bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Inhibitory Mechanisms and the Control of Attention
Authors: Hasher Lynn , Lustig Cindy , Zacks Rose 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter focuses on a set of attentional or executive control processes, all inhibitory, that operate in the service of an individual's goals to narrow and constrain the contents of consciousness to be goal relevant. An uncluttered or narrowly focused “working memory,” rather than a large one, is the ideal processing system. The narrow focus maximizes the speed and accuracy of on-line processing because it reduces the likelihood of switching attention to goal-irrelevant representations. The work is similar to that of other investigations in its focus on executive processes as a critical source of working memory variation as well as variation in many cognitive domains. The emphasis on inhibitory processes may be the characteristic that most differentiates their work from others.
The Executive Is Central to Working Memory: Insights from Age, Performance, and Task Variations
Authors: Reuter-Lorenz Patricia A. , Jonides John 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter briefly describes inhibitory functions and the effects that variations in their efficiency can have on performance on a number of tasks with an emphasis on speed of processing and working memory. Executive processing is required in any working memory task just so long as information must be stored longer than a passive trace is retained. Any attentional process required during working memory engages a good part of the same neural machinery involved when information needs to be manipulated. Studies of monkeys and humans appear to converge on the idea that frontally mediated processes are critical for establishing more resilient representations in working memory. Studies of aging have also revealed the integrality of attentional and executive processing operations to tasks that are viewed as requiring only storage.
Recordings from Cat Prestriate Areas, 18 and 19
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a paper entitled “Receptive Fields and Functional Architecture in Two Nonstriate Visual Areas (18 and 19) of the Cat”. Its range was wide, encompassing topography, columnar architecture, physiological mapping, conventional Nissl, myelin, silver-degeneration (Nauta-method) histology, and receptive field-analysis. The study explored the cortex from medial to lateral in successive penetrations, covering from visual I into Talbot and Marshal's visual II, and then continuing into what was proved to be a third distinct topographically organized visual area lying lateral to the second, called “visual area III”. In analyzing visual II and III, it followed the usual procedure of describing cells in terms of their responses to visual stimulation, attempting at the same time to build up a picture of cortical architecture by comparing the behavior of neighboring cells, and of cells recorded in sequence, in long penetrations.
Recording Fibers in the Cat Corpus Callosum
Authors: Hubel David H. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter presents a paper entitled “Cortical and Callosal Connections Concerned with the Vertical Meridian of Visual Fields in the Cat”. The study made simultaneous recordings from visual areas in the two hemispheres, looking for possible overlap between the receptive fields of cells on the two sides. It also recorded fibers directly from the corpus callosum and examined to what extent they were preoccupied with the vertical meridian. The findings suggest that certain fibers in the corpus callosum link cells whose fields are close together but lie on opposite sides of the vertical meridian. These fibers seem to serve the same functions as intracortical fibers linking cells with the receptive fields clustered in more outlying parts of the visual fields.
An End to the Horror: Trusts on Intestacy
Authors: JOHNSTON DAVID 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
In Roman law, legacies and wills were always encountered together since legacies could not be given without a will first being produced. In contrast to such arrangements, trusts could be issued without having to establish a will, and were thus perceived to be valid under situations of intestacy in testamentary succession. Some of the implications of such trusts entailed how intestate succession involved how the beneficiaries were determined by civil law's residual rules instead of being dictated by the deceased. Since intestate heirs succeed through lex or through the authority imposed by law instead of the wishes of the testator, intestate heirs were then referred to as legitimi. This chapter mainly explores how trusts bring about disruptions to the described conventional patterns. Also, it looks into how having no proof or will can sometimes be problematic, while also examining the principles on which, through intestacy, trusts could be charged on the heirs.
Procedural Fairness in Europe: The European Convention on Human Rights and the European Union
Authors: Galligan D. J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter discusses the approach taken to procedural fairness within the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and the European Union. The provision for procedural fairness is made in Article 6(1) of the ECHR. The approached expressed in this Article has the same logical pattern as English and American law: the first part imposes a threshold test which must be met in order to attract certain procedures, while the second part states what those procedures are. In the constitutional documents of the European Union, little is said about procedures and even less about procedural fairness. Apart from the duty of the Commission to give reasons for certain of its actions pursuant to the EEC Treaty, procedural matters are left largely to be dealt with either in subordinate legislation by way of regulations of directives, or by the European Court in developing the legal principles of the Union.
