bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Wittgenstein and Frege
Authors: Kienzler Wolfgang 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In the Preface to Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, Ludwig Wittgenstein acknowledges his debt to ‘the great works of Gottlob Frege’; and even during the years in which he resigned from doing philosophy Wittgenstein directed others to read Frege, even when he himself did not continue to do so. This article describes Wittgenstein and Frege's personal relationship and examines how much we know about the extent to which Wittgenstein studied Frege's work. It gives a systematic account of Frege's most basic approach and compares it to some suggestions by Cora Diamond. Frege's mature logical system is organized around the basic distinction between function and object. Wittgenstein's fundamental insight that the language of logic and mathematics works in a totally different way from the language of empirical statements organizes his Tractatus. Frege, on the other hand, develops a model where all statements, whether they be empirical, logical, or mathematical, are fashioned on one and the same basic pattern, namely, that of function and argument, supplemented by sense and reference.
The Proposition's Progress
Authors: Travis Charles 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
This article explores Ludwig Wittgenstein's views on the proposition by tracing a path, in steps, from Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus to Philosophical Investigations. It focuses on one intermediate step, found in Philosophical Grammar. As things now stand, a language unfolds the notions proposition and truth. In one way among indefinitely many it adds enough content to these notions for there to be an extension for ‘is a proposition’ and for ‘is either true or false’. Its grammar provides this content. Still bracketing conflict between grammar and logic, there is no perspective from outside a language from which its grammar is criticisable. The idea of language-games as objects of comparison gives the parochial a certain purchase on thought and its objects. Among other things, the parochial gains a role in how logic applies to thought, which raises questions about Gottlob Frege's conception of logic's distance from psychology.
Very General Facts of Nature
Authors: Hertzberg Lars 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In Philosophical Investigations §415, Ludwig Wittgenstein gives what appears to be a general characterisation of his method in philosophy: ‘What we are supplying are really remarks on the natural history of human beings; we are not contributing curiosities however, but observations which no one has doubted, but which have escaped remark only because they are always before our eyes’. This article argues that this remark points to quite an important dimension of Wittgenstein's later thought, a dimension that has largely been bypassed or underplayed (perhaps even by Wittgenstein himself). It concerns the importance, for our way of thinking about language, of recognising the ways in which the language we speak is contingent on the circumstances of our lives. In Philosophical Investigations, II, xii, Wittgenstein is contrasting two approaches to the dependence of our concepts on facts of nature. From large parts of Philosophical Investigations one may get the impression that the recognition problem is the central issue where language learning is concerned.
Wittgenstein on Criteria and The Problem Of Other Minds
Authors: Witherspoon Edward 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In Philosophical Investigations, Ludwig Wittgenstein explores the grammar of our concepts — especially the grammar of concepts that describe the mind — by looking at the grounds on which we apply them. Wittgenstein usually employs the term ‘criteria’ for the grounds on which we apply a concept, so we may say that a major aim of Wittgenstein's philosophical enterprise is to understand and clarify the logic of psychological concepts through an examination of their criteria. This article examines two very different interpretations of Wittgenstein on criteria. The first reader is Rogers Albritton, who interprets criteria as conventions linking behaviour with mental states. The second is John McDowell, who identifies the defects of that approach and offers a radically different way of thinking about criteria of mental concepts. The article concludes by arguing that Wittgenstein's remarks about criteria are a crucial part of his critique of skepticism.
Wittgenstein on Intuition, Rule-Following, and Certainty: Exchanges with Brouwer and Russell
Authors: Gennip Kim van 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
This article focuses on the debate on perception or intuition between Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein as constructed largely from ‘The Limits of Empiricism’ and ‘Cause and Effect: Intuitive Awareness’. In consulting several Nachlass items as written in 1935–1936, it shows, first, that Wittgenstein puts forward a detailed criticism of Russell's account of perception, as Russell presents it in the context of a discussion on causation. This criticism is interesting in that it leads up to an account of knowledge and certainty that foreshadows the position known from On Certainty. In addition, the article demonstrates that a crucial element in Wittgenstein's critique of Russell is similar to his critique of L. E. J. Brouwer's intuitionist stance in mathematics, a criticism that Wittgenstein expressed in the early 1930s. Russell presents an account of the relation between sense experience and knowledge that should produce propositions functioning as examples of our most immediate knowledge.
