bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
InterPro Curation: Integrating Predictive Protein Signatures Into Biological Hierarchies
Authors: Burge Sarah 
Published: November 2010

AbstractInterPro is an integrated database of predictive protein signatures used for the classification and automatic annotation of proteins and genomes. As InterPro curators, we are responsible for assimilating information from our member databases and communicating it to our end users in a way that adds value to each individual signature. We categorise signatures according to their type (for example, Family, Domain or Repeat) and annotate entries with links to other databases, abstracts and protein matches.The InterPro database also identifies relationships between entries. For example, signatures at a general Family level are related to more specific subfamilies through a Parent/Child relationship. Families may also Contain individual Domains. In this manner, we aim to build up a hierarchy of InterPro entries that correctly represents relationships between biological families and domains. Users may then easily identify related proteins and signatures as the InterPro database attempts to map out biological hierarchies. Here we discuss InterPro relations, the criteria for their formation and how they may be useful to users. We will also discuss the challenges of representing biological hierarchies when automating relationship formation and the role manual curation plays in ensuring that we accurately represent biological networks.
Temporal trends in annual water yields from the Mackenzie, Saskatchewan-Nelson, Churchill, and Missouri-Mississippi River watersheds in western and northern Canada
Authors: Rayne Sierra , Forest Kaya 
Published: November 2010

AbstractHistorical temporal trends in annual water yields were examined at 109 hydrometric monitoring stations in the Mackenzie, Saskatchewan-Nelson, Churchill, and Missouri-Mississippi River watersheds from the western Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and northeastern British Columbia, as well as the Northwest Territories and the eastern portion of the Yukon territory. Effective drainage areas range in size from 325 to 1,680,000 (mean=65,600; median=9,300) km^2^, with associated hydrometric record lengths ranging between 18 and 97 (mean=41; median=38) years. Approximately three-quarters of the stations have no significant trend in average annual flow, with about equal numbers of stations exhibiting significant temporal increases or decreases in annual water yields. Southwestern Alberta and the southwestern Northwest Territories contain small clusters of stations with increasing water yield trends; clusters of decreasing water yield trends are primarily located in central and southern Alberta. The co-location of regions with clusters of both increasing and decreasing trends, or increasing/decreasing and no trends, complicates generalizing broader scale trends in annual water yields across these regions of Canada. No bias in the trend directions appears evident with either watershed size or the length of the hydrometric record.
NHC–Nickel and Platinum Complexes in Catalysis
Authors: Fort Yves , Comoy Corinne 
Published: November 2010

This Chapter summarizes the recent impact that the use of N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands in the field of Ni- and Pt-mediated processes.
This family of ligands have allowed for the development of novel nickel-based catalysts of increased reactivity and selectivity compared to previous Ni-phosphine reagents. These NHC–Ni reagents are active in hydrogenation, hydrogen transfer properties and C–S or C–F bond activation. Conversely, they efficiently catalyze arythiolation, hydrothiolation and cross-coupling reactions as well as different cross-couplings, cycloadditions of alkynes or isomerization of vinylcyclopropanes.
On the other hand, NHC–Pt analogues have been less studied for catalytic applications. Regioselective and/or asymmetric hydroboration as well as hydrosilylation constitute the two most areas of research for these species.
N-Heterocyclic Carbenes as Organic Catalysts
Authors: Chiang Pei-Chen , Bode* Jeffrey W. 
Published: November 2010

The synthetic utility of azolium salts as catalysts was thought to be limited to the generation of acyl anion equivalents for use in benzoin and Stetter reactions. The discovery, in 2004, of new catalysts, substrates, and reaction manifolds has ignited a new generation of reactions that fall under the general rubrik of N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) catalyzed reactions. These powerful new processes include the catalytic generation of activated carboxylates for α-functionalized aldehydes, enantioselective annulations via catalytically generated ester enolate equivalents, and the NHC-catalyzed generation of formal homoenolate equivalents. The history of these new reactions and an overview of the reactions, their substrate scope, and mechanistic pathways are summarized in this Chapter.
UNC-45/CRO1/She4p (UCS) protein forms elongated dimer and joins two myosin heads near their actin binding region
Authors: Shi Hang , Blobel Günter 
Published: November 2010

