bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
THE ROLE OF VISUAL‐HOLDING CUES AND THE SIMULTANIZING STRATEGY IN INFANT OPERANT LEARNING
Authors: MILLAR W. STUART 
Published: April 2011

The operant acquisition of a manipulative response and concurrent visual fixation behaviour were monitored in 6‐ and 9‐month‐old infants under conditions where a cue marked the discontiguous feedback source, and where no such cue was available. Non‐availability of the visual cue disrupted manipulative response acquisition of 6‐month‐old but not 9‐month‐old infants. Cue‐assisted younger infants responded at a level comparable to the 9‐month‐olds and at a level reliably higher than the younger no‐cue group. Nine‐month‐old infants performed equally well under no‐cue and cue‐assisted conditions. This finding which demonstrates the importance of visual‐holding during the inter‐response interval is interpreted in terms of the increasing capability of infants during the second half of the first year to spontaneously relate centrally retrieved information to concurrent activity and to regulate behaviour on the basis of this information.Non‐contingent stimulation elicited greater visual fixation of the feedback source at both ages in the presence of the cue and related to the occurrence of acquisition. Nine‐month‐old infants revealed more coincidental visual and manipulative behaviour than did younger infants, but only with the cue available. The visual data are discussed in terms of the prerequisite discrimination of contingent from non‐contingent stimulation for response acquisition, and the generalized use of the simultanizing strategy.
THE EFFECT OF EMBEDDED WORDS IN A BRIEF VISUAL DISPLAY
Authors: SOMEKH DAVID E. 
Published: April 2011

In a replication and extension of an experiment by Eagle, Wolitzky & Klein (1966), subjects wrote brief stories describing an Object Relations Test card following exposure to a 7 × 7 letter matrix in which were embedded either neutral words or emotive words. Of six groups of subjects who participated, two groups were exposed to the matrices for 10 sec (‘supraliminal control condition’), and the remaining four groups for 1 sec (‘subliminal condition’).Independent judges were able to distinguish, to a significant degree, between the stories of subjects who were exposed to emotive words and those exposed to neutral words under the ‘subliminal condition’; they could not distinguish, however, between the stories of subjects exposed for the longer duration (‘supraliminal condition’) to emotive and neutral words respectively.A crude content analysis yielded significantly more unpleasant words in stories from the subgroups exposed to emotive rather than neutral words, but again only under the very brief exposure condition, the difference being absent in supraliminal control groups. The relevance of these findings to previous experiments is discussed.
Self‐rated imagery and vividness of task pictures in relation to visual memory
Authors: Berger Göran H. , Gaunitz Samuel C. B. 
Published: April 2011

Marks (1973) and Gur & Hilgard (1975) have reported success in predicting performance in visual‐memory tasks from scores in a questionnaire of self‐rated vividness of imagery, i.e. the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ; Marks, 1973). The results obtained were attributed to the use of the VVIQ and pictures with a high degree of vividness in the memory task.These findings were disconfirmed in two experiments in which the VVIQ was used and vivid pictures were presented in the memory tasks. Subjects were to judge whether pairs of similar, successively presented pictures were identical or not. The results indicated that subjects rated as ‘good’ imagers did not perform differently from those rated as ‘poor’ imagers. The influences of demand characteristics in the previous experiments and differences in experimental procedures were referred to as possible causes of the observed inconsistencies in results. It is also suggested that questionnaires of self‐rated visual imagery are ineffective as predictors of performance, since they only cover a limited aspect of imagery.
Effects of high intensity white noise on short‐term memory for position in a list and sequence
Authors: Daee Safar , Wilding J. M. 
Published: April 2011

Seven experiments are described investigating the effect of high intensity white noise during the visual presentation of words on a number of short‐term memory tasks. The findings were:

In a free recall task recall of items decreased at the highest intensity used (85 dB) compared with a quiet and a 75 dB condition.
In free recall, recall by category decreased and recall in the original sequence increased in the 75 dB compared with the other two conditions.
Recall of the position of words in the list increased as noise intensity increased, but only when the learning of position was incidental, not when it was intentional. It is inferred that the effect is due to direction of attention or change in the learning strategy.
Recall of the original sequence (as shown by the ability to give in response to a word from a list the word which had followed it in the original list) was superior in the 75 dB compared with the other two conditions, but only when recall of the second word was required, not when it had to be recognized among all the items from the original list. It is argued that this can be explained if noise intensity affects the strength of traces and hence the interconnexions established between them, on which retrieval depends.

