bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Serial Homicide
Authors: Knoll James L. , Ressler Robert K. , Hazelwood Robert R. , Burgess Ann W. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractAfter the FBI began its formal study of serial murder in the 1980s, both public and forensic interest in the subject grew exponentially, as evidenced by the proliferating number of movies, books, and case studies over the following decades. Behavioral science has proposed a number of hypotheses on the etiology and psychology of serial murder. Attempts to develop serial murder typologies have become progressively more specific to offender characteristics and victim selection. The psychiatric features of serial murderers reveal many common themes such as psychopathy, sexual sadism, and other paraphilias. This article addresses the historical origins of serial murder, and what is currently known about the motivations, behaviors, and psychology of these offenders. Finally, the issue of prevention and assessment is discussed, with particular attention to interviewing strategies.
Stockholm Syndrome
Authors: Smith Delaney M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractStockholm syndrome was initially used to describe the experience of hostages in Stockholm, Sweden, who expressed positive feelings toward their captors. High profile cases including that of Patty Hearst have peaked the publics' interest in this phenomenon. There are many psychological explanations for the formation of this unexpected bond between captive and captor including identification with the aggressor and learned helplessness. This article discusses some examples of Stockholm syndrome that have been discussed in the media as well as factors that contribute to the development of Stockholm syndrome and psychological theories that have been used to explain it.
Eyewitness: Suggestibility of
Authors: Toglia Michael P. , Goodwin Kerri A. , Neuschatz Jeffrey S. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The accuracy of eyewitness accounts is critical in the criminal justice system. Numerous studies over the past 100 years have produced a variety of results on the processes that enhance and impair eyewitness memory. Groundbreaking advances include Binet's distinction between suggestion and autosuggestion, Bartlett's theory that memory is reconstructive, Loftus' pivotal work that produced the misinformation effect, and Brainerd and Reyna's fuzzy trace theory (FTT). Although eyewitness memory can be quite accurate, a variety of factors can interfere with accurate retention. For example, conversing with cowitnesses and autosuggestion are potential sources of misinformation that can adversely affect the accuracy of eyewitness memory. Time delays, such as those intervening between experiencing an event and a subsequent police interview, and false memories, due to autosuggestion or overt implantation, must also be considered when evaluating the memory of a witness. Fortunately, warnings against both misinformation and the potential for false memories can improve accuracy. DNA testing has resulted in many exonerations for those convicted because of inaccurate eyewitness memories, and as a result, those in the criminal justice system are becoming more aware of the importance of improving eyewitness accuracy. In this article we identify some of the key factors that affect adult eyewitness memory in forensically meaningful ways.
Alterations: Erasures and Obliterations of Documents
Authors: Mohammed Linton A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractForensic document examiners (FDEs) are often tasked with examining documents for alterations, obliterations, or erasures. Furthermore they are asked to restore or decipher any entries that were changed. The FDE uses several techniques that incorporate microscopy, various lighting methods including infrared and ultraviolet radiation in combination with filters, indented impression processing, imaging software, and other miscellaneous equipment to determine what has been altered, obliterated, or eradicated. This article reviews some of these methods.
Ink Analysis
Authors: Cantu Antonio A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractInk analysis is performed to determine if two inks are similar or different, to determine the manufacturing source of an ink, and to date an ink. For the latter two tasks, it is necessary to have a collection of reference standards; it is also needed when inks are found to be similar and one needs to know how rare or common that ink is. The dating of inks is the most challenging and is done via two approaches. The first uses a collection of reference standards. Here a match suggests the identity of an ink for which one has the manufacturing information such as the first date of production. The second involves the examination of features that change with age such as the evaporation of ink solvents and the degradation of dyes. Within this approach, there are two subapproaches. One estimates the age of an ink by comparing the ink with itself before and after inducing aging (e.g., by heating). The other determines the relative age of inks (some of which are of known age) that are of the same formula and appear on the same paper.
Firearms: Bullet and Cartridge Case Identification
Authors: Dutton Gerard 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
The examination and microscopic comparison of fired bullets and fired cartridge cases allows the expert to determine if a suspect firearm or firearms were, or were not, discharged in a shooting incident. This is achieved by using a combination of class and individual characteristics. If no suspect firearms are forthcoming, the number of firearms discharged in an incident is usually able to be determined, along with how many times each was discharged. A list of potential firearms that could have discharged a bullet and/or a cartridge case can also be identified during the investigative stage in the absence of a suspect firearm.
