bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Synaptic Actions of Amino Acid Neurotransmitters
Authors: Thompson Scott M. , Madison Daniel V. , Mody Istvan 
Published: April 2012

AbstractFast synaptic excitation in the neocortex is mediated by the release of glutamate from the axon terminals of thalamocortical projection cells and of locally and intracortically projecting pyramidal cells. The process of synaptic excitation consists of coupling the invasion of the action protential to the vesicular release of glutamate, which then diffuses across the synaptic cleft to bind with receptors and activate their associated ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane. The strength of synaptic excitation depends on numerous processes, such as the probability that a presynaptic action potential triggers glutamate release, the amount of transmitter released, the number and types of receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, and the conductance and kinetics of the ion channels gated by these receptors. This chapter considers these steps in sequence to provide a coherent a picture of an excitatory cortical synapse.
Overview: Basic Elements of the Cortical Network
Authors: Jones Edward G. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter discusses the basic elements of the cortical network. In any examination of cortical circuitry, it is necessary to commence with the two basic classes of cortical neurons: one richly endowed with dendritic spines and the other effectively lacking them. The spiny and nonspiny cortical neurons are morphological expressions of two fundamental categories of neuron—excitatory and inhibitory—a division that can now be expressed in terms of their individual neurotransmitters: glutamergic and GABAergic. Among both classes, subtypes are now beginning to emerge based on morphological and chemical differences and on differential spiking behavior.
Inhibition in the Cortical Network
Authors: Benardo Larry S. , Wong Robert K. S. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractNeuronal activity in the brain is regulated by a balance between excitatory and inhibitory influences. Population stability requires that GABAergic inhibition be temporally poised to exercise a restraining influence on reverberating synaptic excitation of local neurons due to recurrent connections. This chapter provides a comprehensive consideration of GABAergic inhibition, highlighting specific issues that are especially important to understanding how inhibition operates and how it is regulated. The intention throughout is to provide not only a synthesis of our present knowledge but also to state some of the principles and implications of GABAergic inhibition that are just emerging. The chapter is organized as follows: (1) the morphology and physiology of inhibitory neurons, (2) the recruitment of inhibition, and (3) the plasticity of the inhibitory circuit.
Models of Cortical Networks
Authors: Bush Paul C. , Sejnowski Terrence J. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter provides an overview of a long-term project undertaken to study a particular population of cells within the cortex: the network of interacting neurons within layer V of the visual cortex. The first step is the development of realistic models of single cortical neurons based on accurate anatomical and physiological data. The responses of these model neurons are matched against single neuron responses to natural sensory and electrical stimuli recorded in vivo. The second step is to reduce the complexity of the single-cell model for use in large-scale simulations of networks. The reduction is necessary to make the simulation times tractable. If the essential dynamical elements of the neuron are intact in the reduced models, simulations of large networks of neurons can then serve as a tool for exploring properties that are difficult to approach experimentally. Such a model was used to study the synchronization of layer V neurons and its dependence on the pattern of connectivity between columns of excitatory and inhibitory neurons.
Determination of Cellular Phenotype and the Fundamental Organization of Cortical Layering: An Overview
Authors: Kriegstein Arnold R. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThe neocortex is composed of a staggeringly large number of neurons, differing in phenotype and location, in a precise and apparently invariant pattern. The path by which each individual neuron reaches its assigned station and acquires its appropriate phenotype is one of the central mysteries of neuroscience. Recent advances in genetic engineering have allowed retroviruses to be designed to act as vectors to insert marker genes into precursor cells in the cerebral cortex of experimental embryos. A replication-defective retroviral vector is used to introduce a marker gene in the genome of a proliferating precursor cell. The marker gene is inherited by all the progeny of the initially labeled cell, allowing clonal descendants of infected cells to be identified histochemically. In this way precursor cells can be marked, and the fate of their descendants can be followed. This new technology has been applied to test the basic theories of lineage and cell-fate determination during corticogenesis. This chapter shows that important cell-fate-commitment decisions are made in the ventricular and subventricular zones during proliferative stages and remain relatively independent of subsequent environmental influence.
Gene Control of Cortical Excitability
Authors: Noebels Jeffrey L. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThe genes that contribute to specific cortical excitability phenotypes are difficult to predict. But one group of genes expressed in central neurons can be operationally defined and constitute a category of central concern: excitability genes. These genes initiate and maintain the critical capacity for voltage-dependent membrane behavior and synaptic transmission in specific brain networks, and participate directly in their ability to display rapid neuromodulation, synchronization, and long-term retrieval of information. It is from within this group that the genetic elements most directly responsible for the heritable component of human cognitive abilities will ultimately be found. This chapter discusses the genetics of circuit assembly and genetic strategies in cerebral excitability analysis.