The Development of Wittgenstein's Philosophy
Authors: Kuusela Oskari 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In the Preface to Philosophical Investigations, Ludwig Wittgenstein distinguishes between two aspects of the relation of his later work to his early philosophy, and between two senses in which knowledge of his early work can help in the interpretation of his later philosophy. On the one hand, he suggests that his later philosophy can ‘be seen in the right light only...against the background’ of his ‘old way of thinking’. Presumably this is so because the later work develops further certain ideas that were present already in Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus and make Wittgenstein's philosophy a distinctive contribution to the tradition of philosophy. A proper grasp of the way in which Wittgenstein seeks to correct his early view of logic and language in his later philosophy requires understanding the development of his conception of philosophy and its methodology.
Writing Philosophy as Poetry: Literary form in Wittgenstein
Authors: Perloff Marjorie 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Ludwig Wittgenstein, hoping, in 1919, to persuade Ludwig von Ficker, the editor of the literary journal Der Brenner, to publish his controversial Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, remarked, ‘The work is strictly philosophical and at the same time literary’. In Tractatus, Wittgenstein concerns himself with tautology: ‘the fact that the propositions of logic are tautologies shows the formal — logical — properties of language, of the world’. In the much-cited Preface to Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein describes the method whereby he ordered the ‘remarks, short paragraphs, of which there is sometimes a fairly long chain about the same subject’ into the larger structure of the book. Wittgenstein's writings enact their central motive: words and phrases can be understood only in their particular context, their use. Not what one says but how one says it is the key to doing philosophy. And that, of course, is what makes it poetry as well.
Visual Tracking of Plant Virus Infection and Movement Using a Reporter MYB Transcription Factor That Activates Anthocyanin Biosynthesis
Authors: Bedoya Leonor C. , Martínez Fernando , Orzáez Diego , Daròs José-Antonio 
Published: January 2012

AbstractInsertion of reporter genes into plant virus genomes is a common experimental strategy to research many aspects of the viral infection dynamics. Their numerous advantages make fluorescent proteins the markers of choice in most studies. However, the use of fluorescent proteins still has some limitations, such as the need of specialized material and facilities to detect the fluorescence. Here, we demonstrate a visual reporter marker system to track virus infection and movement through the plant. The reporter system is based on expression of Antirrhinum majus MYB-related Rosea1 (Ros1) transcription factor (220 amino acids; 25.7 kD) that activates a series of biosynthetic genes leading to accumulation of colored anthocyanins. Using two different tobacco etch potyvirus recombinant clones tagged with Ros1, we show that infected tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) tissues turn bright red, demonstrating that in this context, the sole expression of Ros1 is sufficient to induce pigment accumulation to a level readily detectable to the naked eye. This marker system also reports viral load qualitatively and quantitatively by means of a very simple extraction process. The Ros1 marker remained stable within the potyvirus genome through successive infectious passages from plant to plant. The main limitation of this marker system is that color output will depend on each particular plant host-virus combination and must be previously tested. However, our experiments demonstrate accurate tracking of turnip mosaic potyvirus infecting Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) and either tobacco mosaic virus or potato X virus infecting Nicotiana benthamiana, stressing the general applicability of the method.