Footwear and Foot Impressions: Databases
Authors: Baldwin David 
Published: September 2009

AbstractOver the past 20 years, considerable time and effort has been spent on the development of footwear databases, which can provide significant information to aid a police investigation and can also help in the assessment of the evidential value of a footwear comparison. The structure and important features such as the coding of footwear marks and the underlying principles and processes are considered.
Footwear and Foot Impressions: Overview
Authors: Hammer Lesley 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Both footwear and foot impressions are important types of physical evidence. A person committing a crime almost always has to arrive, move through, and leave the scene of a crime spending at least some of the time traveling on their feet. These feet may be clad with footwear, leaving impressions of shoe or boot outsoles, or they may be bare or clad with stockings, leaving impressions of the shapes of the feet. Although often difficult to detect, footwear and/or foot impressions should be expected, and searched for, at all scenes of crime.
Friction Ridge Skin: Comparison and Identification
Authors: Langenburg Glenn 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe comparison of fingerprints has been an important forensic identification technique for over a century. The highly discriminating features of fingerprints allow a trained specialist to provide opinions regarding the source of evidentiary fingerprints left at the scene of a crime. The specialist reaches this opinion after completing the examination process known asanalysis–comparison–evaluation–verification, or ACE‐V. Traditionally, the opinion provided is a categorical opinion (i.e., a match or an exclusion). This opinion may be reached following a historical, and sometimes legal, mandate of counting corresponding features (points of comparison) until a threshold is reached, or it may be reached using a more modern, holistic approach. Recent legal challenges have brought a new level of scrutiny to the forensic identification sciences. These challenges have questioned the scientific basis that supports the fingerprint specialist's opinions and conclusions. In the last few decades, researchers have explored the use of probabilities to assess the corresponding features. Probabilities may be useful to support the fingerprint specialist's opinion and may help reduce the number of legal challenges.
Friction Ridge Skin: Fingerprint Detection and Recovery Techniques
Authors: Aumeer‐Donovan Shaheen , Lennard Chris , Roux Claude 
Published: September 2009

AbstractFingermarks are one of the most valuable types of physical evidence and there is a plethora of techniques that can be used to detect and enhance fingermarks. This entry presents an overview of the most common methods employed, and the sequences that can be applied for maximum exploitation of fingermark evidence.
Friction Ridge Skin: Interaction between Fingerprint Detection andDNA/Biological Material
Authors: Raymond Jennifer J. , Roux Claude , Walsh Simon J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe DNA analysis of fingerprints and skin traces has become a routine component of forensic investigations. Research has found that most fingerprint enhancement techniques will not prevent subsequent DNA profiling of treated fingerprints or biological stains; however, the quantity of DNA recovered may be reduced. The exceptions include shortwave ultraviolet (UV) light, diaminobenzidine, and physical developer, which are likely to prevent DNA analysis of fingerprints. Sequencing of more than one fingerprint technique on an item is also likely to reduce the chance of successful DNA recovery. Guidelines are provided to assist the sequencing of fingerprint and DNA evidence.
Photography: Marks, Impressions, and Documents
Authors: Porter Glenn 
Published: September 2009

AbstractPhotographic and optical enhancement of physical evidence is an important criminalistics function. It provides nondestructive methods of improving the visualization of evidence to allow further forensic examination. The key concepts and techniques involving optical, photographic, and digital imaging techniques are examined in this section. Critical foundation aspects found in quality forensic photography such as maintaining the dimensional integrity of evidence and the representation of scale are described to ensure forensic photography principles. Attributes required for optical enhancement including the relationship between the spectral distribution of the light source, the spectral properties of the specimen, and spectral sensitivity of the recording media are unpacked and provide a theoretical basis. Optic enhancement techniques such as absorption, reflection, transmission, and photoluminescence modes are discussed with samples illustrating those optical effects. Digital imaging enhancement techniques to increase the contrast and the modification of color using Adobe Photoshop™ are explained.
