bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Decision‐Making, Psychological Dimensions of Foreign Policy
Authors: Renshon Jonathan 
Published: November 2011

AbstractSocial scientists have long looked to psychology to help understand and explain political decision‐making. Sometimes psychological principles have been imported into theories of world politics (e.g., Morgenthau's notion of man's “urge to dominate”), but more often such inquiry has taken the form of the study of individual and group decision‐making. This subfield has varied over the years in its methods (from “process tracing” and qualitative analysis to experimental methods, and virtually everything in between) and in the focus of its attentions. As a result, a comprehensive review would fill several books. This article should therefore not be considered a complete review of the field of foreign policy decision‐making (hereafter, FPDM). Rather, it is a sample of some of the more persuasive and interesting avenues of research that have been prominent in recent years. It is hoped that this introduction will spur readers to seek out more information on these and other subjects within the field.
Disaster Research
Authors: Reyes Gilbert 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Groups of humans dedicate considerable effort to establishing stable and well‐regulated environments in which they have a combination of high security and access to resources that will serve them in achieving their goals. Disasters severely disrupt one or more of the systems that serve the human capacity for survival and prosperity, and people respond to disasters by dedicating extraordinary efforts toward reducing their most immediate harmful effects and then mobilizing a sustained strategic response for limiting the long‐term material damage and impairment of social and economic activities. Thus, disasters of whatever type severely disrupt the ability to regulate the environments, ensure stability and security, and maintain adequate access to life‐sustaining resources, and are therefore highly salient events of historical magnitude and importance. The role that disasters have played in human history and culture can be partially understood in these terms — that is, as events that reshape the physical, social, economic, and psychological landscapes and ecologies of their time. This is true in principle whether the cause of the disaster is perceived as natural, metaphysical (i.e., an act of God), human malevolence, human negligence, or some combination of these. While individuals and societies do in fact make very different meanings of these events and react accordingly to their explanatory models, the essential defining nature of disasters is located in their destructive and transformative effects, how these effects are distributed, and their consequences for humans and other life forms.
Ethical Considerations in Peace Psychology
Authors: Leach Mark M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The marriage of ethics and peace psychology is a natural one as they are both concerned with human rights, which are predicated on the promotion of positive, empathic, and egalitarian motivations. Peace psychology has a clear moral component and has been committed to advancing the decrease of violence and the promotion of nonviolence as well as pursuing social justice. It has transitioned from a post‐Cold War mentality to include a greater geohistorical context, inclusion of multiple levels of analysis, and increased understanding of multiple worldviews (Christie, Tint, Wagner, & Winter, 2008). Similar motivations emerge within professional ethics, regardless of discipline. The field of ethics has always been intimately connected with morality, and has promoted positive behaviors and attempted to avoid potentially damaging behaviors. It has recently become more globally aware of context, includes multiple levels of analyses, and has also begun to increase sensitivity to multiple cultures and worldviews. Global consciousness within psychological ethics has become increasingly prominent in recent years with the development of ethics codes for the international community. Psychology itself may be working toward an underlying morality on an international level.
Family Violence and Abuse
Authors: Mercurio Andrea E. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The field of family violence and abuse is multifaceted, complex, and still in its infancy. The notion of family violence has traditionally been understood as violence between and among members of an immediate family (e.g., a parent who strikes a child or a husband who hits his wife). The subfields of intimate partner violence (the preferred term for marital/spousal abuse) and child physical and sexual abuse have probably garnered the most scholarly attention. However, family violence and abuse takes diverse forms and researchers have begun to direct greater empirical efforts towards understanding the areas of child neglect, elder abuse, and sibling abuse; moreover, particularly in the United States, there is an increased focus on interpersonal violence that occurs outside the boundaries of conventional definitions of the family (e.g., violence between partners in same‐sex relationships).