The results for position learning are compatible with the theories of Hockey & Hamilton (1970) or Domic (1973), but the results for sequence learning cannot be explained by either of these theories. A final experiment confirmed a prediction from the above theory that when recalling the original sequence, omissions (recalling no word) will decrease and transpositions (giving the wrong word) will increase as noise level increases.
Factors influencing the response latencies of subnormal children in naming pictures
Authors: Elliott Colin 
Published: April 2011

The times taken to name 56 drawings of objects on five separate occasions were analysed for 21 ESN(M) and 21 ESN(S) children, matched for picture‐naming vocabulary. The ESN(S) group not only had a higher mean response latency but also showed greater inter‐ and intra‐subject variance.Nine objects were selected whose names have a Thorndike‐Lorge language frequency of 50 words per million or greater, and nine others were selected with a frequency of less than 50 words per million. Each object was drawn in two ways, one giving a two‐dimensional outline with the addition of important detail, the other drawing also incorporating cues indicating the depth of the object. An analysis of variance of the children's latencies in naming the selected 36 pictures of 18 objects over five trials indicated that the method of drawing had no effect upon naming latencies. Pictures with high‐frequency names were named faster than those with lower frequency names, the ESN(S) group showing a greater rate of increase in naming latency for the lower frequency words than the ESN(M) children. Results were discussed in terms of the Oldfield and Lachman models of lexical memory storage and of the search processes required for the retrieval of names.
Acquisition and performance difference between normal and mentally handicapped adults on a complex assembly task
Authors: Tomlinson Eileen , Whelan Edward 
Published: April 2011

Several single studies concerned with work training with the mentally handicapped have been reported in the literature (Bitter & Bolanovich, 1966; Huddle, 1967; Gold, 1969; Screven, Straka & Lafond, 1971). Most have been concerned with issues of acquisition and motivation to perform. No studies have been reported which focus on the evaluation of different techniques of training or which assess rate of acquisition against that of non‐handicapped controls.The aim of this experiment is twofold. It uses a complex task, analysed by MTM‐2, to enable comparison between the performances of mentally handicapped adults and adults from a ‘normal’ population, in the acquisition of new work skills. Various strategies of training were compared and the increase in the rate and quality of performance following acquisition was measured for both, in terms of speed and accuracy of production. Results add further support for the notion that the potential of mentally handicapped individuals is commonly underestimated. It is hoped that the findings provide a basis from which further experiments can be developed and evaluated.
Evidence for language recoding in autistic, retarded and normal children: A re‐examination
Authors: Fyffe Christine , Prior Margot 
Published: April 2011

In a replication and extension of earlier studies by Hermelin & O'Connor, language recoding abilities in autistic, retarded and normal children matched for mental age and digit span, were compared in a verbal recall task. Random word lists, sentences, and anomalous sentences, eight or 12 items in length (for high and low memory span subgroups) were presented and the number of words recalled from each type of input was scored. All low span children recalled sentences better than random lists with normal children superior to retarded and autistic children and the latter group poorer than the retarded group. Autistic children showed a recency effect with both types of input. There were no group differences amongst high span children and sentences were again better recalled than random lists. In Expt II sentences were better recalled than anomalous sentences, with autistic and retarded children equivalent in performance and poorer than normal children.Although low span autistic children were clearly deficient in recall of sentence material when compared with the two control groups, the effect of conditions showed that they were able to use structure to improve recall. Since high span autistic children did not perform differently from controls it is suggested that results from this kind of study may not be generalizable, and that claims for a specific coding deficit in autistic children need further substantiation.
Dimensions and determinants of judgements of colour samples and a simulated interior space by architects and non‐architects
Authors: Hogg J. , Goodman S. , Porter T. , Mikellides B. , Preddy D. E. 
Published: April 2011

