formation which has been called in Australia “Miocene.”
As I had already described Australian Bryozoa from beds of the same age, I undertook the examination of these when Mr. Wilson so kindly sent them to me; and perhaps it would have been better for science if I had not so readily done so, but if a careful observer like Mr. Wilson, who is near the localities, had himself undertaken the description of the collection.
They were sent to me for description with the request that the collection should afterwards be handed over to the Museum of the Geological Society; and I am sure I am only expressing the general feeling of the Fellows when I say that the Society is much indebted to Mr. Wilson for presenting them with collections upon which he had already spent much labour.

Perhaps the most interesting forms are the
Catenicellœ
, a genus which Mr. Wilson was the first to point out occurred fossil (Journ. Micr. Soc. of Victoria, vol. i. p. 60, 1880), giving descriptions of 12 species. Shortly after this I described and figured a few species which I found in the material from Curdies Creek (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxvii. p. 309).

In order to understand the fossil
Catenicellæ
, which are represented by 13 species, it became necessary
On a Group of Minerals from Lilleshall, Salop
Authors: Woodward C. J. 
Published: October 2009

The Carboniferous Limestone at Lilleshall has for very many years been worked, partly as a flux for iron-smelting, partly as a source of lime for agricultural purposes.
Various workings in the neighbourhood have, from influx of water, been abandoned; and there remains now but one mine, known as Stump Leasow. It is situated by the canal, near a spot marked “Old Farm” on the one-inch Survey map.
There are two distinct beds of limestone, known as White and Grey, lying one above the other, separated by a distance of 40 yards.
The upper bands of the lower bed, or grey, are fall of vertical joints, which in many cases, speaking from memory, run from six inches to a foot in width. It is in these joints that the minerals occur.

Quartz
is extremcly rare. I have, in fact, met with but one minute crystal. It showed under the microscope both prismatic and pyramidal faces.

Erubescite
. Only a few minute patches in the massive form have been met with.

Copper pyrites
is met with occasionally. It occurs in more or less defined spheroids. One specimen has a peculiar radiated structure.

Iron pyrites
is not by any means common. It occurs in radiating masses of from
2/3
to
1 1/2
inch diameter, showing faces of the cube, octahedron, and other forms. I have one specimen of the decomposed iron pyrites, which in old mineralogical books is called “hepatic pyrites.” This hepatic pyrites is in cubes and octahedra.

Hæ
. Occurs in minute
On the Section at Hordwell Cliffs, from the top of the Lower Headon to the base of the Upper Bagshot Sands
Authors: Tawney E. B. , Keeping H. 
Published: October 2009

The Hordwell cliffs have been more or less cursorily examined by Webster, Lyell, and Searles Wood, and they were described some time ago by Dr. T. Wright. Nevertheless the beds do not seem to be so well known to geologists as the interest of their fauna demands. Tho cause may perhaps be that observers have of late years failed to find many of the extinct Ruminants which in former times were the especial feature of the freshwater beds at Hordwell. The description of these deposits by the late Marchioness of Hastings contains the best information concerning the exact beds in which the vertebrate remains were found.
Last autumn we measured the section bed by bed, and the results are here laid down (p. 567). Wc have adopted the graphical method as an aid, because it alone enables an observer to identify with facility and without loss of time any bed mentioned in the letterpress, and to compare it with the exposure in the cliff. The cliffs in no one spot offer an escarpment where the beds are so accessible that they could be measured vertically from base to summit. Our method has therefore been to measure as much as could be conveniently effected at one place, and then move the position of observation horizontally. Of course, owing to variation in the thickness of beds when followed horizontally, any pretension to minute accuracy is altogether prceludcd. Absolute accuracy is not feasible in geological sections, nor is it necessary. if
On the Relative Ages of Certain River-valleys in Lincolnshire
Authors: Jukes-Browne A. J. 
Published: October 2009

