bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Justice of Islam
Authors: Rosen Lawrence 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
One out of five people in the world today lives subject to Islamic law, but stereotypes of rigid doctrine or harsh punishment obscure an understanding of the values and style of reasoning that characterize everyday Islamic adjudication. By considering its larger social and cultural context, Islamic law is shown to be a kind of common law system: justice is sought through a careful assessment of persons, more than facts, and justice resides not in equality, but in a quest for equivalence. Through ordinary court proceedings the style of reasoning is seen to be embedded in a set of cultural assumptions, thus rendering the study of Islamic legal proceedings a window on Muslim society generally. Using data ranging from the courts of North Africa to the treatment of Islam in American courts, from a reinterpretation of the Prophet's sociological jurisprudence to the analysis of Islamic concepts of responsibility and trust, these essays demonstrate the enduring appeal of Islamic law in the lives of ordinary adherents.
Amendment of the Palestinian National Charter
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the now-completed Palestinian obligation to amend the Palestinian National Charter. Palestinians have amended their National Charter to delete clauses offensive to Israel, including those calling for the destruction of Israel. However, precisely when this was achieved is a matter of debate. The Palestinians claim that they did so as early as 1996, when the Palestine National Council adopted a resolution endorsing changes in the Charter; or even as early as 1993, when Chairman Arafat wrote to Prime Minister Rabin that the offending provisions were ‘no longer valid’. Israel maintains that the Palestinians did not formally amend the Charter, in accordance with their own constitutional requirements, until December 1998, when Palestinians gathered in Gaza and endorsed amendment of the Charter in the presence of US President Bill Clinton and other foreign dignitaries.
Theory of Nonequilibrium Superconductivity
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book presents modern theory of nonstationary and nonequilibrium superconductivity. It deals with superconductors in external fields varying in time and studies transport phenomena in superconductors. The book provides the microscopic theory based on the Green function formalism within the Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer (BCS) theory. The method of quasiclassical Green functions is formulated for both stationary and nonequilibrium problems in the theory of superconductivity. Chapters 1 to 4 give an introduction to the Green function formalism in the BCS theory for clean materials and alloys. In next two chapters, the quasiclassical approximation is introduced and applied to some generic stationary problems such as the Ginzburg–Landau (GL) equations, critical magnetic fields, gapless superconductivity, d-wave superconductivity, bound states in the vortex core. Chapter 7 describes the quasiclassical method for layered superconductors. In Chapter 8 the nonstationary theory is formulated using both the method of analytical continuation and the Keldysh diagram technique. Next two chapters are devoted to the quasiclassical approximation and to generalized kinetic equations in nonstationary situations. Chapter 11 demonstrates how the GL model can be extended to nonstationary problems. A considerable part of the book is devoted to the vortex dynamics, which treats behaviour of type II superconductors when they carry electric currents in presence of a magnetic field. Chapters 12 to 15 deal with the dynamics of vortices. In Chapter 12, the time-dependent GL model is used to calculate the resistivity in the flux flow regime. Chapter 13 derives the forces acting on a moving vortex using the Green function formalism and applies the microscopic theory to the vortex dynamics in superconducting alloys. In Chapters 14 and 15 the vortex dynamics in clean superconductors is considered and the flux-flow conductivity, the vortex Hall effect, and the vortex mass are calculated.
Introduction
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This introductory chapter gives a brief outline of the general ideas of the theory of superconductivity and the basic quantities that characterize the superconducting state are introduced, such as the order parameter, superconducting energy gap, the excitation spectrum, the coherence length, and the magnetic field penetration length. The Ginzburg–Landau model is discussed which provides the simplest description of stationary superconductors and allows for the calculation of the critical magnetic fields. Its application to the vortex state of type II superconductors is described. The upper critical magnetic field is calculated. The microscopic Bogoliubov–de Gennes equations are introduced together with the concept of quasiclassical approximation. The typical problems of nonstationary theory are formulated; the simplest methods of their solution, such as the kinetic equation approach and the time-dependent Ginzburg–Landau model, are discussed.
Rate constants, reactive flux
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses a direct approach to the calculation of the rate constant k(T) that bypasses the detailed state-to-state reaction cross-sections. The method is based on the calculation of the reactive flux across a dividing surface on the potential energy surface. Versions based on classical as well as quantum mechanics are described. The classical version and its relation to Wigner's variational theorem and recrossings of the dividing surface is discussed. Neglecting recrossings, an approximate result based on the calculation of the classical one-way flux from reactants to products is considered. Recrossings can subsequently be included via a transmission coefficient. An alternative exact expression is formulated based on a canonical average of the flux time-correlation function. It concludes with the quantum mechanical definition of the flux operator and the derivation of a relation between the rate constant and a flux correlation function.
