bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
10 Slow Growth and Revolutionary Change: The Norwegian IT Industry Enters the Global Age, 1970-2005
Authors: Sogner Knut 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter concludes that although the Norwegian IT industry has been lacking in export success for the last thirty years, it has been important for the development of the Norwegian economy. Several IT companies have been on the verge of international breakthroughs, but have been stopped by rising costs and guided by national opportunities. The rise of the important oil-sector has been both a hindrance through rising costs, and an opportunity as a market, for the Norwegian IT industry. Specialised products for national markets rather than general mass-market products have become the norm for the Norwegian IT industry. This development had to a remarkable degree been associated with continuity in terms of organizations and people. The firms these people and organizations have been attached too, however, have experienced turbulence, bankruptcy, and change, making the whole development from 1970 until today a seemingly messy and problematic affair. But this has really been a period of IT industry growth, and in the end the national development is reasonably successful.
12 The Technical-Industrial Research Institutes in the Norwegian Innovation System
Authors: Nerdrum Lars , Gulbrandsen Magnus 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter analyses the role of technical-industrial research institutes for industrial innovation in Norway. Using statistical data and a survey among firms, it is shown that there are many different types of interaction between institutes and firms. In addition to R&D and technical services, the institutes are a significant source of skilled manpower for firms. Three central roles for the institutes are highlighted: they are a learning partner for industry, they help increase absorptive capacity, and they constitute a flexible repository in the innovation system by helping firms in peak periods and by reducing the pressure on universities through assisting in teaching and supervision.
Statistical Description and Evolution of Reactive Gas Systems
Authors: Brun Raymond 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins by presenting a statistical definition of state and transport parameters of non-equilibrium flows, starting from the concept of distribution function. It then describes the evolution of the system with the Boltzmann equation and with the macroscopic conservation equations. The various types of intermolecular collisions, elastic, inelastic, reactive are taken into account in the collisional balance of the Boltzmann equation and expressions of the corresponding collision frequencies are given. In the appendices, some results on molecular interaction potentials and details on collisional processes are presented, as well as a few elements of tensorial algebra.
Transport and Relaxation in Quasi-Equilibrium Regimes: Pure Gases
Authors: Brun Raymond 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter expands the distribution function of a pure gas in a series of a small parameter representing the ratio of the collisional time to a reference flow time; this is the so-called Chapman-Enskog method. Zero order and first order solutions are discussed, corresponding to isolated and non-isolated media respectively. The zero order solutions are related to the Euler equations and the first order to the Navier-Stokes equations. Transport terms such as viscosity and conductivity coefficients, included in these equations are determined for pure gases in equilibrium at zero order (WNE solution) and approximate expressions are also proposed. More details are given in the appendices on collisional integrals, orthogonal bases used in the expansions, equation systems, collisional models, and relaxation equations.
Transport and Relaxation in Non-Equilibrium Regimes
Authors: Brun Raymond 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
For cases where the zero order distribution function is out of equilibrium, the Chapman-Enskog method may also be applied (SNE solution). This chapter analyses Navier-Stokes equations, including specific transport terms and relaxation and/or kinetic equations. Examples of vibrational non-equilibrium gases are developed. The case of dissociating gases is examined and the interaction between vibrational relaxation and chemical kinetics is particularly pointed out. Thus, the chemical dissociation rate constants are modified and the relaxation equations take the dissociation and the recombination into account. Particular points are examined in the appendices, such as the computation of various specific transport terms and parameters characteristic of the vibration-dissociation interaction.
Generalized Chapman–Enskog Method
Authors: Brun Raymond 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter develops a generalized Chapman–Enskog method (GCE method), which is valid whatever the regime may be, in equilibrium or not. The first order solutions are modified and include WNE and SNE solutions. Applications are then proposed for vibrationally relaxing gases and for reactive gas mixtures. General expressions for transport terms and conservation equations are obtained, and a general method for describing all types of non-equilibrium flows is proposed. Particular situations or processes are also examined such as the boundary conditions for the Boltzmann equation (accommodation), free molecular flows, and hypersonic regimes. Finally, the approximate BGK method and the computational DSMC method are briefly described.