Procedural Fairness in the Policy Process
Authors: Galligan D. J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter examines those administrative processes that settle or make recommendations about matters of policy. It identifies different forms of policy making and places the process in a wider context. It then moves from the descriptive features of the policy process to the normative standards which guide it. The main objective of the chapter is to develop a notion of procedural fairness in relation to administrative policy making, which in turn depends on articulating the standards of fair treatment of persons and groups.
Executive Structures
Authors: Leigh Ian 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter presents an overview of the legal framework for decision-making through delegation to committees and officers. It then considers the strains on this framework in the position of ‘backbench’ councillors and ‘hung’ councils, and from the introduction of a compulsory competitive tendering (CCT). It lastly considers the question of political leadership and current form of executive structures, including the introduction of cabinets and of directly elected mayors. It considers the argument that the roles of backbench councillors and the political elite should be strengthened by providing a clearer separation of them.
Local Government, Business, and Partnership
Authors: Leigh Ian 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter addresses the development of the concept of ‘enabling authority’. It examines the narrow version of enabling, involving the introduction of competitive tendering before looking at the more recent broader aspects, such as partnership with voluntary and private bodies and local quangos. The discussion shows how ideas of how a local authority should relate to the community have changed radically in two decades. The notion of ‘enabling’, with an emphasis on the means by which services were provided, has given way to the idea of community leadership.
The 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter details the events leading up to the ratification of the 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects. It took the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space nine years from 1962 to 1971 to produce an agreement on international liability for damage caused by the launching of objects into space. The text of the draft convention elaborated by its Legal Sub-Committee and transmitted by it to the General Assembly of the United Nations was in due course endorsed by the latter in its resolution 2777 (XXIV) on 29 November 1971, and opened for signature at London, Moscow, and Washington on 29 March 1972. The Convention received its fifth ratification on 1 September 1972 and, in accordance with its Article XXIV (3), entered into force on the same date. The Convention contains 28 articles. There is what may be called an Optional Clause in Article XIX, at least as interpreted in paragraph 3 of General Assembly resolution 2777 (XXVI). Some States have acted upon this interpretation and made declarations accepting in advance the decision of the Claims Commission under the Convention as binding.
Outer Space: The International Legal Framework—the International Legal Status of Outer Space, Space Objects, and Spacemen
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Space law, as it now exists, is not an independent legal system. It is merely a functional classification of those rules of international law and of municipal law relating to outer space, natural or man-made objects in outer space, spacemen, and man’s activities in outer space. This chapter focuses on those rules of public international law which, by defining the legal status of outer space, space objects and spacemen, provide the international legal framework for the activities of States and of their astronauts in outer space.
The Legal Regime of Airspace and Outer Space: the Boundary Problem Functionalism versus Spatialism: the Major Premises
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter goes back to the very fundamentals of international law in the hope that this will enable us to understand better the major premises of both spatialism and functionalism, and thus to see the problem of a boundary between airspace and outer space in a clearer perspective. If it is remembered that the geographical or cosmographical scope of international law is unlimited, it will then become apparent that the question of a limit between outer space and territorial space, even at the threshold of the space age, would be governed already by the lex lata, however vague and uncertain this may be. This point does not appear, however, to be always fully realized.
Legal Status of Spacecraft, Satellites, and Space Objects*1
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter discusses the legal status of spacecraft, satellites, and space objects. Spacecraft and space vehicles appear to have been treated as synonymous terms in treaties relating to outer space concluded under the auspices of the United Nations. None of the treaties relating to outer space concluded under the auspices of the United Nations has occasion to refer to artificial earth satellites, although the Preamble of the Moon Treaty does mention the ‘moon, as a natural satellite of the earth’. The term space object designates any object which humans launch, attempt to launch, or have launched into outer space. It embraces satellites, spacecraft, space vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations, installations and other constructions, including their components, as well as their launch vehicles and parts thereof.
