bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Clinical Trials in Neurology
Authors: Nelson Lorene M. , Tanner Caroline M. , Van Den Eeden Stephen K. , McGuire Valerie M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter provides extensive coverage of concepts related to controlled clinical trials in neurology. It describes the main issues in clinical trial design, conduct, and analysis, by examples from neurological research. It begins with a summary of the objectives of Phase I through Phase IV trials, followed by a discussion of the commonly used study designs for clinical trials (parallel group design, factorial design, crossover design, N-of-one design). It then describes important principles for the conduct of clinical trials, including methods for recruitment and retention of clinical trial subjects, approaches to minimizing bias due to unblinding, and techniques for monitoring compliance and adverse events. It discusses methods of randomization and choice of primary and secondary measures of treatment outcome and summarizes statistical approaches to clinical trial data, including intent-to-treat analyses, explanatory analyses, per protocol analyses, and on-treatment analyses. Methods for subgroup analyses and planning of interim analyses are also discussed. One section of the chapter is devoted to ethics of controlled clinical trials.
Ethical Dimensions of Health Equity
Authors: PETER FABIENNE , EVANS TIMOTHY 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter clarifies ethical concepts related to the complex issue of health equity. It discusses the concept of health, its causes, and distribution. It explores questions such as: What is equity in health? How is it linked to social justice? Why should we be concerned with inequities in health anyway? Can moral philosophy inform judgements about health equity? In doing so, the chapter reviews the relevance of existing theories of social justice to the underlying assumption that social inequalities in health are “unjust.” Utilitarianism and egalitarian theories are considered, before discussing the requirements of Rawlsian justice and the philosophical approach of Amartya Sen—the latter two placing the pursuit of health equity in the context of the larger pursuit of social justice.
Neighborhoods and Health: An Overview
Authors: Macintyre Sally , Ellaway Anne 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents an overview of research on neighborhoods and health. Interest in the effects of the local environment on human health began some 2,500 years ago and reached its peak during the public health movements of the mid to late 19th century in Europe and America. Since World War II, much of the focus of public health has been on individual behaviors such as smoking, drinking, diet, and exercise. Recently, there has been a resurgence of interest in the effects on health of the social and physical environment within epidemiology, geography, psychology, and sociology. This renewed interest must not ignore the lessons of the past or lessons from other disciplines such as architecture, urban planning, political science, and economics.
Infant Health: Race, Risk, and Residence
Authors: Collins, Jr. James W. , Schulte Nancy Fisher 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe prevalence of disadvantages among individual African Americans does not fully explain their poor birth outcomes, nor is there a biological vulnerability specific to African-Americans. This chapter looks beyond individual attributes and explores where and how African-American women live in an effort to understand these enduring inequalities. It focuses on the residents of Chicago, the third most segregated city in the United States.
A Brief Romance with Magic Bullets: René Dubos at the Dawn of the Antibiotic Era
Authors: Cooper Jill E. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn 1939, René Dubos announced his discovery of tyrothricin, the first clinically useful antibiotic. Convinced of the power and efficiency of chemotherapeutic wonder drugs, Dubos abandoned his immunological approach to infectious disease in favor of one that privileged cure over prevention. But by 1941 his enthusiasm waned in light of tyrothricin's limitations, and he changed from champion to critic of chemotherapeutic agents. His admonitions against the overzealous use of antibiotics, however, went largely unheeded. As a result, many of his predictions regarding the danger of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains have been realized in modern medicine. This chapter traces Dubos' research at the Rockefeller Institute that led to the discovery of tryothricin, and his rapid disaffection with over-reliance upon antibiotics.
Polio Can Be Conquered: Science and Health Propaganda in the United States from Polio Polly to Jonas Salk
Authors: Rogers Naomi 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn the 1940s and 1950s, health officials in the United States regularly published popular guides to polio prevention, therapeutic manuals for the care of paralyzed patients, and inspirational tales of the disabled polio victims overcoming social stigma and achieving success. These tracts became a potent publicity tool to popularize faith in scientific research as the best weapon in the fight against disease. The popularized polio literature combined medical theory, philosophy, public health policy, and frequently a commercial message. Long before the polio vaccines were developed, health experts—especially those employed by the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (NFIP)—made scientific research a public enterprise, in which even obscure scientific questions could be laid out and debated.