TsHKT1;2, a HKT1 Homolog from the Extremophile Arabidopsis Relative Thellungiella salsuginea, Shows K+ Specificity in the Presence of NaCl
Authors: Ali Zahir , Park Hyeong Cheol , Ali Akhtar , Oh Dong-Ha , Aman Rashid , Kropornicka Anna , Hong Hyewon , Choi Wonkyun , Chung Woo Sik , Kim Woe-Yeon , Bressan Ray A. , Bohnert Hans J. , Lee Sang Yeol , Yun Dae-Jin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Cellular Na+/K+ ratio is a crucial parameter determining plant salinity stress resistance. We tested the function of plasma membrane Na+/K+ cotransporters in the High-affinity K+ Transporter (HKT) family from the halophytic Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) relative Thellungiella salsuginea. T. salsuginea contains at least two HKT genes. TsHKT1;1 is expressed at very low levels, while the abundant TsHKT1;2 is transcriptionally strongly up-regulated by salt stress. TsHKT-based RNA interference in T. salsuginea resulted in Na+ sensitivity and K+ deficiency. The athkt1 mutant lines overexpressing TsHKT1;2 proved less sensitive to Na+ and showed less K+ deficiency than lines overexpressing AtHKT1. TsHKT1;2 ectopically expressed in yeast mutants lacking Na+ or K+ transporters revealed strong K+ transporter activity and selectivity for K+ over Na+. Altering two amino acid residues in TsHKT1;2 to mimic the AtHKT1 sequence resulted in enhanced sodium uptake and loss of the TsHKT1;2 intrinsic K+ transporter activity. We consider the maintenance of K+ uptake through TsHKT1;2 under salt stress an important component supporting the halophytic lifestyle of T. salsuginea.
Vegetation analysis, phenological patterns and chorological affinities in Wadi Qena, Eastern Desert, Egypt
Authors: Salama Fawzy M. , Ahmed Mohamed K. , El‐Tayeh Noha A. , Hammad Sabah A. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe present study, which was conducted between 2009 and 2010, provides an analysis of the floristic composition, life forms, phenology, chorological spectrum and analysis of the vegetation in the deltaic part of Wadi Qena using multivariate analysis techniques. Twenty‐five stands were sampled to represent, as much as possible, the vegetation variation in the study area. A total of 54 species (nineteen annuals and 35 perennials) belonging to 47 genera and nineteen families were recorded. The largest families were Fabaceae and Brassicaceae (nine and seven, respectively), Asteraceae and Poaceae (six for each), Chenopodiaceae (five), and Zygophyllaceae (four). Therophytes are the predominant life form (37%) followed by chamaephytes (24%), phanerophytes (18.5%), hemicryptophytes (9.29%) and cryptophytes (5.5%). Chorological analysis revealed that Saharo‐Arabian (48%) and the Sudano‐Zambezian (19.2%) chorotypes constitute the main bulk (67.2%) of the total flora of the studied area. The majority of the perennial species behave similarly to each other in their phenology, and usually perennials sprout at the end of February, become leafy in March, flower in April and produce fruits between April and July. Three main vegetation groups resulted from classification of the dominant vegetation. Canonical correspondence analysis revealed that magnesium, potassium and pH were the most effective soil variables.
Combination of nifedipine and subtherapeutic dose of cyclosporin additively suppresses mononuclear cells activation of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and normal individuals via Ca2+–calcineurin–nuclear factor of activated T cells pathway
Authors: Lai N-S , Yu C-L , Yin W-Y , Yu H-C , Huang H-B , Tung C-H , Lu M-C 
Published: January 2012

Summary
Abnormal Ca2+-mediated signalling contributes to the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, the potential implication of calcium channel blocker in RA remained unknown. We hypothesized that nifedipine, an L-type calcium channel blocker, combined with a calcineurin inhibitor, could suppress T cell activation via targeting different level of the Ca2+ signalling pathway. The percentage of activated T cells and the apoptotic rate of mononuclear cells (MNCs) was measured by flow cytometry. The MNC viability, cytokine production, cytosolic Ca2+ level and activity of the nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The NFAT-regulated gene expression, including interleukin (IL)-2, interferon (IFN)-γ and granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), was measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). We found that the percentage of activated T cells in anti-CD3 + anti-CD28-activated MNC was higher in RA patients. High doses of nifedipine (50 µM) increased MNCs apoptosis, inhibited T cell activation and decreased T helper type 2 (Th1) (IFN-γ)/Th2 (IL-10) cytokine production in both groups. The Ca2+ influx was lower in anti-CD3 + anti-CD28-activated MNC from RA patients than healthy volunteers and suppressed by nifedipine. When combined with a subtherapeutic dose (50 ng/ml) of cyclosporin, 1 µM nifedipine suppressed the percentage of activated T cells in both groups. Moreover, this combination suppressed more IFN-γ secretion and NFAT-regulated gene (GM-CSF and IFN-γ) expression in RA-MNCs than normal MNCs via decreasing the activity of NFATc1. In conclusion, we found that L-type Ca2+ channel blockers and subtherapeutic doses of cyclosporin act additively to suppress the Ca2+-calcineurin-NFAT signalling pathway, leading to inhibition of T cell activity. We propose that this combination may become a potential treatment of RA.