Gender Inequality
Authors: Lott Bernice 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
This article is about gender, and the significant national and international social, economic, and political problems associated with inequality in status and resources between women and men. Sexual identification at birth appears to be universal across the globe, and this recognition of a baby's sexual category is followed everywhere by the development of gender — a socially constructed category of relationship to other human beings that characterizes all of us throughout our lives. Because the behaviors expected of girls and boys, women and men, are, for the most part, unrelated to the few biological imperatives or biological distinctions between the sexes, we use the word gender to refer to these human groups. Gender serves to organize social relations and interactions at the structural or institutional level as well as at the individual level, each of which reinforces the other. Gender incorporates culturally normative prescriptions and proscriptions with respect to behavior, expectations, and the designation of gender‐appropriate environments. Especially implicated in gender relationships is relative power, or access to resources. Almost universally, beliefs about gender reinforce men's privilege, as do the realities of daily life.
Peace, Positive and Negative
Authors: Galtung Johan 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Any concept of peace includes the absence of direct violence between states — engaged in by military and others — in general and the absence of massive killing of categories of humans in particular. All these absences of types of violence add up to negative peace; as by mutual isolation, unrelated by any structure and culture. This situation is better than violence, but it is not fully peaceful because positive peace is missing in this conceptualization. Indeed, peace would be a strange concept if it did not include relations between genders, races, classes, and families, and did not also include absence of structural violence, the nonintended slow, massive suffering caused by economic and political structures of exploitation and repression (Galtung, 1985); and if it excluded the absence of the cultural violence that legitimizes direct and/or structural violence (Galtung, 1990). Table 1 provides an overview of key terms about positive and negative peace.
Peace and Coexistence Programs in the Israeli–Palestinian and Middle East Context
Authors: Abu‐Nimer Mohammed 
Published: November 2011

AbstractIn the context of the Middle East, the majority of the peace psychology studies focus on the grassroots and elite intervention efforts to bring peace between Palestinian Arabs and Jews in Israel and in Palestine. Few studies have addressed the psychological factors related to peace in the Arab or larger Middle Eastern societies. Thus this essay will examine some of the possible contributions of these studies to a better understanding of Arab–Jewish relations in the region.
Prejudice Reduction, Approaches to
Authors: Paluck Elizabeth Levy 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The body of research on prejudice is one of the largest in psychology. Research on prejudice has flourished from the very start of the discipline, which has resulted in a wide range of theories, measurement tools, and approaches to the reduction of prejudice. Across these many different studies, prejudice is commonly understood to mean a negative bias toward a social category of people, with cognitive, affective, motivational, and behavioral components.
Anglo‐Burmese Wars (1823–1826, 1852–1853, 1885–1886)
Authors: Peers Douglas M. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThree wars were fought between the British and the kings of Burma over the course of the nineteenth century, with the Burmese surrendering large swaths of territory at the conclusion of each war. The third and final war of 1885–1886 concluded with the deposition and exile of King Thibaw and the imposition of direct British rule over what is now Myanmar. Politically, all three wars proved to be highly controversial. The first war was the most expensive campaign fought to date in India and nearly resulted in the recall of the governor general (it also became the subject of a G. A. Henty novel, a clear sign of its notoriety), the second war was thought by many contemporaries to be one of the least justified small wars of the Victorian era and was hotly debated in parliament, and while the military operations of the third war were short and decisive, the subsequent campaigns by the British to pacify their newly annexed lands lasted four years and were marked by considerable brutality, the consequences of which are still visible today in the dysfunctional nature of the Burmese state.
Anglo‐Dutch Wars (1652–1654, 1665–1667, 1672–1674, 1780–1784)
Authors: Sicking Louis 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Anglo‐Dutch Wars sprang from commercial and maritime conflict. Using its superior navy, England challenged Dutch primacy in world trade, which it had acquired since the 1590s. The ability of the Dutch Republic to neutralize England's capacity to damage its shipping and trade was a precondition to the survival of the Dutch global trading network (Israel 1992: 210). These were the dynamics that dominated the first three Anglo‐Dutch Wars. The Fourth Anglo‐Dutch War stands apart as it took place more than a century after, when the Dutch Republic was past its prime, but still possessed the third largest merchant fleet in the world.