The Impact of Improved Nutrition on Disease Prevention
Authors: Semba Richard D. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractIn the 20th century, major progress was made in the near elimination of many nutritional deficiencies disorders in the United States such as rickets, pellagra, iodine deficiency, infantile scurvy, iron deficiency due to hookworm, and subclinical levels of vitamin A deficiency and folate deficiency. The vitamins and their roles in human health were characterized, and dietary requirements were established. The landmark studies of Joseph Goldberger revealed that the cause of pellagra was nutritional rather than infectious. The fortification of foodstuffs, nutrition education, home gardening, and federally supported feeding programs all were aimed at improving the nutrition of the U.S. population. The American diet also evolved in light of the newer knowledge of nutrition. Despite the tremendous advances in the 20th century, obesity and other challenges remain for nutrition and public health efforts in the 21st century.
Safer, Healthier Workers: Advances in Occupational Disease and Injury Prevention
Authors: Robbins Anthony , Landrigan Philip J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractDuring the 20th century, the American workforce has faced many types of job-related injury and illness, ranging from exposure to hazardous chemical agents to extreme emotional stress and trauma. Such exposures and experiences can have numerous negative health outcomes, which can manifest immediately or after varying periods of time. The range of illness caused by work is broad and can involve every organ system; diseases linked to occupation in the last century include malignant mesothelioma in workers exposed to asbestos; bladder cancer in dye workers; and pneumoconiosis in coal miners. Conditions can be either acute or chronic and are manifested through classic symptoms or subtle clinical changes. This chapter examines the epidemiology of occupational disease and injury in the United States during the 20th century; introduces heroes such as Alice Hamilton in advancing occupational medicine; and explains the successes and failures in the prevention of occupational disease and injury.
A Prejudice Which May Cloud the Mentality: The Making of Objectivity in Early Twentieth-Century Occupational Health
Authors: Sellers Christopher 
Published: September 2009

AbstractToday, environmental health professionals assess hazards in the workplace or the outside air by comparing sampled levels against official Threshold Limit Values (TLV's). But before today's reliance on quantitative tools for correlating atmospheric chemical levels to disease, industrial health practices were neither primitive nor unscientific. Medical and scientific researchers wrote at once for physicians or hygienists and for those without scientific training. Their knowledge itself remained closely tied to preventive interventions as well to curative ones. A quantitative chemical approach to occupational disease took shape following World War I, with the advent of a new community of experts, centered in the public health schools, in company medical clinics and in state divisions of industrial hygiene.
The Nut Behind the Wheel: Shifting Responsibilities for Traffic Safety Since 1895
Authors: Albert Daniel M. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter sets the science of safety within a historical context, revealing how permeable the boundary between science and society has been in dealing with auto safety. Over the 20th century the focus of improving safety has sometimes emphasized regulating cars, while at other times controlling drivers. Initially, the democratization of car ownership led to a focus on the driver; after World War II there arose more concern with crash survivability, and automobile and road design. Toward the end of the 20th century, concern for unsafe drivers—drunk-driving, unsafe and undertrained teenage drivers, aggressive driving, and so forth—reemerged as an important factor in reducing vehicular death and injury.
Thank You for Not Smoking: The Public Health Response to Tobacco-Related Mortality in the United States
Authors: Eriksen Michael P. , Green Lawrence W. , Husten Corinne G. , Pederson Linda L. , Pechacek Terry F. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractGiven the broad acceptance of the cigarette in society, the dramatic reduction in smoking over the 20th century is an extraordinary achievement. During the last third of the century, smoking rates and per capita consumption of cigarettes were cut in half, and exposure to second hand smoke declined dramatically. As a result, more than one million deaths potentially caused by tobacco were avoided, resulting in gains in life expectancy and quality. This chapter reviews the actions attributed to this achievement, including the dissemination of scientific information on the dangers of active and passive smoking, clinical strategies to help persons quit smoking, and the legal and economic strategies to create disincentives for tobacco use. The marketing of tobacco continues resulting in a continual state of action and reaction between private industry and public health. Despite the health advances, smoking remains the leading preventable cause of death for American men and women.
