bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Argentine War of Independence (1808–1818)
Authors: Turner Blair 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe so‐called royal crisis of 1808 in Spain sent shock waves through the Spanish empire in the Americas. Napoleon Bonaparte removed the Spanish Bourbon monarchs and crowned his brother Joseph king of Spain. Thecortes(parliament) balked and moved to Seville, the center of administration for the empire, in an attempt to sustain Spanish independence from France. The impact on Latin America was profound and unavoidable: the ruling elites in the majorcabildos(city coun‐cils) and administrative centers were forced to proclaim their loyalty, but to whom: the exiled Bourbon, the French usurper, the rebelcortes?Most chose the conservative option to exercise power in the name of thecortes(as long as they lasted) or of the deposed monarch until he might return. Few localities chose to take the opportunity to proclaim independence from Spain, but the viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, centered in thecabildoof Buenos Aires, did.
Armée Coloniale
Authors: Vandervort Bruce 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
On July 7, 1900, the French parliament passed a law transforming the French marine corps (Troupes de Marine) into a colonial army or Armée Coloniale (henceforth known to its troops and the public as simply La Coloniale). This was more than a name change. It reflected the restructuring of the French Empire taking place at the time, as responsibility for administration of France's colonies outside North Africa was transferred from the navy ministry to the new ministry of colonies (established in 1889). The shift in responsibility also can be seen as the culmination of efforts, fairly continuous since the seventeenth century, to incorporate France's marine infantry into its land army, through the ministry of war.
Ashikaga shogunate (1338–1573)
Authors: Conlan Thomas D. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

The Ashikaga shogunate
(bakufu)
is named after the surname of the fifteen shoguns who exercised authority from 1338 until 1573. Also known as the Muromachi bakufu, after the street in Kyoto where some shoguns resided, this regime was largely based in the capital of Japan. Unlike the earlier Kamakura shogunate (1185–1333), which was a judicial regime located in eastern Japan, the Ashikaga shogunate was located in Kyoto, and was amalgamated with the imperial court. The Ashikaga strove not to amass land, but rather to give it away, and through largesse secure support. Perhaps their greatest gift, and a cause of most of the ensuing decentralization, was the 1351 promulgation of the
hanzei,
whereby half of a province's revenue was used for military supplies, and they had to rule or overawe these
shugo
in order to govern effectively.
Atlantic, Battle of the (1939–1945)
Authors: Milner Marc 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Battle of the Atlantic was fought to secure the sea lanes vital to Allied victory in the Second World War. Allied objectives in the Atlantic, such as the blockade of Axis Europe, the securing of sea movements, and the projection of military power, were obtainable without direct attack on Germany's essential maritime interests. As a result, this was not a “battle” in the traditional sense, but a series of distinct campaigns in response to German initiatives. Solid organization to control and protect shipping through Naval Control of Shipping (NCS) and naval intelligence networks, through the establishment of mercantile convoys, and the cover of a powerful fleet formed the foundation of successful Allied defense of the north Atlantic.
Attila the Hun (406–453)
Authors: Devries Kelly 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
One of the most famous warriors of all time, Attila, leader of the Huns during the fifth century, is described by Byzantine envoy Priscus as a confident man, one who did not need the ostentatious display of wealth to validate his power: “His dress … was quite simple, affecting only to be clean. The sword he carried at his side, the latchets of his Hunnic shoes, the bridle of his horse were not adorned, like those of the other Huns, with gold or gems or anything costly.” With this confidence Attila struck the barbarian lands, quickly overrunning them and pushing the previous occupants into the Roman Empire, then following after them and for most of two decades raiding, pillaging, and destroying all that was in the path of his quick‐moving, ruthless armies.
Austerlitz, Battle of (1805)
Authors: Bonura Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Battle of Austerlitz represented the epitome of Napoleonic warfare, and is considered to be his most decisive victory. Napoleon achieved this victory by concentrating his army on the battlefield, deceiving the Allied army of his intentions, and then at the decisive moment he penetrated the center of the enemy formation and broke their will to resist. Napoleon then translated this battlefield victory into a peace treaty that accomplished his foreign policy goals.
Black and Tans
Authors: Leeson David 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Two different police forces were nicknamed Black and Tans during the Irish War of Independence (1919–1921). The “true” Black and Tan was a British recruit for the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC)—generally speaking, a young, unmarried English working man who had served in the army during the Great War. These British constables got their nickname from their peculiar uniforms: shortages of dark‐green police clothingwere temporarilymade up with military khaki; in fact, many Black and Tans took up their new duties wearing a soldier's tunic and trousers with a constable's cap and belt. Attracted by the promise of high wages and a pension during a time of severe economic recession and mass unemployment, the Black and Tans enlisted in the regular constabulary and served alongside its predominantly Catholic Irish members.