Effect of light stress from phytoplankton on the relationship between aquatic vegetation and the propagule bank in shallow lakes
Authors: ARTHAUD FLORENT , MOUSSET MATHILDE , VALLOD DOMINIQUE , ROBIN JOËL , WEZEL ALEXANDER , BORNETTE GUDRUN 
Published: January 2012

Summary1. The way light stress controls the recruitment of aquatic plants (phanerogams and charophytes) is a key process controlling plant biodiversity, although still poorly understood. Our aim was to investigate how light stress induced by phytoplankton, that is, independent from the aquatic plants themselves, determines the recruitment and establishment of plant species from the propagule bank. The hypotheses were that an increase in light stress (i) decreases abundance and species richness both of established aquatic plants and of propagules in the bank and (ii) decreases the recruitment success of plants from this bank.2. These hypotheses were tested in 25 shallow lakes representing a light stress gradient, by sampling propagule banks before the recruitment phase and when the lakes are devoid of actively growing plants (i.e. at the end of winter), established vegetation at the beginning of the summer and phytoplankton biomass (chlorophyll a) during the recruitment and establishment phase.3. The phytoplankton biomass was negatively correlated with the richness and abundance of established vegetation but was not correlated with the propagule bank (neither species richness nor propagule abundance). The similarity between the propagule bank and established vegetation decreased significantly with increasing phytoplankton biomass.4. The contrast in species composition between the vegetation and the propagule bank at the highest light stress suggests poor recruitment from the propagule bank but prompts questions about its origin. It could result from dispersal of propagules from neighbouring systems. Propagules could also originate from a persistent propagule bank formerly produced in the lake, suggesting strong year‐to‐year variation in light stress and, as a consequence, in recruitment and reproductive success of plants.
Differential regulation of acid sphingomyelinase in macrophages stimulated with oxidized low‐density lipoprotein (LDL) and oxidized LDL immune complexes: role in phagocytosis and cytokine release
Authors: Truman Jean‐Philip , Al Gadban Mohammed M. , Smith Kent J. , Jenkins Russell W. , Mayroo Nalini , Virella Gabriel , Lopes‐Virella Maria F. , Bielawska Alicja , Hannun Yusuf A. , Hammad Samar M. 
Published: January 2012

SummaryOxidized low‐density lipoprotein (oxLDL) and oxLDL‐containing immune complexes (oxLDL‐IC) contribute to the formation of lipid‐laden macrophages (foam cells). Fcγ receptors mediate uptake of oxLDL‐IC, whereas scavenger receptors internalize oxLDL. We have previously reported that oxLDL‐IC, but not free oxLDL, activate macrophages and prolong their survival. Sphingomyelin is a major constituent of cell membranes and lipoprotein particles and acid sphingomyelinase (ASMase) hydrolyses sphingomyelin to generate the bioactive lipid ceramide. ASMase exists in two forms: lysosomal (L‐ASMase) and secretory (S‐ASMase). In this study we examined whether oxLDL and oxLDL‐IC regulate ASMase differently, and whether ASMase mediates monocyte/macrophage activation and cytokine release. The oxLDL‐IC, but not oxLDL, induced early and consistent release of catalytically active S‐ASMase. The oxLDL‐IC also consistently stimulated L‐ASMase activity, whereas oxLDL induced a rapid transient increase in L‐ASMase activity before it steadily declined below baseline. Prolonged exposure to oxLDL increased L‐ASMase activity; however, activity remained significantly lower than that induced by oxLDL‐IC. Further studies were aimed at defining the function of the activated ASMase. In response to oxLDL‐IC, heat‐shock protein 70B’ (HSP70B’) was up‐regulated and localized with redistributed ASMase in the endosomal compartment outside the lysosome. Treatment with oxLDL‐IC induced the formation and release of HSP70‐containing and IL‐1β‐containing exosomes via an ASMase‐dependent mechanism. Taken together, the results suggest that oxLDL and oxLDL‐IC differentially regulate ASMase activity, and the pro‐inflammatory responses to oxLDL‐IC are mediated by prolonged activation of ASMase. These findings may contribute to increased understanding of mechanisms mediating macrophage involvement in atherosclerosis.
