bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The First Surgeon General’s Report on Tobacco: Science and the State in the New Age of Chronic Disease
Authors: Brandt Allan M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe Surgeon General's Report of 1964 marks a watershed in the history of public health. Following its publication, both the science and the practice of public health were visibly transformed. This chapter traces the clinical and epidemiological progress in knowledge about smoking and health harm, and the institutional history of the Report. In establishing cigarette smoking as the preeminent public health issue of the second half of the 20th century, the federal government established new responsibilities and authority for science and health in the consumer culture. Surgeons General since have used the authority of their office to shape the policy context of subsequent tobacco regulation.
Applied Longitudinal Data Analysis
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractChange is constant in everyday life. Infants crawl and then walk, children learn to read and write, teenagers mature in myriad ways, and the elderly become frail and forgetful. Beyond these natural processes and events, external forces and interventions instigate and disrupt change: test scores may rise after a coaching course, drug abusers may remain abstinent after residential treatment. By charting changes over time and investigating whether and when events occur, researchers reveal the temporal rhythms of our lives. This book is concerned with behavioral, social, and biomedical sciences. It offers a presentation of two of today's most popular statistical methods: multilevel models for individual change and hazard/survival models for event occurrence (in both discrete- and continuous-time). Using data sets from published studies, the book takes you step by step through complete analyses, from simple exploratory displays that reveal underlying patterns through sophisticated specifications of complex statistical models.
Exploring Longitudinal Data on Change
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes exploratory analyses that can help researchers learn how different individuals in their sample change over time. These analyses serve two purposes: to identify important features of data and to prepare researchers for subsequent model-based analyses. Section 2.2 addresses the within-person question: How does each person change over time? It does this by exploring and summarizing empirical growth records, which list each individual's outcome values over time. Section 2.3 addresses the between-person question: How does individual change differ across people? This is done by exploring whether different people change in similar or different ways. Section 2.4 shows how to ascertain descriptively whether observed differences in change across people (interindividual differences in change) are associated with individual characteristics. These between-person explorations can help identify variables that may ultimately prove to be important predictors of change. Section 2.5 concludes by examining the reliability and precision of exploratory estimates of change and comments on their implications for the design of longitudinal studies.
Introducing the Multilevel Model for Change
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter introduces the multilevel model for change, demonstrating how it allows researchers to address within-person and between-person questions about change simultaneously. Although there are several ways of writing the statistical model, a simple and common approach is adopted that has much substantive appeal. It specifies the multilevel model for change by simultaneously postulating a pair of subsidiary models—a level-1 submodel that describes how each person changes over time, and a level-2 model that describes how these changes differ across people.
Doing Data Analysis with the Multilevel Model for Change
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter delves deeper into the specification, estimation, and interpretation of the multilevel model for change. Following introduction of a new data set, it presents a composite formulation of the model that combines the level-1 and level-2 submodels together into a single equation. The new composite model leads naturally to consideration of alternative methods of estimation. The chapter not only describes two new methods—generalized least squares (GLS) and iterative generalized least squares (IGLS) within each, it distinguishes further between two types of approaches, the full and the restricted. The remainder of the chapter focuses on real-world issues of data analysis.
Treating TIME More Flexibly
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter demonstrates how to apply the multilevel model to complex data sets. Section 5.1 begins by illustrating what to do when the number of waves is constant but their spacing is irregular. Section 5.2 illustrates what to do when the number of waves per person differs as well; it also discusses the problem of missing data, the most common source of imbalance in longitudinal work. Section 5.3 demonstrates how to include time-varying predictors in your data analysis. Section 5.4 concludes by discussing why and how to adopt alternative representations for the main effect of TIME.
Modeling Discontinuous and Nonlinear Change
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter introduces strategies for fitting models in which individual change is explicitly discontinuous or nonlinear. Section 6.1 begins by describing ways of incorporating abrupt discontinuities into the individual change trajectory. Section 6.2 shows how transformation of either the outcome or TIME can lead to a multilevel model for linear change based on the transformed variable(s). Section 6.3 extends this basic idea by specifying trajectories that are polynomial functions of TIME. Section 6.4 concludes by surveying several models for individual change in which the outcome is an explicit nonlinear function of the growth parameters.