Bonaparte, Napoléon (Napoleon I) (1769–1821)
Authors: Tallett Frank 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Napoleon's spectacular career, which took him from the ranks of the impoverished nobility on the island of Corsica to ruler of territories that at their height stretched from the Elbe River to the Iberian Peninsula, had profound repercussions for the whole of Europe, including those states such as Britain which never came under direct Napoleonic rule. Like a number of other able military men such as Louis‐Lazare Hoche, a former stable‐boy, and Michel Ney, the son of a cooper, his rise was inconceivable without the collapse of the old regime and the French Revolution, which opened up careers to talent. Alongside his military abilities, it was his intelligence, ruthlessness, and charisma, as well as a sense of destiny, that were the personal qualities underpinning his rise to power.
Boucicaut, Jean
II
le
Maingre (
ca
. 1366–1421)
Authors: Brough Gideon 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Jean II le Maingre was marshal of France, 1391–1421. He was a Crusader, often portrayed as the perfect embodiment of chivalry. He was also one of the most vigorous military leaders of his era. His illustrious martial career lasted from 1378 until defeat at Agincourt. He was the subject of an anonymous biography, completed in 1409, at perhaps the zenith of his career. He inherited the sobriquet “Boucicaut” from his father, also called Jean le Maingre. The title derives from an obscure fishing term, implying Boucicaut senior's ability to net fame and favor through his diplomatic talents as well as his military expertise (Lalande 1988: 5–6).
Bradley, General Omar Nelson (1893–1981)
Authors: Wells Anne Sharp 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Omar Nelson Bradley, “the soldier's general,” is best known for his campaigns in France and Germany during the last year of World War II in Europe. A calm, competent master at training and organization, he commanded the US II Corps in Tunisia and Sicily (1943), the US First Army in France (1944), and the 12th Army Group, a force of 1.3 million at its peak, in the final defeat of Germany (1944–1945). He later served as chief of staff of the US army (1948–1949) and as chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff (1949–1953) during the Korean War. In September 1950 he was promoted to the five‐star rank of general of the army.
Brazilian Naval Revolt (1893–1894)
Authors: O'Neill Eoin 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The years following the overthrow of the Brazilian monarchy in 1889 witnessed considerable political unrest. In February 1891 the first president of the new republic, Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca, was elected. However, in November, after ordering the closing of Congress, he was forced to resign when Admiral Custódio de Melo threatened to bombard Rio de Janeiro, in what became known as the First Naval Revolt. Vice‐President Marshal Floriano Peixoto then assumed the presidency. Since the 1891 Constitution stipulated that new elections had to be held if the president resigned before being in power for two years, Peixoto's rule was regarded by many as illegal; his authoritarian and centralizing tendencies created further discontent. There was also rivalry between the army and the navy, especially because of the superior status of the army in the Republic. Consequently, in March 1892, thirteen generals and admirals signed a manifesto calling for presidential elections in accordance with the Constitution. Peixoto reacted very strongly to this, dismissing or imprisoning the officers.
Breitenfeld, Battle of (1631)
Authors: Bonura Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Battle of Breitenfeld represented the beginning of the modern era of warfare. Gustavus Adolphus used discipline and drill to create an army that combined flexibility, firepower, and shock effect that literally swept away the armies of the Renaissance. Not only did the Protestant victory change the balance of power in the ThirtyYears' War, but the Swedish organization and tactics ushered in a military revolution.
Cao Cao (155–220)
Authors: Crespigny Rafe De 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
As the empire of Later Han collapsed in 190, a medley of warlords contended for power. After ten years of confusion, Cao Cao (pronounced as Tsao Tsao) emerged as the dominant figure in north China and founded the state of Wei, which became the greatest of the Three Kingdoms. A brilliant general and a fine poet, he is nonetheless regarded by many as cruel and flawed, and his many victories are overshadowed by his celebrated defeat at the Red Cliffs.
Carter Doctrine
Authors: Klare Michael T. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Carter Doctrine is the term widely given to the US policy of ensuring western dominance of the greater Persian Gulf area and using military means if deemed necessary to ensure the unhindered export of Persian Gulf oil to international markets. This policy was first given formal expression in President Jimmy Carter's State of the Union address of January 23, 1980. In his speech, Carter indicated that the Gulf region represented an area of “great strategic importance” as the source of “two‐thirds of the world's exportable oil,” and so the United States was compelled “to preserve the security of this crucial region.” In the operative passage of his speech, Carter declared: “Let our position be absolutely clear: An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the United States of America, and such an assault will be repelled by any means necessary, including military force.”