Bimolecular reactions, transition-state theory
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses an approximate approach — transition-state theory — to the calculation of rate constants for bimolecular reactions. A reaction coordinate is identified from a normal-mode coordinate analysis of the activated complex, i.e. the supermolecule on the saddle-point of the potential energy surface. Motion along this coordinate is treated by classical mechanics and recrossings of the saddle point from the product to the reactant side are neglected, leading to the result of conventional transition-state theory expressed in terms of relevant partition functions. Various alternative derivations are presented. Corrections that incorporate quantum mechanical tunnelling along the reaction coordinate are described. Tunnelling through an Eckart barrier is discussed and the approximate Wigner tunnelling correction factor is derived in the limit of a small degree of tunnelling. It concludes with applications of transition-state theory to, e.g. the F + H2 reaction, and comparisons with results based on quasi-classical mechanics as well as exact quantum mechanics.
Introduction: An Archaic Verb System?
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter gives a brief outline of the ‘regular’ verb forms known from the classical era and an overview of what types of extra-paradigmatic verb forms occur. The main questions of the book are asked. Most of these require a detailed synchronic analysis, but some are diachronic in nature. The importance of statistical analysis for languages without native speakers is emphasized and basic corpus-linguistic techniques are introduced.
Infinitivals with Future Meaning in Archaic Latin
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In Plautus and Terence a present infinitive in the accusative and infinitive construction can be posterior in meaning. The future infinitive, which also occurs under these circumstances, is the only possibility in the classical era. The present infinitive with posterior time reference is subject to certain restrictions in the early period. It can only be used if the verb (with its complements) is telic in meaning; it is particularly frequent if the subjects of the superordinate verb and of the infinitive are identical; and it occurs more often than expected if the infinitive is dare ‘to give’.
Space and the 'March of Mind'
Authors: Jenkins Alice 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book is about the idea of space in the first half of the 19th century. It uses contemporary poetry, essays, and fiction as well as scientific papers, textbooks, and journalism to give a new account of 19th-century literature's relationship with science. In particular, it brings the physical sciences more accessibly and fully into the arena of literary criticism than has previously been the case. Writers discussed in this book include many who will be familiar to a literary audience (including Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Hazlitt), some well-known in the history of science (including Faraday, Herschel, and Whewell), and a raft of lesser-known figures. Alice Jenkins draws a new map of the interactions between literature and science in the first half of the 19th century, showing how both disciplines were wrestling with the same central political and intellectual concerns — regulating access to knowledge, organising knowledge productively, and formulating the relationships of old and new knowledge. Space has become a subject of enormous critical interest in literary and cultural studies. This book gives a wide-ranging account of how early nineteenth-century writers thought about — and thought with — space. Burgeoning mass access to print culture combined with rapid scientific development to create a crisis in managing knowledge. Contemporary writers tried to solve this crisis by rethinking the nature of space. Writers in all genres and disciplines, from across the political spectrum, returned repeatedly to ideas and images of space when they needed to set up or dismantle boundaries in the intellectual realm, and when they wanted to talk about what kinds of knowledge certain groups of readers wanted, needed, or deserved.
Space and the Languages of Science
Authors: Jenkins Alice 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter develops the analysis of the rhetoric of nations in science by looking at how international competition in European science affected English scientists' rhetorical practice. During the 1820s and particularly the 1830s, the English scientific establishment was deeply troubled by its standing among its European allies and rivals. Scientists from all parts of the political spectrum tried to describe English science in terms of English history and culture, some to argue that a profound, ancient regime-style corruption and lassitude had set in and it was time for a revolution in the old scientific order. One widely voiced concern was about language: since Latin had more or less disappeared from use as a practical lingua franca, characteristic English ineptitude with modern languages was seriously holding back English science—or so Charles Babbage and others argued. But Latin had not vanished: it had simply gone under the surface of scientific language. It still played a powerful role in maintaining science's claim to be part of a more general culture, and it could be mobilized to bolster scientific claims to authority, prestige, and heritage. The chapter focuses on a ‘baptism’ in early 19th-century British science—that of Michael Faraday's names for the process of electrolysis. This baptism was a highly conscious and deliberate attempt to deploy rhetoric which would tie new scientific ideas into a much older matrix of cultural references and associations.