Architects and non‐architects made Semantic Differential ratings of colour samples (chips) and a simulated interior space (a model). In analyses of total samples’ ratings (architects and non‐architects) of (a) colour chips and (b) models, and individual sample analyses, (c) architects’ chip judgements, (d) architects’ model judgements, (e) non‐architects’ chip judgements, and (f) non‐architects’ model judgements, five factors occurred, though not necessarily all in any one analysis. These were: (i) dynamism; (ii) spatial quality; (iii) emotional tone; (iv) evaluation; (v) complexity. Linear correlations between parameters of Munsell Color System and above factors in various analyses were calculated, while parallel analyses were carried out employing a graphical technique described by Sivik (1974a) involving isosemantic maps. In all analyses, linear correlations between colour parameters and judgements were found for dynamism factor, spatial quality factor, and emotional tone factor. They were associated respectively with chroma, value, and hue. Inspection of isosemantic maps indicated subsidiary effects of non‐dominant dimensions of a non‐linear sort, though maps also exhibited linear relations. Linear correlations were low or non‐existent for evaluation and complexity factors, and complex nature of their determinants was clear from isosemantic maps. determinants of judgements were similar for architects and non‐architects, with exception of evaluative judgements for models in which markedly different determinants were noted.Comparability of present findings with other studies carried out in a variety of countries over a 20 year period was high for dynamism, spatial quality, and emotional tone, and it is suggested that there may be something inherent in response to colour in relation to such judgements. Recent physiological work is discussed, and its limitations in terms of colours sampled and an overconcentration on hue dimension noted. In contrast, it is suggested that dimensions of judgement, such as evaluation or complexity, reflect to a greater extent culture or training, and are hence independent of basic colour attributes.
An analysis of individual patterns of DQ and IQ curves from 6 months to 17 years
Authors: Hindley C. B. , Owen C. F. 
Published: April 2011

The case is made for basing analysis of longitudinal measurement data on each individual's array or curve of scores, and employing methods of analysis which take account of shape of each individual's curve. DQs at 6 months and 18 months, and IQs at 3, 5, 8, 11, 14, and 17 years were available on 84 subjects from 6 months to 17 years, and 109 subjects from 6 months to 14 years, from a London longitudinal project. Scores at each age were converted to SD scores with M = 0, SD = 1. Polynomial equations were fitted to each subject's curve over periods: 6 months − 17 years; 3 years − 17 years; 3 years − 11 years. For whole sample fitted curves yielded highly significant error reduction across all periods, thus rendering untenable doctrine of IQ constancy. Over 6 months to 14 years, 54 per cent of subjects’ curves had a significant fit. Curves differ not only in linear slopes, but in degrees and forms of curvilinearity, particularly over longer periods. A visual method of classification of curves is also presented, which proved effective.Implications of findings are discussed, including that changes in IQ scores cannot be regarded as random variation, but as following systematic trends which differ between subjects; need to regard isolated IQ measures on a subject as derived from a curve of unknown shape and slope; and dangers of treating as equivalent IQs of subjects at different ages. It is concluded that present methods of analysis are applicable to a variety of longitudinal measurement data.
Special Review feature: The hand that rules the world — Seven books about women
Authors: Sandow Sarah 
Published: April 2011