Reactive Flows
Authors: Brun Raymond 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter describes the chemical reactions occurring in high temperature gas flows from a macroscopic point of view. In equilibrium conditions, the law of mass action is established and examples are given, first for a single reaction (dissociation) and then for reactive gas mixtures. An application to the computation of flow quantities behind a shock wave in diatomic gases is presented. General formulas for reaction rate constants are given in non-equilibrium conditions. The vibrational relaxation is discussed and examples of TV and VV relaxation times are proposed. Typical non-equilibrium flows are examined in detail, such as flow behind a strong shock wave and expanding supersonic flow in a nozzle. Finally, an example of vibrational population evolution behind a straight shock wave is presented, as well as the air chemistry, including the ionisation processes.
Reactive Flows in the Dissipative Regime
Authors: Brun Raymond 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter examines reactive flows in dissipative regime in equilibrium and non-equilibrium conditions. It begins with a discussion of boundary layer flows, focusing on the influence of the chemical kinetics and of the wall catalycity on the wall heat transfer. Particular cases of vibrational non-equilibrium boundary layers are then examined, such as the boundary layer developing behind incident and reflected shock waves as well as along the walls of the divergent part of a supersonic nozzle. The results of computation of two-dimensional flows in nozzles and around various bodies are presented. The interaction between the non-equilibrium processes and the flow parameters is clearly emphasized. Similarly, an example of computation of a gasdynamic laser (CO2/N2) is presented. In the appendices, a few particular problems are examined, such as the vibrational catalycity, the use of the generalized Rankine-Hugoniot relations, the order of magnitude of transport terms, and a general view on the unsteady numerical methods used for solving Navier-Stokes equations in non-equilibrium conditions.
4 Universal 20 without the LCA
Authors: Abels Klaus , Neeleman Ad 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter argues that Cinque's (2005) result concerning the noun phrase internal order of demonstrative, numeral, adjective, and noun can be derived with- appeal to Kayne's (1994) Linear Correspondence Axiom. It claims that a theory which allows branching to the left and to the right but restricts (at least certain kinds of) movement to the left has a better chance of explaining universal word-order asymmetries than theories based on the Linear Correspondence Axiom, because these necessarily invoke movement in an unconstrained way.
6 Number agreement in the acquisition of English and Xhosa
Authors: Villiers Jill De , Gxilishe Sandile 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThe chapter considers the acquisition of number agreement in English, revealing asymmetries in production and comprehension. The possibility is explored that agreement is a post-syntactic phenomenon such that agreement on the target is inaccessible to interpretation. The consequences are explored for a radically different agreement paradigm, namely Xhosa.
10 If non‐simultaneous spell‐out exists, this is what it can explain
Authors: MaruŠIČ Franc 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter shows how non-simultaneous spell-out — a computational option argued for in Marušič & Žaucer (2006) and Marušič (2007) — can be used to explain two linguistic phenomena where the point of interpretation does not match the point of pronunciation. The interpretation of indefinites and quantifiers in raising constructions serves as the testing ground for this theory.
11 Valuing V features and N features: What adjuncts tell us about case, agreement, and syntax in general
Authors: Emonds Joseph 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes many superficially diverse adjuncts. These are then reduced to two types: underlying PPs and ‘agreeing’ adjuncts. It proposes to answer: Why only these two? A general principle for ‘valuing’ basic N and V features emerges, which identifies Abstract Case with ‘valued N’ and complement positions with ‘valued V’.
15 Some silent first person plurals
Authors: Kayne Richard S. 
Published: May 2009

AbstractIn order to account for morphosyntactic microvariation, an approach based on silent elements provides an alternative (one that is more tightly tied to other aspects of syntax) to an approach based on syncretism: languages are not more or less syncretic, they just happen to have a certain distribution of empty morphemes. This chapter analyses cases of 3rd person clitics in French and Italian (on, ci), which, in addition to their impersonal use, are also used as 1st person plural pronouns. It proposes that these impersonal pronouns do not convey 1st person plural, but rather a silent WE pronoun present in the syntax does. The chapter analyzes which element (WE o impersonal clitic) is responsible for a variety of syntactic phenomena.
16 From Greek to Germanic: Poly‐(*in)‐definiteness and weak/strong adjectival inflection
Authors: Leu Thomas 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter proposes a relativization structure for adnominal adjectives in which the pre-adjectival definite marker and the adjective form a constituent excluding the noun. This is supported by a unified perspective on Greek poly-(*in)-definiteness, Scandinavian double definiteness, and the Germanic weak/strong adjectival declension alternation, and reveals exciting parallels between the extended AP and the tensed clause.
