bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Genesis of the Institute
Authors: Hansford R. F. 
Published: November 2009

The Institute of Navigation was born on 12 March 1947 in the Boardroom of Lloyds Register of Shipping. More will be said of this later, but the birth is well documented and defined.It will surprise no one that the conception is much less easily defined, but it is certainly no less significant a part of the genesis of the Institute. This article is an attempt to outline the early history of the Institute.During 1944 and 1945 an Institute of Navigation was formed in the United States and, in May 1945, it held its first Annual General Meeting with Professor Sam Herrick — a well-known American astronomer — as its Executive Secretary. Its meetings were attended by the Navigation Specialist on the British Air Commission in Washington (Squadron Leader D. O. Fraser) and duly reported back, through the Commission, to the Air Ministry in the United Kingdom.
The Journal — As of Now
Authors: Kemp John 
Published: November 2009

To follow Mike Richey's authoritative article on the launch and subsequent development of the Journal is almost as daunting a task as it has been to follow his thirty-nine years as Editor.My own time in post has amounted to a mere eleven years, a period which I have found both enjoyable and rewarding. Mike set and maintained a very high standard in the content and in the presentation of the Journal. Such was die reputation and the standing of the Journal that few changes were needed, and it was straightforward enough to continue on much the same lines. Straightforward, but not at all easy. It was only when I took over as Editor that I fully appreciated the care and attention to detail that Mike had invested in producing volume after volume to such a consistently high standard. Fortunately I have always had a dedicated and efficient Assistant Editor, most recently, Rebecca Dudley.
The Treatment of Navigational Errors
Authors: Anderson E. W. 
Published: November 2009

This is a condensed version of a seminal paper which was first published in the Journal in 1952 (Vol. 5, p. 103). It is followed by comments from John Parker. The numbering of the figures
and tables, some of which are omitted, follows that of the original paper.In recent years, the most striking development in the philosophy of navigation has surely been the change in attitude towards errors. Ten years ago an error was regarded as something that just did not happen in the best navigational circles; today we accept it as the normal concomitant of observation, and we study to reduce it.
Navigation and the Airlines
Authors: Pike E. W. 
Published: November 2009

This paper was first published in 1957 (Vol. 10, p. 398). It is followed by comments from David Page.With the comparative absence of navigation aids in the earlier days of flying, up to about ten years ago, the navigator was constantly engaged in associating observations, calculations and chartwork in what was essentially a high-class guessing game. The low speeds (just over 100 knots on flying boats and just under 200 knots on landplanes) provided enough time for this rather intriguing exercise to be carried out in a fairly relaxed atmosphere, conducive to an individualistic approach that could be justified by results. The navigator's performance was largely (at that stage of aviation) judged on the neatness of his plotting, the accuracy of ETA'S and the absence of late course corrections before arriving at destination or a check point. If there is anything in the view that navigation is an art, this particular yardstick certainly induced considerable artifice in the navigator.
The Development of Shipborne Navigational Radar
Authors: Hansford R. F. 
Published: November 2009

This paper was first published in the Journal in 1947 (Vol. 1, p. 118). Sections 1 and 2 are summarized in order to save space. Sections 3, 4 and 5 are reprinted with only a little abridgment. The paper is followed by comment from the original author.The original paper gave a comprehensive account of the development of navigational radar in the United Kingdom from the beginning of World War II up to the time of writing.The use that was made of the very early radars was mentioned and the improvements brought about by the introduction of the PPI (Plan Position Indicator) and centimetric radar were described. An account was given of how radar assisted the Normandy landings, and of the techniques employed including the use of radar predictions of the Normandy coastline (produced in great secrecy) which were optically superimposed on the PPI. Also shown on the predictions were the planned approach tracks to the shore. An example of one of these predictions compared with the post-invasion radar photograph is shown in Fig. 1. This superimposition of geographical information on the PPI was to become of great significance in later years.
Manœuvres to Ensure the Avoidance of Collision
Authors: Calvert E. S. 
Published: November 2009

