bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
T
ertullian of
C
arthage (
c
.155–c.225)
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Tertullian (Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus) was a brilliant and highly eccentric Christian apologist, polemicist, and biblical expositor of the late 2nd and early 3rd century. Erroneously identified by Jerome (
On Illustrious Men
53) as a priest, Tertullian was a layman, certainly married, and probably lived in Carthage all his life. Insinuations from his writings indicate that he converted to Christianity in adulthood, initially captivated by the conviction and courageousness of Christian martyrs he had witnessed. He had an extensive education and expressed himself in a convoluted style of Latin imbued with satire and irony that occasionally rendered his statements obscure, but perfectly suited him as he argued against Roman Pagans, Jews, Christian heretics, and fellow‐Catholics. Not surprisingly, the scope of his 31 extant writings produced over a roughly 20 year period (c.196–220) are chiefly polemical. There are also devotional essays on prayer, baptism, penitence, and martyrdom, as well as small treatises, many from his pro‐Montanist period, on what constitutes appropriate Christian practice (monogamy, chastity, veiling of unmarried women, etc.). The authorship of
On the Pallium
and part of
Against the Jews
is still debated.
Textus Receptus
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Textus receptus
(TR), “Received Text” in Latin, refers to a New Testament (NT) Greek text. This term first appeared in 1633 when the Elzevir brothers (printers) in Holland wrote the preface to the TR. They stated, “
Textum ergo habes, nunc cab omnibus receptum
” (You now have the text which is received by all). Although the name TR was not coined until 1633, the Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus had already published this NT Greek text in 1516, which he compiled from six different Greek manuscripts, the oldest one dating to the 10th century. In 1519, the TR was reprinted with many of its printing errors corrected. This second edition is the one Luther used when he translated the New Testament into German in 1521–1522.
T
heodosius
I
(346/347–395)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born to a military family in 346/347 in Cauca (modern Coca, Spain) and named Flavius Theodosius, he later was the last Roman emperor to rule both the western and eastern empire, which split after his death in 395. Before becoming emperor in 379 he had served as a military commander. Although his parents were Christians who adhered to the decisions of Nicaea, he was not baptized until 380 when he had become quite ill.
Theological Education
Authors: Miller Glenn T. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In its simplest terms, theological education refers to the study and critical appraisal of the basic doctrines, scriptures, and history of the Christian church. In English, it is also used as a synonym for an educational program of ministerial preparation or formation. For most English speakers, the terms are used interchangeably, but caution is required. Many motives have existed for the critical study of the Christian religion, including curiosity or one's personal faith journey, and historically, Christian clergy have been prepared by a variety of means, including apprenticeship, that do not feature systematic study or ordered reflection.
Third Century Christianity
Authors: Hartog Paul 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Tertullian, who wrote roughly between 190 and 220
ce
, was the first important Latin Christian theologian. We possess more than thirty of his treatises, both theological and moral. His longest work is against the heretic Marcion. Tertullian spoke of Jesus Christ as both human and divine, referring to “one person” and “two substances” or “natures.” He also described the godhead using the language of “one substance” and “three persons,” as well as the exact term
Trinitas
. Tertullian was thus important in the develop‐ment of orthodox christological and trinitarian language. Overall, Tertullian was opposed to the mixing of Greek philosophy with Christian theology, and he sharply contrasted paganism and Christianity. In the midst of his literary career, Tertullian transitioned into Montanism, or the “New Prophecy.”