UNC-45/CRO1/She4p (UCS) proteins have variously been proposed to affect the folding, stability, and ATPase activity of myosins. They are the only proteins known to interact directly with the motor domain. To gain more insight into UCS function, we determined the atomic structure of the yeast UCS protein, She4p, at 2.9 Å resolution. We found that 16 helical repeats are organized into an L-shaped superhelix with an amphipathic N-terminal helix dangling off the short arm of the L-shaped molecule. In the crystal, She4p forms a 193-Å-long, zigzag-shaped dimer through three distinct and evolutionary conserved interfaces. We have identified She4p’s C-terminal region as a ligand for a 27-residue-long epitope on the myosin motor domain. Remarkably, this region consists of two adjacent, but distinct, binding epitopes localized at the nucleotide-responsive cleft between the nucleotide- and actin-filament-binding sites. One epitope is situated inside the cleft, the other outside the cleft. After ATP hydrolysis and Pi ejection, the cleft narrows at its base from 20 to 12 Å thereby occluding the inside the cleft epitope, while leaving the adjacent, outside the cleft binding epitope accessible to UCS binding. Hence, one cycle of higher and lower binding affinity would accompany one ATP hydrolysis cycle and a single step in the walk on an actin filament rope. We propose that a UCS dimer links two myosins at their motor domains and thereby functions as one of the determinants for step size of myosin on actin filaments.
The nature and virtues of the German language in the Bavarian periodical ‘Parnassus boicus’ (1722–1740)
Authors: Scaglione Aldo 
Published: November 2010

SummaryA close analysis of the Bavarian periodicalParnassus Boicus(1722–1740) discloses several aspects of interest to the linguistic historian. Besides a polemical and proto-nationalistic view of German as a language for heroes, the editors defended, against the French-oriented critical stanceà laGottsched which was-beginning to have the upper hand, a marked sympathy for periodic syntax, which they claimed as most natural to German, as well as a strong preference for the chancery style.
Edward Sapir and the Prague School
Authors: Eramian Gregory M. 
Published: November 2010

Summary
This paper explores the intriguing and hitherto neglected question of contact between Edward Sapir (1884–1939) and members of the Prague Linguistic Circle (1926–1939) concerning the development of phonemic theory. The point of departure is Cain’s (1980) conjecture that the Prague Anglicists (Mathesius, Trnka, and Vachek) were more likely to have encountered the writings of Sapir than Sapir was to have read Jakobson’s and Trubetzkoy’s Czech and Russian publications. Sapir’s published theoretical works provide no evidence of contact with or knowledge of classical Prague School phonology. However, a thorough study of the relevant Prague School publications reveals that three of Sapir’s theoretical writings and three of his language monographs were well known to some of its members. Interestingly, three of the seven references to Sapir by the Anglicists appear in their German and Czech writings, while the largest number of references to Sapir occur in Trubetzkoy’s published scholarly works and letters written primarily in German and Russian. Trubetzkoy’s letters provide valuable supplementary evidence of personal communication between him and Sapir. Collation of material in the letters with passages in Trubetzkoy’s publications reveals that Sapir and members of the Prague School (Jakob-son, Mathesius, Trubetzkoy) were in personal contact from 1929, three years after the founding of the Circle. It also emerges that Trubetzkoy had read Sapir (1925) in a copy of the journal Language which Mathesius had lent to him as early as 1928, while Sapir had read vol. 1 of the Travaux and commented favorably on it to Trubetzkoy in 1929. Although Sapir and the Prague School developed their views on phonemic theory independently, Trubetzkoy’s articles and letters occasionally reveal fairly technical discussion of theoretical points and problems in the phonological systems of specific languages raised by Sapir. Finally, the letters provide convincing evidence that Trubetzkoy and Sapir shared an ongoing professional concern with advancing the cause of phonology in the international linguistic community. Sapir and members of the Prague School expended considerable effort toward a favorable reception of phonology by the American linguists (e.g., Leonard Bloomfield, Boas, Kent, Kurath, and Twaddell). In this connection, Sapir was very actively involved in the American branch of the Internationale phonologische Arbeitsgemeinschaft from its inception in 1932 during the Second International Congress of Phonetic Sciences in Amsterdam. Although Sapir and Trubetzkoy appear never to have met in person, the IP A turned out to serve as a pivotal link between Sapir and Trubetzkoy and, by extension, between the Linguistic Society of America and the Prague Linguistic Circle.
The abandonment of nómos in Greek linguistic thought
Authors: Joseph John E. 
Published: November 2010