3 A Class of Chronic Poverty Measures
Authors: Foster James E. 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents a new class of chronic poverty measures that can account for duration in poverty as well as the traditional dimensions of incidence, depth, and severity. The chapter proceeds as follows. Section 3.2 provides a brief overview of poverty measurement in a static environment to help ground the discussion of chronic poverty measurement. Section 3.3 introduces time into the analysis. The identification and aggregation steps are specified and the new family of chronic poverty measures is defined. Section 3.4 provides a brief application of the technology to data from Argentina, while Section 3.5 concludes the chapter.
8 Subjective Assessments, Participatory Methods, and Poverty Dynamics
Authors: Krishna Anirudh 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses the stages of progress method for the assessment of poverty. It tracks households in five countries: four developing countries and the United States. The methodology has seven steps: (i) get together representative community group; (ii) discuss the objectives of the exercise; (iii) define poverty collectively in terms of stages of progress, then ask the question: if a poor household gets a bit more money what do they do with it?; (iv) define ‘x years ago’ in terms of a well-known signifying event; (v) list all village households, and then ask about each household's stage at the present time and x years ago; (vi) categorize all present-day households into chronically poor or not; and then (vii) take a random sample within each category to ascertain reasons for change or stability. To cross-check the reliability of the method, researchers share the results with key informants, before leaving the community, to see whether they agree with the findings.
10 Poverty Measurement Blues
Authors: Toit Andries du 
Published: May 2009

AbstractDiscussions about the limits of econometric approaches to understanding poverty are often framed as if the central differences are those between quantitative and qualitative method and as if the key issue up for discussion is the best way of ‘integrating’ them. This chapter argues that it is necessary to go further. It considers the difficulties that arise out of the domination of development studies and poverty research by what is here called the ‘econometric imaginary’: an approach that frames questions of social understanding as essentially questions of measurement. But, although the limitations of the econometric imaginary clearly illustrate the need for qualitative modes of research and understanding, more is needed than various methods of combining or ‘integrating’ qualitative and quantitative approaches, as if these are traditions that can be connected to one another without themselves being transformed or affected; or as if they proceed from a set of underlying assumptions that can seamlessly merge.
15 Toward an Economic Sociology of Chronic Poverty
Authors: Woolcock Michael 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on both expanding and refining the analytical scope of the ‘social’ (or non-economic) aspects of chronic poverty. The chapter is structured in six sections. Section 15.2 briefly looks at how poverty generally, and chronic poverty in particular, is explained in the current policy literature, with a focus on ‘poverty traps’ and (more recently) ‘inequality traps’. It is argued that three strands of scholarship in the non-economic social sciences have exerted quite considerable influence at the level of contemporary policy discourse (and to a lesser extent, practice), and that critics, especially those within these disciplines, have been slow to recognize this fact. Section 15.3 argues that these successes cannot do the heavy intellectual lifting required for a more comprehensive social theory of chronic poverty, and that, as such, a new edifice must be constructed and negotiated for. Section 15.4 provides three brief case studies of selected aspects of chronic poverty to demonstrate both the influence and the limits of prevailing approaches. Section 15.5 provides a defence of three constituent realms of a broader social theory of chronic poverty, namely systems of social relations, rules, and meaning. Section 15.6 concludes.
Corporate Accountability in International Environmental Law
Authors: Morgera Elisa 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This book examines the highly topical question of the current and future role of international environmental law in directing and controlling the environmental conduct of business enterprises, in particular multinational corporations. It replies to this question through the identification of corporate accountability standards and their implementation by international organizations. The book examines systematically all international sources of corporate accountability standards in the specific area of environmental protection and elaborates on their theoretical and practical implications for international environmental law. The book argues that although international environmental treaties do not bind multinational corporations and other business entities, growing international practice points to the emergence of legal standards that allow adapting and translating inter-State obligations embodied in international environmental law into specific normative benchmarks to determine the legitimacy of the conduct of the private sector against internationally recognized values and rules. The book also focuses on the role of international organizations in selecting international environmental standards and promote their application to business entities, in the absence of State intervention. The book analyses the growing practice of international organizations, which are driving a process of emergence of international standards for corporate environmental accountability. Furthermore, the impact of international organizations' direct relations with the private sector is also assessed, as it significantly contributes to ensuring that private companies comply with international environmental standards.