Thirteenth Century Christianity
Authors: Holt Andrew 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Thirteenth century Christianity represented one of the high points in western ecclesiastical history. The papacy, beginning with the reign of Pope Innocent III, was at its zenith, the Episcopal and Papal Inquisitions were fully engaged in southern Europe, and the crusading movement had expanded to include crusades against “heretics” in France, pagans in the Baltic, political opponents of the papacy in Italy, as well as continuing efforts against Muslims in Iberia and the East. It was also a period in which church councils passed some of the most far‐reaching and controversial ecclesiastical legislation ever embraced by the Western Church, and it witnessed the emergence of popular saints who founded religious orders that influenced the faith in profound ways. Yet for eastern Christians, the 13th century represented a period of decline, as the Holy City of Constantinople was subjected to Latin rule by western crusaders as the forces of Islam and the Mongols threatened Christians in Asia Minor. Indeed, in an effort to provide greater security for the empire after Constantinople had been restored to Byzantine control, Byzantine Christians were briefly subjected to the ecclesiastical rule of the papacy by their emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus. Yet by then, eastern Christians had grown far too suspicious of both the institutions and religious practices of Latin Christianity to submit to a formal reunion.
T
ikhon,
P
atriarch (1865–1925)
Authors: Parsons William H. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Russian. Born Vasily Belavin on December 19, 1865 into the family of a Russian Orthodox priest, he took the name Tikhon after he became a monk at the age of 26. He was made a bishop in 1897 and served as bishop of the Aleutians and Alaska (later Aleutians and North America) from 1898 to 1907. As head of the Russian Orthodox Church in America he was responsible for establishing many churches in the United States and St. Tikhon's Monastery in Pennsylvania. When he returned to Russia, he advanced in the hierarchy of the church, becoming the Metropolitan of Moscow in August 1917, and becoming the Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church on November 5, 1917. He was the leader of the church through the first turbulent years of Soviet power.
T
illich,
P
aul (1886–1965)
Authors: Estes Douglas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The most prominent theological philosopher and apologist of the 20th century. Born in Starzeddel, Brandenburg, Germany (now Poland) on August 20, 1886, Tillich was the son of a pastor in the Evangelical Prussian Church. From 1904 to 1911, he studied at the universities of Berlin and Tübingen, and received his doctorate from Breslau and his theological licentiate from Halle. Tillich served as a pastor until World War I, when he volunteered as a German Army chaplain; during the conflict, he was awarded two Iron Crosses for bravery. After the war, he took up teaching posts at universities in Berlin, Marburg, Dresden, and Frankfurt. His outspoken criticism of the rising Nazi power in Germany resulted in his dismissal at Frankfurt in 1933, and his subsequent emigration to the United States. Shortly thereafter, Tillich began teaching at Union Theological Seminary in New York City, where he would remain for the next 23 years. It was during this time he rose to worldwide prominence. In 1955, Tillich retired from Union and became University Professor at Harvard. In 1962, he took up the position of Nuveen Professor of Theology at the University of Chicago, where he would remain until his death on October 22, 1965. In his lifetime, Tillich was awarded several honorary doctorates, the Goethe Medal, and the Peace Prize of the German Publishers Association. His portrait was featured on the cover of
Time
magazine, and the US Supreme Court cited his ideas. He was the most famous — if not the most influential — of all 20th century theologians.
Timothy of
B
aghdad (727–823)
Authors: Norris Frederick W. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Born into a wealthy Christian family in 727 in what is now Iran, Timothy was sent to the revered Rabban Mar Abraham the Expositor where he learned interpretations from Theodore of Mopsuestia (d. c.428) and Diodore of Tarsus (d. c.390). Later at the Adiabene monastery, Bayt ‘Abhe, “Mother of Patriarchs and Bishops,” he studied Greek philosophy, more hermeneutics, theology, and probably some medicine, not only in his native tongue, Syriac, but also in Greek, Persian, and Arabic. He read Greek and Christian classics. One caliph considered his translation of Aristotle's
Topics
into Arabic a superior work. He also had a copy of Origen's
Hexapla
made so that he could have an accurate Old Testament text.