Describing Continuous-Time Event Occurrence Data
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents strategies for describing continuous time event data. Section 13.1 identifies salient properties of continuous-time data and redefines the survivor and hazard functions as required. Section 13.2 estimates these functions using a pair of simple strategies—called the discrete-time and actuarial methods—that require the continuous event times to be grouped into intervals. Section 13.3 introduces a superior approach—the Kaplan–Meier method—that does not require the artificial grouping of data but that yields estimates of only the survivor, not the hazard, function. The remainder of the chapter offers solutions to the core conundrum embedded in continuous-time event data: the inability to estimate the hazard function well.
Fitting Cox Regression Models
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes the conceptual underpinnings of the Cox regression model and demonstrates how to fit it to data. Section 14.1 begins by developing the Cox model specification itself, demonstrating why it is a sensible representation. Section 14.2 describes how the model is fit. Section 14.3 examines the results of model fitting, showing how to interpret parameters, test hypotheses, evaluate goodness-of-fit, and summarize effects. Section 14.4 concludes by presenting strategies for displaying results graphically.
Extending the Cox Regression Model
Authors: Singer Judith D. , Willett John B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter begins by describing how to include time-varying predictors in the Cox regression model. It then introduces two methods for relaxing the proportionality assumption. Section 15.2 presents the stratified Cox regression model, which stipulates that while the effects of each predictor are identical across strata, the baseline hazard functions can differ. Section 15.3 presents an alternative strategy that closely mirrors the approach used in discrete time: the inclusion of interactions with time as predictors in the model. Section 15.4 introduces a range of regression diagnostics useful for examining the underlying assumptions of the Cox model. Section 15.5 discusses what to do when modeling “competing risks”—multiple events that compete to terminate an individual's lifetime. Section 15.6 concludes by describing what to do when you have not observed the beginning of time for everyone in your sample and there are so-called late entrants to the risk set.
Racial And Ethnic Minorities
Authors: Allen Carol Easley , Easley Cheryl E. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes the impact of social injustice on the health of racial and ethnic minorities, the roots and underlying issues of this social injustice, specific implications of social injustice for racial and ethnic minorities, and an agenda of what needs to be done. This agenda includes ensuring cultural confidence among health professionals and institutions, increasing recruitment and retention of minority youth into health professions, attending to clear health communication to address health literacy problems, reducing poverty and addressing factors that create poverty, addressing racial discrimination, and performing research.
Women
Authors: Rees Stacey J. , Chavkin Wendy 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter describes how social injustice affects the health of women and the underlying causes and roots of social injustice against women. It discusses what needs to be done, including increasing access to quality health care, strengthening prevention programs that promote women's health, undertaking gender-sensitive initiatives that address sexually transmitted diseases and sexual and reproductive health issues, promoting research and disseminating information on women's health, and increasing resources and monitoring follow-up for women's health.
Children
Authors: Rosenbaum Sara , Yoder Chung-Hi H. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter deals primarily with the impact of social injustice on children in the United States, emphasizing children's rights in a legal context. It covers the legal status of children in society, the impact of social injustice on children's health, underlying factors and roots of this social injustice, and what needs to be done. The chapter concludes that the well-being of children depends on many investments, such as adequate family income, safe housing neighbors, and caregivers whose own lives are sufficiently supported to be able to invest time in and nurture their children. It also includes boxes on how the United States compares with other developed countries, and saving children's lives in developing countries.
Older People
Authors: Estes Carroll L. , Wallace Steven P. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses social injustice in relation to the health of older people. It covers the impact of social injustice on the health of older people; the roots and underlying causes of this social injustice, including the graying of the socioeconomic status-health gradient, the biomedicalization of aging, and globalization; and finally, what needs to be done. The chapter concludes that rights for older people must be defined as basic human rights, and that social justice for older people must begin with the assertion of the human right to health.