Women at Work. By Lindsay Mackie & Polly Pattullo. London: Tavistock. 1977. Pp. 192. £2.50.Women and the Welfare State. By Elizabeth Wilson. London: Tavistock. 1977. Pp. 208. Cloth £5.50; paper £2.20.Housewife. By Ann Oakley. Harmondsworth, Middx: Pelican. 1976. Pp. x+273. 80p.On Being a Woman. By Fay Fransella & Kay Frost. London: Tavistock. 1977. Pp. 237. £6.00.Towards a New Psychology of Women. By Jean Baker Miller. Harmonds worth, Middx: Penguin. 1978. Pp. xi+147. 90p.Man's World, Woman's Place. By Elizabeth Janeway. Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin. 1977. Pp. 350. £1.00.Women, a Psychological Perspective. By Elaine Donelson & Jeanne E. Gullahorn. New York: Wiley. 1977. Pp. vi+342. £10.45.
Speech modification in near‐mute schizophrenics
Authors: Hart Barry B. 
Published: April 2011

Twelve male near‐mute schizophrenics were divided into a model‐plus‐reinforcement group; a model‐only group; and a control group, to test the hypothesis that the presence of a verbalizing model to 35 mm slides would serve as an eliciting stimulus to increase speech output.Significant increases in verbalizations were found over treatment sessions, the model‐plus‐reinforcement condition showing the most marked improvement. Generalization to the ward was found for only three subjects.
Measurement in psychology
Authors: Fraser C. O. 
Published: April 2011

Two major traditions regarding the theory and practice of measurement in psychology can be identified: the classical approach associated with the work of S. S. Stevens, and the more recently developed axiomatic approach. These two approaches are compared and related to the historical development of the logical analysis of measurement.Some practical consequences of the choice of a measurement theory paradigm are discussed, and the appropriateness of the two major approaches to guide the theory and practice of psychological measurement are evaluated.
Cognitive prerequisites to language?
Authors: Harris P. L. 
Published: April 2011

Infants performed Piaget's stage 4 manual search task with an object hidden at successive locations (A and B) in the vertical plane. In the various studies, the initial location (A) either had an immediate background or the background was absent. The majority of infants in each experiment made persistent perseverative errors to the initial location (A) when the object was moved to a new location (B), if there had been no immediate background at A. When a background was available infants showed an equiprobable pattern of search to A and B. The results suggest that the typical stage 4 error, described by Piaget as characteristic of infants between eight and 11 months, may only occur when the baby is unable to monitor movements of the object with respect to a stable background as a visual frame of reference.The Piagetian hypothesis that there are cognitive prerequisites for language acquisition is examined. Two different formulations are distinguished: the hypothesis that the child interprets utterances in terms of what he knows about the world; and the hypothesis that the emergence of particular ideas leads the child to cast around for the linguistic means of expressing them. The second but not the first formulation implies that the sequence of cognitive development will influence the sequence and timetable of language acquisition. Evidence from three sources is reviewed and provides little support for this prediction. It is argued that the course of language acquisition is probably determined by three factors which are largely independent of level of cognitive development: (i) linguistic complexity, (ii) the likelihood that the non‐verbal context will offer an unambiguous gloss of an adult utterance and (iii) the asymmetry between comprehension and production.
Phonological and tactual coding of Braille by blind children
Authors: Pring Linda 
Published: April 2011

Two experiments were carried out to investigate phonological and tactual coding in Braille reading by blind children. In the first, the children read aloud two lists of word pairs, one item at a time. The second or ‘target’ word of each pair (e.g. on) was the same in both lists. In one list, the congruent list, the phonology and orthography of the first word of the pair (sun) provided no inconsistency with respect to the target word (sun‐on). In the other incongruent list, the preceding word was similar in orthography but inconsistent in phonology with respect to the target word (son‐on). The children named the target words (i.e. on) significantly faster in the context of the congruous list than in the context of the incongruous list, thus revealing a phonological effect in the blind children's reading of single words. In addition, direct lexical access, from tactual input, seems to proceed with the same facility for the blind as does visual input for the sighted.In the second study the children read aloud words which were either orthographically regular or irregular. The results indicated that the irregular words took longer to name than the regular words. It was suggested that blind children, like sighted children, show phonological interference effects in word naming. The results are discussed in relation to recent models of the processes involved in word naming.
Hand preference and skill in 115 children of two left‐handed parents
Authors: Annett Marian 
Published: April 2011

