bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Functions of Local Circuits in Neocortex: Synchrony and Laminae
Authors: Connors Barry W. , Amitai Yael 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter focuses on one feature of the local cortical circuit that has been relatively neglected but which is particularly important and probably widespread. The neurons that provide output from the neocortex are largely found in layer V. This location alone makes it indispensable, but there are several other characteristics of structure and function that distinguish layer V. The basic hypothesis is that the neural network within layer V is uniquely capable of ordering, controlling, coordinating, and synchronizing the activity of the neocortex. The chapter outlines some reasons for proposing this hypothesis and speculates about its significance.
Pathophysiology of Cortical Synapses and Circuits
Authors: Schwartzkroin Philip A. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the cellular features of the epileptic brain that may be key to an understanding of mechanisms underlying the pathophysiological discharge. The major issues are reviewed in historical context to show how our views have evolved from electrophysiological analyses of epileptogenic cortical tissues. Intrinsic cellular and synaptic contributions to the abnormal activities are examined, and illustrations are drawn from studies of chronic animal models of the epilepsies.
Psychophysiological Recordings
Authors: Stern Robert M. , Ray William J. , Quigley Karen S. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Somatic responses such as heart rate and muscle potentials abound. Electrical activity can be recorded from the surface of the skin at any moment. Background electrical activity is always present and spontaneous changes in activity occasionally appear, even when it seems that an individual is relaxing or asleep. This makes the task of recording and correctly interpreting a subject's evoked response to a specific stimulus or situation a challenge. Most psychophysiological recordings can be analyzed in terms of three types of activity: spontaneous, tonic (background), and phasic (evoked responses). Tonic activity is often referred to as the background level or resting level of activity of a particular physiological measure, while phasic activity is a discrete response to a specific stimulus — an evoked response. What is referred to as spontaneous activity is in reality a change in physiological activity that occurs in the absence of any known stimuli.
Eyes: Pupillography and Electrooculography
Authors: Stern Robert M. , Ray William J. , Quigley Karen S. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Investigators have claimed that various responses of the eyes can be used to determine many things, from interest in sexual feelings to the relative degree of processing occurring in the brain. Some of the more common areas of research have included relating the size of the pupil to arousal and examining eye movements in relation to processes such as reading and dreaming. Of the various measures possible, psychophysiologists have been most interested in pupillography, or the measurement of the size of the pupils and eye movement. This chapter explores pupillography and electrooculography, a technique for studying the position of the eyes. The use of electrodes for psychophysiological recording of eye movements is also discussed.
Gastrointestinal Motility: Electrogastrography
Authors: Stern Robert M. , Ray William J. , Quigley Karen S. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The psychophysiology of the gastrointestinal system is a relatively unexplored area, in part due to the instrumentation and measurement problems of obtaining data from far inside this constantly changing many-meter-long system. Nevertheless, a number of studies of motor activity have been conducted, particularly in the more easily accessible two ends of the gastrointestinal tract, the esophagus and rectum, and also in the stomach. This chapter focuses on the motor activity of the stomach as measured with the noninvasive method of electrogastrography, a technique which records electrogastrograms (EGGs). EGGs reflect gastric myoelectrical activity as it is recorded from the abdominal surface with cutaneous electrodes. The physiological basis of EGGs is discussed, along with the psychophysiological recording procedure, typical recordings, common problems associated with EGGs, and analysis and quantification.
Developmental and Computational Approaches to Variation in Working Memory
Authors: Munakata Yuko , Morton J. Bruce , O'Reilly Randall C. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter considers the working memory processes that contribute to the ability to handle tasks and differences that lead to variations in these working memory processes. Two processes are focused on: active maintenance and information updating. They are important processes that other working memory processes are likely to tap into or build on. Computational models and behavioral studies are described to test the mechanisms subserving active maintenance and information updating. The overaching theory of working memory focuses on the computational mechanisms underlying the active maintenance and updating of information. Simulations made demonstrate computational trade-offs in active maintenance. They provide a strong computational foundation for our overall theory of working memory function. The main theme emphasized is that the grounding of constructs in neural mechanisms can provide important constraints on interpretations of behavioral findings of individual variability.