Tintoretto, Jacopo (1519–1594)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Real name: Robusti. Venetian painter. He received his nickname from his father's profession as cloth dyer (
tintore
). Unlike many of his contemporaries, he painted very few secular subjects. He was practicing as an independent artist by 1539, when he collaborated with others in the creation of
cassone
panels. In his early paintings he used classical backgrounds. He also used unusual perspectives as in
St. George and the Dragon
(1560),
Christ Washing the Feet of his Disciples
(1547),
The Last Supper
(1592–94), the
Gathering of the Manna
(1592), and the
Entombment of Christ
(1592). In the
Last Supper
the table is placed cornerwise while the apostles stretch away from Christ. In the early 1560s Tintoretto began his choir paintings, including the
Last Judgment
at the Church of the Madonna dell'Orto. At about the same time he was commissioned to produce three large paintings for the Scuola Grande di S. Marco:
The Removal of the Body of St. Mark from the Funeral Pyre
,
The Finding of the Body of St. Mark
, and
St. Mark Saving the Saracen from Shipwreck
.
T
olstoy,
L
eo
N
ikolaevitch (1828–1910)
Authors: Contino Paul J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Count Leo Nikolaevitch Tolstoy was born to a wealthy, aristocratic family at the family estate of Yasnaya Polyana, in Russia. His parents died when he was a child, and he was raised under the guardianship of his aunt. As a youth, he was divided: on the one hand, he was committed to a rational system of self‐perfection; on the other, he was drawn to recklessness, gambling, and promiscuity. He left his university studies to become a soldier, and in his literary work he drew upon his experiences in the Caucasus and Sevastopol to illustrate the horror of war. His authorial career was successful from the start, and Tolstoy embraced the role of teacher. While still in his early 20s, he established a school for peasants, and his pedagogy was especially influenced by
Émile
, Rousseau's treatise on education. Throughout his life, Tolstoy believed in the moral superiority of the peasants, unspoiled by the false and egocentric distractions of society.
T
ownsend,
W
illiam
C
ameron (1896–1982)
Authors: Hartch Todd 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Cameron Townsend founded the Wycliffe Bible Translators, an evangelical missionary organization. Working with Guatemala's Cakchiquel Indians convinced Townsend that the vernacular scriptures were the key to reaching Latin America's indigenous peoples. In 1933 he focused his attention on Mexico, where dozens of Indian groups had neither written languages nor access to the Bible. Because of an antireligious political climate in Mexico, Townsend made two momentous decisions: he stripped his missionary enterprise down to the sole activity of Bible translation and he sought not just permission of, but a partnership with, the secular Mexican state. Bible translators would be recruited by an overtly Christian organization called the Wycliffe Bible Translators; they would operate in the field under the auspices of a sister organization called the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL).
T
racy,
D
avid (
b
. 1939)
Authors: Ashford Bruce Riley 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
David Tracy is an American Catholic theologian and professor of Theology and Philosophy of Religion at the Divinity School of the University of Chicago, who synthesized the insights he gleaned from philosophy, literary criticism, biblical studies, and world religions into an integrated whole. He claims Augustine, New‐man, Kierkegaard, and Lonergan as the major influences on his work, but draws upon Kyoto Mahayana Buddhism, Derrida, Deleuze, Ricoeur, Wittgenstein, Pseudo‐Dionysius, and Eckhart as well. While teaching at Chicago he also served as the chaplain and preached weekly from the lectionary. In 1977 he was elected president of the Catholic Theological Society.
Truth and Reconciliation Commissions
Authors: Maclean Iain S. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) in 1998, and the dramatic televised hearings that preceded it, sharply focused that nation's and the world's attention on such commissions. A recent phenomenon in national politics, a truth and reconciliation project offered a more peaceful and constructive route for nations seeking to emerge from civil war. The South African TRC seemed to have found a means to overcome the conflicting demands of victims and perpetrators, between those of justice (and truth and reparations) and amnesty, that had hindered and often marred the hopes of earlier Latin American commissions seeking national reconciliation. Thus truth and reconciliation commissions are national investigative bodies set up to investigate a past period of human rights' abuses in order to ascertain the truth about the nation's past and to create some form of unification within a nation deeply divided by political violence.
