bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
War of Words: The Spectre of Civil War, 1931–2
Authors: Fulda Bernhard 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
The final years of the Weimar Republic were dominated by two factors: the economic crisis with its surge in mass unemployment; and the development of the Nazi party into a mass movement. How did politicians respond to the challenges of a media democracy? This chapter studies the intensive news coverage of political violence, and examines the increasingly authoritarian nature of government press management. But even at this point, the Nazi press was unsuccessful in attracting a wider readership. So why did voters choose to support the Nazis? This book demonstrates that the economic crisis as such was insufficient in mobilizing voters to vote for the NSDAP. Rather, press presentation of increasing Communist violence and the perceived threat of civil war, together with the media image of an indecisive government, turned the Nazis into an attractive choice for voters desperate for decisive action.
Conclusion
Authors: Fulda Bernhard 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This final chapter recapitulates the various effects of Germany's partisan press on journalists, politicians, civil servants, and the wider public by drawing on the findings of media science. It emphasizes the role of the press in providing contemporaries with a slanted picture of parliamentary democracy, which led to a political climate favourable to all anti‐democratic parties. The press helped to bring about Hitler, and with Hitler the end of press freedom. But with or without Hitler, it argues, the end of press freedom was coming in the early 1930s anyway.
Freedom of Speech in a Globalized World
Authors: Grimm Dieter 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the meaning of freedom of speech, focusing on freedom of expression and freedom of the media. It argues that despite its importance, freedom of speech is not an absolute right since it can harm other liberties or protected interests. The chapter then considers freedom of speech under globalized conditions. It cites the problem of identifying the exact boundary between legitimate public discourse and objectionable speech. It also addresses the question whether the global challenges involving free speech require global answers in the law.
Autonomy and Hate Speech
Authors: Baker C. Edwin 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter describes the rationale that a full protection theory of free speech — a theory based on respect for individual autonomy — would give for protecting hate speech. It then notes that such a rationale will be unpersuasive to many if the harms associated with a failure to outlaw hate speech are as great as often suggested — most dramatically, if the failure to prohibit makes a substantial contribution to the occurrence of serious racial/ethnic violence or genocide. The chapter then attempts to outline what empirical evidence would be needed to support this conclusion and gives reasons to doubt that this evidence has been or will be forthcoming. Still, given the horrendous nature of the harm, caution suggests not taking the risk. That is, the risk may justify prohibiting hate speech given its possible role in causing these consequences. In response to this last point, however, the chapter gives reasons to believe that the attempt to prohibit hate speech is more likely to exacerbate the risk of unacceptable outcomes than to generate the benign opposite. Thus, the argument ends in accepting the theoretical reasons for giving First Amendment protection to hate speech.
Wild-West Cowboys versus Cheese-Eating Surrender Monkeys: Some Problems in Comparative Approaches to Hate Speech
Authors: Heinze Eric 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
All European states prohibit some form of hate speech. U.S. law fundamentally precludes such bans. Euro-American comparisons can shed light on debates about hate speech, but little attention has been paid to comparative methodology. In view of the political and symbolic importance of free speech, the trans-Atlantic divide inevitably invites cultural comparisons. It is important to avoid drawing broad conclusions about deeper Euro-American differences based solely on black-letter norms. Unduly broad extrapolation from formal norms can lead to problems of essentialism and ahistoricism. Attention is paid in this chapter to the balance between formalist and realist jurisprudence as a pathway into constructive comparisons.
Criminalizing Religiously Offensive Satire: Free Speech, Human Dignity, and Comparative Law
Authors: Reichman Amnon 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter considers the question of whether satire that ridicules a religious figure or the core tenets of a religious belief should receive different constitutional protection than that afforded to political satire. It examines two possible models that seek to resolve the tension in principle: the U.S. model, under which freedom of speech enjoys pre-eminence; and the Israeli model, that protects human dignity as the principal value. In outlining the Israeli approach, the chapter analyzes an Israeli case that led to the first criminal conviction for the violation of an act prohibiting the publication of material calculated to outrage religious sentiments. It then addresses some normative and institutional features that separate the U.S. and the Israeli approaches. Moving beyond comparative legal analysis, the chapter puts forward the hypothesis that the source of the difference in jurisprudence arises at least in part out of a different cultural perception regarding the core meaning of ‘speech’ or ‘expression’s in these two jurisdictions. Drawing upon this cultural understanding, it is suggested that perhaps it is passion, not merely reason, that organizes the realm of public discourse. The chapter concludes with a brief comment on the possible limits of relying on foreign sources in some (passion-based) cases.