Drug‐Impaired Driving
Authors: Raes Elke , Verstraete Alain G. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractDriving is a very complex task, requiring the cooperation of several different cognitive and psychomotor functions at once. Experimental studies have shown that drugs can have a detrimental influence on capacities that are essential for driving. Cannabis, for example, can acutely reduce some cognitive and psychomotor skills, and these effects are mostly dose dependent. Some deleterious effects of cannabis appear to be additive or even synergistic with those of alcohol, and the combination of both substances results in a prolongation as well as enhancement of their effects. Epidemiological studies have shown that drugs are prevalent in 1–12% of the general driving population, in 6–50% of drivers who are injured or killed in traffic crashes, and in 55–99% of drivers who are suspected of driving under the influence of drugs. The most prevalent drug in most of these studies is cannabis. Drivers who are under the influence of drugs have a higher risk of being involved in or being responsible for a crash. Responsibility analyses show that driving under the influence of cannabis increases the risk of being responsible for an accident, and that this risk increases with increasing cannabis concentration in the blood, indicating a causal relationship between cannabis and crashes. Two major types of driving‐under‐the‐influence of drugs (DUID) legislation exist: “impairment” legislation and “per se” legislation. In impairment legislation, the prosecution must demonstrate that the driver was impaired, not fit to drive, or “under the influence”. A “per se” law prohibits driving if drugs are present in blood, serum, plasma, or oral fluid above a certain threshold concentration. Since the prosecution does not have to prove that the driver was impaired, this kind of legislation facilitates enforcement. In recent years, the interest in the use of oral fluid as biological matrix for roadside drug screening has increased significantly, as this matrix displays some particularly interesting properties. However the currently available on‐site oral fluid drug testing devices are not reliable enough to be recommended for roadside screening for drivers. Recent methods developed for confirmation analysis, either on blood or on oral fluid, use liquid chromatography (tandem) mass spectrometry (LC‐MS(MS)).
Drug‐Facilitated Sexual Assault
Authors: Lebeau Marc A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractInvestigations into reports of drug‐facilitated crimes (DFCs) have increased substantially in recent times. These crimes are investigated when an individual reports having been robbed or assaulted while incapacitated due to the effects of a drug, usually a strong central nervous system (CNS) depressant. The CNS depressant prevents the individual from consenting to the action of the perpetrator or fighting off their attacker. The drug, in essence, acts as a weapon for the offender. This article provides information on the manner in which DFCs occur, the drugs that are used to commit these crimes, and means of improving the detection of the drugs through toxicological analyses.
Postmortem Toxicology: Interpretation
Authors: Drummer Olaf H. , Gerostamoulos Dimitri 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe interpretation of toxicology data is very much dependent on the context of the case. There is usually no simple way to interpret toxicology data in forensic situations, since there are many factors that influence the concentration and net effect of the substance. As with clinical situations, the route of administration will have a great effect on the concentration and will have effect due to the (often) different pharmacokinetic profiles of a substance, depending on whether it is given orally, by injection, or by some other route. The time since last dose is often not known with any certainty, nor whether single or multiple doses were taken. Hence, back‐calculations or dose estimation is fraught with error and can be misleading. In forensic cases, the use of multiple substances is common; this leads to issues of assessing the effect of combination of substances. Neuroadaptation as in clinical situations can lead to rapidly developing tolerance to drugs and drug combinations that preclude straightforward interpretation of likely drug effects. Therefore, it is essential that any toxicology data is interpreted in the context of the case with full knowledge of the underlying factors that determine drug concentration and drug effect in a person.
Opioids
Authors: Gerostamoulos Dimitri 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe opioid family of analgesics covers a wide range of chemical entities, all of which act to reduce the sensation of pain. These include the members derived from morphine, e.g., codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, and hydromorphone, and the synthetic derivatives, such as methadone, fentanyl, and etorphine. Buprenorphine is a partial agonist on the opioid receptor and is now widely used to treat opioid dependence. Some opioids are used to treat moderate‐to‐severe pain, while others are used as antitussives (e.g., pholcodine and codeine) or used to supplement anesthesia (e.g., fentanyl derivatives). Heroin is diacetylated morphine and is widely used throughout the world and users have a high mortality rate due to its respiratory‐depressant effects. Opioids are widely abused with other drugs, such as alcohol, cocaine, amphetamines, and benzodiazepines. Receptor antagonists such as naltrexone and naloxone rapidly reverse the toxic effects of excessive opioids.
Pharmacogenomics
Authors: Wong Steven H. Y. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractPharmacogenomics involves the application of genetic variation between individuals to determine whether alterations in the ability to metabolize drugs, transport drugs to active sites, or drug efficacy can explain cases of poor response or unexpected toxicity. In understanding the application of pharmacogenomics, the basic principles are introduced in this article together with the related science pharmacogenetics. Applications relevant to forensic toxicology include situations involving the use of antipsychotics, opioids, and antidepressants. Moreover, some clinical applications are provided to illustrate the wider application of pharmacogenomics. The findings from the use of pharmacogenomics in forensic toxicology can add to the understanding of adverse drug reactions, poor response to drugs, help to optimize therapy in the emerging practice of personalized medicine, and possibly add to the understanding of genetic contribution to drug therapy/behavior in the form of personalized justice.