Cortical Neurophysiology in the 1950s
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Neurophysiology has changed radically since the late 1950s. In the cerebral cortex, early work was mainly concerned with localization of function, essentially a type of neuroanatomy that used clinical neurology and electrical stimulation and electrical recording. By the late 1950s, the topographic maps of the primary and secondary visual, auditory, and somatosensory receiving areas had been delineated electrically, in humans, cats, and monkeys. In vision, the most important topographic mapping had been done back in 1941 by Wade Marshall and Samuel Talbot, at Johns Hopkins. In the mid-1950s, the first single-cell studies of the visual cortex came from a group led by Richard Jung and his collaborator Günter Baumgartner in Freiburg. In the 1950s, most of the single-cell recordings from the sensory cortex were concerned with topography.
The New Department
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The first-ever Department of Neurobiology was launched in 1966, with Kuffler as the chairman. In the 1960s and 1970s, the main problem between Torsten and David concerned the question of continuing collaboration. Kuffler was puzzled over how to justify two senior appointments to the rest of the faculty, especially two people working in the same field. Around the time the new department was being formed, the dean of the medical school offered David the position as chairman of the Department of Physiology. He accepted because it offered an opportunity to build his own group. Certain awkward aspects of the arrangement soon became evident for his and Torsten's backgrounds were neurology and psychiatry, not physiology. He later recognized that he made a mistake, and resigned the job before doing the Department of Physiology and his research any irreparable harm.
Survey of the Monkey Lateral Geniculate Body—A Foray into Color
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a paper entitled “Spatial and Chromatic Interactions in the Lateral Geniculate Body of the Rhesus Monkey”. This paper represents the first effort in mammalian visual neurophysiology to examine the color sensitivities of the different spatial subdivisions of receptive fields. The study examined in detail how cells respond to variations in stimulus, size, shape, and wavelength. It explored the connections of rods and cones with single fourth-order cells by working in various states of light and dark adaptation. A wide variety of cell types were found to be present in the monkey geniculate. Some were concerned mainly with spatial variables, others with color, but most were able to handle both variables.
The First Three Kitten Deprivation Papers
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents the first three kitten deprivation papers entitled “Effects of Visual Deprivation on Morphology and Physiology of Cells in the Cat's Lateral Geniculate Body”, “Receptive Fields of Cells in Striate Cortex of Very Young, Visually, Inexperienced Kittens”, and “Single-Cell Responses in Striate Cortex of Kittens Deprived of Vision in One Eye”. The first paper describes single-unit recordings in the optic tract and lateral geniculate body of kittens in which one eye had been deprived of vision, and an anatomical examination of the visual pathways in these animals. The second paper describes single-unit recordings in the striate cortex of newborn kittens. The last paper deals with the responses of cells in the visual cortex of visually deprived animals.
The Siamese Cat
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a paper entitled “Aberrant Visual Projections in the Siamese Cat”. This study investigated the central pathway of Siamese cats and kittens, particularly the topographic projections of the retinas to areas 17 and 18 of the visual cortex, and the receptive-field properties and binocular interaction of cells in these areas. It confirmed Guillery's observation that the central visual pathway of the Siamese cat was highly abnormal, and they supported his idea that the abnormality consisted primarily of a mistake at the chiasm, with some optic fibers from the temporal retina crossing instead of remaining uncrossed.
Cells Grouped in Orientation Columns in Newborn Monkeys
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a paper entitled “Ordered Arrangement of Orientation Columns in Monkeys Lacking Visual Experience”. The main objective of the study was to see whether ordered sequences of orientation columns were present in very young visually naïve monkeys. Recordings were made from area 17 in two macaque monkeys whose eyes had been closed near the time of birth. The first monkey was born normally, but one day elapsed before eye closure could be done. The second was delivered by Caesarian section and the lids sutured shut immediately. The results in these two animals were very similar. In both, highly ordered sequences of orientation shifts were present, and were in no obvious way different from those seen in the adult. This indicated that the ordered column system was innately determined and not the result of early visual experience.
Due Process and Fair Procedures
Authors: Galligan D. J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractDue process is one of the most interesting and conceptually challenging areas of the common law, and in recent years there has been a major revival of interest in the sheer range and applicability of the term. In this book, the author offers a study of the underlying principles of due process and fair procedures, and sets the discussion within a broad comparative and theoretical framework. In landmark decisions such as Ridge v. Baldwin (1968) the courts in Britain and other parts of the Commonwealth have begun to recognize the importance of procedural fairness across a broad spectrum of official powers and decisions. Principles have begun to emerge, and yet the courts have not so far developed an approach that is entirely adequate to the task. In this book, the author traces the development of these principles within a framework which includes analysis and critique of legal developments in the major common law jurisdictions, and which relates these developments to similar ideas under both the European Convention on Human Rights and the American Constitution.