Homophobic Speech, Equality Denial, and Religious Expression
Authors: Leigh Ian 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses the legal regulation of religiously-motivated speech that is critical of same-sex behaviour. The ‘Culture Wars’ have now reached Europe and are being played out in claims, on the one hand, that full equality on grounds of sexual orientation requires the punishment of homophobic speech and, on the other hand, that religious freedom requires the freedom to offend or to be exempted from emerging societal norms concerning equality. Contrasting judicial decisions in the UK, Canada, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and Sweden, and recent UK legislation (Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008) suggest different ways in which this clash of values can be mediated. The chapter critically evaluates these in the light of the European Convention on Human Rights.
Endorsing Discrimination Between Faiths: A Case of Extreme Speech?
Authors: Finnis John 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
The question whether government and law can discriminate between different religious faiths (or their adherents as such) is given a resounding affirmative answer by a unanimous Grand Chamber (seventeen judges) of the European Court of Human Rights in Refah Partisi (No. 2) v Turkey (2003), upholding the dissolution of the largest political party in Turkey's legislature on the grounds that, as a dominant member of the governing coalition, it intended to introduce sharia law either for everyone or as part of a plural system of laws for citizens of different faiths. For sharia, the court held, is inherently incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights and the conceptions of democracy and the rule of law which the Convention enshrines. That is, shariah (‘which faithfully reflects the dogmas and divine rules laid down by [a] religion’ and ‘is stable and invariable’) would be incompatible with human rights, democracy and the rule of law even if adopted democratically and without threats of force. This ruling in Refah in turn grounds the same Court's decision in Sahin v Turkey (2005), upholding the prohibition of the wearing of head scarves in universities in Turkey. And Sahin is, inconspicuously but clearly enough, at the foundation of the House of Lords' decision in R (Begum) v Denbigh High School Governors [2006] UKHL 15, [2007] 1 AC 100. This chapter argues that despite its unpersuasive reasoning (in which essential premises such as those displayed in Sahin and Refah are never sufficiently articulated), Begum was rightly decided, and that — especially in relation to immigration — it is neither extremist, nor a case of extreme speech to propose discrimination analogous to that endorsed by the Strasbourg Court in those cases.
The Terrorism Act 2006: Discouraging Terrorism
Authors: Choudhury Tufyal 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
The UK's Terrorism Act 2006 makes it an offence for a person to publish statements that directly or indirectly encourage or induce a person to the commission, preparation, or instigation of acts of terrorism. These new ‘encouragement offences’ constitute a significant restriction on the exercise of the fundamental right of free expression. Its threat to free speech arises not only from specific prohibitions and prosecutions but also the wider chilling effect on expression. This chapter examines the potential contribution the new offence might make to the government's desired aim of preventing violent radicalization. It looks at the efficacy of the legislation in two respects: firstly, the role that the impugned statements play in the radicalization process; and, secondly, the potential for the criminalization of such statements to be counter-productive and undermine the government's broader counterterrorism strategy. It is argued that radicalization is largely a private process. Public statements that encourage acts of terrorism may contribute to this process but are not central to it. Furthermore, the provisions in the legislation that aim to proscribe such statements are drafted with a degree of breadth and vagueness that increases the risks of the legislation becoming counterproductive. The uncertainty surrounding the scope of the new offences and the discretion needed to enforce the legislation in a climate of distrust and fear between parts of the Muslim community and public institutions will reinforce perceptions of discrimination and unjust enforcement of counterterrorism laws, which in turn will undermine the broader counterterrorism strategy.
Radical Religious Speech: The Ingredients of a Binary World View
Authors: Savage Sara , Liht Jose 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter outlines key ingredients of Islamist radical religious speech and the social psychological needs to which they appeal, particularly among second and third generation young Muslims living in Europe and Britain. Key structural features of Islamist radical religious speech include: a three-part narrative, promoting low levels of complexity, rhetorical strategies, the closed way in which the belief system is organized, and the ‘rationalistic’ word-based emphasis. The chapter discusses the social psychological tendencies to which the extreme speech appeals: self-definitional uncertainty among young Muslims, intensified perceptions of ingroup and outgroups, and perceptions of the world-wide status hierarchy that is deemed unstable and liable to change (post 9/11). Extreme speech is most powerfully ‘activated’ under totalist group conditions.