Introduction
Authors: HARRISON DAVID 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book tells the story of the construction and upkeep of a dense network of bridges and causeways that existed in every part of England during the medieval period. Many bridges had been constructed by the end of the middle ages, and there were approximately the same number in the mid-18th century. The substantial improvements in road transport during the second half of that century were therefore built on an existing and impressive infrastructure which dated back centuries, perhaps as early as the 13th century. The present book takes the story further back, proposing that the first bridges at most sites were constructed in the 500 years between 750 and 1250. In putting forward these arguments, the book rejects a long and widely held view that major improvements in transport were a post-medieval phenomenon.
Vaulted Stone Bridges: From the Eleventh Century to the Late Middle Ages
Authors: HARRISON DAVID 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The earliest surviving stone arched bridge in England probably dates from the late 11th century, and it seems that at that date they were rare. Over the following centuries, a huge number were erected. Before 1200, very large estuarine bridges were being built in deep, tidal waters. Large arches were constructed in the north by the 13th century, and huge segmental arches by the 14th century. These developments must be related to the ability to erect stone vaults with great precision, to establish foundations in a variety of locations, and to undertake very complex construction projects. The remains of perhaps the oldest surviving vaulted stone bridge in England are encased in later widenings, and under the road to the south of Grandpont (Folly Bridge) in Oxford.
Integrating the Working Class
Authors: Hinton James 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the attempts of the national WVS leadership to reach out to working-class female activists, often against opposition from both the established middle-class social leaders in charge of local groups, and the main organizations of working-class housewives. Despite repeated overtures to the Women's Co-operative Guild and the Labour Party, Lady Reading was unable to break down the long-standing suspicion with which Labour women regarded the middle-class women's movement, and such co-operation as there was tended to be grudging and seen by the Labour women as a temporary wartime expedient. While Conservative women sought to reinforce their claims to social leadership by active participation in the non-partisan women's movement, Labour women tended to pursue political influence through strictly policed boundaries of party and class, using the power bestowed by universal suffrage to organize a counter-hegemony on the terrain of local government politics.
Discipline and Charm
Authors: Hinton James 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter explores the complex and ambiguous relationship between WVS and local government. Voluntary work gave women influence in local government, and, in towns where the local council was in Labour hands, WVS could provided a site of resistance to the dominance of the labour movement. Gender as well as class played a central role in these relationships, from male councillors' hostility to what they saw as creeping ‘petticoat government’ by bossy middle-class women, to the calculated deployment of feminine charm to overcome the instinctive hostility of powerful men to female self-assertion. These local dynamics of power were complicated by Lady Reading's autocratic and hierarchical style of leadership, which she used to transmit national priorities determined in Whitehall to local social leaders who were often concerned to resist the centralising logic of state expansion.
Introduction: On Being Sceptical about Human Rights
Authors: Tomkins Adam 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Over the past two decades, human rights have come to enjoy an ever more dominant position in national constitutional or public law. This has been as true for Canada and New Zealand as it has been for Poland and Hungary. One of the last countries in the common law world, and one of the last countries in Europe, to allow its domestic legal system to embrace human rights is the United Kingdom, whose Parliament passed the Human Rights Act 1998. The Human Rights Act 1998, which came into effect in October 2000, was one of the most widely celebrated statutes to have been passed by the UK Parliament in many years. This book examines both the global phenomenon of human rights and the UK's participation in it, focusing on legislation in communist eastern Europe to South Africa via North America and Australasia. It deals with the general issue of the various reasons why we might be sceptical about schemes such as that adopted in the Human Rights Act to incorporate judicially enforced human rights norms into binding law.
Taking Wales Seriously
Authors: Rawlings Richard 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the legal protection of human rights in Wales, which now has its own distinctive regime of entrenched provisions and is subject to the general law of the United Kingdom in the form of the Human Rights Act 1998. It examines legal and constitutional development inside the newly delineated territorial entity, and which is part of the intellectual effort of devolution. In contrast that is to the powerful Anglo-centric and metropolitan tradition of public law scholarship in the UK, which has reflected and reinforced an idea of the unitary state, with its stress on (territorial) uniformity in policy and practice. Special emphasis is on the idea of the devolution legislation — the Government of Wales Act 1998 — as a written constitution as well as a statute subject to revision at Westminster. That is, from the Welsh or territorial viewpoint, an overarching and entrenched constitutional instrument, which establishes, refines, and constrains the National Assembly for Wales. The duality and ambiguity of devolutionary development in Wales are also discussed.