T
übingen
S
chool
Authors: Kaplan Grant 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Catholic Tübingen School designates the group of theologians who either taught or spent their formative years in the Catholic theological faculty in Tübingen, Germany. The School distinguished itself through a recovery of the church fathers, an engagement with the modern world, a critical embrace of modern philosophical categories (especially German Idealism and Romanticism), and a creative fidelity to the Catholic tradition. Owing to these factors, the School has been regarded as a forerunner to the program of renewal and reform articulated at the Second Vatican Council, especially regarding ecclesiology, ecumenism, and the theology of revelation.
T
urretin,
F
rancis (1623–1687)
Authors: Bruce James E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Francis Turretin was a Reformed minister, theologian, philosopher, and preacher, whose
Institutes of Elenctic Theology
is still read today as a careful, indeed exemplary, exposition of Reformed theology. Born into a prominent family of Italian descent on October 17, 1623, Turretin was educated in Geneva, the Low Countries, and France.
Twentieth Century Christianity
Authors: Braun Mark 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In many ways, it was “the best of times and the worst of times” for Christianity at the dawn of the 20th century. The proportion of the world's population that attended church had grown smaller than at any time since the Middle Ages. The working classes, flocking to industrialized cities, often abandoned the faith of their youth, while the educated classes were being lost to science and modernism.
U
nitas
F
ratrum
Authors: Welty Kyle 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Unitas Fratrum (Unity of the Brethren) is a Christian denomination with origins in 15th century Moravia and Bohemia. The UF is also known in the English‐speaking world as the Moravian Brethren or Moravian Church, while the term
Brüdergemeine
is used in German contexts.
United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
Authors: Olabimtan Kehinde 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The high church missionary society of the Church of England, the United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (USPG), was founded in London in 1701 as “The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts” (SPG) through the influence of Thomas Bray, a commissary of the Church of England for Maryland, North America. Bray had been concerned about the unsatisfactory religious condition of the English planters in North America and had established with four friends in 1699 the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK), with the aim of providing the colony with books, libraries, and schools to strengthen the work of the church. The need for personnel to effect this purpose led to the formation of the SPG, with the official charter to “conquer, occupy, and possess” lands occupied by “heathens and infidels, in whatsoever part of the world.” The charter tied the society to the established church and gave it the authority to raise funds toward the support and maintenance of orthodox clergies in British colonial holdings abroad, thus stamping it with the high church order of apostolic succession, liturgy, and sacraments. The society therefore agreed from the outset not to send out Bibles to the plantations without accompanying them with Common Prayer Books.
Values, Christian
Authors: Horner David A. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractBy “values,” we refer to what is valued or esteemed as being good or of worth, i.e. worthy of emulation, exemplification, or pursuit. Values are expressed in the ideals, aims, and standards that shape the priorities and practices of individuals, institutions, and civilizations, and they reflect the distinctive assumptions and commitments of the worldviews that underlie those entities. In classical thought, goodness, truth, and beauty constitute the highest and most general exemplifications of value in the moral, cognitive, and aesthetic spheres, respectively. Under these broad categories fall more specific kinds of value, such as spiritual, moral, political, economic, legal, artistic, and intellectual. Christianity is distinguished by characteristic values in each of these areas, many of which have been deeply influential in the shaping of Christian civilization and beyond, in fields such as art, music, law, literacy and literature, commerce, science, and education.
G
oes,
H
ugo
V
an
D
er (
c
.1440–1482)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Dutch painter. He was enrolled as a master in the Ghent Guild of Painters in 1467. In 1475 he entered the Monastery of Rode Klooster, near Brussels, as a lay brother but continued to paint. He subsequently suffered from mental illness and delusions.
V
irgin
M
ary
Authors: Leinweber David 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Virgin Mary was the Mother of Jesus Christ. Her giving birth to Christ as a virgin — though occasionally the subject of controversy and debate even within the church — manifests a major theological pillar of classical, orthodox Christianity. Mary is still today one of the most well‐loved of the New Testament's
dramatis personae
. As well as being a major figure in the New Testament, and in Christian doctrine and theology, the Virgin Mary is also an iconic figure in western art and culture.