‘On the Internet, Nobody Knows You're a Nazi’: Some Comparative Legal Aspects of Holocaust Denial on the WWW
Authors: Fraser David 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter examines some legal responses to the dangerous phenomenon of Internet-based Holocaust Denial. Legal regulations in Canada and Australia provide two frameworks under which Holocaust Denial can be outlawed. Canada has chosen to proceed by way of complex analyses of the content of the ‘speech’ and its reception by an intended audience. Australia, conversely, has adopted a legal framework which examines the possible adverse impact of the ‘speech’ on an identified victim group. What unites the two, and the aspect which is perhaps most troubling from a variety of perspectives, is a distinct rejection of any claim that the Holocaust actually happened, as an underlying normative basis for legal regulation. The chapter concludes that a political decision that denial of the Shoah is a malum in se approach would be preferable.
Expanding Holocaust Denial and Legislation Against It
Authors: Whine Michael 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
Holocaust deniers and the media they use are changing as a consequence of developing technologies and international political developments. Neo-Nazis have now been joined by the government of Iran, which incorporates denial as an element in its foreign policy strategies, and some Arab states and radical Islamists. Deniers' arguments are also developing, from outright denial to trivialization and inversion. International agreements between states have noted the need for better Holocaust education as well as more effective legal instruments and now half the states of the European Union criminalise denial. The 2007 European Common Framework agreement will now force member states to legislate against Holocaust denial if it is promoted in a manner that is threatening, abusive, or insulting if they do not have legislation that permits such punishment. While some European states prosecute Holocaust denial vigorously, the evidence suggests that better education might provide a more effective long term remedy against extremists who seek to rewrite history and undermine democracy.
Europe in Question
Authors: Hobolt Sara Binzer 
Published: May 2009

AbstractDirect democracy has become an increasingly common feature of European politics with important implications for policy‐making in the European Union. The no‐votes in referendums in France and the Netherlands in 2005 put an end to the Constitutional Treaty, and the Irish electorate caused another political crisis in Europe by rejecting the Lisbon Treaty. This book explains how voters decide in referendums on European integration. It develops a comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding referendum behaviour and presents a comparative analysis of EU referendums from 1972 to 2008. To examine why people vote the way they do, the role of political elites and the impact of the campaign dynamics, this books relies on a variety of sources including survey data, content analysis of media coverage, experimental studies, and elite interviews. The book illustrates the importance of campaign dynamics and elite endorsements in shaping public opinion, electoral mobilization and vote choices. Referendums are often criticized for presenting citizens with choices that are too complex and thereby generating outcomes that have little or no connection with the ballot proposal. Importantly this book shows that voters are smarter than they are often given credit for. They may not be fully informed about European politics, but they do consider the issues at stake before they go to the ballot box and they make use of the information provided by parties and the campaign environment. Voters are thus more competent than commonly perceived.
2 A Theory of Referendum Behaviour
Authors: Hobolt Sara Binzer 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter lays out a theoretical framework for understanding referendum behaviour. The core component of the theory is a model of voting behaviour, which outlines how attitudes shape vote choices, influenced by the information that voters receive from political parties and other elites. The framework highlights first that differences in political interest among individuals also lead to diverse patterns of voting behaviour and second, that the campaign context shapes electoral outcomes. Politically aware voters base their vote choice on more sophisticated decision criteria and intense campaigns lead to more issue voting. These two aspects of referendum behaviour ‐ individual‐level differences and campaign effects ‐ are examined in a comparative analysis of EU referendums in the subsequent chapters.
3 A Comparative Analysis of Voting Behaviour
Authors: Hobolt Sara Binzer 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents a comparative analysis of voting behaviour in 19 EU referendums held in Denmark, France, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Spain between 1972 and 2008. It relies on statistical analysis of survey data from these referendums to evaluate the theoretical framework presented in Chapter 2. The results reveal the influence of attitudes towards European integration, partisan loyalties and feelings about the government on voters' decisions. They also highlight that voters differ in their voting behaviour depending on their level of interest in and knowledge of politics. Voters who are more politically aware are more likely to rely on their attitudes towards European integration when deciding in EU referendums compared to voters who pay less attention to politics.
