bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Congregationalism
Authors: Culpepper Scott 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe term congregationalism denotes a form of Christian polity that has been historically characterized by a strong assertion of the individual congregation's autonomy and democratic decision making within each congregation. Congregationalism is typically categorized as contrasting with both episcopal and presbyterian forms of church government. Congregationalist types of church government have appeared not only among the spiritual descendants of 16th century English Separatists but also among the various Anabaptist movements that emerged in the 16th century. While early Congregationalists shared a common Reformed theological perspective with moderate English Puritans, they eschewed the synodical system of church governance beyond the local congregation endorsed by some Reformed denominations such as the Presbyterians.
Contextual Theology
Authors: Cheetham David 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Although contextual theology as a recognizable field of study is largely a contemporary movement, it might be suggested that most theology can be described as contextual. Thus, whenever theologies are constructed in order to address people in their social, historical, political, and experiential settings, or when theologies aspire to a certain
relevance
, context becomes significant. Moreover, key Christian theological concepts such as “creation,” “incarnation,” and “sacrament” already reveal the properly
embedded
nature of theological discourse.
Contextualization/Syncretism
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Postmodern philosophy applies the deconstruction of literature to the “reading of reality” by emphasizing the reader‐response theory of meaning, which means when reading something one can never know the intent of the author with certainty. Since meaning is uncertain, as a matter of interpretation, the reader then determines it. In regards to biblical interpretation, the theory is that the meaning of a given verse is dependent upon the presuppositions and pre‐understandings of the one who is reading the text; there can be as many acceptable interpretations as there are readers. Presuppositions and pre‐understandings influence perspective and impact interpretation. Since meaning of a text is dependent upon the reader, reality can be “read” differently, according to the presuppositions and preunderstandings of the individuals who are experiencing reality. The result of deconstructionist thinking is that culture determines biblical meaning, and is therefore the source of authority. Social location, or the reader's cultural context, is the primary criterion for biblical interpretation. Scripture is understood within one's social setting, which means that location is more important for biblical interpretation than the social location of the biblical author and text. Such an understanding of the biblical text is sometimes termed “contextualization of Scripture.” Especially in western societies and locations where western civilization has exerted influence, the church approaches cultural pluralism with diligence. Pluralism in western culture affirms the equal value of one belief to every other belief; therefore, all beliefs are regarded as equal in value. Scripture is propositional truth revealed by God, that is, propositional statements of infallible truth. Therefore, belief in propositional truth revealed by God is of greater value than any other belief. Biblical contextualization applies — as opposed to accommodates — Scripture to a cultural context. Whenever a contextualization meaning and method gives precedence to cultural contexts, it denies the importance of the authority of Scripture and the Bible becomes a mere allusion to one's own private, individual meaning (cf. 2 Pet. 1:20–21).
Contraception and Family Planning
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Although the ideal of clerical celibacy and the everyday reality of the laity diverged, Christian theologians have condemned contraception and family planning since the days of the early church, even though the process of procreation was not understood and few contraceptive procedures were available. It was believed at the time that the unborn child existed as a complete human being inside the man's semen, which he planted in the woman's womb, masturbation and coitus interruptus were considered mortal sins. Protestant churches adopted this attitude, but later reconsidered their teachings on the purpose of marriage.
C
owper,
W
illiam (1731–1800)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
William Cowper (pronounced “Cooper”) was born in Berkhamsted, England, on November 26, 1736. His father was John Cowper, chaplain to King George II. William became a notable poet, known for his genial poems on ordinary life, his powerful hymns, and his tragic mental breakdowns fueled by doubts about his salvation.
Creationism
Authors: Moreland J. P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Creationism is usually synonymous with “scientific creationism” (a.k.a. “creation science”) and has a broad and a narrow usage. Broadly, it applies to progressive and young earth creationism. Accordingly, creationism entails theistic science and excludes methodological naturalism. Theistic science captures the notion that Christians should utilize everything they know in developing and testing hypotheses, in explaining things in science, and in evaluating scientific hypotheses, and among the things they should consult are propositions of theology. Theistic science includes the idea that 1) God, conceived of as a personal agent with power and intelligence, has through primary and secondary causation created and designed the world for a purpose and has directly “intervened” during its development at various times; and 2) the commitment expressed in 1) can appropriately enter into very fabric of scientific practice.
Creeds and Confessions of Faith
Authors: Church Alan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Creeds, also known as confessions of faith, are formal and authoritative statements of what the universal church or a particular denomination considers essential and necessary to teach the faithful what they should or do believe. This presupposes that the theological doctrine underlying a creed can be established definitively through scriptural and apostolic authority; that the creed is issued by an authority considered legitimate by the faithful who receive it; and that the creed's legitimacy is authenticated further by the conventional wisdom of the community of believers who continue to accept its authority in subsequent ages.