Towards a competency model for requirements analysts
Authors: Klendauer Ruth , Berkovich Marina , Gelvin Richard , Leimeister Jan Marco , Krcmar Helmut 
Published: January 2012

AbstractRequirements engineering is a software development discipline, executed by requirements analysts (RAs), that includes requirements elicitation, analysis, specification and validation. Its successful outcome is very often essential to overall project success. However, there is a lack of systematically conducted empirical research on the competencies of RAs. This paper addressed this gap by conducting 64 interviews at eight major North American and European financial services companies. Our qualitative research design follows an interpretive approach and uses critical incident technique. We develop a competency model, which specifies 16 critical competencies, and integrates contextual and situational factors as well as results variables. ‘Consulting others’, ‘Testing assumptions and investigating’ and ‘Explaining concepts and opinions’ were the most frequently identified competencies. This indicates that for an effective analyst, close interaction and communication with customers is indeed crucial – but of equally importance is the critical questioning of the expressed needs. Surprisingly, applying specific tools and advanced techniques did not seem to play a significant role from the interviewees' perspective. This study contributes to theory as it is the first to elaborate a competency model for RAs. It also provides a foundation for the development of competency‐based training in companies and universities.
Forest productivity increases with evenness, species richness and trait variation: a global meta‐analysis
Authors: Zhang Yu , Chen Han Y. H. , Reich Peter B. 
Published: January 2012

Summary1. Although there is ample support for positive species richness–productivity relationships in planted grassland experiments, a recent 48‐site study found no diversity–productivity relationship (DPR) in herbaceous communities. Thus, debate persists about diversity effects in natural versus planted systems. Additionally, current knowledge is weak regarding the influence of evenness on the DPRs, how DPRs are affected by the variation in life‐history traits among constituent species in polycultures and how DPRs differ among biomes. The impacts of these factors on DPRs in forest ecosystems are even more poorly understood.2. We performed a meta‐analysis of 54 studies to reconcile DPRs in forest ecosystems. We quantified the net diversity effect as log effect size [ln(ES)], the log ratio of the productivity in polycultures to the average of those in monocultures within the same type of mixture, site condition and stand age of each study. The first use of a boosted regression tree model in meta‐analysis, a useful method to partition the effects of multiple predictors rather than relying on vote‐counting of individual studies, unveiled the relative influences of individual predictors.3. Global average ln(ES) was 0.2128, indicating 23.7% higher productivity in polycultures than monocultures. The final model explained 21% of the variation in ln(ES). The predictors that substantially accounted for the explained variation included evenness (34%), heterogeneity of shade tolerance (29%), richness (13%) and stand age (15%). In contrast, heterogeneity of nitrogen fixation and growth habits, biome and stand origin (naturally established versus planted) contributed negligibly (each ≤ 4%). Log effect size strongly increased with evenness from 0.6 to 1 and with richness from 2 to 6. Furthermore, it was higher with heterogeneity of shade tolerance and generally increased with stand age.4. Synthesis.Our analysis is, to our knowledge, the first to demonstrate the critical role of species evenness, richness and the importance of contrasting traits in defining net diversity effects in forest polycultures. While testing the specific mechanisms is beyond the scope of our analysis, our results should motivate future studies to link richness, evenness, contrasting traits and life‐history stage to the mechanisms that are expected to produce positive net biodiversity effects such as niche differentiation, facilitation and reduced Janzen–Connell effects.