Cortical Epileptogenesis in the Developing Human Brain
Authors: Kellaway Peter 
Published: April 2012

AbstractTraditionally, human focal epilepsy has been thought to arise from an area of cortical damage, and the models of focal epilepsy used in research have been based on this concept. However, although the concept holds true for the adult brain, focal epilepsy is more common in children who have no evidence of such a lesion. This chapter gives a description and analysis of two types of focal epileptogenesis that are unique to the developing brain and for which there is no historical, clinical, or laboratory evidence of a structural brain lesion. In the first type, the focal epileptogenesis has its origin in a genetically determined cellular defect. In the second, the focal epileptic process is a result either of deprivation or chronic distortion of sensory input during a critical period of brain development.
Measurement of Cortical Neurotransmitter Receptors with Radioligand Binding: Insights into the Mechanisms of Kindling-Induced Epilepsy
Authors: Kraus John E. , McNamara James O. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractUnderstanding the pathophysiology of partial epilepsy in molecular terms will likely facilitate the development of new and more effective therapies. One approach is to analyze the mechanisms underlying the hyperexcitability in an animal model in the hope that analogous mechanisms are operative in some forms of the human condition. This thinking led the authors to embark on studies of the kindling model of epilepsy in the late 1970s. This chapter describes the kindling model; outlines the rationale for use of radioligand binding as a tool; considers the advantages and disadvantages of this approach; summarizes the findings of a host of such studies in the kindling model; and reviews a few of these findings as a means of illustrating the value of such approaches.
Clinical Strategies for Neuronal Protection
Authors: Albers Gregory W. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractCortical neurons are injured by acute insults, such as ischemia, trauma, and epilepsy, as well as by a variety of chronic neurodegenerative disorders. Although the events that initiate neuronal degeneration vary from disorder to disorder, the fundamental processes that ultimately cause neuronal death are remarkably similar. Over the past decade, major advances in molecular and cellular neurobiology have converged to outline a “final common pathway” of neuronal injury, which involves overactivation of excitatory amino acid receptors, excessive intracellular calcium fluxes, subsequent activation of catabolic enzymes, and production of free radicals. These processes are influenced by a variety of neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, alterations in gene expression, and growth factors. This chapter briefly reviews the scientific rationale behind two emerging neuroprotective strategies—excitatory amino acid antagonists and inhibitors of oxygen radical-mediated lipid peroxidation—and emphasizes the challenges involved in establishing the efficacy of these novel treatments in patients.
Psychophysiological Recording
Authors: Stern Robert M. , Ray William J. , Quigley Karen S. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This text contains a revised edition of a book on psychophysiological recording. The book includes information on the most up-to-date equipment used today to do brain scanning and discusses other equipment not available in 1980. A new chapter on signal processing and analysis has been added, and discussions cover nonlinear systems as well as cognitive psychophysiology.
Neurons and Muscles: The Sources of Psychophysiological Recordings
Authors: Stern Robert M. , Ray William J. , Quigley Karen S. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
Psychophysiology focuses on the study of bodily responses that originate as electrochemical changes in neurons (nerve cells), muscles, and gland cells. These signals spread from their sources through the body to the skin surface, appearing to a recording electrode on the body surface in a somewhat altered form. Understanding the genesis of bioelectric potentials will help in interpreting the surface potentials and serve as a reminder that whatever their relation to behavior, psychophysiological responses reflect the functioning of neurons, muscles, and glands. The nervous system controls the bodily functions measured by psychophysiologists, including muscle action, organ function, and glandular activity. For example, the coordinated contraction of thousands of skeletal muscle cells moves us through our environment, enables us to react to its changes, and is the mechanism of singing, smiling, sitting, and eating. This chapter discusses the organization of the nervous system, the function of nerve and muscle cells, and the sources of the bioelectric potentials that can be recorded from the surface of the skin.