This paper was first published in 1960 (Vol. 13, p. 127). It is followed by comments from John Kemp. The paper has been abridged, including the omission of section 5 which described a proposal for a new radar display.When the problem of collision in the air is discussed, it is usual to start by pointing out the enormous closing speed of two modern aircraft meeting head-on, and to conclude from this that avoidance on the ‘see and be seen’ principle has ceased to be possible. The fact is, however, that the great majority of mid-air collisions (about 85 percent) occur within five miles of an airport and the typical case is not the head-on one, but the case in which the two aircraft crab into one another from a direction which may be anywhere around the whole enclosing sphere. Since the field of view of the aircrew covers only about 20 percent of the enclosing sphere, the aircrew of colliding aircraft seldom see each other. It would seem, therefore, that the ‘see and be seen’ principle never did afford much protection, even when speeds were low. In other words, the fact that the number of mid-air collisions in Europe has hitherto been small is not primarily due to seeing and evading, although this sometimes happens, but to the fact that the airspace is very large compared to the volume of all the aircraft in it at any given time. However, as traffic densities go up, the risk rapidly increases, and in congested airspace, such as that around New York, the problem of avoiding collision has already become acute. In the period 1948–57, there were 159 mid-air collisions in the United States, and many of these made headlines in the world press. One can imagine the public outcry if two large transports were to collide over a housing estate; but unless something effective is done, something like this will presumably happen eventually. At very high altitudes the ‘see and be seen’ principle certainly fails, by day, because the speed will be high, and in addition, the range at which a pilot can see an object the size of an aircraft may be less than 1½ miles due to what is sometimes called ‘high-altitude myopia’.
Land Vehicle Navigation — A Worldwide Perspective
Authors: French Robert L. 
Published: November 2009

This paper was presented at the NAV '90 conference and was first published in the Journal in 1991 (Vol. 44, p. 25). It is followed by comments from Christopher Querée.The future shakeout and consolidation of vehicle navigation technologies and systems approaches will occur primarily in the vehicle location, mobile data communications, and man/machine interface areas. Digital maps will not be directly affected because, although there is still a dearth of formal standards, there is already a high degree of uniformity among approaches being pursued in all parts of the world.
Analysis of Long-Range Air Traffic Systems: Separation Standards — I
Authors: Reich P. G. 
Published: November 2009

This paper was first published in Volume 19, p. 88, in 1966. Parts II and III were included in following issues of the Journal. The paper is Crown Copyright and is reproduced with the permission of H.M. Stationery Office. It is followed by comments from Stanley Ratcliffe.The main task of air traffic controllers is to plan traffic flows so that aircraft are allotted sufficient separation to absorb not only systematic differences in speed but also the imperfections of navigation and piloting, which we term flying errors. To this end, they usually work with three separation standards, to be applied in, respectively, the along-track, across-track and vertical dimensions of space. The separation standard for any one dimension is the minimum intended (i.e. planned) separation permitted in that dimension when the intended separations are less than standard in the other two. The problem is to choose standards which are safe enough, but not so large as to lead to unnecessary traffic delays and deviations.
Navigation in Animals
Authors: Matthews G. V. T. 
Published: November 2009

This paper was first published in the Journal in 1969 (Vol. 22, p. 118). It is followed by comments from John Kemp.The last twenty-one years have seen some very striking advances in our knowledge of how animals can determine their location. In many cases we have learned that they have available a wider range of stimuli than ourselves for recognizing landmarks and for pilotage within their home area. Thus the associated senses of smell and taste are extraordinarily well developed in some species. The ability of the males of certain moths to detect the scent emitted by females at very considerable distances had long been known. More recently the extreme sensitivity, and selectivity, of fish to waterborne odours has led to an understanding of how they locate their home waters. As but one example, eels have shown reactions to concentrations of chemicals as low as 3 × 10−18, equivalent to but two or three molecules within the fish's olfactory sac. In other cases animals have developed sensitivities of which we have little or no conception. Ecolocation is employed by certain birds, by many marine animals and reaches a peak of efficiency in the case of bats. Not only do the latter detect sounds of much higher frequency than ourselves, they also respond to echoes of sounds they emitted but 0·001 seconds earlier. We have little appreciation of the sensations produced by the pressure-receptors in the lateral-line organs of fish.
An Electronic Chart Display for Fishing Vessels
Authors: Coates R. , Dye Keith , Knox K. 
Published: November 2009

This paper, which discusses a preliminary development of a microcomputer-based navigation system for the fishing industry, was presented at the Oceanology International Congress at Brighton in March. Dr Coates is at the University College of North Wales, Mr Dye and Mr Knox with the Sea Fish Industry Authority.The history of the sea-fishing industry is one in which success has only been achieved at the price of experience, painfully gathered as a consequence of abortive fishing trips or damaged gear. A detailed knowledge of conditions on the sea-bed, in particular preferred fishing areas and sea-floor obstacles such as wrecks or sand-pinnacles, is clearly of paramount importance in maintaining commercial viability. At the present time, for the requirements of the UK Sea-Fishing Fleet, such specialist information is available in the form of the widely used ‘Kingfisher’ chart series. With the advent of cheap, yet powerful microcomputer systems, the possibility now exists to create a data-base version of the Kingfisher Charts, thus offering the advantages of rapid updating of information and convenient wheelhouse presentation of user-selected chart features by means of a video monitor.
The Placement of Ancient Sites in the New Forest Area
Authors: Watts Alan J. 
Published: November 2009