In a country which is traversed by a series of escarpments or hill-ranges, the valleys by which its drainage is effected are usually separable into two sets or systems, one parallel to the strike of the ridges, and the other more or lees at right angles to the same. The origin of these longitudinal and transverse valleys, and the process by which escarpments have been intersected by river-valleys, were first explained by Mr. Jukes. He showed also that in the case of a river cutting through a ridge or escarpment, and receiving tributaries from the longitudinal valleys which are parallel to this ridge, the primary or first-formed stream is that opposite to the breach in the escarpment, and that the longitudinal branches, though often of much greater length than this primary stream, are really of secondary or subsequent origin.
Stated in general terms, his theory amounts to this, that the original direction of all rivers which cut through ridges was determined by the general slope of the ancient surface over which they began to run, and that when the slope was transverse to the strike of the beds, the channels cut by the earliest rivers necessarily had a similar transverse direction, while the channels in the longitudinal valleys were formed subsequently and concurrently with the development of the ridges or escarpments.
A further Corollary to this may, I think, be considered as generally true, viz., that those portions of a river-valley which intersect the same ridge date from the
On some Postglacial Ravines in the Chalk Wolds of Lincolnshire
Authors: Jukes-Browne A. J. 
Published: October 2009

I
n
a paper recently read before this Society I pointed out that the disposition of the Boulder-clays (Purple and Hessle series) along the eastern border of the Chalk Wolds enables us to determine the relative age of the valleys which intersect the hills, and proves that some of them are older and some newer than the formation of those Clays.

Most of the larger and wider valleys are occupied by deposits of glacial clay and gravel, which are continuous with the main mass or sheet of these beds lying to the eastward, and are, in fact, mere arms or prolongations of that sheet; it is clear therefore that all such valleys are of anterior date and must have existed prior to the formation of the East-Lincolnshire Boulder-clays. It would not be safe, however, to call them Preglacial, because these particular Boulder-clays are believed to be the latest glacial beds in England, and therefore the valleys may be really of Interglacial age. On the other hand such valleys or portions of valleys as can be proved to have come into existence after the formation of these Clays may safely be termed Postglacial
There are several short valleys, from one to three miles in length, which open eastward on to the Boulder-clay plain, which are probably of Postglacial date ; for the boundary line of the Boulder-clay passes straight across their mouths ; no tongues of clay are thrust westward into these valleys, which are completely free from any trace of glacial
Ripple-marks in Drift in Shropshire and Cheshire
Authors: Reade T. Mellard 
Published: October 2009

A
mong
all the published notices of drift deposits that I have read, I cannot call to mind any description of ripple-marks as forming features in that formation. Of course if the drift was formed under land-ice we should not expect to see them; but if, as I maintain, a very large part of it has been laid down in water, then, under favourable conditions, they should be found.

I was much pleased on examining, in the early part of 1883, a section in the Old-Park-Field sand-hole, at Ketley, near Wellington, Shropshire (to which I had been directed by my friend Dr. Callaway), to notice in a stratified deposit of drift-sand three distinct beds of ripple-marked laminæ, most beautifully displayed in section. The following is a sketch of the deposit (fig. 1). The position of this sand-pit is on the south side of Watling Street. I measured one of the ripple-marks in bed No. 1, and found it was 9 inches from crest to crest, and 1¼ inch high; the fall of the wave indicated that the wind producing it was from the N.W. The figure below (fig. 2), drawn to a scale of inch to the foot, will more fully explain its form.
In July 1883 I had the further pleasure of seeing in a cutting in Low-level .Boulder-clay and Sands at Tranmere, Cheshire, in one of the approaches to the Mersey Tunnel, ripple-marks in hard fine loamy brown sand, forming the flank of what must
Further Notes on Rock-Fragments frm the South of Scotland imbedded in the Low-Level Boulder-clay of Lancashire
Authors: Reade T. Mellard 
Published: October 2009

I
n
my paper on the Drift-beds of the North-West of England, Part II., I gave certain identifications of granites from Criffel and the neighbourhood of Dumfries made by Mr. Patrick Dudgeon from specimens I forwarded to him in 1882, these being confirmatory of Mr. Mackintosh’s previous discovery of Criffel granite in the Lancashire Drift. In August of this year I had an opportunity of travelling from Dumfries through Kirkcudbright to Wigtonshire, when I paid special attention both to the rocks
in situ
and to the boulders lying about the country, with the following results.