A Map of Procedures
Authors: Galligan D. J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter is a study of procedures: what they do and how they fit into a coherent picture. In their simplest form, procedures are the steps leading to a decision; they are the means for reaching a decision or other result. In a modern legal system, the range of legal decisions is considerable, but one common feature is that each tries to advance certain ends and goals. Legal decisions are in that sense purposive, and so the main point of procedures is to serve those purposes.
Procedural Fairness
Authors: Galligan D. J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines the notion of procedural fairness. It begins with a statement of the main features of procedural fairness and then moves on to a fuller analysis. Procedural fairness is then considered in its relationship to standards of fair treatment. Finally, the notions of fair treatment and procedural fairness are placed in their social context and a critique is offered of some of the empirical research into common perceptions of procedural fairness.
Consumer Accountability
Authors: Leigh Ian 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter deals with consumer accountability. It suggests that the development of consumerist devices was the most important legacy to democratic practices of the past two decades, although consumerism is best seen as a difference of emphasis, and not as a wide-scale theory of government. It examines the implications for local government of the Citizen's Charter and the statutory recognition of consumer choice, both individually and collectively, especially in the field of education. It places mechanisms for complaining about local services, both internal to local authorities and to the Local Ombudsman within a democratic context. A less generous lien of criticism sees consumerism as an attempt to increase the control of central government by imposing national standards or creating a direct relationship between users of local services and national bodies.
The Politics of Local Contracts
Authors: Leigh Ian 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter discusses the contractual powers of local authorities. It evaluates the courts' attitude to the interaction of politics and contract ‘contract compliance’, and the statutory exclusion of non-commercial criteria from contractual decision-making. Underlying these is a limited legal model of the role of local authorities, which sees their role purely as the effective or commercial delivery of services. This is quite at variance with aspects of the new vision of councils as community leaders. It is apparent that the consequence of applying public law principles to local government contracts has been the creation of a distinctive body of public contract law. The discussion suggests that the notion of commercial behaviour imposed on local government has in fact been a cover for a level of public control of public contracts.
In the Beginning: the International Geophysical Year
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter, written soon after the publication of the then highly exciting news that the United States and the Soviet Union were both going to launch the world’s first artificial earth satellites as part of their programmes for the International Geophysical Year (1 July 1957–1 December 1958), examines some of the international law problems which the forthcoming space age was likely to encounter. Topics discussed include the principle of airspace sovereignty, the definition of airspace, the upper limits of airspace, the legal status of outer space, and artificial satellites and space travel.
International Law and High Altitude Flights: Balloons, Rockets, and Man–made Satellites
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter, the appearance of which coincided with the launching of Sputnik I, assesses the legal aspects of the then raging controversy provoked by the release in the West of unmanned high altitude ‘meteorological’ balloons over various Soviet-bloc countries. These balloons, likened to miniature satellites, carried sophisticated photographic and other recording equipment, and were designed to fly over a number of Soviet-bloc countries, before landing their equipment and recordings somewhere in the Pacific or in North America. The controversy provided a foretaste of the disputes to come.
United Nations Resolutions on Outer Space: ‘Instant’ International Customary Law?
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The General Assembly of the United Nations has no legislative power. Nevertheless, two of its resolutions on outer space, resolution 1721A (XVI) of 20 December 1961 and resolution 1962 (XVIII) of 13 December 1963, have often been hailed as ‘the first chapter in the book of space law’. This chapter examines the legal status of these resolutions. It is hoped that, in doing so, some light may also be shed on the nature of the so-called international ‘customary’ law.