Artillery
Authors: Dastrup Boyd L. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractDuring Operation Iraqi Freedom early in the twenty‐first century, American field artillery demonstrated its capability of being a precision weapon besides an area weapon of destruction as artillery had been for centuries. On September 9 and 10, 2005 the US army's B Battery, 3rd Battalion, 13th Field Artillery Regiment fired Guided Unitary Multiple‐Launch Rocket System rockets at Tal Afar, Iraq. Eight rockets destroyed two insurgent strongholds from a distance of fifty kilometers, killing 48 insurgents in the process. One day later, A Battery, 3rd Battalion, 13th Field Artillery shot six rockets at the Mish'al Bridge during Operation Sayaid to prevent insurgents in Al Anbar, Iraq, from using it. Both missions minimized collateral damage to almost non‐existent according to participants. Almost two years later on May 5, 2007, the 1st Cavalry Division conducted the first operational firing of the Excalibur Unitary, an extended‐range 155mm precision munition, when elements from the 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment teamed with the 1st Battalion, 82nd Field Artillery Regiment to destroy an insurgent safe house in Bagdad with one Excalibur round.
Aztec warfare
Authors: Francis J. Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The term Aztec generally refers to a group of people known as the Mexica who migrated into the Valley of Mexico in the mid‐thirteenth century. Finding the central valley already densely occupied, the Mexica struggled to find a place to settle. Despised by the region's other inhabitants, the Mexica roamed the central valley in search of a place to build a permanent home. Finally, in the Aztec calendar year 2 House (1325), the Mexica founded their capital city, Tenochtitlan (“Place of the cactus fruit”), which they built on a small island in the middle of a swamp. From these humble beginnings, the Mexica slowly emerged as the most powerful group in Mexico's central valley, with Tenochtitlan as the region's largest and most impressive city. In 1428 the Mexica entered into a formal military and economic alliance with the neighboring cities of Texcoco and Tlacopan. All three city‐states agreed not to wage war against each other and to cooperate in military conquests of other towns. All tribute generated through these conquests was to be divided among the three allies, with a 2/5 share for the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, 2/5 for Texcoco, and the remaining 1/5 share to Tlacopan. This Triple Alliance, as it has come to be called, is more commonly labeled the Aztec Empire.
Baybars
I
(1223–1277)
Authors: May Timothy 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Rukn al‐Din Baybars al‐Bunduqari (r. 1260–1277) was, without question, the most successful and perhaps most brilliant of the Mamluk sultans of Egypt and Syria. Brought into the Middle East as a slave, he emerged as a fierce scourge of the Crusaders and the kingdom of Cilicia (Little Armenia). In addition, he successfully defended Syria against the Mongols. His success lay not only in his cunning, but a series of military reforms that transformed the Mamluks into arguably the finest soldiers in the medieval world.
Brazilian Revolution (1930)
Authors: O'Neill Eoin 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

By the late 1920s, the political system in Brazil was characterized by an alternation of presidential power between the two largest states, São Paulo and Minas Gerais, commonly known as the “milk with coffee” system, due to the importance of these products in the two states. However, this succession system was broken by President Washington Luís, who was from São Paulo and insisted on selecting Júlio Prestes as the official candidate to replace him in the 1930 election, even though Prestes was also from São Paulo. Luís's decision alienated most of the political elite from Minas Gerais and other states, a rupture which the effects of the world economic crisis, especially on the coffee sector, further exacerbated. Another source of conflict was
tenentismo,
a political movement among lower‐ranking army officers aimed at democratizing the country and modernizing the armed forces. Although
tenentista
‐inspired revolts had been defeated in the 1920s, the movement continued to exert considerable influence on Brazilian political life. These conditions fueled the 1930 revolution, which resulted in the overthrow of the president of Brazil.