Summary
Coseriu (1977) has contended that Aristotle’s abandonment of the term nómos as the counterpart to phýsis represented a clear and willful break from the earlier tradition of linguistic thought. The present article examines a semantic change that nómos (originally “custom”) was undergoing in 5th century Attic Greek, when it became the technical term for a statute law. This change rendered it no longer appropriate in considerations of language. Hence, even if Aristotle had wanted to maintain the term nómos in its late Sophistic sense, he could not have done so. The Aristotelian approach to language may thus maintain a greater continuity with the past than is often recognized. The history of the terms which came to replace nómos as the opposite of phýsis is also surveyed.
Dionysius thrax vs marcus varro
Authors: Taylor Daniel J. 
Published: November 2010

Summary
This article critically assesses how Dionysius and Varro differ with respect to particular matters of linguistic theory and practice. It emphasizes the absence of declensions in Dionysius’ Téchnē (and in subsequent Greek grammar), his inability to distinguish between derivation and inflection, and the confusion – both conceptual and descriptive – in his account of conjugation, all of which are topics that Varro addresses elegantly and with linguistic sophistication. Dionysius therefore compares unfavorably with Varro in these respects, and the author concludes, suggestively, that Varro is responsible for transforming the Alexandrian word-class system of grammar into the word-and-paradigm system that is the Roman ars grammatica.
Reflections on the history of dependency notions in linguistics
Authors: Percival W. Keith 
Published: November 2010

SummaryThis paper outlines the history of dependency notions from Antiquity to the present century. Although the notion of syntactic dependency was unknown in Antiquity, the idea of semantic dependency was foreshadowed in early definitions of the minor parts of speech, i.e., parts of speech other than the noun and the verb. In part, this happened because logicians had originally posited only the two major parts of speech, and grammarians then formulated their definitions of the minor parts of speech in relation to those of the noun and the verb. The adverb, for instance, was defined as augmenting or diminishing the meaning of the verb. The first writer who used (if not coined) a special term to refer to the notion that some words specify or ‘determine’ the meanings of the subject noun and the verbal predicate was Boethius (ca. 500 A.D.), and in this way the notion of ‘determination’ was launched. As a result of the subsequent popularity of Boethius’s logical works, ‘determination’ was adopted and extensively utilized by Latin grammarians from the 12th century on. In the 13th century, it was complemented by the term ‘dependency’, which was the logical converse of ‘determination’. Grammarians claimed that a dependency relation exists between the members of all constructions. The vogue of ‘dependency’ declined even before the advent of Renaissance humanism, while ‘determination’ survived. In the early modern period, the terminological repertory expanded. Thus, in the 18th century, French grammarians coined the terms ‘modification’ (Buffier) and ‘complement’ (Du Marsais). The 20th century has been marked by a further increase of new terms. Inspired by Tesnière’s posthumousElèments de syntaxe structurale(1959), some linguists have also proposed formalized dependency theories as alternatives to phrase-structure grammar.
Liberalism in Lockean Linguistics
Authors: Taylor Talbot J. 
Published: November 2010