Airbags
Authors: Adams Holly A. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article explains the basic architecture associated with passenger vehicle air bag systems. The reader learns the importance of directional sensitivity in crash sensing, in addition to pulse transmission and sensor placement in relation to air bag deployment decisions. Both hardware (internal and external sensors) and basic decision tree structures are included, as well as data storage and retrieval processes. The data that is stored is the information commonly referred to as “black box data.” This saved data can give reconstructionists, biomedical engineers and air bag experts insight into the acceleration pulse the air bag system responded to and the timing of the deployment. There is a brief discussion of the future of this technology. Finally, a list of references gives the reader the opportunity to expand their knowledge beyond the scope of this article.
Materials Science
Authors: Micheals Anastasia D. , Anderson Robert N. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe discipline of materials engineering and science spans the scope of the physical and chemical makeup of materials, the strength and other mechanical properties that are critical to appropriate decisions in product design, the relationships between and among materials, and finally, the analysis of actual or potential failures.In the forensic aspect, the primary question in materials engineering and science is why a materials failure occurred. To make this determination, the materials engineer and scientist may ask the fundamental questions: When did the material fail in relation to a sequence of events? Did it fail and cause an event, or did it fail as a result of the event? Was design or manufacturing a factor? Was the choice of material a factor? Was inadequate maintenance a factor?This discussion of materials engineering and science will explain the most important terms and concepts used when describing and investigating materials failures. It will discuss some common failure modes for the four classes of materials: metals, ceramics/glasses, polymers, and composites.Failure analysis procedures, including methods of testing and microscopic examination, will be discussed. A list of useful materials science and engineering references is provided for further background.
Education and Accreditation in Forensic Science
Authors: Siegel Jay A. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractForensic science seducation programs have expanded very rapidly over the past 25 years. Much of this growth can be traced to the explosive increase in public awareness of science and forensic science owing to media events such as the CSI television shows. More and more students now want to get into forensic science as a career and are seeking out education programs to train them. This has resulted in very uneven quality among forensic science education programs. Some colleges slap together a program just to attract students and really don't educate them properly. In response to this wave of more than 140 forensic science programs, the American Academy of Forensic Sciences and the National Institute of Justice teamed up to develop consensus standards for undergraduate and graduate education programs (TWGED) and then developed an accreditation process for measuring forensic science education programs against these standards by creating a Forensic Science Education Program Accreditation Commission (FEPAC).
Accreditation: Laboratory
Authors: Melson Kenneth E. , Keaton Ralph , Neuner John K. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractLaboratory accreditation enhances quality assurance programs in forensic science laboratories, promoting good forensic science practices, reliable techniques, and trustworthy expert opinion. Accreditation is now widely accepted in the United States as well as internationally. In some states, accreditation is a precondition to the judicial admissibility of expert opinion. This article reviews the history of accreditation in the United States and the accreditation programs offered by the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB), including both the Legacy and the International programs. The framework for the accreditation programs is described, along with the processes and criteria necessary for achieving accreditation. Recognized as a safeguard for the public, accreditation plays an important role in the criminal justice system.
GSM
Analysis and
PDAs
Authors: Duvinage Nicolas 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
After a general introduction on cellular phone networks, this article describes the mobile phone handset architecture (both hardware and software). It goes into further details on how to retrieve data, not only on handset itself (active and deleted data), but also on SIM card and various other lesser known locations. This article follows on with mobile phone hacking, spoofing, and various other frauds, ending up with geographical positioning.
Facial Comparison
Authors: Ruifrok Arnout C. C. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn general, people are thought to be reasonably good at recognizing faces. However, many steps in the comparison process are still mediocre, poorly or not supported by scientific data. Facial comparison is a wide‐ranging forensic technique: it involves disciplines such as image analysis, 3D technology, anthropology, photogrammetry, statistics, and cognitive psychology (human as a measuring instrument). The issues “quantification of image quality”, “human as a measuring instrument”, and “individualizing value of features” will be discussed in the context of man and machine's functioning as a measuring instrument. Research on humans as a measuring instrument in facial comparison is limited; most of the research concerns “recognition” or “rapid” comparison. Performance of current automated biometric systems is still too low to be of use for forensic purposes, although biometric systems may be useful for automated investigation of standardized image databases. The evidential value of surveillance material is severely limited by the quality of most surveillance material.