Definitional Issues in Space Law: ‘Space Objects’, ‘Astronauts’, and Related Expressions
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Much of international space law has been developed through the United Nations, principally in the form of the five treaties that it has drafted and presented to States for their acceptance. These are the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 27 January 1967 (the Space Treaty); the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space of 22 April 1968 (the Astronauts Agreement); the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects of 29 March 1972 (the Liability Convention); the Convention on Registration on Objects Launched into Outer Space of 14 January 1975 (the Registration Convention); and the Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 5 December 1979 (the Moon Treaty). Owing partly to the speed of the development of astronautics, and partly to a lack of co-ordination, some of the terms and phraseology used in these treaties are increasingly being seen as, if not exactly inconsistent, at least ambiguous, confusing, or inadequate. Among these terms are ‘space objects’ and ‘astronauts’, and some of their related expressions, such as ‘personnel of spacecraft’. This chapter seeks to unravel the meanings of these terms in international space law, especially in the context of the several treaties relating to outer space elaborated by the United Nations.
International Responsibility and Liability of States for National Activities in Outer Space, Especially by Non-governmental Entities
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Most States have subscribed to the principle, albeit by treaty, that States bear international responsibility for national activities in outer space, carried on whether by State agencies or by non-governmental entities, and international liability for damage caused by space objects launched by them or their components. This wholesale assumption of direct State responsibility and international liability for the acts of non-governmental entities is quite unprecedented. Since then, activities in outer space have long entered the era of exploitation and commercial use, including in particular commercial exploitation by non-governmental entities. The implications of this situation on the principle of direct international responsibility and liability for national activities in outer space appear to be still little appreciated. The legal position in any event is somewhat obscure, especially since not all the relevant multilateral treaties on outer space are necessarily consistent on the subject. It merits careful examination.
The Jurisprudence of the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal
Authors: Aldrich George H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The Iran–United States Claims Tribunal is the most important source of international arbitral decisions for at least the past half-century, and its decisions have contributed significantly to the development of international law and the law of international commercial transactions. This book is about the jurisprudence of the Tribunal. It seeks to preserve and to make accessible the substantial body of Awards and Decisions rendered by the Tribunal during the years since it was first established. The Tribunal’s hundreds of Awards and Decisions may be individually consulted (there are 27 volumes so far), but hitherto there has been no detailed analytical guide through its vast published work. This book provides a two-fold service. First, it quotes from the most significant Awards and Decisions at sufficient length so that both their substance and the reasoning of the Tribunal can be understood from access to the present volume alone. Second, it organizes and summarizes the decisions to facilitate finding complete texts relevant to any particular issue.
Introduction
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This book aims to preserve and to make accessible the substantial body of Awards and Decisions rendered by the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal during the years since its establishment in 1981. The jurisprudence of this extraordinary tribunal is of much broader interest than simply to the parties before it and the two governments that created it. While copies of its hundreds of Awards and Decisions may individually be purchased from the Tribunal and have been or are being published in the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal Reports, that set of many volumes is quite expensive and may not be widely available. The book attempts to accomplish its objectives in two ways: first, by quoting from the most significant Awards and Decisions at sufficient length; and secondly, by so organizing and summarizing them as to facilitate finding complete texts relevant to any particular issue.
Expropriations, Takings, and Deprivations of Property
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The Islamic Revolution that toppled the Shah of Iran and, in February 1979, saw the formation of the Islamic Republic gave rise to the expropriation claims presented to the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal. In those circumstances, various actions by the new Iranian authorities affected adversely the property interests of many Americans. It should also be noted that, by the time the first claims for expropriation or other takings of property began to be decided by the Tribunal in late 1983, the interference with property rights had endured for at least three years or more. Consequently, the often difficult question of when allegedly temporary interference with the rights of property owners should be considered to have ripened into a compensable taking or deprivation of those rights rarely troubled the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal. This chapter examines the Tribunal’s Decisions by drawing together holdings in different cases on the same or similar issues.
Evidentiary Issues
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The Algiers Declarations make no reference to rules of evidence, except as may be implicit in the general directive of Article 5 of the Claims Settlement Declaration that the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal ‘shall decide all cases on the basis of respect for law’. The Tribunal Rules, however, deal with the question of evidence in Article 24. While any party could request an opposing party to produce relevant, identified evidence, and the Tribunal could order such production, there was no means of enforcement available except for the Tribunal to draw adverse inferences from a failure to produce evidence that was evidently in the possession of that party. For all of these reasons, the Tribunal was inclined to accept as adequate proof of claims and defenses evidence that fell far short of what one might normally consider the best evidence, particularly when the Tribunal was satisfied that it was the best evidence available to the party.