B
althasar,
H
ans Urs
V
on (1905–1988)
Authors: Johnson Keith L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A Swiss Roman Catholic theologian, Hans Urs von Balthasar is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most original Catholic thinkers of the 20th century. Born in Lucerne to an upper middle class family, Balthasar studied in Vienna, Berlin, and Zurich, where he received a doctorate in German literature in 1929. Instead of accepting an academic post after graduation, however, he joined the Society of Jesus and entered a seminary for training. He found the traditional Catholic theological and philosophical program tedious, and instead was drawn to innovative Catholic thinkers like Erich Przywara and Henri de Lubac. Their originality had a lasting influence upon his thought.
F
ischer
v
on
E
rlach,
J
ohann
B
ernhard (1656–1723)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Baroque Austrian architect. He studied in Italy under Borromini and Bernini and probably visited England and met with Wren while St. Paul's was being built. Although most of his works were secular he built three major churches, two of them in Salzburg. The Trinity Church was begun in 1694 on an oval plan with two towers and a dome over the central oval. The main element is an ellipse with its long axis that of the entrance‐high altar but the front is concave. The University Church, the large church of the Benedictine University of Salzburg, was built from 1696 to 1707 with a salient curved front between flanking towers and a high dome. The entrance front has a convex facade set between two towers. The very grand and noble interior has, above the high altar, an extraordinary composition of clouds rising up to heaven in between two great columns set on either side of the apse. His third church was the Karlskirche in Vienna dedicated to Borromeo and built in 1715 to commemorate a plague. It borrowed the oval plan of Borromini's Sant' Agnese, the colored marble interior of Bernini's sant'andrea al Quirinale, the colon‐naded portico of the Pantheon, and the twin towers of St. Peter's and twin columns from the Trajan and Antonine columns in Rome. He also erected the high altar of the Franciscan Church in Salzburg. In 1721 he published a history of architecture.
Waldo,Peter (1140–1217)
Authors: Lee Jason K. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractPeter Waldo is often credited with the founding of the Waldenses, known also as the Poor Men of Lyons. There is great uncertainty regarding his first (Christian) name, with “Peter” probably ascribed to him at least several decades after his death; even his surname “Waldo” was quite possibly “Vaudès” or “Valdès.” Waldo was a successful merchant in Lyons and perhaps one of the city's elite citizens. Eventually, as a part of his spiritual pilgrimage, Waldo renounced his wealth and practiced voluntary poverty. This conversion, perhaps influenced by the legendary tale of St. Alexis' 5th century renunciation of wealth, stems from Waldo's application of Matthew 19, which includes Jesus' warning about the difficulty of the rich entering the Kingdom of God.
W
atts,
I
saac (1674–1748)
Authors: Whytock Jack C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born in Southampton in 1674, Isaac Watts is often accorded the title of “father of English hymnody.” His father was a schoolmaster, a clothier, and a deacon in a Congregational church. Isaac studied at a nonconformist academy, and it appears that he began writing hymns in 1696. He served as a family tutor before accepting a call to the Independent Mark Lane Church, London in 1702. He lived with the Abneys near Cheshunt, tutored their children, and wrote and preached at Mark Lane when he could.
Welsh Christianity
Authors: Wooding Jonathan M. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractWales is a small and geographically distinctive country situated in the west of mainland Britain. It notable both for the diversity of its Christian population and for its distinctive contributions to the Christianity of other nations. In the first millennium the Welsh church had close relations with the Irish church, especially prior to the conversion (from 597) of AngloSaxon England. In the second millennium the Christianity of Wales was notable for the monastic influence on its landscape and economy, as well as for the role of collegiate institutions (of both native and imported style) in pastoral care — these developments were at least in part influenced by the distinctive geography of Wales. Though the Reformation had an at times muted effect in Wales, nonconformism flourished from the 17th century and the further influence of Calvinism and the evangelical movement in the established church led to a proliferation of denominations in the 18th and 19th centuries. The chapel tradition in particular supported the development of a choral tradition that has influenced Christianity worldwide.