Bugeaud, Thomas‐Robert (1784–1849)
Authors: Tallett Frank 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Bugeaud is sometimes referred to as the father of colonial warfare. Between the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the outbreak of World War I, and with the important exception of the Franco‐Prussian conflict, most French military activity was conducted overseas. Bugeaud played a pivotal role in adapting warfare to the different conditions found in the colonial theater. His example, and the principles that he enunciated in his writings based upon his experience in Algeria, had a profound influence on subsequent generations of soldiers, including two other specialists in counterinsurgency, Gallieni and Lyautey.
Bushidō
Authors: Friday Karl 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Bushidō
(literally, “the way of the warrior”) is a perniciously emotion‐laden term. Both the word and the construct are most directly associated with the mores of the samurai during Japan's Tokugawa period (1600–1868), but this ethos is frequently averred to have derived directly from the values of medieval warriors, and to have guided the actions of the early twentieth‐century Japanese Imperial Army. All three assertions are, in fact, problematic.
Byzantine warfare
Authors: Haldon John 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe term “Byzantine Empire” refers to the eastern Roman Empire from the fourth (or sixth, as some prefer) century to the fifteenth century, that is to say, from the time when a distinctively East Roman political formation began to evolve with the recognition of the cultural divisions between “Greek East” and “Latin West” in the empire's political structure, to the fall of Constantinople on May 29, 1453, at the hands of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II “Fatih,” “the Conqueror.” And although within this long period there were many substantial transformations, the elements of structural continuity are marked enough to permit such a broad chronological definition. Across this period, the “empire” went through a series of major territorial transformations—in the middle of the sixth century it was still a pan‐Mediterranean state, stretching from southeastern Spain to the Great Syrian Desert, and from the Alps and Danube River in the north to the Atlas mountains and upper Egypt in the south. The Arab conquests and the loss of the Balkans reduced it by the 660s to a rump state consisting of central and western Anatolia, the Aegean basin, and some littoral territories in the southern Balkans. Stabilization across the eighth and ninth centuries, combined with a changed external political situation, permitted expansion and reconquest of substantial territories from Islamic powers in the East and from the Bulgarians in the Balkans during the tenth century, but this was followed in the later eleventh century by implosion and a further shrinkage under both internal social—economic pressures and that from the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia. Under the Comnenian Dynasty from the 1080s until the 1180s, the situation was stabilized and some territory recovered from the Turks in Asia Minor. But the Fourth Crusade in 1204 ended this, and for its remaining twilight years the greatly reduced Byzantine state was an empire in name only, more often than not tributary to one or another of its more powerful neighbors.
Caesar, Gaius Julius (100–44
BCE
)
Authors: Gilliver Kate 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman aristocrat, politician, and general who used his military success to gain political dominance during the closing years of the Roman Republic. His Gallic Wars represent one of the largest acquisitions of territory by a single Roman general and brought Caesar the wealth, prestige, and veteran army that allowed him to establish himself through force as dictator in Rome. Far‐reaching political and social reforms followed, until on the eve of leaving Rome for a campaign against the Parthians, Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy of former enemies and allies.
Caste War of Yucatán (1847–1901)
Authors: England Shawn 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Caste War of Yucatán began in 1847 as US forces occupied Mexico's capital and controlled vast stretches of the nation's northern territories. The southern Mexican state of Yucatán was similarly poised to fall, but not to foreign invaders. The term “caste” (castain Spanish) was derived from Spain's race‐based imperial hierarchy. The apex was occupied by European‐born Spaniards (peninsulares), followed closely by US‐born Spaniards (criollos). The burgeoning indigenous Maya population (castas) comprised the bottom of Yucatan's social pyramid and formed the backbone of the colonial labor force in that region.