A second sample of children of L × L parents resembled a first sample (Annett, 1974) in the distribution of hand preferences and of hand skill. The mean difference between the hands in skill (L—R) was slightly but not significantly biased in favour of the right hand and 31 per cent were sinistral writers. Three tests were made on the combined samples of the hypotheses, derived from the right shift (RS) theory of handedness (Annett, 1972), that the L — R skills of the majority are not biased to either side, but that some are biased to the right hand like controls, in spite of being reared by two left‐handed parents. Children with a possibly pathologically sinistral parent, and children in families where neither left‐handed parent had a close sinistral relative, resembled controls more closely than the remaining children. The L — R distribution was compatible with expectations for three genotypes, as expected if the RS depends on a single gene (Annett, 19786).Analyses for sex differences found sons and daughters alike for hand, eye and foot preferences and for L—R skill. Analyses of reports of developmental problems of speech, reading, writing or spelling found an excess of affected males over females smaller than expected in the general population. The incidences of such reports in the sons and daughters of L × L families were almost identical, with incidences reported for the fathers and mothers, respectively, of dyslexics (Annett & Kilshaw, 19826). The findings were consistent with the view that sex differences in hand preferences, L — R skill and the risk of developmental language problems in the general population are all due to the more effective expression of the rs + gene in females than males, and that the gene is more often absent in the children of L × L families than in the general population.
Real and laboratory gambling, sensation‐seeking and arousal
Authors: Anderson G. , Brown R. I. F. 
Published: April 2011

The existence and importance of excitement in gambling, the effects of runs of wins and losses on gambling behaviour and the relationships of both with sensation‐seeking were investigated using samples of students and experienced gamblers in real and artificial gambling situations. Heart‐rate increases, gambling behaviour and events such as ‘stake decision time’ were recorded as subjects played blackjack.Significant differences between real and artificial casinos were found for mean heart‐rate increases over base‐lines, for gambling behaviour and in the relationships between sensation‐seeking, arousal and gambling in the two conditions. Doubt is cast on laboratory gambling as a valid analogue of the real gambling situation. Sensation‐seeking and arousal are discussed briefly in relation to explanations of gambling.
One man's memory: A study of a mnemonist
Authors: Gordon Paul , Valentine Elizabeth , Wilding John 
Published: April 2011

This paper reports a systematic study of a man (T.E.) with astonishing mnemonic skills. After a brief description of his most favoured mnemonic technique, the ‘figure alphabet’, his performance and the mnemonic techniques used on five classical memory tasks are described. These are: one task involving both short‐ and long‐term memory (the Atkinson‐Shiffrin ‘keeping track’ task), two tasks involving just long‐term memory (recall of number matrices and the effects of imagery and deep structure complexity upon recall), and two tasks involving just short‐term memory (short‐term retention of individual verbal items and digit span). Whenever possible, T.E.'s performance was compared with that of normal subjects, and also with other mnemonists who have been studied in the past.There was no evidence to suggest that T.E. has any unusual basic memory abilities; rather he employs mnemonic techniques to aid memory, and the evidence suggests that previous mnemonists who have been studied by psychologists have used very similar techniques.
Cognitive and affective aspects of boredom
Authors: Perkins R. E. , Hill A. B. 
Published: April 2011

It is argued that previous research may have been mistaken in assuming that monotony in sensory stimulation is a necessary and sufficient cause of boredom.Five investigations are reported which used personal construct theory and repertory grid techniques to investigate three hypotheses: (1) that boredom is associated with subjective monotony, (2) that boredom is associated with a high degree of frustration and (3) that boredom arises when stimulation lacks meaning for the individual.Results supported hypotheses (1) and (2) but no evidence was found to support hypothesis (3).