Epilogue: Public Health at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Koplan Jeffrey P. , Thacker Stephen B. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
In the 21st century, trends in demographics, climate, globalization, and technology will alter the social fabric of the United States and the world with tremendous implications for health. To position the nation for the century ahead, the country's medical, scientific, and public health leaders must devote attention and resources to at least ten tasks: 1) develop a rational and equitable approach to public health and clinical care; 2) eliminate health disparities among racial and ethnic populations; 3) focus on child development; 4) meet demands of an aging population; 5) modify lifestyles including eating and physical activity; 6) protect the environment; 7) respond to emerging infectious pathogens; 8) promote mental health; 9) prevent violence; and 10) harness new science and technology to benefit health. In the 21st century, the causes of morbidity and mortality are likely to change; public health institutions must identify and anticipate these changes through excellent science and effective practice.
The Guide to Community Preventive Services
Authors: Task Force on Community Preventive Services  
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This book is a primary resource on how to improve health and prevent disease in states and communities. The book uses systemic review methods to evaluate population-oriented health interventions. The recommendations of the Task Force on Community Preventive Services are explicitly linked to the scientific evidence developed during systematic reviews. This book examines the effectiveness and efficiency of interventions to combat such risky behaviors as tobacco use, physical inactivity, and violence; to reduce the impact and suffering of specific conditions such as cancer, diabetes, vaccine-preventable diseases, and motor vehicle injuries; and to address social determinants on health such as education, housing, and access to care. The chapters are grouped into three broad categories: changing risk behaviors; reducing specific diseases, injuries, and impairments; and methodological background for the book itself.
The Socioeconomically Disadvantaged
Authors: Marmot Michael , Bell Ruth 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter asserts that inequality in the conditions under which people live and work translates into inequalities in health, and that this inequality is unjust. It discusses that socioeconomic disadvantage is more than low income and describes the impact of social injustice on the socioeconomically disadvantaged. Lifestyle does provide a partial explanation for the social gradient in health, but lifestyle is related to socioeconomic status. The chapter describes the roots and underlying factors of social injustice and what needs to be done. It concludes that health of the population and inequalities in health are markers of how a society is meeting the needs of its members, and that society may benefit if our set of social arrangements were to move toward a situation where control over one's life and full social participation are more equitably distributed.
Incarcerated People
Authors: Drucker Ernest M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter deals with social injustice as it affects incarcerated people. It covers mass incarceration and race, collateral damages of incarceration, health of prisoners, the effects on prisoners' families and communities, economic disenfranchisement, and civic death (felony disenfranchisement). It also discusses the roots and underlying causes of this social injustice, and what needs to be done, including improving community services, providing better health services for those who are incarcerated, reforming drug law, repealing mandatory sentencing laws, assisting family members, and addressing voting disenfranchisement. The chapter asserts that reforms are needed to change drug policies to reduce criminalization of drug use, and to apply a public health model to address drug problems worldwide, replacing prosecution with effective treatment, education, and prevention.
Homeless People
Authors: Gelberg Lillian , Arangua Lisa 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter addresses social injustice directed to homeless people. It consider how social injustice affects the health of homeless people, including their health status, substance abuse, obesity, and sedentary lifestyle, mental health, mortality, health care access and utilization, and disparities in health status. The chapter also addresses roots and underlying issues concerning this social injustice, and what needs to be done. It concludes that consideration of the health of homeless persons globally should not be limited to addressing their health and substance abuse problems, but also should address attitudes toward the treatment of the poor worldwide, as well as welfare and housing policies.
Infectious Diseases
Authors: Mukherjee Joia S. , Farmer Paul E. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes how social injustice affects the occurrence and severity of infectious diseases. It describes structural inequalities and the disproportionate burden of many infectious diseases on the poor. It identifies roots and underlying factors, including inadequate support for public works and infrastructure, social and economic rights, economic freedom, and access to treatment. It describes what needs to be done to address these problems. The chapter concludes that social justice in global public health requires a commitment to eliminating the structural violence that puts communities at risk and to treating the population's most heavily affected by infectious disease.
Environmental Health
Authors: Butler Colin D. , McMichael Anthony J. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes social injustice in relation to environmental health. It covers the scale and distribution of environmental health hazards, the relationship between social injustice and environmental health, in terms of water contamination, air pollution, soil contamination, food contamination, and exposure to chemicals and global climate and ecosystem change. The chapter also describes the impact of globalization on environmental health. It describes what needs to be done, including achieving environmental justice, creating greater awareness of the cost of environmental hazards, harnessing sufficient political and economic will, reducing exposure to hazardous chemicals, performing epidemiologic research, and reforming organizations and institutions.