Summary
In the Essay concerning human understanding (1690) John Locke (1632–1704) suggests that man misunderstands the relationship between ideas, words, and things, assuming that there exists a ‘double conformity’. This assumption is at the core of our misunderstanding of our epistemological status, the misunderstanding from which Locke must free his readers if they are to grasp the foundations of human knowledge. To this extent Locke is a communicational sceptic. He believes that the linguistic communication of ideas is ‘imperfect’. Left to our natural powers to form ideas and signify them by words, we will too often fail to convey our thoughts to our hearers. The remedy to this ‘imperfection’ is for us to constrain the exercise of our linguistic powers. There is thus an interesting parallel between the structure of Locke’s discussion of language in the Essay and his discussion of political power in the Second Treatise on Government (1689). In the latter Locke then traces the roots of political norms to the individual’s sacrifice of a share of their own natural freedoms and powers to political authority, so that social anarchy can be avoided. In the same way the normative prescriptions offered in the Essay, by restricting the individual’s basic linguistic freedom, are designed to avoid the communicational anarchy that would result if all individuals exercised their linguistic freedom to express themselves as they choose. Locke thus takes communication to occur, not as a result of chance or of a pre-existing conformity between words and ideas, but rather as a result of the linguistic agent’s voluntary constraint of his/her semiotic freedom.
Wilhelm Von Humboldt and North American Ethnolinguistics
Authors: Koerner E. F. Konrad 
Published: November 2010

Summary
Noam Chomsky’s frequent references to the work of Wilhelm von Humboldt during the 1960s produced a considerable revival of interest in this 19th-century scholar in North America. This paper demonstrates that there has been a long-standing influence of Humboldt’s ideas on American linguistics and that no ‘rediscovery’ was required. Although Humboldt’s first contacts with North-American scholars goes back to 1803, the present paper is confined to the posthumous phase of his influence which begins with the work of Heymann Steinthal (1823–1899) from about 1850 onwards. This was also a time when many young Americans went to Germany to complete their education; for instance William Dwight Whitney (1827–1894) spent several years at the universities of Tübingen and Berlin (1850–1854), and in his writings on general linguistics one can trace Humboldtian ideas. In 1885 Daniel G. Brinton (1837–1899) published an English translation of a manuscript by Humboldt on the structure of the verb in Amerindian languages. A year later Franz Boas (1858–1942) arrived from Berlin soon to establish himself as the foremost anthropologist with a strong interest in native language and culture. From then on we encounter Humboldtian ideas in the work of a number of North American anthropological linguists, most notably in the work of Edward Sapir (1884–1939). This is not only true with regard to matters of language classification and typology but also with regard to the philosophy of language, specifically, the relationship between a particular language structure and the kind of thinking it reflects or determines on the part of its speakers. Humboldtian ideas of ‘linguistic relativity’, enunciated in the writings of Whitney, Brinton, Boas, and others, were subsequently developed further by Sapir’s student Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897–1941). The transmission of the so-called Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis – which still today is attracting interest among cultural anthropologists and social psychologists, not only in North America – is the focus of the remainder of the paper. A general Humboldtian approach to language and culture, it is argued, is still present in the work of Dell Hymes and several of his students.
Competence vs. performance; theoretical vs. applied
Authors: Newmeyer Frederick J. 
Published: November 2010

SummaryThe past 30 years have seen marked shifts in the generative grammarians’ view of the nature of linguistic competence. The rule-oriented period of early Transformational Grammar, which was ushered in by the publication of Chomsky’sSyntactic Structuresin 1957, gave way a decade later to the principle-oriented period of Generative Semantics. By the mid-1970s, the rule-oriented Lexicalist framework had replaced Generative Semantics. Since around 1981, the principle-oriented Principles & Parameters approach is the one to which a majority of generative syntacticians hold allegiance. Each shift in the generativists’ view of the nature of competence has been accompanied by a revised view of how concepts derived from generative syntax might be applied to second language teaching. Since 1957, three different strategies for applying the theory have been propounded: the ‘mechanical’, the ‘terminological’, and the ‘implicational’, each of which has been instantiated during each period in the development of generative syntax. The paper closes with some speculative remarks about the feasibility of applying generativist theory to second language teaching.
La Postériorité Lexicographique De Nebrija
Authors: Lépinette Brigitte 
Published: November 2010