Equipment Used in Psychophysiological Recording
Authors: Stern Robert M. , Ray William J. , Quigley Karen S. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter examines the bioelectric signals from the skin, across the junction and finally to the point where it is displayed and analyzed. It describes only those electrodes designed to be placed directly on the surface of the skin — cutaneous electrodes — although other types of electrodes exist (such as needle electrodes) for both human and animal work. Transducers for measuring temperature, respiration, and blood volume are also considered, along with polygraphs, computers, couplers, filters, and amplifiers. The computer can be utilized to record and quantify data as long as the physiological signal can be converted into a numerical form. The device used to perform this function is the analog-to-digital converter, which takes a continuous signal and converts it into discrete steps.
Some Basic Principles of Psychophysiology
Authors: Stern Robert M. , Ray William J. , Quigley Karen S. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThe basic principles of psychophysiology are generalizations made on the basis of thousands of psychophysiological experiments. A familiarity with these principles will not only provide the reader with information about certain relationships between psychological and physiological variables but will also alert the reader to factors — other than the independent variable — that might influence the data collected in a psychophysiological experiment. This chapter looks at some basic relationships that are of interest in themselves but that sometimes make it difficult to see the effects of other variables being studied or to interpret the results properly. With an understanding of these generalizations, the reader should be better equipped to design new psychophysiological studies and to understand earlier publications. The concepts of arousal and habituation are discussed, along with orienting, defensive, and startle responses, homeostasis and autonomic balance, the law of initial values, stimulus-response specificity, and individual response stereotypy.
Safety and Ethics in a Psychophysiology Laboratory
Authors: Stern Robert M. , Ray William J. , Quigley Karen S. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
While the electrical environment of a psychophysiology laboratory is probably at least as safe as the modern home and ordinarily poses little threat of shock, there are important implications for the treatment of the subject, particularly concerning grounding. It is standard procedure in some laboratories to attach a ground lead to the subject when recording psychophysiological measures. The reason for the ground connection in these cases is not as protection for the subject, but rather to minimize unwanted electrical signals. If left “floating”, or ungrounded, the subject acts as an antenna, picking up unwanted voltages from the air, much as a radio antenna picks up radio signals. These voltage variations, particularly 60 Hz, are then amplified and appear on the record, obscuring the desired biological signal. However, a ground lead may expose the subject to electrical hazard. This chapter discusses safety and ethics in a psychophysiology laboratory.
Brain: Electroencephalography and Imaging
Authors: Stern Robert M. , Ray William J. , Quigley Karen S. 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
The presence of recognizable electrical rhythms of the brain has excited the curiosity and imagination of both professionals and laypeople alike. Psychophysiologists, neurologists, and science fiction writers have been intrigued by the presence of brain activity and the possibility of having an objective noninvasive marker that reflects underlying psychological processes. Some have taken these ideas to the extreme by suggesting that these measures can tell us what someone is thinking or feeling or even if they are telling the truth. Although it is not that simple, some researchers have begun to use brain activity to help physically disabled individuals to communicate, to move paralyzed limbs, or even to reduce seizure disorders. Understanding cortical processes through various forms of brain imaging is a complex task. Scientists have come to appreciate the complicated relationship that exists between electrocortical measures and cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes. This chapter discusses spontaneous electroencephalography, event-related potentials, electrodes and electrode placement, and brain imaging techniques such as magnetoencephalography, positron emission tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging.
Signal Processing
Authors: Stern Robert M. , Ray William J. , Quigley Karen S. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractWhen considering attentional abilities, two physiological variables need to be recorded: basal (tonic) activity or event-related (phasic) activity. In general, tonic activity can be derived from the ongoing level of activity in the system when the organism is at rest. The length of time needed to assess tonic level appropriately will differ across physiological systems, but in many cases it will be on the order of several minutes. Phasic responses typically are measured over time periods that capture the full response from basal level until the physiological parameter returns to its basal level. Decisions about how to assess changes in physiology are somewhat more difficult than those for assessing tonic levels of activity. This chapter discusses several methods used for assessing change and some of the advantages and disadvantages associated with each measure. The use of Fourier analysis or fast Fourier transform, wavelet analysis, and nonlinear dynamical systems analysis for assessing global aspects of physiological signals are also considered.
The Consequences of Childhood Peer Rejection
Authors: Mcdougall Patricia , Hymel Shelley , Vaillancourt Tracy , Louise Mercer 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
A surging interest regarding the association between children's welfare and peer acceptance has grown, notwithstanding the idea that parents are the primary sources of socialization. Several quantitative studies and reviews of the literature on “rejected” young ones are done to determine the long-term consequences. The authors considers spiritual relationship, strength of connection to others, and community participation in the analysis of the reactions to peer rejection. Data suggests that the significant influence of peers on an individual's competence and sense of belongingness contribute to future developmental concerns. This chapter stresses four extensive kinds of long-run end products of low relational devaluation: academic, general psychopathology, internationalization of problems, and externalization of conflicts. Along with this is an examination of the reasons why and the manner in which negative social response by others shapes a child's later adjustment. All of these attempts are not only aimed toward the uncovering of essential factors in motivating a new generation, but also are geared to direct researchers, educators, and guardians.