5 Framing Effects in Referendums: Experimental Evidence
Authors: Hobolt Sara Binzer 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThe purpose of this chapter is to examine how different ‘frames’ influence individual vote choices in referendums. Framing effects occur when people's responses to an issue depend on how it is portrayed. Since referendums require voters to decide on issues that are often relatively unfamiliar, framing effects are generally very decisive. This chapter relies on survey experiments to examine two types of framing effects in two (hypothetical) referendums on joining the single currency and ratification of the Lisbon Treaty. First, it explores the influence of party endorsements on partisan and non‐partisan voters. Second, it examines the effect of describing different consequences of voting yes or no on vote choices. The findings show that government endorsements have a significant effect on attitudes towards referendum proposal, but that this effect is mediated by partisanship. Consequences frames also have a substantial effect: when negative consequences of the no‐vote are highlighted, people are more likely to favour a yes‐vote, whereas a negative emphasis on the consequences of the ballot proposal leads people to say no.
7 From No to Yes: The Danish and Irish Referendums on the Maastricht and Nice Treaties
Authors: Hobolt Sara Binzer 
Published: May 2009

AbstractIn this case study chapter, four critical referendums are examined in greater detail: the two Danish referendums on the Maastricht Treaty and the two Irish referendums on the Nice Treaty. In both cases, the initial no‐votes were overturned in a second vote. This chapter ask the question: why did some voters change their minds? These case studies trace the dynamics of elite behaviour and public opinion formation during the course of the campaigns. Through in‐depth analyses of newspapers, campaign material, opinion polls, and interviews with key actors in the campaign, this chapter gives a rich description of political behaviour in the campaigns leading up to the referendum votes. This chapter provides a detailed analysis of how differences in the political environment — and specifically the information disseminated by political elites — influenced the behaviour of citizens in these referendums on European integration.
3 Public Sector Research and Industrial Innovation in Norway: A Historical Perspective
Authors: Gulbrandsen Magnus , Nerdrum Lars 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter analyses the historical role of public research organizations for industrial growth and innovation in Norway, and the changes in this role over time. Public research organizations include research institutes and higher education institutions, and the chapter goes back in time to the 19th century. Like many other countries, Norway has a large number of research institutes involved in innovation, and these organizations have an equally long history as higher education institutions. Public sector research has co-evolved with the national industrial structure, and institutes and universities have played central roles in developing high technology sectors and activities as well as in modernizations of traditional industries.
4 Policies for Path Creation: The Rise and Fall of Norway's Research-Driven Strategy for Industrialization
Authors: Wicken Olav 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses the role of public policy in creating a new path in the Norwegian economy. It argues that the policy to support industrial R&D from the 1960s was part of a strategy to establish a R&D intensive industrialization. This was the main motivation for the introduction of a public policy for industrial research, and as long as this policy was accepted there was to be a long-term growth in public support for industrial R&D. When path creation was no longer a central part of policy making, the industrial research based strategy collapsed. This is seen as a factor behind the relatively low R&D intensity in the Norwegian economy compared to other Nordic countries like Sweden and Finland.
7 The Development of the Norwegian Petroleum Innovation System: A Historical Overview
Authors: Engen Ole Andreas 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter addresses the development of the Norwegian Petroleum Innovation System. While the initial phase of the petroleum development of Norway in the 1960s was characterized by an absorptive capacity of receiving new technology, the building of Norwegian competence in the 1970s and 1980s was, in certain respects, directly shaped by public policy so that participatation could occur. With the Condeep design it became possible to speak of an independent Norwegian petroleum industry. In the R&D system of Norway, petroleum education and research were introduced at several levels. Due to new cost-efficient technologies introduced in the 1990s, we may say that the adjustment was concluded by the beginning of 21st century. The Norwegian oil and gas actors perceived themselves ready to participate fully in the international system of energy producers.
9 The Biotechnology Industry in Norway: A Marginal Sector or Future Core Activity?
Authors: Grønning Terje 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThe prevalence of successful biotechnology firms has long been associated with the existence of national or regional agglomerations of the biotechnology firms themselves and partners such as large corporations, universities, research institutes, and venture capital firms. It is, however, acknowledged that such agglomeration trends may be most closely associated with medical biotechnology. This chapter examines ninety-three firms that may be classified as biotechnology-related firms in Norway. While there is indeed a great preoccupation with medical biotechnology in Norway, the survey shows that two other distinct traits are present: a concentration of firms focused on diagnostics and related fields, and a focus on marine biotechnology. In a path dependency perspective, these foci may be explained at least in part by the existence of knowledge bases and market opportunities within chemistry based reagents and fish oils respectively, which were present from the times prior to the advent of modern biotechnology. The chapter contributes to the theories on capabilities of individual firms and agglomeration of different firms and other organizations, and suggests that foci on such niches as those which are prevalent in Norway may function with more disperse geographical distribution patterns as compared to cases described in existing literature.