bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Monarchianism
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The term represents a modern classification (by Adolf von Harnack) for several similar theological movements that stressed the indivisible unity of God as the primary way of understanding the mystery of the Trinity. The concept of God as
monarchia
(sole sovereignty), over against pagan polytheism and forms of Christian gnosticism, was a well‐established descriptor of the Divine Being among Pre‐Nicene writers. To think of God in monarchian terms was not regarded negatively, since it was necessary for Christians to emphasize God's unitary source and power — one divine spirit — as the basis for rendering the threefold operation of the divine economy in the world. No matter how the Trinity manifested itself in history, the full divinity of each in its earthly appearance is always asserted because Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are one substance. Reference to God in terms of a single substance will have different connotations in the 4th century when the Council of Nicaea professed the Father and the Son as the “same substance.”
Monotheism
Authors: Laing Jacqueline 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The term monotheism ordinarily suggests belief in one God and derives from the Greek
monos
meaning “one” and
theos
meaning “god.” In the Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, the one god is regarded as supreme lord and creator of the universe, almighty, all‐knowing, and all‐good. Traditionally, Christianity has taught that God revealed himself to our first parents, Adam and Eve, as the one true God in Genesis. The Old Testament reveals a jealous God who forbids the worship of strange and multifarious gods. God's chosen people, the Jews, are destined to prepare the way for the coming of the universal religion available not just to a privileged few.
Montanism
Authors: Hyatt Eddie L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Montanism began around
ad
172 as a charismatic renewal movement in reaction to the growing formalism in the church. It began in the province of Phrygia of Asia Minor when Montanus, a convert from paganism, began to reassert the importance of spiritual gifts, particularly prophecy, and to insist that Christians live a morally strict lifestyle. Two prophetesses, Prisca and Maxmilla, soon joined Montanus and the movement spread from its native soil into North Africa and Europe, reaching even to Rome. In spite of extremes in both doctrine and practice, the movement gained widespread influence. In North Africa, for example, Montanism was embraced by the renowned church father, Tertullian, who also joined the movement around
ad
200.
M
ontanus (
c
.85–
c
.170)
Authors: Culpepper Scott 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Montanus was the founder of a movement called Montanism or the “New Prophecy” which emerged in the mid 2nd century as a challenge to the authority of the Apostolic tradition of the mainstream church. Montanus and his followers embraced an ecstatic spiritual expression that included visionary trances, continuing revelation, eschatological fascination, and a strict code of ethical conduct. His associates, Priscilla and Maximilla, also raised questions concerning the proper role of women in ministry and church leadership. While the movement was eventually ruled heretical by the mainstream church, its status in relation to orthodox belief was not immediately defined. The most celebrated student of the “New Prophecy” was the North African theologian and apologist Tertullian, though the scholarly consensus today is that Tertullian did not become a Montanist himself.
Moravian Church
Authors: Atwood Craig D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Moravian Church's impact on Christianity and world culture is disproportionate to its size (about 750,000 members in 2007). In the 18th century, the church engaged in social experiments that challenged patriarchy, racism, and economic exploitation, and pioneered culturally sensitive missions to indigenous peoples in the Americas and Africa. It is also famous for its contributions to Protestant hymnody and liturgy, and its
Losungen
or daily “watchwords” remain one of the most popular resources for personal devotions in Germany. The most famous reader of the
Losungen
, was the theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer, whose Finkelwalde Seminary was modeled in part on the example of the Moravians.
More,
T
homas (1478–1535)
Authors: Hill Bracy V. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
English attorney, humanist, author, statesman, martyr. Internationally famous as a statesman and humanist, More was immortalized by martyrdom. Executed as a traitor for refusing to acknowledge Henry VIII as supreme head of the Church in England, More was recognized by the Roman church as a martyr, beatified by Pope Leo XIII (1886), canonized by Pope Pius XI (1935), and named patron saint of politicians. More represented English humanism and principled resistance to 16th century changes in English politics and religion.