Inflectional Morphology and the Loss of Verb-Second In English
Authors: Haeberli Eric 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Old English (OE) exhibits word-order patterns which are reminiscent of the Verb Second (V2) phenomenon found in many modern Germanic languages. Thus, fronting of some constituent often leads to subject-verb inversion, to a word order in which the finite verb occurs in second position. This chapter addresses the question of why V2 was lost in the history of English. It proposes that the loss of V2 in English resulted from the loss of empty expletives and ultimately of a change in the verbal morphology. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 5.2 contains some general observations on the loss of V2 in English. Section 5.3 discusses and rejects two previous explanations of the loss of V2, and develops a new account based on comparative evidence from modern Germanic. Section 5.4 shows how the loss of V2 can be related to change in the verbal morphology of English. Section 5.5 addresses some remaining issues, while Section 5.6 summarizes the chapter.
A Reinterpretation of the Loss of Verb-Second in Welsh
Authors: Bury Dirk 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter argues for a different analysis of the Middle Welsh facts and of V2 in general. The analysis imposes strict constraints on the available VSO orders, and thus makes clear predictions on the circumstances under which a change from V2 to VSO should be possible. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 12.2 introduces a theory of V2, in which obligatory topicalization is the result of a type of verb movement, namely self-attachment. Section 12.3 shows how this theory can account for the existence of VSO languages. Section 12.4 applies their theory to Middle Welsh and investigates how it fares with regard to the developments in the history of Welsh. Section 12.5 concludes with a comparison of this analysis and the one proposed in Willis (1998).
Verb–Obiect Order In Old English: Variation as Grammatical Competition
Authors: Pintzuk Susan 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the possible effects of case-marking on constituent order in Old English, and demonstrates that overt morphology does not play any role in determining verb-object order. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 16.2 discusses variation, optionality, and the concept of grammatical competition. Section 16.3 describes the case-marking system of Old English and shows that the language exhibits some of the well-known syntactic effects of morphological case. Section 16.4 shows that neither overt case-marking nor case ambiguity has any effect on verb-object order. Section 16.5 demonstrates that an analysis involving feature strength and leftward movement for case-checking is equivalent to grammatical competition, with no relationship to overt morphology. Section 16.6 provides distributional evidence for grammatical competition.
Movement, Morphology, and Learnability
Authors: Bejar Susana 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the relation between morphological case and A-movement. It argues against the so-called Overt Attractor Hypothesis (OAH) under which case morphology is a cue for A-movement. It examines Old English dative experience verbs (impersonal verbs) which were reanalyzed as nominative verbs in the Middle English period. Three central claims are made: (a) the reanalysis of impersonal constructions in English resulted from the emergence of A-movement where there had been none; (b) there is no implicational relation between case morphology and the acquisition of A-movement; and (c) the emergence of A-movement was not triggered by properties of the primary linguistic data but by a requirement of the language acquisition device.
Object Shift and Holmberg’s Generalization in the History of Norwegian
Authors: Sundquist John D. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines data on Object Shift and scrambling in Middle Norwegian (MNw) to explore a number of issues from a diachronic perspective. It shows that the status of Object Shift in early stages of Norwegian was similar to that of modern Mainland Scandinavian despite the striking differences in case inflection in early vs. modern Norwegian. It concludes that Object Shift is not case-driven, but rather, is a semantically-driven movement caused by interpretative features as object raise to a higher position outside the focal domain of the VP. The chapter also provides evidence indicating that MNw had both Object Shift and scrambling in the same period — an unusual state of affairs among modern Germanic VO languages.
Normanitas
Authors: THOMAS HUGH M. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractBoth before and after 1066, a strong sense of ethnic identity existed in Normandy, at least among the elites. To untangle the course of ethnic relations after the conquest, this chapter examines the basis of Norman identity, or Normanitas, and its strengths and weaknesses. Before turning to the nature of pre-conquest Norman identity, however, this chapter investigates whether this is the main way in which the conquerors of England viewed themselves. The formulaic phrase ‘to his men, French and English’, which appears in the opening lines of thousands of English charters, dating from shortly after the conquest to the early 13th century, raises the question of whether the invaders considered themselves Norman or French.