Definitional Issues in Space Law: the ‘Peaceful Use’ of Outer Space, including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Insofar as definitional issues in space law are concerned, there is one the present development of which gives rise to grave anxiety. This is the definition of the term ‘peaceful’, particularly as used in Article IV(2) of the 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Celestial Bodies (Space Treaty), and Article 3(a) of the 1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Moon Treaty). The current development, if unchecked, can produce serious consequences in many fields of international law. It, therefore, deserves wide attention and discussion, which should not be confined merely to the specialists.
Communications Satellites
Authors: Cheng Bin 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter outlines the major institutional as well as legal problems involved in the use of communications satellites for commercial or instructional purposes, especially those in the organization and activities of INTELSAT. These activities break new grounds, inasmuch as they constitute the first experiment in the commercial exploitation of the resources of outer space. The experience gained in this first experiment is bound to have an important effect on the future development of space law, which must henceforth concern itself not only with the provision of a legal framework for scientific exploration, but also with ensuring that in the exploitation of the natural resources of outer space and celestial bodies the welfare of mankind and of nations large and small is safeguarded.
Jurisdictional Issues
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Every tribunal has some limits to its jurisdiction, and international tribunals frequently have more limited grants of jurisdiction than domestic tribunals. Thus, it should not be surprising that the decisions of the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal with respect to the extent of its jurisdiction were numerous and that a great many claims and counterclaims submitted to it were dismissed for lack of jurisdiction. The Tribunal’s jurisdiction was in some respects quite broad, particularly in the types of obligations covered, in the acceptance of jurisdiction over claims owned indirectly through foreign juridical persons. Nevertheless, the limitations set forth in the Accords were also significant, particularly those relating to nationality, the requirement that the claims must have been outstanding at the date of the Accords, the several specific exclusions from jurisdiction, and the limitations imposed on counterclaims.
Claims and Disputes between the Two Governments
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the decisions of the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal on two special types of cases: disputes between Iran and the United States as to the interpretation of or compliance with the terms of the Algiers Declarations; and the large Iranian contractual claim against the United States Department of Defense. Jurisdiction over these cases was reserved to the Full Tribunal. In addition, Article 6, Paragraph 4 of the Claims Settlement Declaration gave the Tribunal jurisdiction over ‘any question concerning the interpretation or application of this Agreement’ when requested by either Government. While the other official claims were eventually distributed among the Chambers, Case No. B1 was reserved to the Full Tribunal because of the magnitude of the claims included within that statement of claim.
The Basic Organizing Distinctions of Current Law
Authors: Robinson Paul H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter describes the basic organising distinctions of current law. The most basic of this organising distinction is between offences and defences, but that distinction is problematic when one examines how current law actually operates. It also discusses the current operational structure. Most criminal law doctrines operate in one of three ways. First, a doctrine may define what constitutes an offence. Secondly, a doctrine may define the conditions under which an actor will be acquitted even though he satisfies the elements of an offence. As noted, such a doctrine typically is called a defence, and perhaps more accurately is called a general defence. Thirdly, a doctrine may define the conditions under which an actor will be held liable even though he does not satisfy the elements of an offence — the reverse of a defence. Within each of these three groups of doctrines, the law relies upon a variety of other organising distinctions.
Offence Requirements
Authors: Robinson Paul H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The most basic organising distinction of offence requirements in current law has been the actus reus-mens rea distinction. This chapter specifically starts by exploring the weaknesses of and the potential for confusion in the use of that distinction. It also recommends that use of the distinction be abandoned. It then offers as a replacement an alternative three-part conceptualisation of offence requirements, distinguishing what it calls objective, culpability, and act — omission requirements. Each of these three groups of doctrines is then examined. The current conceptualisation of each is summarised and refinements of it suggested. The actus reus-mens rea distinction reflects no discernible underlying concept; neither ‘actus reus’ requirements nor ‘mens rea’ requirements share a common characteristic or function. Moreover, it argues that current conceptualisation is flawed in two respects.
General Defences
Authors: Robinson Paul H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter argues that current conceptualisations hide significant fundamental distinctions between defences and between defence groups, and that this obscuration distorts the theories and formulation of defences. It also argues that better conceptualisation and a more accurate reflection of how current law actually operates would instead recognize five groups of defences. In addition, it takes up these groups of defences in reverse order: non-exculpatory defences, excuses, and then justifications. Moreover, it examines more closely at each of these groups: how each group differs from the other groups, the existence of distinguishable subgroups within a group, the shared theory and structure of the defences within the group, and a critique of current formulations. It then briefly signals some of the highlights of these discussions. To summarise, current law adopts the terminology of a ‘reasons’ theory of justification: an actor is justified if the actor believes the conduct is justified; the actual nature of the deed is irrelevant.