Motherhood of
G
od
Authors: Atwood Craig D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In polytheistic religions, the gods often have feminine consorts, but in monotheism god exists as one. Though Christian theology has taught that God is beyond gender, the dominant metaphors for God in the Christian tradition have generally been masculine. The Trinity, for instance, includes two male images: the Father and Son. However, the Bible does include allusions to God as a hen protecting her chicks and as a woman groaning in labor. The book of Genesis states that God made men and women in the image of God, implying that the image of God includes both males and females. In the Gospel of John, Jesus tells Nicodemus that he must be “born from above,” which implicitly compares redemption to an act of divine birthing.
M
ott,
J
ohn
R
. (1865–1955)
Authors: Loyer Kenneth M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
John R. Mott, an American lay Methodist, was the world's leading Protestant missionary and ecumenical statesman during the first half of the 20th century. Born near Purvis in Sullivan County, NY, Mott moved with his family to Postville, IA, where he was raised. After studying at Upper Iowa University and Cornell University, he diligently pursued his life's work as an evangelist and a leader of the emerging ecumenical movement. Throughout his illustrious career, Mott occupied many leadership positions in mission organizations. He served as student secretary of the International Committee of the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in 1888, and that same year he helped organize the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions (SVM), a branch of the YMCA. He would go on to direct the SVM for three decades. By the time he spoke at the SVM's 1951 convention, over 20,000 volunteers had done mission work through its efforts. Mott was also instrumental in the formation and development of the World Student Christian Federation (WSCF), which sought to unite Christian students from all nations. In 1901 he was appointed the assistant general secretary of the YMCA, and in 1926 he became president of the World Alliance of YMCAs. He shared in the planning and leadership of the epochal Edinburgh Missionary Conference of 1910, which he also chaired. At Edinburgh, a follow‐up committee was formed (later called the International Missionary Council [IMC]). Mott was closely associated with the IMC for the rest of his life. A zealous proponent of Christian missions, he embraced and advanced the motto “the evangelization of the world in this generation.”
M
ühlen,
H
eribert (1927–2006)
Authors: Vondey Wolfgang 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A German systematic theologian who focused on the work of the Holy Spirit in the church, Heribert Mühlen is regarded as one of the most significant Roman Catholic theologians of the 20th century. Born April 27, 1927, he received a doctorate in philosophy in 1951 and a doctorate in theology in 1962. He was ordained in 1955, attended Vatican II as adviser to Cardinal Lorenz Jaeger, and served as professor of Dogmatic Theology and History at the Theological Faculty in Paderborn from 1964 to 1997.
M
uhlenberg,
H
enry
M
elchior (1711–1787)
Authors: Buss Dietrich Gotthilf 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born in Einbeck, Germany in 1711, Henry Muhlenberg is the patriarch of the Lutheran Church in the United States. His father served on the city council, while his mother, Anna Maria Kleinschmidt, was the daughter of an army officer. His father's untimely death forced Muhlenberg to go out to work to support the family. A basic education enabled him to become a school teacher in the Harz Mountains in 1733–1734. The following year Muhlenberg entered the newly founded Göttingen University. In collaboration with two of his fellow students, he established an orphanage. In 1738 Muhlenberg transferred to the University of Halle, a center of Pietistic teaching. Greatly influenced by the spiritual disciplines of Bible study, prayer, fellowship, and service, Muhlenberg was ordained into the Lutheran ministry at Leipzig the following year.
M
ullins,
E
.
Y
. (1860–1928)
Authors: Dockery David S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Edgar Young Mullins was born in Franklin County, Mississippi on January 5, 1860. His father was a farmer, teacher, and a Baptist minister. His parents dedicated him to the Christian ministry when he was a child, a commitment about which the son was told for the first time on his thirty‐fifth birthday, after he had served as a minister for a decade.