Critics and Enemies of the Faith
Authors: Bruce James E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christianity was born in persecution. With the exception of John the Evangelist, all the apostles most likely met with martyrdom. The death of James the brother of John is mentioned in Acts 12, and, according to early Christian sources, the apostle Paul was executed in Rome. And the persecution of Christians was by no means an ancient phenomenon only; it has been suggested that the martyrdom of Christians in the 20th century exceeded the sum of the previous 19.
C
rosby,
F
rances
J
ane (1820–1915)
Authors: Wolfe Elisabeth 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Fanny J. Crosby was born in Putnam County, New York, on March 24, 1820. An eye infection and a doctor's incompetence left her blind at six weeks of age, a fact for which she gave thanks throughout her life. In fact, her first poem, written when she was 8 years old, briefly treats her resolve to enjoy life in spite of her blindness. She studied at the New York Institution for the Blind from 1835 to 1843, during which time a Scottish phrenologist pronounced her a poet. After her graduation, she taught ancient history and English grammar and rhetoric at the same New York Institution until her marriage to blind music teacher and church organist, Alexander Van Alstyne, in 1858. Her first published poem, a eulogy on William Henry Harrison, appeared in the
New York Herald
in 1841. After placing other poems in other newspapers, Crosby published three volumes of poetry:
The Blind Girl and Other Poems
in 1844,
Monterey and Other Poems
in 1851, and
A Wreath of Columbia's Flowers
in 1858. She began writing popular lyrics and cantatas in 1851 in collaboration with George F. Root; she also appeared before Congress and went on the lecture circuit, often as an advocate for the blind. In 1864, at the urging of William Bradbury, she turned her attention to hymnody and went on to write as many as 9,000 hymns, published under scores of pseudonyms as well as her own name, in collaboration with such composers as Ira Sankey, William J. Kirkpatrick, and William Howard Doane. Her last volume of poetry,
Bells at Evening and Other Poems
, appeared in 1897, and she also published two memoirs in her later years,
Fanny Crosby's Life‐Story
in 1903 and
Memories of Eighty Years
in 1906. Van Alstyne died in 1902, and Crosby died in Bridgeport, Connecticut, on February 12, 1915 and was buried there. Her tombstone bears the inscriptions “Aunt Fanny” and “She hath done all that she could,” and a nearby memorial includes the first lines of “Blessed Assurance.”
Cuban Christianity
Authors: García Alberto L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The island of Cuba is the largest of the Greater Antilles. It lies in a strategic location in the northern Caribbean and serves as a key to the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic Ocean. The island is in close proximity to the United States and a number of Caribbean islands. This location has been a key factor in the confluence of cultures and the development of religion in Cuba.
C
ullmann,
O
scar (1902–1999)
Authors: Smith Jay E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Oscar Cullmann, a German‐speaking French Lutheran and biblical scholar, was born on February 25, 1902 in Strasbourg, France. Although never ordained, he held several academic posts, including professorships at Strasbourg (1931–1938) and Basle (1938–1972). He died on January 16, 1999. Cullmann was a prolific author, and his published works include:
Baptism in the New Testament
(1950),
Christ and Time
(1950),
Peter: Disciple, Apostle, Martyr
(1953),
Early Christian Worship
(1953),
The Early Church
(1956),
The Christology of the New Testament
(1959), and
Salvation in History
(1967).
C
yprian of
C
arthage (
c
.205–258)
Authors: Blosser Jamie 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus was born to a wealthy pagan family in North Africa, and received a prestigious education as a rhetorician. As a famed orator he converted to Christianity in the mid 240s under the influence of a priest. Cyprian was hastily elected bishop of Carthage by popular accord around 248, but his short episcopal career was overshadowed by the devastating persecutions of 249–251 under the Emperor Decius, which caused Cyprian to flee into exile. From this position he began his most lasting literary legacy: shepherding his flock by correspondence, fashioning a policy to reconcile those who had lapsed during the persecutions, and attempting to quell a schism formed in reaction to this policy. When Cyprian was able to return to Carthage in 251, local African synods confirmed his policies. Cyprian's last days were marked by a bitter dispute with Pope Stephen over the question of rebaptism. A renewed persecution under the Emperor Valerius led to Cyprian's banishment in 257 and death by beheading on September 14, 258, as the first African martyr‐bishop.
Dance
Authors: Buchanan Deborah J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractDance may be broadly understood as spontaneous or intentional bodily movement of an individual or group often used to express emotions, to transmit cultural practices or rituals, and in a religious sense to worship or otherwise acknowledge the divine. Within the Christian tradition, attitudes toward dance have varied across history and throughout the different strains, denominations, and cultures that have embraced the Christian faith.