The Need for Corporate Environmental Accountability
Authors: Morgera Elisa 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of egregious cases of corporate environmental damage and the day-to-day negative impacts of the private sector. It then addresses recent initiatives at the international level based on the desirability of the private sector's proactive contribution to the attainment of internationally agreed goals and the implementation of multilateral environmental agreements. It briefly discusses the role of the private sector in relation to ecosystem services. The chapter aims at providing the pragmatic and ethical justification for the study.
The Shortcomings of Traditional Legal Solutions
Authors: Morgera Elisa 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter provides the necessary theoretical justification to the study. It highlights the shortcomings of traditional legal solutions to ensure the environmentally sound conduct of private companies through home and host State control, international State responsibility, and international environmental regimes for civil liability. Corporate environmental accountability is therefore presented as an immediate way—additional to traditional legal solutions (such as home and host State control, international State responsibility, and international civil liability regimes)—to contribute to equalizing the international protection afforded to foreign direct investment and multinational companies with expectations of reasonably acceptable environmental conduct.
A Contribution of Human Rights Monitoring Bodies?
Authors: Morgera Elisa 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter provides an analysis of the growing case law on the environmentally irresponsible conduct of private companies. It first concentrates on national courts facing claims of international environmental NGOs and victim groups calling for the direct application of international environmental rules upon private corporations. It then turns to the international level, assessing the extent and the basis upon which human rights monitoring bodies consider the conduct of private companies. The chapter also analyses the legal arguments put forward in the pleadings before national and international courts, and concludes with an assessment of the contribution of this practice to the definition of corporate environmental accountability.
Tools for Compliance
Authors: Morgera Elisa 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter frames in more theoretical terms the discussion on available mechanisms at the disposal of international organizations for encouraging or ensuring compliance with standards in their present legal form. The existence of implementation mechanisms is a factor upon which the effectiveness of legal tools, whether binding or not, depends. All means to enforce or otherwise facilitate the effective implementation of standards are considered. Attention is drawn to the ‘indirect’ forms of enforcement such as international networks for the diffusion of information, verification and monitoring that ensure ‘compliance’, understood as the actual respect of substantive requirements of the agreements in the actual behaviour of those concerned.
Conclusions
Authors: Morgera Elisa 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
Shifting attention from the activities of international organizations, the concluding section of the book also considers ways in which states, NGOs, and the private sector itself can put corporate environmental accountability standards into effect. Attention is drawn to the role of national legislators and judges, the possibility of negotiating an international agreement on the standards of conduct for business and consequences of non-compliance, the inclusion in bilateral investment treaties of obligations for investors to comply with international environmental standards, among others.
Introduction
Authors: Clark David 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThe Introduction sets out the premises of the book and situates it in its critical context before providing an overview of the book's structure. As this chapter states this book aims to show that provocative and productive questions still exist to be asked about sexual acts and identities in the medieval period, that traditional interpretations of texts are often coloured by cultural assumptions which are anachronistic, and that Old English texts can provide a challenging perspective on how the way in which we write and think about interpersonal relations maps onto our lived experience of friendship, sex, and everything in between.
1 A Fine Romance?Wulf and Eadwacer,The Wife's Lament, andThe Husband's Message
Authors: Clark David 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThe first chapter analyses three poems most often considered to be about heterosexual romantic love as a means of destabilizing at the outset assumptions often made about Old English texts. It argues that such interpretations often rest upon heterosexist and anachronistic preconceptions which are invisible because they lay implicit claim to be normative. It also reviews the arguments which claim male narrators for Wulf and Eadwacer and The Wife's Lament and the reception of these critical manoeuvres. It concludes with a call to examine more rigorously our cultural assumptions about the Anglo‐Saxon period and its literature, and by acknowledging the primacy of homosocial desire.
2 Germanic Pederasty: The Evidence of the Classical Ethnographers
Authors: Clark David 
Published: May 2009

AbstractChapter 2 reviews the ethnographical evidence available which suggests that the pre‐Migration Germanic tribes may have practised pederasty and same‐sex rites of initiation, also comparing accounts of similar practices among the Celts. It explains apparently countervailing evidence from Tacitus's Germania by adducing the Old Norse discourse of nið, where only the passive partner in same‐sex acts seems to have been stigmatized. It forms a pair with the following chapter which, with this heritage in mind, seeks to uncover the range of attitudes to same‐sex activity in Anglo‐Saxon England.