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, And Transgender/Transsexual Individuals
Authors: Lombardi Emilia , Bettcher Talia 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes the impact of social injustice on the health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender/ transsexual individuals, including the impact of violence, HIV/AIDS, mental health and substance abuse, and cardiovascular disease and cancer. It addresses the underlying factors and roots of this social injustice and what needs to be done, in terms of legislative and other policies, roles of health care facilities and organizations, educational measures, and research.
Forced Migrants: Refugees And Internally Displaced Persons
Authors: Toole Michael 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses social injustice in relation to forced migrants (refugees and internally displaced persons). It addresses the effects of social injustice on the health of refugees and internally displaced persons, including the impact of violence and various direct and indirect impacts on health. It describes roots and underlying issues, including poor health as a risk factor for conflict and international responses to homelessness, as well as what needs to be done. The chapter concludes that the plight of homeless people can be addressed only if the international community is serious about addressing the root causes of poverty, poor governance, exploitation, and inequities between rich and poor countries.
Nutrition
Authors: Brown J. Larry 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses social injustice as it relates to nutrition and the relationship between poor nutritional status and adverse health outcomes. It describes the impact of social injustice on nutrition and roots and underlying factors, as well as what needs to be done. A box describes obesity in relation to social injustice. The chapter concludes that government policy that invests in all households and narrows disparities in income and wealth will end not only hunger, but also the many other adverse health outcomes that result from social injustice.
Chronic Diseases
Authors: Yach Derek 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes social injustice in relation to chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases, and aging and risk factors. It considers how social injustice influences chronic diseases in terms of social class and chronic disease risks and outcomes, cumulative exposure to risks, comorbidity, and access to quality medical care. It looks at roots and underlying issues, including macroeconomic influences, urban and rural factors, and generally weak chronic disease policies and programs in developing countries. It describes what needs to be done, including institution of comprehensive prevention, health promotion, and treatment policies, as well as emphasizing prevention and health promotion, strengthening capacity and mobilizing resources, developing global norms that benefit developing countries, reorienting health services to address chronic disease, and promoting broader societal changes.
Assaultive Violence And War
Authors: Mercy James A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses social injustice in relation to assaultive violence and war. It considers social injustice as a cause of violence and the influence of cultural forms of injustice, including hate-motivated violence, and gender inequality, and the influence of institutional forms of social injustice, including political repression and unfair distribution of justice. Boxes in the chapter describe the relationship between war and public health and also genocide. The chapter gives suggestions on what needs to be done, including increasing the cost of injustice, deconcentrating poverty, reducing social distance, redefining harmful cultural norms, and strengthening democratic institutions.
Occupational Safety And Health
Authors: Taylor Andrea Kidd , Murray Linda Rae 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses social injustice in relation to occupational safety and health. It provides an historic overview and discussion of the scope of the problem, a discussion of income inequalities in the United States, and various ways in which social injustice impacts on occupational safety and health. A box in the chapter describes the adverse impacts of economic globalization. The chapter describes what needs to be done, including educating workers, empowering communities, preventing discrimination, promoting workplace democracy and environmental justice, improving surveillance and research, reforming OSHA and workers' compensation, and promoting the role of organized labor.
Strengthening Communities And The Roles Of Individuals In Community Life
Authors: Aronson Robert E. , Lovelace Kay , Hatch John W. , Whitehead Tony L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses strengthening communities and the roles of individuals in community life as ways of reducing social injustice. It describes how social injustice can be addressed through community transformation and provides principles to guide the work of community transformation. The chapter puts forward an agenda for action, including specific measures of what needs to be done.
Researching Critical Questions On Social Justice And Public Health: An Ecosocial Perspective
Authors: Krieger Nancy 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes researching critical questions on social justice and public health from an ecosocial perspective. It discusses a proposal for a public health research agenda that advances issues of social justice and includes four components: theory, monitoring, etiology, and prevention. The chapter draws on ecosocial theory and the proposition that social justice is the foundation of public health.
Promoting Equitable And Sustainable Human Development
Authors: Jolly Richard 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes how social injustice can be reduced by promoting equitable and sustainable human development. It covers requirements for greater social justice in public health. It describes the Millennium Development Goals for poverty reduction and it describes priority actions required of developed countries. The chapter also describes ways in which social injustice can be reduced globally and how sustainable human development can be facilitated. The chapter concludes that actions required for ending social injustice as it affects health go far beyond those of the health sector, and that priority actions extend to many aspects of economic and social policy, nationally and internationally.