Mystery of Suffering
Authors: Ryan Robin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The terrible scourge of human suffering has been a subject of reflection in virtually every school of philosophy and ancient religion. For Christians, the tragedy of innocent suffering has provoked intense questioning about the will of God and God's relationship to creation. In moments of personal and corporate suffering, people of faith often find themselves crying out with the psalmist, “How long, Lord? Will you utterly forget me? How long will you hide your face from me?” (Ps. 13:2). In such experiences, Christians stand before two great mysteries: the mystery of God and the mystery of human suffering.
Mystical Theology
Authors: Dawson Connie 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Mystical theology is rooted in Scripture, especially John's Gospel (chapters 15 and 17) and emerged early in church history as witnessed in the lives of the Cappadocian fathers. Dionysius the Pseudo‐Areopagite was the first to use the term “mystical theology.” Mystical theology within the Christian tradition is the study of the individual experience of contemplative prayer which cultivates the interior life and leads to an ever increasing awareness of the soul's love for and union with God. Mystics often speak of ecstatic experiences, supernatural revelations, visions, and locutions which are seen through the inner eye or heard through the inner ear of the spirit. The goal of mysticism is not perfection in the sense of external works, but perfection which comes through union with God and the soul being filled with divine light and love. Experience is not the primary focus for the mystic but rather the transformation that occurs as the soul submits obediently to God.
Mystical Tradition
Authors: Egan Harvey 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Adam and Eve
have been understood by many in the Christian mystical tradition as contemplative prototypes because of the direct and immediate consciousness of God that they enjoyed until they sinned.
Abraham
,
Jacob
,
Moses
,
Samuel
, and other patriarchs are also presented in the Hebrew scriptures as having a special God‐consciousness.
Moses
and
Jacob
, for example, claimed face‐to‐face meetings with God — with some qualifications as to how directly they gazed upon his face (Gen. 32:30; Exod. 33:11, 23; Num. 12:7; Deut. 34:10).
Jacob
wrestled with God, survived, and was left with an overwhelming sense of God's holiness (Gen. 32:24f.). Because
Job
saw God (Job 42:5), his agonizing questions ceased, and he repented “in dust and ashes.” Because the
prophets
had “stood in the council of the Lord” (Jer. 23:18), they were authenticated as mystics in action to speak forth God's word.
N
ag
H
ammadi
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

In December 1945, a collection of Coptic texts was found near Nag Hammadi, a city in Upper Egypt. An Arab peasant named Muhammad ‘Ali al‐Samman uncovered a red earthenware jar in the desert while digging for
sabakh
(a soft soil) to fertilize his crops. Although he and his brothers originally feared releasing a
jihn
(an evil spirit), the feeling diminished with the hopeful prospect of finding gold within the jar. Within the jar were 13 soft leather‐bound papyrus books (codices), which contained 52 separate tractates, dating from approximately
ad
350. The household of Muhammad ‘Ali had been mourning the murder of their father and vowed to avenge his death, which they did viciously. Consequently, the brothers were reluctant to make their discovery public. Some of the scrolls were burned for kindling, but the few that were given to a local Coptic priest, Basiliyus ‘Abd al‐Masih, began the discovery of the texts for the world of biblical scholars. The Coptic Museum began publication, but the entire Nag Hammadi library was not made available in English until the James M. Robinson translation was published in 1977.
N
arsai (
c
.399–
c
.502)
Authors: Amar Joseph P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Narsai (c.399–c.502) is one of the foremost poet‐theologians of the Syriac Church, perhaps equal in stature to Jacob of Sarug, but both second only to Ephrem the Syrian. He is the most important writer of the Church of the East, in which he is known as the “Harp of the Spirit.” Although many of his works have been lost, approximately 80 of his metrical homilies (
mîmrê
) are extant.