Addressing Social Injustice In A Human Rights Context
Authors: Gruskin Sofia , Braveman Paula 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes what needs to be done to address social injustice in a human rights context. It covers core concepts, human rights as legal standards and obligations of government, human rights as a conceptual framework for analysis and advocacy, and human rights as guiding principles for designing and implementing policies and programs. The chapter concludes that human rights treaties and other agreements can provide important mechanisms to strengthen accountability of governments who are moving toward greater social justice in health. It further argues that health workers should be aware that human rights norms, standards, laws, and accountability mechanisms are highly relevant tools that can enhance efforts to achieve social justice in health, both globally and within countries.
Protecting Human Rights Through International And National Law
Authors: Weiss Peter , Freedman Henry A. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This chapter discusses the protection of human rights through international and national law. It describes how international and national law can reduce social injustice and provides specific examples of how law has improved social justice. It provides an agenda for action, both internationally and in the United States. The chapter asserts that enforceable economic, social, and cultural rights represent the only sure bulwark against social injustice. It concludes that lawyers must go to court, victims of social injustice must “take to the streets,” and activists must lobby their elected representatives—these are the paths for fighting social injustice and achieving human rights.
Roots of the Problem
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis introductory chapter provides demographic information about the prevalence of disability among U.S. residents and outlines population trends suggesting rising numbers of persons with disabilities. It also reviews concerns about health care quality in the United States, drawing upon reports of the Institute of Medicine and other sources to describe worrisome quality shortfalls, especially affecting persons with chronic health conditions. It suggests that persons with disabilities confront particular risks of receiving substandard care, along a variety of dimensions of quality and access.
Defining Disability
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractDisability has numerous definitions, and different definitions conjure up varying assumptions about the lives and expectations of persons with disabilities. This chapter explores the historical roots of these definitions and the rationale for different perspectives, providing broad overviews of the medical and social models of disability. It then reviews several major definitions of disability in the United States, including those of the Social Security Administration and the Americans with Disabilities Act. It concludes by describing the definition used by the World Health Organization, which guides perspectives throughout the book.
Getting into and around Health Care Settings
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes the physical barriers persons with disabilities can encounter when they visit health care settings, including difficulties opening doors, inaccessible restroom facilities, and examining tables that are too high for persons to access. It also examines problems encountered by patients who have blind or low vision as they try to navigate health care settings, including staff being unaware of appropriate ways to assist them with transiting through space (e.g., use of sighted guides). The chapter presents information about relatively low use of screening and preventive services among persons with mobility problems, and relates these findings to inaccessible equipment and other access barriers. Given higher rates of obesity and overweightness among persons with disabilities, particular issues relating to access for persons who are obese are also discussed.
Etiquette during Physical Examinations and Interactions with Office Staff
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractInterpersonal interactions during physical examinations and medical procedures convey volumes about respect, empathy, and understanding. Listening and following patients' instructions, such as about transferring them from a wheelchair to examination table, can also determine the safety of both patients with disabilities and clinical staff. This chapter examines etiquette within health care settings, starting with first contacts with office staff at the check-in desk and following patients through waiting rooms and into the examining or testing room. It identifies challenges patients with disabilities face in trying to accommodate their needs for positioning and appropriate communication during clinical interactions. The chapter also discusses telephone communication for persons who are deaf or hard of hearing.
Pushing against Boundaries of the Health Care System
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe factors outside the traditional health care system—or straddling the boundary between health care and other sectors—can often have huge implications for persons' health and well being. This chapter briefly explores four such topics: assistive technology, personal care assistance, accessible public transportation, and accessible housing. It looks at controversies about health insurance coverage of these items and services.
Using Universal Design to Accommodate All
Authors: Iezzoni Lisa I. , O'Day Bonnie L. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractUniversal design is the notion of considering all potential users when designing places, information, communication, and other items, services, and policies. This book builds upon universal design concepts in its final chapters, which propose solutions to the barriers described in earlier chapters. This chapter starts this process by describing the origins and tenets of the universal design movement. Examples of basic principles of universal design include equitable use, flexibility in use, simple and intuitive use, and low physical effort in use.