Cavalry
Authors: Badsey Stephen 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The broadest definition of cavalry is warriors or soldiers who ride horses and are able to fight from horseback, although some cavalry have also fought dismounted by choice as well. Foot soldiers using horses as a means of transport are not normally considered to be cavalry, although units of mounted infantry have often evolved into cavalry, sometimes in the course of a single campaign. Soldiers riding other animals such as camels, elephants, or asses are not considered to be cavalry; the essential relationship has been between the soldier and his horse. The names given to cavalry formations and individual soldiers, particularly in the modern era, have often reflected their functional or national origins rather than their actual role: depending on date and context, a hussar or dragoon might be anything from a light mounted infantryman to a charging heavy cavalryman. Since the early twentieth century, cavalry titles have also been given to units of tanks and helicopters, and even to some units of infantry.
Chaco War (1932–1935)
Authors: Farcau Bruce 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
As in many conflicts in the formerly colonial world, the roots of the Chaco War lay in the casual demarcation of borders between what had once been provinces of a single empire. The boundary between what would become Bolivia and Paraguay was rather arbitrarily set at the confluence of the Paraguay and Pilcomayo rivers, which caused no trouble since the area comprises some of the most inhospitable terrain on the planet—desert most of the year, covered with thick thorn scrub and populated by scorpions and army ants, and swamp the rest of the year when rains turn the ground into sucking gelatinous goo. Most of the Chaco remained both uninhabited and unexplored well into the twentieth century.
C
harles the Bold/the Rash of Burgundy (1433–1477)
Authors: Bachrach David Stewart 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Charles the Rash (r. 1467–1477), the last of the Valois dukes of Burgundy, inherited from his father Philip the Good (1396–1467) a wealthy and populous collection of territories along the borderlands of the French kingdom and German Empire stretching from the duchy of Burgundy in the south to the county of Holland in the north. Charles also inherited a tripartite military organization whose origins can be traced back through the French and German kingdoms to the Carolingian Empire.
Chinese Civil War (modern)
Authors: Bjorge Gary J. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe war between the Guomindang (GMD/ Nationalist Party) and the Gongchandang (CP/Communist Party) for control of China was a lengthy struggle that, during the years 1946–1949, became one of the major wars of the twentieth century, ranking just behind the two world wars in terms of scale, number of casualties, and political impact. The war also became significant as the original example of Mao Zedong's (Mao Tse‐tung) approach to waging revolutionary war and overthrowing governmental power. By leading the CP to victory, Mao became the preeminent revolutionary war theorist of his time. His ideas inspired revolutionaries in many countries and the path he took to win the war became a model for them to follow.
Clontarf, Battle of (1014)
Authors: Hudson Benjamin 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe Battle of Clontarf was fought near Dublin on Good Friday, April 23, 1014, between the Irish High King Brian “Boru” mac Cennetíg and an alliance of Vikings from Dublin and the British Isles, and the Irish of Leinster. The clash was a finale to more than six months of skirmishing between the Vikings of Dublin and Brian after the town rebelled against the high king. Although popularly remembered as an Irish victory, the actual outcome was less clear, as neither side, exhausted and decimated after one of the longest battles fought in Ireland to that time, could deliver a decisive blow to their opponents. Reasons given for the battle have ranged from the romantic (Brian's wife Gormflaith had lost his love and wanted revenge) to the economic (a fight to control commerce in the Irish Sea region).
Comnenus, John
II
(1087–1143)
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The reign of John II Comnenus (or Komnenos) (1118–1143) consolidated the Byzantine Empire, which had been shattered by the defeat delivered by the Turks near Manzikert (1071); by the exhausting subsequent civil war, exacerbated by the Norman penetration of the Balkans and the attacks of the Pechenegs; by the many challenges of the First Crusade (1096–1099); and by Byzantium's uneasy relationship with the Crusader states. Setting out each year on campaigns in different directions, John II regained a bigger part of Asia Minor, successfully fought in the Near East, victoriously extended and secured his borders in the north, and achieved a stable relationship with Venice. He is generally acknowledged to have been the greatest of the Comneni.