Nationalism and Ethnicity
Authors: Alexander Paul Nathan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Nationalism and ethnicity are integrally related. The word “ethnicity” developed from the Greek
ethnos
which means “people, nation” (Balz & Schneider 1990: 381–383). Members of an ethnic group conceive of themselves as being alike because of shared ancestry and they are viewed that way by others; they have “interrelated primordial bonds, kinship, affinity, attachment, and grounds for self‐esteem” (Committee on International Relations, Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry 1987: 19). The words “nation” and “nationalism” stem from the Latin
nasci
(to be born) and
natio
(birth). Nationalism is “devotion to the interests or culture of a particular nation [
ethnos
]” and racism is “the notion that one's own ethnic stock [
ethnos
] is superior” (Pickett 1985). Both nationalism and racism are forms of ethnocentrism, which holds the values of one's own ethnicity, nationality, or race as superior to others and views other collective groups negatively.
Natural Theology
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

So‐called “natural” theology differs from “revealed” theology in that it endeavors to provide evidence for God's existence and for divine truths without reference to a special revelation from God (as claimed for the Bible or, outside the Christian tradition, for such writings as the Quran). The most influential exponent of natural theology in Western Christendom has been Thomas Aquinas, who held that a foundation for accepting special revelation can be found in Aristotle's classic arguments for God's existence. Natural and revealed theology operated largely in tandem until the advent of 18th century Deism — which endeavored to base ultimate principles upon Nature alone (as in Thomas Paine's
Age of Reason
) — and Immanuel Kant — who claimed that an ethical “categorical imperative” could be justified without recourse to a revelatory deity.
N
eale,
J
ohn
M
ason (1818–1866)
Authors: Norris Frederick W. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Neale is most often known for his translation and composition of hymns. His poetic gifts were extraordinary, leading to translations that brimmed over with life. The ancient meaning was kept, while the rendering into English was neither wooden nor cramped. The first of the revived hymnals, The Hymnal Notes, published 94 of his hymns out of its 105. The estimation is that he translated or wrote over 400 hymns, 61 of 473 in the first edition of Hymns Ancient and Modern and 72 of 626 in the English Hymnal. Among the best known are “All Glory, Laud, and Honor,” “Come, Ye Faithful, Raise the Strain,” “The Day of Resurrection,” “Good Christian Men Rejoice,” “O Come, O Come, Emmanuel,” and “Good King Wenceslas.” He found the hymns of Isaac Watts (1674–1748) as well as popular composers of his day to be tainted in doctrine and rather tasteless.
Nestorian Missionary Enterprise inAsia
Authors: Norris Frederick W. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractIllegal and persecuted since theTheodosian Code(438), Nestorians (East Syrians) had begun moving out of the Byzantine Empire and became a strong missionary church. After 457 they and their school were a force at Nisibis (now southeastern Turkey) and in Persia (Iran and Iraq). Later among Muslims they were particularly useful as physicians and administrators. Traveling along the Silk Roads primarily as traders, they reached China by the 6th century.
N
estorius (
c
.380–451)
Authors: Oderberg David S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Nestorius was the Patriarch of Constantinople and founder of the heresy known as Nestorianism, which holds that the person to whom the Virgin Mary gave birth is not the same person as the Second Person of the Trinity. Hence in Christ there are two persons, and the Incarnation is not the assumption by God of human nature but the coming to dwell in the man Jesus of the Divine Word. The person of God the Son and the person of Christ the man are accidentally united, not united hypostatically in one single person — one substance. Mary is thus not literally the Mother of God, only the temple of the Word, and all of Christ's human actions are only the actions of a man, not of God.