More than Ramps
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractNearly 20% of Americans live today with some disability, and this number will grow as the “baby boomers” age. Despite this, the U.S. health care system is ill equipped to provide optimal, safe, and efficient care to this population. Significant barriers still block people with disabilities from receiving high quality health care. This book examines these barriers then proposes solutions to make health care accessible and welcoming to people with disabilities, focusing on adults who are blind, deaf, hard of hearing, or who have difficulties using their legs, arms, or hands. The book draws upon stories told by persons with these conditions and reviews of national surveys, governmental policies, and current practices. Some barriers are obvious, such as examining tables that are too high. Other problems arise from faulty communication between patients and health care professionals, including misconceptions among clinicians about the daily lives, preferences, values, and abilities of patients with disabilities. Yet others relate to restrictive health insurance policies. Finding patient-centered solutions to these many impediments will take more than simply building ramps. The first part of the book examines broad social and health insurance policies affecting people with disabilities. The second part discusses current barriers to health care, while the third proposes ways to overcome these hurdles and improve care. Using universal design principles, these solutions recognize that creating safe and accessible health care for people with disabilities will benefit virtually everyone at some point in their lives.
Health Insurance and Accessing the Health Care System
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractApproximately 15% of Americans lack health insurance, and many have insurance policies with limited benefits, inadequate to meet their needs. This chapter examines the health insurance coverage of persons with disabilities, focusing primarily on working-age adults (the vast majority of elderly adults have Medicare). Since most working-age Americans obtain health insurance coverage through their employment, the chapter explores the consequences of leaving the workforce—or being unemployed—especially when individuals apply for Social Security Disability Insurance and must then await Medicare coverage. It also reviews basic concerns relating to benefits design, particularly policies (such as medical necessity requirements) that might have special implications for persons with disabilities.
Clinical Competence and Technical Communication
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter explores communication between patients with disabilities and clinicians about “technical” matters—the purportedly objective “facts” that guide clinical decision making, such as discussions about symptoms, signs, therapeutic options, and treatment side effects. It discusses concerns that clinicians may have inadequate scientific knowledge about many disabling conditions, and they therefore make decisions based on their personal views of patients' quality of life rather than objective medical evidence. Conflicts can arise when clinicians fail to appreciate the value persons with disabilities place on their lives. The chapter also discusses problems making clinical information, such as recommendations for treatments and warnings about side effects, accessible to persons with impaired vision or hearing. Failure to accommodate patients' communication needs can compromise patients' safety.
Improving Patient-Clinician Communication
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter offers suggestions for improving open and effective patient-clinician communication. The first step involves training clinicians to recognize communication barriers. All members of health care organizations, from senior leadership to front-line office assistants, require training to enhance awareness of potential communication barriers and strategies for accommodating communication needs. The chapter reviews various approaches for improving communication, as well as training clinicians to improve their interview and interaction skills with patients with disabilities. Training should include efforts to increase sensitivity to stigmatizing attitudes and other social barriers experiences by persons with disabilities. The chapter also discusses clinicians with disabilities.
Globalization and Tobacco
Authors: Yach Derek , Wipfli Heather , Hammond Ross , Glantz Stanton 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter reviews the evolving economic and social system sustaining the growing tobacco epidemic in order to identify how globalization is affecting the industry, governments, and tobacco control advocates. It is divided into four main sections. The first section recalls key historical events that led to the worldwide prominence of tobacco use and the global rise of tobacco-related death and disease. The second section examines scientific evidence regarding the health effects of active and passive smoking and reviews the globalization of the public health response to the tobacco epidemic. The third section describes the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) negotiating process and final treaty text. The fourth section analyzes some of the remaining major challenges resulting from working within a global system, in particular, those challenges associated with developing coherent domestic and international policies and the permanent need to anticipate the unintended consequences of national and global regulations. The chapter concludes by identifying new directions and resources for global tobacco control and predicting some of the main challenges that lie ahead.