Castro, Fidel (b. 1926)
Authors: England Shawn 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz was born on August 13, 1926, at Manacas, the Castro family's sugar and cattle estate in Oriente (now Hulguín) province, Cuba. He learned to read and write before the age of 5, and at age 16 he was sent to Havana's Belén College where he graduated in the top 10 percent of his class before attending law school at Havana University in 1945. Castro received a different sort of education in 1947 by taking part in an abortive scheme to invade the Dominican Republic and overthrow the dictator Rafael Leónidas Trujillo. This effort was carried out by the Caribbean Legion, an armed group of Latin American reformists inspired by the defeat of European fascism during World War II to similarly topple authoritarian regimes throughout the Caribbean.
Catherine
II
(“the Great”) (1729–1796)
Authors: Mikaberidze Alexander 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796, who expanded the Russian Empire and augmented its standing as one of the premier European powers in the late eighteenth century. Born on May 2, 1729 in Stettin (Prussia), she was the first daughter of Prince Christian August of Anhalt‐Zerbst (1690–1747) and Princess Johanna Elizabeth of Holstein‐Gottorp (1712–1760). A quirky and intelligent child, Sophia Augusta Fredericka received home education and read voraciously. In 1739 she was introduced to Prince Karl Peter Ulrich, the grandson of Emperor Peter I of Russia, at the court of Holstein‐Gottorp. Three years later the prince was invited to Russia, where his aunt Empress Elizabeth proclaimed him as her heir apparent and searched for an appropriate bride for him. Her choice finally settled on Princess Sophia, whose family and Frederick the Great of Prussia lobbied for her. In 1744 Sophia traveled to Russia, converted to Orthodoxy, and was renamed Catherine. A year later she married Peter, but the marriage proved to be unhappy largely due to the unstable personality of her husband, who might have suffered from impotency as well. Unlike her husband, Catherine quickly embraced Russian culture, mastered the language and customs, and sought friendships among the court elite.
C
harles
V
(Holy Roman Emperor) (1500–1558)
Authors: Bonney Richard 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Elected as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 at the age of 19, though crowned only in 1530, Charles V's territories were more extensive than those of any other ruler in Western Europe. At the height of his power around the year 1550, he ruled over 28 million or so of Europe's estimated population of 70 million.
Chichimecas War (1550–1590)
Authors: Tenace Edward 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The Chichimecas War was the direct result of the influx of Spanish settlers into the Gran Chichimeca following the discovery of rich silver deposits near Zacatecas in 1546. This region in north‐central Mexico, which straddled the jurisdictions of New Galicia and New Spain, and was situated in the middle of the two Sierra Madre chains, had long resisted control by the sedentary peoples of Mesoamerica. The Spaniards appropriated the Nahuatl word
Chichimecas
(the literal translation is “dirty uncivilized dogs”) to describe the semi‐nomadic peoples who inhabited the desert regions to the north. The ensuing “silver rush,” which saw the rise of the bonanza city of Zacatecas, situated in the northern region of the Gran Chichimeca, led the indigenous peoples to resist Spanish encroachment in their territory.
Civilians in War
Authors: Primoratz Igor 
Published: November 2011

AbstractWe think of war as a conflict between soldiers, who have been trained, armed, and commanded to fight. Normally, civilians are neither equipped with arms nor trained in their use and sent out to fight. Yet virtually all wars have involved not only military, but also civilian casualties. Civilians have been killed and injured and their property has been destroyed, often on a large scale. Some of this killing and destruction has been accidental, caused by actions of soldiers directed at military targets which, as their unintended, unforeseen, and indeed unforeseeable consequences, bring about harm to civilians. In other cases, the harming of civilians has been incidental: inflicted as an unintended but foreseen side‐effect of attacks on military targets. In still other cases, civilians have been deliberately attacked, whether as a way of attaining some war aims or for reasons that have nothing to do with those aims.