In the eighth Duke of Edinburgh Lecture, presented to the Institute in 1976, Professor Thorn discussed the extent of Megalithic man's knowledge of astronomy and from surveys of ancient sites showed how a calendar was produced and sensitive methods of astronomical observation developed. Mr Watts suggests that the positions of ancient sites in the area he has examined show an early familiarity with the concept of parallels and meridians.It is not normally assumed that latitude and longitude were in use in times as remote as the late Neolithic and early Bronze Ages. The New Forest with its relatively sparse set of major earthworks is, however, a good area to illustrate that ancient sites are set with careful regard for both latitude and longitude, arid particularly the latter.
I – Improvements to Secondary Radar for Air Traffic Control
Authors: Bowes R.C 
Published: November 2009

Secondary surveillance radar (SSR) is nearly as old as radar itself. It has evolved from a need in the last war for an Identification system between Friend and Foe (IFF)Primary radar has a scanning aerial beam which transmits a burst of energy, and the reflected signal from an aircraft is detected. In the simplest form of IFF the aircraft carries a receiver/transmitter (transponder), which detects the primary radar beam and transmits a pulse (on the same frequency) a few microseconds later. Thus two ‘blips’ appear on the radar display, one at the shorter range due to reflected energy from the aircraft followed by a stronger reply from the transponder. The system requires all aircraft to carry a transponder which upon receipt of an ‘up link’ signal or message transmits a ‘down link’ signal or message. SSR has evolved (and is still evolving) from this early IFF technique into the present-day system which serves both military IFF needs and the requirements for Air Traffic Control. This paper concentrates on the civil use of SSR where it is the prime sensor for the control of aircraft.
Cause Relationships of Collisions and Groundings
Authors: Cockcroft A. N. 
Published: November 2009

A major research project to investigate the causal relationships of collisions and groundings involving Norwegian registered vessels has recently been completed. This article reviews mainly the Final Report, by K. H. Drager, but earlier project reports have also been taken into account.The project was launched in 1976 by Det Norkse Veritas in co-operation with Norwegian maritime authorities, shipowners and research organizations. It was inspired by what was considered to be a high rate of collisions and groundings, attributed mainly to human error. The aim of the project was to investigate the causes of the accidents and to develop measures to reduce the incidence of collisions and groundings.
The Hazards of Close Overtaking
Authors: Cahill R. A. 
Published: November 2009

Rule 13 of the Collision Regulations reads as follows:Overtaking:(a) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Rules of this Section any vessel overtaking any other shall keep out of the way of the vessel being overtaken.(b) A vessel shall be deemed to be overtaking when coming up with another vessel from a direction more than 22·5 degrees abaft her beam, that is, in such a position with reference to the vessel she is overtaking, that at night she would be able to see only the sternlight of that vessel but neither of her sidelights.(c) When a vessel is in any doubt as to whether she is overtaking another, she shall assume that this is the case and act accordingly.(d) Any subsequent alteration of the bearing between the two vessels shall not make the overtaking vessel a crossing vessel within the meaning of these Rules or relieve her of the duty of keeping clear of the overtaken vessel until she is finally past and clear.
Banded Contour Charts
Authors: Le Pla P. 
Published: November 2009

The proposal by A. J. Wright (this Journal, vol. 34, no. 1, p. 142) that banded contour charts should be introduced, appears attractive at first sight. It appears to provide immediately recognizable indication of safe areas for the navigation of those ships whose draught is within certain limits. However, I feel that the system as proposed suffers from some major weaknessesAllowance for height of tide. Tidal ranges of several metres are by no means uncommon. Failure to make proper allowance for this could result in a wrong assessment by the user of where navigationally safe water lies. Such tidal ranges frequently occur in areas of high-density traffic. Here, the pressures on the mariner are such that the temptation to ‘eye-ball the navigation’ is greatest – yet it is in such areas that positional accuracy based on sound chartwork procedures is vital.
A Review of Commercial Wind Propulsion Projects
Authors: Bradbury W. M. S. 
Published: November 2009

The commercial viability of wind propulsion is of itself not strictly a navigational problem. However, the implications for navigation of a return to commercial sail in some form are clearly considerable. Mr Bradbury's summary of the various proposals put forward in the last few years and the extensive bibliography will interest many navigators.In 1980 The Times printed an article on its front page under the headline ‘Oil prices put sails back on the horizon’ (Baily, 1980). This article must have surprised many people. It reflected a growing awareness and interest in the idea of wind propulsion for commercial ships. A better indication of this interest may be the number of related symposia held since the oil crisis. The symposia have been held by The Royal Institution of Naval Architects (1975 and 1980), Liverpool Polytechnic (1976), this Institute (1977), and the Department of Industry (1979). Some interesting papers by Mudie (1977a, b and 1980) have particularly brought the subject to the attention of this Institute.
Risk Analysis of Shipping and Offshore Operation
Authors: Cuming J. A. , Jenssen T. K. 
Published: November 2009