DanteAlighieri (1265–1321)
Authors: Quantz Amanda D. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractA native son of the powerful Florentine city‐state, Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) has long been celebrated as a politician, linguist, poet, and visionary. In canto 15 of Paradiso of the Divine Comedy Dante traces his heritage to the crusading knight Cacciaguida (c.1091–1147). He also asserts that he was educated by the notary Brunetto Latini (Inferno, 15) and by the friars (Convivio, 2.12.7). In medieval Florence these were probably either the Franciscans at Santa Croce or the Dominicans at Santa Maria Novella. In the context of the Florentine Renaissance, Dante's writings were strongly influenced by authors who had recently been rediscovered, including Horace, Ovid, and Virgil. The only lifelike portrait of Dante is a fresco in the Bargello in Florence, which was painted by his friend, the renowned artist Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337).
Day,
D
orothy (1897–1980)
Authors: Fannin Coleman 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Dorothy Day was an American journalist and social activist who converted to Catholicism at the age of 30. She founded the Catholic Worker with Peter Maurin in 1933, and the newspaper and its office in New York's Bowery district soon blossomed into a spiritual movement and a nationwide network of “houses of hospitality.”
M
ontfort,
S
aint
L
ouis
D
e (1673–1716)
Authors: Marie Gentle Mother Judith 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Much of the wealth of patristic teaching on the significance of the Blessed Virgin Mary's fiat in the work of Redemption – “Let it be done to me according to your word” (Luke 1:38) – was either entirely disregarded or completely dismantled by the Protestant Reformers. While still recognizing Mary as the mother of God and perpetually virgin, the Reformers viewed her largely as a mere passive receptacle whom God sovereignly invaded and used for the incarnation. This was due mainly to their strict insistence on
solus Christus
, to the point of excluding the necessity of human cooperation with grace. Reducing Mary to a mere puppet on God's stage, the Reformers taught that one should not pray to the Blessed Virgin as the channel of her Son's grace.
D
e
N
obili,
R
obert (1577–1656)
Authors: Ashford Bruce Riley 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
An Italian Jesuit missionary to Southern India, Nobili is known for his creative methods of evangelism among the upper castes in Madurai. He arrived in India in 1605 and soon made his way to Madurai, which is the center of Tamil culture. At the time of Nobili's arrival, Madurai already had a mission, under the oversight of Father Fernandez, a Portuguese Jesuit. Nobili discovered that Fernandez's mission was hindered by two cultural barriers: the great divide between East and West, and the cultural chasm separating the high castes from the low castes.
D
e
S
ales,
F
rancis (1567–1622)
Authors: Egan, S.J. Harvey D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Francis de Sales – mystic, saint, “devout humanist,” Doctor of the Church – was born in Savoy. Destined for a secular career, he was educated at Annecy, Paris, and Padua. However, Francis' parents blessed his change of heart and he was ordained priest in 1593. He then undertook the task of reclaiming for Catholicism the Chablis, an area on Lake Geneva's southern shore that had been forcibly converted to Calvinism. Dating from this period are a series of his short, popular writings known as the Controversies and his lesser known work,
The Standard of the Cross
. Becoming bishop of Geneva in 1602, he remained there – despite better offers – until he died.
Victoria,TomasLuisDe (1548–1611)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe greatest Spanish composer of the Renais‐sance, considered an equal of Palestrina. His reputation rests exclusively on church music. He went to Rome in 1565 and probably studied with Palestrina. Following his ordination in 1575 he became chaplain at San Girolamo della Carita from 1578 to 1585. After more than 20 years in Rome he returned to Spain and served until 1603 as chaplain to the widow of Emperor Maximilian II. After her death, he served for the rest of his life as choirmaster and organist at the Convent of Las Descalzas Reales in Madrid.
Devil
Authors: Neal Ryan A. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The devil is commonly viewed as the principal supernatural evil sentient being in the Abrahamic faiths. Although the devil (or a being approximating the devil) is found in virtually every culture, the devil has a broad, complicated history and occupies a distinct and important place in Christian thought. The origin of the devil is unclear, and the church has had little to say. Nevertheless, the devil is typically identified as the primary figure and force opposed to God. The nomenclature associated with the devil is diverse, and typically masculine, although angels have no sex. “Devil” (lit. adversary, 1 Pet. 5:8) has its derivation through Latin, from Greek, which has most often been synonymous with Satan (Hebrew, adversary, obstructor), but also with an array of titles and attributes: accuser (Zech. 3:1), diabolos (lit. slanderer, Matt. 4:1), tempter (Matt. 4:3), the evil one (Matt. 6:13), father of lies (John 8:44), and god of this world (2 Cor. 4:4. In the Old Testament there are only a few usages and depictions: people in opposition (2 Sam. 19:22); God uses someone to oppose someone else (1 Kings 11:14); and even a supernatural figure sent by God (Num. 22:22); perhaps most famously Satan enters the heavenly court (Job 1–2).