The Role of Rejection Sensitivity in People’s Relationships with Significant Others and Valued Social Groups
Authors: Levy Sheri R. , Ayduk Ozlem , Downey Geraldine 
Published: April 2012

Abstract
This chapter depicts the different sensitivity levels to low relational valuation. Differences in rejection responses are described using the attachment and attribution paradigm, which examines reactions through the cognitive processes and the affective aspects of individuals. Possible sources of discrimination might come from family members, friends, romantic partners, and valued memberships. Consistently, a collection of studies put forward that highly reactive people frequently act in a manner which forces others not to accept them. Cited here are accounts of heinous crimes and suicidal tendencies committed by individuals who suffer from marginalization, broken families, unsuccessful affiliations, and the destructive feelings that accompany these events. However, there are instances where people cope with their unfulfilled need for belongingness and security through adaptive and productive behaviors. In the latter discussion of the chapter are suggestions on how to disrupt the potential destructive aftermaths of unregulated rejection sensitivity.
Variation in Working Memory Capacity as Variation in Executive Attention and Control
Authors: Kane Michael J. , Conway Andrew R. A. , Hambrick David Z. , Engle Randall W. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter shows how immediate memory represents a distinct system or set of processes from long memory. Working memory (WM) was proposed as a dynamic system that enabled active maintenance of task-relevant information in support of the simultaneous execution of complex cognitive tasks. Working memory span tasks measure executive attention processes that are believed to be domain general and contribute to WM span performance irrespective of the skills or the stimuli involved. WM span tasks reflect primarily general executive processes and domain-specific rehearsal and storage processes. Thus, executive processes help maintain or recover access to the target items in the absence of focal attention and effective rehearsal procedures. WM capacity variation, which is driven largely by individual differences in executive attention processes, represents a web of inference across correlational and experimental studies.
Variation in Working Memory Due to Typical and Atypical Development
Authors: Jarrold Christopher , Bayliss Donna M. 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter shows how studies of working memory performance in adults have shown that the ability to hold information in mind while manipulating or processing other material is a reliable predictor of a range of other skills. The finding that processing and storage constraints are independent of one another at both the level of individual and developmental differences has clear implications for existing theoretical accounts of complex span performance. However the factors that mediate the link between working memory measures and other cognitive skills must be a subset of those factors that constrain performance on working memory tasks. Determination of whether working memory problems are a cause or a consequence of an individual's learning difficulties is central to a proper understanding of the broader educational implications of such difficulties.
Variation in Working Memory across the Life Span
Authors: Hale Sandra , Myerson Joel , Emery Lisa J. , Lawrence Bonnie M. , Dufault Carolyn 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter focuses on how age differences might affect other aspects of cognitive function. With respect to working memory in particular, there seemed to be multiple ways in which it might be affected by changes in processing speed, as well as multiple ways in which working memory might affect higher-order cognitive processes such as reasoning. Changes in cognitive processing speed might precipitate a cascade in which increase or decrease in speed would lead to changes in working memory function. The methodology that was adopted for studying age differences in working memory was an elegant study of domain-specificity in the working memory function of young adults. The experimental paradigm seemed to provide an excellent tool for dissecting the effects of age-related changes in working memory. In addition to age and domain, processing speed is another important source of variation in working memory.
Specialized Verbal Working Memory for Language Comprehension
Authors: Caplan David , Waters Gloria , Dede Gayle 
Published: April 2012

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the working memory requirement of syntactic processing. It illustrates the working memory (WM) requirements associated with syntactic processing and then documents the existence of variability in the subject's efficiency in handling the demands. The relationship is explored as well as the individual differences in WM capacity. There is a focus on research into the WM demands of syntactic processing that has capitalized on the differences in the WM demands associated with processing sentences. Another approach to the study of the functional neuroanatomy of syntactic processing in sentence comprehension has been to compare PET activity associated with processing syntactically more complex objected-extracted sentences to that associated with simpler subject-extracted sentences. Experimental controls and counterbalances were used to ensure that the two conditions differed only along the syntactic dimension.