Constantine the Great (ca. 271–337)
Authors: JR Michael Dimaio 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Sometime between 271 and 273
CE
, Flavius Valerius Constantinus, known to history as Constantine I, was born at Naissus in Serbia. He was the son of Helen and the emperor Constantius I Chlorus. When Constantius died in Britain (where he had been campaigning) on July 25, 306, the army almost immediately raised Constantine to the purple. For almost two decades the Roman Empire was embroiled in unceasing civil war until Constantine became sole emperor in 324 by eliminating all his erstwhile rivals. His successful campaigns against his brothers‐in‐law, Maxentius and Licinius, not only made him sole ruler of the Roman world, but also guaranteed an important spot in Roman history. His campaign against Maxentius in 312 was more significant in military history than that against Licinius, which started in either 314 or 316 and ended in 324. In the fall of 312, Constantine, marching on Rome from his headquarters in Gaul, quickly consolidated his hold of northern Italy probably not later than October 24 of that year; on October 28, 312, after an initial loss at the Saxa Rubra, Maxentius died in a rout of his forces in the vicinity of the Milvian Bridge in Rome. His victory over Maxentius was important because he attributed it to the intervention of Jesus Christ by way of a vision, not because of any unusual skill he may have had as a military commander. One source, some twenty years after the event, indicates he saw a cross of light in the sky with the inscription in hoc signo vinces (you will conquer in this sign), whereas a contemporary source argues that the emperor had a dream in which he saw the Chi‐Rho and was directed to have the signum dei (sign of God) inscribed on his soldiers' shields.
Crusade, First (1096–1099)
Authors: Laurence W. Marvin 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe First Crusade is probably the single most famous military episode of the Middle Ages. One of the reasons for this is the amount of material written by eyewitnesses and contemporaries, and accounts composed soon after. As modern scholars have pointed out, in hindsight, twelfth‐century writers often shaped this material to reflect the Crusade's unexpected, even “miraculous” success.
Dumouriez, General Charles‐François du Périer (1739–1823)
Authors: Tallett Frank 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
France's leading general during the early stages of the Revolutionary Wars, Dumouriez was instrumental in securing two key victories in 1792. The first, at Valmy in September, halted the Allied advance and saved both Paris and the nascent French Republic. The second, at Jemappes in November, led to the acquisition of the southern Netherlands. However, his subsequent defection to the Austrians, coming only months after Lafayette's similarly treasonous action, tarnished yet further the reputation of the high command and threatened to paralyze the war effort. This led to greater political and civilian oversight of military operations, notably through the establishment of the Committee of Public Safety and the use of representatives attached to the armies.
Edward III of England (1312–1377)
Authors: McNamee Colm 
Published: November 2011

AbstractEdward III's long reign saw the opening and successful prosecution of the Hundred Years' War against France and Scotland. His victories include the battles of Halidon Hill (1333), Sluys (1340), and Crécy (1346). He oversaw remarkable developments in warfare: development of archery into the primary arm of warfare; deployment of dismounted knights; use of mounted raids orchevauchéesto debilitate an enemy stronger in resources; and use of firearms.
Einsatzgruppen
Authors: Ryan Joseph W. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Part of Heinrich Himmler's Schutzstaffel (Protection Squads) or SS, the Einsatzgruppen (Action Groups) were special battalions created to kill Jews, communists, partisans, intelligentsia, and other “undesirables” during Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union in World War II. The three thousand men of the Einsatzgruppen followed the German army into the USSR, and with army help and that of local paramilitary groups and civilians, murdered over a million men, women, and children. In one action at Babi Yar, near Kiev, in September 1941, they killed over 33,000 Jews and Gypsies in two days.
Ethiopia—Somalia conflicts (1960
s
–2000
s
)
Authors: Stapleton Timothy J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
By 1945 ethnic Somalis lived in five East African states: British Somaliland, Italian Somaliland, French Somaliland, British Kenya, and independent Ethiopia. During decolonization in the 1950s, British and Italian Somaliland united to form the Republic of Somalia, which became independent in 1960. In a 1958 referendum, French Somaliland had voted against joining Somalia and gained independence as Djibouti in 1977. Pan‐Somalism, the desire to unite all Somalis in one nation‐state, gained popularity and prompted armed insurgency along the border with Ethiopia and Kenya in 1963 and 1964. Staging a military coup in Somalia in 1969, Siad Barre aspired to create a “Greater Somalia.” Somalia began to sponsor separatist groups in Ethiopia such as Eritrean insurgents in the north and the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) and ethnic Oromo rebels in the Ogaden Desert to the east. To gain a naval base at Berbera that would threaten western oil shipments, the Soviet Union militarily assisted the Barre regime. By 1977 Somalia's 35,000‐strong army had seven tank battalions with three hundred Soviet‐made tanks, and 22 mechanized infantry battalions with 350 armored personnel carriers. These were supported by 180 artillery pieces and 55 combat aircraft. Training was provided by four thousand Soviet personnel. A 1974 military coup overthrew the Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie, a long‐standing western ally, and created a period of instability in which separatist movements gained strength. This presented Barre with an opportunity to take the Ogaden. Although the Ethiopians outnumbered the Somalis in military personnel, the latter had more tanks, vehicles, and aircraft, which meant greater mobility. Furthermore, Ethiopia's best units were bogged down fighting insurgents in the north.