Migration, Diaspora, and Identity
Authors: Gerloff Roswith 
Published: January 2012

AbstractContemporary studies in anthropology and sociology of religion speak of “religions on the move,” referring to processes of transmigration and transculturation, which unleash dynamic, reciprocal, transitory, and multidimensional creations in shaping a polycontextual world. This implies that religions have to be regarded as cultural and spiritual phenomena whose taken for granted essence has resulted from transcultural and transmigrational processes of mutual influence, interaction, and continuous adaptation to new environments, developments, and encounters. Religions, including different forms of Christianity, respond to ever changing circumstances and play a role in reconstructing and constructing, even inventing cultural and national identities. Modern migration movements have effected the arrival of indigenous religions from Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean, and Asia with their respective experiences at western shores, and have, besides world religions, initiated a constant exchange also with traditional beliefs and new movements in cross‐fertilization with contextualized Christian interpretations. These current manifestations have precursors in a multi‐faceted human history, yet they acquire a new quality and urgency in postmodern times.
Dispensationalism
Authors: Waldrep B. Dwain 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Dispensationalism is a system of theology that began in the mid 19th century. It is primarily associated with the Reformed wing of Protestantism and has been defined as a philosophy of history delineating God's relationship to human affairs, a hermeneutical methodology defining how Scripture is to be interpreted, and more popularly as a particular form of eschatology, a futurist premillennialism with an apocalyptic view of the end times. These interpretations rest upon derivative features of the system and tend to conceal rather than to explain dispensationalism in terms of its foundational principle and the historical developments that transformed that principle into a systematic theology.
Divine Mercy Devotion
Authors: Praetorius Regina T. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Divine Mercy devotion encompasses several means of focusing on God's mercy and sharing that mercy with others. The primary message of the Divine Mercy devotion is, as stated by the Marians of the Immaculate Conception, “God loves us — all of us, no matter how great our sins. And He wants us to turn to Him so He can bless us. He wants us to recognize His mercy and let it flow through us to others. Thus, all will come to share in His joy.” This message is spread through a variety of ways, including Divine Mercy Sunday, the Image of the Divine Mercy, and the Chaplet of Divine Mercy.
Divine Providence
Authors: Spiegel James S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In its most general sense, “providence” refers to God's care for creation. Christians, like other theists, maintain that God not only created the world but also actively manages it (cf. Ps. 135:6; Isa. 46:10; Col. 1:17; Heb. 1:3). Some distinguish between general providence and special providence, which refer respectively to divine governance of the world in the form of natural regularities or “laws,” and divine activity aimed at achieving God's purposes regarding particular persons or situations.
Docetism
Authors: Mueller Steven P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Docetism is a heresy that denies the humanity of Christ by applying Gnostic principles to Christianity. These principles included the notion that matter is impure while spirit is pure. God, who is spirit, is not tainted by material existence. He could not unite his deity to inherently sinful matter. Furthermore, Gnostic principles stated that suffering was incompatible with deity. If he truly suffered, they reasoned, he was affected by his creation and thus not perfect or not superior to creation. In other words, a being that can suffer cannot be truly God. Since Scripture clearly teaches Christ's deity, he must not have suffered.
Doctrinal Development
Authors: Green Bradley G. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
It appears that in the early Christian centuries, Christian thinkers did not perceive their doctrinal affirmations or construals in terms of “development.” There was a type of divine deposit received through revelation, the deposit of faith (depositum fidei), and this divine deposit was passed on generation to generation. There could be a development of sorts, in that implications of the deposit were teased out, but the emphasis seems to have been on explicating the holy scriptures, and working out the necessary implications of the scriptures themselves. Indeed, the consciousness of doctrine “developing” is likely a consciousness to be found in later centuries. With Arianism (4th century), for example, Athanasius does not appear to be concerned about the “development” of doctrine. Rather, Athanasius likely saw himself as making explicit what was already implicit in Scripture. Vincent of Lerins (died c.445) taught that Christians should hold to those things believed “everywhere, always, by all.”
Doctrine of Creation
Authors: Phillips Benjamin Blair 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Nicene Creed begins with the affirmation, “I believe in God the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth,” paralleling Genesis 1:1 by starting with the identification of God as Creator. Here, “Heaven and earth” is a phrase which encompasses all that is “not‐God.” Apart from what God has made, God is the only thing that exists. The Christian doctrine of creation centers on what it means to say that God has created.