New Apostolic Church
Authors: Hasel Frank M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The movement known as the New Apostolic Church (NAC) has no association with any other orthodox Christian organization. It developed in Germany from the Catholic Apostolic Church in 1863 through various schisms and has grown to almost 11 million members on all continents. It has a strong eschatological orientation and sees itself as the final renewed apostolic church of the end‐time that awaits the return of Christ. While the NAC claims to base its teachings on Holy Scripture, it is led by elected apostles and has established a system of apostolic guidance through the chief and district apostles. The position of the chief apostle can be compared to the one Peter had 2,000 years ago in the circle of the apostles. The district apostles, who are the heads of the different regional churches, work closely with the chief apostle and are assisted by other apostles. According to the belief of the NAC, Christ is present in the chief apostle and the apostolic office. Through the apostles Christ speaks his word for our time. This apostolic word is a second source of faith besides the Bible and, for all practical purposes, becomes the most important source of guidance. Without the ministry of the apostles there is no salvation. In 1951 the then chief apostle, J. G. Bischoff, declared that God had made known to him that he would not die before the second coming of Jesus Christ. When Bischoff died in 1960 his dogma about Christ's return had not been fulfilled. The NAC continues to maintain that it was a valid message from God.
N
ouwen,
H
enri (1932–1996)
Authors: Dashnau Laurie A. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Dutch Catholic priest and writer Henri Joseph Machiel Nouwen felt God's call upon his life at a very early age and was ordained as a diocesan priest in 1957. After studying psychology at the University of Nijmegen in his native country of Holland and at the Menninger Clinic in Topeka, Kansas, he taught at the University of Notre Dame and in the Divinity Schools of Yale and Harvard. Twice during the 1970s he lived and worked alongside the Trappist monks at the Abbey of the Genesee in upstate New York, and in the early 1980s he spent time living among the poor of Peru. A year after being called to join L'Arche in Trosly, France, the first of over one hundred communities founded by Jean Vanier where assistants live among people with developmental disabilities, he left Harvard in order to serve as pastor and assistant at the L'Arche community of Daybreak in Toronto, Canada.
N
ewman,
C
ardinal
J
ohn
H
enry (1801–1890)
Authors: Coulter Michael 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
John Henry Newman, born in London on February 21, 1801, was an important 19th century Catholic theologian and a famous convert to the Catholic Church. Newman was proclaimed “venerable” in 1991 after a thorough examination of his life and work by the Congregation for the Causes of Saints. An influential author, he was a major figure in the Oxford Movement, which sought to bring the Church of England back to its Catholic roots. These beliefs pushed him toward reforming the church and contributed to his conversion from the Anglican Church to Catholicism.
Nicaea, Council of
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

By the early 4th century, all Christians asserted that Jesus was divine and worshipped Him as such, following the understanding laid down in an early 2nd century sermon known as 2 Clement: “Brethren, we ought to think of Jesus as we do of God” (1.1). However, early baptismal creeds which have come down to us said very little beyond the basic wording: “of Jesus Christ as the Son of God, who was born of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary” (
Apostolic Tradition
of Hippolytus).
N
icholas of Cusa (1401–1464)
Authors: Duclow Donald F. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

German canonist, cardinal, philosopher, and theologian, Nicholas was born in Kues (Bernkastel‐Kues) on the Mosel river. A degree in canon law from Padua (1423) launched his ecclesiastical career. At the Council of Basle his
Catholic Concordance
(1433) defended conciliarism, which affirmed a general church council's authority over the pope. In 1437 Nicholas, supporting Pope Eugenius IV's efforts to unite the Greek and Latin churches, sailed to Constantinople to prepare for the Council of Florence (1439). He then traveled for ten years throughout Germany to win support for Eugenius over Basle's anti‐pope, Felix V. For his successful efforts, Nicholas was named cardinal. In 1450–1452 he toured Germany and the Low Countries as papal legate. Appointed Bishop of Brixen (Bressanone) in the Tyrol, Nicholas' attempts to reclaim diocesan independence from secular control and to reform monasteries provoked conflict. At his friend Pope Pius II's urging, Nicholas settled in Rome (1458), where he served in the Curia and acted as vicar general (1459). Living simply, he continued — not without frustration — to advocate reform. In 1464 he died at Todi on his way to join Pius II's abortive attempt to launch a new Crusade.