A Functional Analysis of Criminal Law
Authors: Robinson Paul H. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter discusses how most current criminal law doctrines contain aspects that perform different functions. The first two purposes of the provisions governing the definition of offences embody the rule articulation function, the second two the liability assignment function, and the last the grading function. This chapter specifically analyzes current criminal law doctrine in terms of these three functions, and demonstrates that one can distinguish specific doctrines as serving specific functions. It is noted that the incomplete conduct (‘substantial step’) dealt with under subsection (1)(c) of the Model Penal Code's attempt provision requires a future conduct intention.
Introduction
Authors: Bell John 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
There is currently significant concern in constitutional reform in the United Kingdom, especially in the protection of fundamental rights, relations between central and local government, and the electoral system. This book provides an account of an alternative model that is, in many ways, far closer to the United Kingdom than many common law jurisdictions, particularly those of federal countries. France is a unitary state that, until recently, was a fervent believer in parliamentary sovereignty and the unacceptability of judicial review of legislation. This book also concentrates on the role of law in the Constitution, and the way in which this affects the structure of government. The book is divided into two parts: Part One sets out the basic institutions and principles of the 1958 Constitution; Part Two consists of a selection of constitutional texts and materials, together with a number of important decisions of the Conseil constitutionnel. An overview of the chapters in this book is given.
Parliamentary Procedure
Authors: Bell John 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter explores another major change, the principles governing parliamentary procedure and thus the political power of Parliament. It starts by presenting the sources of rules on parliamentary procedure. Measures with financial implications may not always be permissible in a budget; the Conseil constitutionnel has reduced its function to the raising of revenue and the authorization of immediate expenditure. The use of a referendum to pass legislation constitutes both the low point of the review operated by the Conseil and the greatest abuse of procedure in the Fifth Republic. The United Kingdom is used, as the French were, to political control of parliamentary procedure being exercised through the Speaker. But the French experience is that the most frequent task of the Conseil is to protect Parliament against dictatorship by the executive.
Theodosius I: The First Decade (379–388)
Authors: Honoré Tony 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter discusses the first analysis of the laws in the Theodosian dynasty, specifically those of Theodosius I. The laws enacted by Theodosius I are treated as part of the Eastern series though in 388–91 and again in 394–5 he remained in the West after he defeated Maximus and Eugenius. The laws that are dealt with and discussed in this chapter are those from the first decade of Theodosius I's government.
Honorius: The Ravenna Period (402–423)
Authors: Honoré Tony 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter discusses the laws that were enacted during the Ravenna Period. From the time the imperial court moved to Ravenna until Honorius' death, excerpts survive from 199 constitutions and are drawn from 260 texts. These excerpts are mainly preserved in the Theodosian Code and also include ten from the Sirmodian constitutions.
Valentinian III and Galla Placidia (425–437)
Authors: Honoré Tony 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter discusses the laws enacted by Valentinian III, the nephew of Honorius. Even though he was only four when his uncle died, a number of laws were enacted in his name when the imperial party was at Aquileia. There was a group of five constitutions issued there in the name of Theodosius as Augustus and Valentinian as Caesar.
Foreword Why Philosophy Matters to Tort Law
Authors: OWEN DAVID G. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The collection of essays in this book provides an expansive philosophic view of tort law issues by many of the scholars who have helped develop the discipline in its recent emergence from the mists of academic obscurity to its present position as a neo-quasi-discipline of its own. The philosophy of tort law in some ways is very old. As revealed in several of the essays here, philosophical examination of tort law problems is conventionally traced to Aristotle’s discussion of corrective justice in Nicomachean Ethics written some 2,500 years ago. Then, in 1982 and 1983, a critical mass developed when a number of scholars, including Jules Coleman, Ernest Weinrib, and George Fletcher, offered a variety of diverse views on tort law and philosophy in law and philosophy. This was an important event in the evolution of tort.