RésuméL’objet de cette étude est une série de dictionnaires bilingues latin-français, lesVocabularius Nebrissensis(1511–1541) qui constituent une partie de l’héritage lexicographique de l’humaniste Antonio E. de Nebrija en France. Nous montrons quelle est la source de la nomenclature de ces lexiques traduits en français à partir d’un dictionnaire latin-catalan(Busa, Barcelone 1507) qui était lui-même une version duLexicon(1492–1506) latin-espagnol de Nebrija. Nous décrivons la nomenclature duVocabularius Nebrissensisavec ses suppressions et ajouts par rapport à l’original ainsi que le contenu des articles. Nous constatons que ceux-ci sont de deux sortes. Ce sont (a) des développement traductifs; (b) des gloses et de commentaires; nous en comparons ces articles à ceux des monolingues latins (surtout leCatholiconlatin-latin). L’examen des contenus du dictionnaire nous amène à la conclusion que l’œuvre de Nebrija a été utilisée dans un lexique latin-français exécuté par un compilateur qui semble ne pas avoir saisi toute l’originalité du travail réalisé par l’auteur de la nomenclature qu’il a empruntée.
The Notion of ‘Underlying Levels’ in the Arabic Grammatical Tradition
Authors: Versteegh Kees 
Published: November 2010

Abstract
Even ‘naive’ speakers use a distinction between actual, realized speech with its ‘literal’ meaning, and an underlying level of ‘what is actually meant’. Such a distinction is made because speakers instinctively feel that very often actual speech does not represent exactly what the speaker intends to say. In this paper it is claimed that this non-technical distinction lies at the basis of a technical distinction between a surface structure of speech and an underlying level. In the technical stage of Arabic grammar the emphasis shifts from an analysis of the underlying intention of the speaker towards an explanation of the syntactic form of actual speech, which is mapped onto an underlying representation. Both in the Classical Greek and the Arabic/Islamic tradition we find a development from an early stage of exegetical activity, in which the intention of the speaker or the text is elaborated by positing an underlying level of semantic representation, towards a technical distinction between a surface level and an underlying level. The difference between the two traditions lies in the fact that Greek linguistics was more semantically oriented, whereas in Arabic grammar the main tool of the grammarians, the taqdîr, was basically an instrument to explain the syntactic structure of speech, in line with the predominantly formal approach of the Arabic grammarians. Compared with modern linguistic theory, both traditions have in common that they do not look for an underlying level of meaning that is universal to all languages. The main reason for this difference is that neither Greek nor Arabic linguists were interested in the study of other languages.
La Nueva gramática de la lengua castellana de martínez de noboa
Authors: Maquieira Marina 
Published: November 2010

Summary
This paper examines a treatise on Spanish grammar, i.e., a particular grammar which follows the tradition of French philosophical grammar. Bachiller D. Antonio Martínez de Noboa’s work, published in 1839, appears in a century when the Spanish grammatical tradition is at its best. Texts like Vicente Salvá’s (1786–1849) and of course Andrés Bello’s (1781–1865) have in recent years attracted the attention of researchers. However, Martínez de Noboa’s work is much less known, although Gómez Asencio (1981, 1985) did highlight its importance in his two indispensable studies of the period between 1771 and 1847. The Nueva Gramática de la lengua Castellana is indebted to the framework set by José Gómez de Hermosilla (1835) and Jacobo Saqueniza (1828), although it does include some original observations. This paper examines the structure of the work in question and aims to show how it is in global terms a unified text combining different aspects, of which the most striking is without doubt the syntactic one. With this aim in mind certain specific examples of the analogy pertaining to syntax have been studied. First those he himself highlighted, e.g., the article/pronoun and verb and then those comments on syntax which are logically pertinent, e.g., conjunctions. Noboa himself was cited as was Saqueniza as having been responsible for the introduction of distinction between coordinate and subordinate conjunctions in Spanish grammar, along with the distinction between simple and complex clauses. On the purely syntactic level, it was also Noboa who refined the whole notion of verbal government. Finally, there is a brief summary of the section dedicated to pronunciation and spelling which are also considered by the author to be in some way related to the other parts of the grammar. In sum, what makes this work particularly interesting is undoubtedly the emphasis on syntax as more studies had been carried out on morphology than in any other area up until the 19th century and continued after Noboa to monopolise questions concerning grammar throughout this century.