In Kirkcudbright there are two large and distinct masses of granite, rising through the Silurian strata, which generally rest nearly vertical and are repeated in fold after fold. The easternmost of these granite masses rises 1800 feet above the sea, and forms the grand isolated mountain called Criffel. The westernmost mass, occupying not less than 50 square miles, rises to 2331 feet in the mountain called Cairnsmore of Fleet, which is also an isolated granite boss; but the surrounding Silurians rise to a higher level than at Criffel. The Cairnsmore granite is of a coarser nature than that of Criffel; though in a vein at Creetown, no doubt connected underground with the main granitic mass, is a quarry, belonging to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, which has supplied for many years the granite used in the construction of the Liverpool Docks, which is of a more compact nature and finer grain.
All round Criffel in the low country and near the coast are to be found numerous granite boulders, all of them more or less rounded, and none showing marks of glaciation either by plane surfaces or striations. At Kirkbean I took chippings of several, which were used in the building of a field-wall; among them were a dark granite and a reddish-coloured granite, no doubt all variations of Griffel granite, and such as I could match from the Lancashire Drift. Close by a road-stone quarry in the Silurian Greywackes, about 5 miles S.E. of Dalbeattie, there were many boulders of a dark red granite, which I can also match by specimens from the Lancashire Drift; and I take these also to be local variations of the Criffel granite.
The Dalbeattie grey-granite quarries are also in the Criffel-granite mass, and I believe we have all these varieties of granite rocks in the Lancashire Drift.
Appendix C. Pisces
Authors: Newton E.T. 
Published: October 2009

In Mr. Headley’s collection were many teeth and other remains of fish. These were nearly all obtained from the sandy patches, and were in many cases much water-worn and rounded, being sometimes reduced to mere pebbles. Some, however, were quite unworn, and in an excellent state of preservation.
Nearly the whole of the remains of Fishes from Bridlington seem to be either Norwich-Crag, Red-Crag, or London-Clay forms. And seeing that so many of the Crag Vertebrata have been originally derived from the London Clay, it is quite possible that all the Bridlington Fishes have been derived directly from the Crags. I should doubt whether any of them were contemporaneous with the Bridlington deposits, and the mineral condition and polished surface of the specimens are characteristic of Crag fossils.
This would seem to point to the destruction of older Tertiary beds during the formation of the gravelly sand containing the arctic fauna.

Dr. S. P. Woodward, in a note to his list of shells in the ‘Geological Magazine,’ vol. i. p. 49, 1864, mentions the occurrence of
Platax Woodwardi
, sharks’ teeth, and an otolith resembling those of the Haddock. This is the only previous record of fish-remains from the bed known to me.
The Rocks of Guernsey
Authors: Hill E. 
Published: October 2009

A
t
the opening of this paper I desire to acknowledge my great obligations to Professor Bonney for his assistance throughout my investigations. I must also thank J. R. Cousins, Esq., of St. John’s College, Cambridge, for valuable help.

Little has hitherto been written on the geology of Guernsey which would be of much use to a visitor. Macculloch contributed a brief account to one of the earliest publications of this Society. Ansted’s book on the Channel Islands contains some remarks on its general features. There are two papers by Professor Liveing, with which in many respects I cannot agree, in the Cambr. Phil. Soc. Proc. vols. iii. and iv., and one by Mr. J. A. Birds in the Geol. Mag. for 1878, which contains some accurate observations. A few interesting but short papers on raised beaches and the like complete the literature of the subject. How scanty is the information furnished thereby may be imagined from the fact that not one of these publications contains a geological map; and the sketch map (Pl. XX.) which accompanies this paper is, so far as I know, the first which has ever been published.
Any map shows clearly enough the triangular shape of Guernsey, and with a glance at the scale of miles its dimensions can be easily estimated. But most maps do not even attempt to indicate the remarkable physical difference between the northern and southern parts. A spectator on the deck of a steamer approaching St. Peter’s Port sees on the