Det Norske Veritas is a Norwegian ship classification society with a large classified fleet registered in 94 countries. The paper printed below was presented by Mr Cuming at an Ordinary Meeting of the Institute held in London on 18 May 1983 with Dr J. F. Kemp in the Chair.Risk analysis is a method of evaluating potential risks which has been used for the past ten years by Det Norske Veritas, in both the shipping and the offshore fields of operations. The method is based on the systematic identification of hazards, the estimation of probability of occurrence and the evaluation of consequences.
The Safety of UK Fishing Vessels 1961–80
Authors: Reilly Mark S. J. 
Published: November 2009

Retrospective analysis of the Total Loss and Serious Casualty Rate (TL/SC Rate) for UK registered deep-sea and inshore fishing vessels over a twenty-year period (1961–80) revealed a gradual and sustained increase.The mean TL/SC rate for 1971–80 (6·041/1 000 vessels at risk) was almost 70 percent higher than the corresponding mean for the previous decade (3·79/1000 vessels at risk) and this difference was statistically significant (p< 0·05).Subsequent examination of vessel losses and casualties by cause indicate that 64 per cent of this detected increase was due to a concomitant increase in vessels lost or damaged due to foundering (particularly inshore vessels) and that the mean vessel age at loss from this cause was 24 years old. Synthesis of available evidence relating to the onset of this increase (1971); mean age at loss due to foundering (24 years); and the current age structure of the fleet, supports the hypothesis that the increase in founderings in the early 1970s may be explained partly by a cohort effect resulting from the uncontrolled fleet rebuilding programme almost a quarter of a century earlier in the immediate post-war period.Current combined risks of fishing vessel loss and casualty are about twice as great overall as those with which the Committee of Inquiry into Trawler Safety (1969) was concerned and over which it expressed deep concern.
The Graphical Records of Matthew Flinders's Voyage to Terra Australis
Authors: Ferrar A. N. 
Published: November 2009

This second Matthew Flinders Memorial Lecture, in a series sponsored jointly by the Royal Institute of Navigation and the Hydrographic Society with the cooperation of Lincolnshire and Humberside Arts was presented at the University of Hull on 11 May 1983 with Sir John Dudding, Chairman of Lincolnshire and Humberside Arts in the Chair. The first lecture, presented by Rear-Admiral G. S. Ritchie in April 1974 (Journal27, 3) on the bicentenary of the birth of Matthew Flinders, described the hydrographic work of this exploring navigator. Miss Ferrar concentrates on the graphical records of Flinders's Australian voyages.When Marco Polo made his journey to China, overland from Venice in the thirteenth century, the lands around the Pacific Ocean were wholly unknown to Europeans. But the silks and spices with which he returned sowed the seeds of the quest for a sea route to the ‘Spice Islands’ which was to be one of the mainsprings of exploration for nearly 500 years. The Spaniards crossed the Atlantic. But instead of finding themselves on the coast of Asia as they had expected they discovered the lands (and the wealth) of the Aztecs and Incas, and their explorations extended along the Pacific coasts of Central and South America from Mexico to Peru. The Portuguese found their way around southern Africa and across the Indian Ocean to South-east Asia, where they attained their objective and established a lucrative trade with the Spice Islands. Sailing ship routes depend upon the direction of prevailing winds, so the outward voyage took them eastwards from the Cape of Good Hope and then northwards to their destination. The homeward crossing of the Indian Ocean was in more northerly latitudes.
Human Navigation
Authors: Anderson E. W. 
Published: November 2009

In this last communication to theJournal, the late Wing Commander Anderson, whose bookAnimals as Navigatorsis reviewed on p. 146, discusses the natural sensors by means of which man may control his (purposeful) motion from place to place.The qualification ‘human’ can convey many things. It could cover the impact of human characteristics on various systems, including the most sophisticated, but we shall use the word to mean that navigation information is garnered by the human senses without the aid of anything that has been manufactured. We shall exclude artificial sensors to provide control and not even accept a marching compass to guide the motion. There will be no printed map to give position and no watch to register time.
The Probability of Overlap in the Vertical Dimension
Authors: Nagaoka S. 
Published: November 2009

The mathematical collision risk model developed by Reich can be used for evaluating the current air traffic control (ATC) separation minima. This model requires such parameters as volume of traffic, navigational errors of aircraft and the structure of routes. The navigational errors are closely related to the probability of overlap, which is one of the most important parameters for the model.Distributions of navigational errors have been studied by many researchers since the advent of the collision risk model. Because data collection on the navigational errors in the vertical dimension is expensive and time-consuming, there are few examples of observed data. Thus, at present, data on the probability of overlap in the vertical dimension are not available in a large enough sample to derive any conclusions.