bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Names and Natural Kind Terms
Authors: Braun David 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
Names and natural kind terms have long been a major focus of debates about meaning and reference. This article discusses some of the theories and arguments that have appeared in those debates. It is remarkably difficult to say what names are (more exactly, proper names) without making controversial theoretical assumptions. This article does not attempt to do so here. It instead relies on paradigm examples that nearly all theorists would agree are proper names, for instance, ‘Aristotle’, ‘Mark Twain’, ‘London’, ‘Venus’, and ‘Pegasus’. All of the proper names that are discussed in the article are singular nouns that have no syntactic structure. Most of them refer to objects (for instance, people, cities, and planets), but some, such as ‘Pegasus’, apparently do not. The article begins with proper names and the question ‘What is the meaning of a proper name?’ It turns to natural kind terms later.
Plurals
Authors: Schein Barry 
Published: September 2009

AbstractExtension of the logical language to deliver plural reference and the logical relations that constitute knowledge of the singular and plural acquires empirical bite just in case it conforms with increasing precision to the syntax of the natural language and affords explanation of what speakers know about the distribution and meaning of plural expressions in their language. As for the syntax of natural language, this discussion, being none too precise, is guided throughout by just two considerations and their immediate consequences, which is discussed at greater length in this article. The first, morpheme univocality, is that a morpheme despite its various syntactic and morphological contexts has a single meaning that supports all its occurrences.
The Perils and Pleasures of Interpretation
Authors: Davidson Donald 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
There is a contrast between the difficulties that stand in the way of explaining in detail how we manage to find out what is in other people's minds and the relative ease with which we do it in practice. The first part of the article explores the obstacles that thwart theory, the second part describes features of our minds that work in our favor when it comes to practice. At the end it is suggested that the project of fully naturalizing our understanding of other minds — a project philosophers are bound to find enticing — is doomed. We understand others, but we cannot reduce this understanding to a branch of the natural sciences.
Political Approaches
Authors: Barnett Michael N. , Finnemore Martha 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses theoretical approaches that have led the study of international organization, including the United Nations (UN), for the last fifty years. It explores how analysts have conceived the ways that the UN not only regulates the existing activities of states, but also helps weave the fabric of international society. It clarifies the different schools of thought that were developed throughout the twentieth century to help understand the behaviour and misbehaviour of international institutions. The article concludes by asking scholars to work harder in understanding influence within intergovernmental organizations, otherwise known as the first, second, and third UN.
General Assembly
Authors: Peterson M. J. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses the General Assembly, the forum where the sovereign equality of member states is taken very seriously. It shows that the most prominent change in international relations during the second half of the twentieth century was the liberation of colonized peoples, who are now citizens of the majority of member states. The article presents an argument for a better division of labour with other principal organs and also opening the General Assembly to other, nongovernmental voices.
Security Council
Authors: Malone David M. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses a post-Cold War Security Council. It studies the extent to which the decisions made during the 1990s led to success or failure, including the drama of the war in Iraq and its aftermath. The article shows that the Council still functions as a club of great powers, and states that some people would argue that the P-5 has effectively become the P-1 because of the US's preponderant power.
Private Sector
Authors: Murphy Craig N. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses extensively the growing involvement of the for-profit sector, not only as a lobby but also as an active partner in international cooperation. It begins with the irony that intergovernmental organizations arose mostly in response to problems and opportunities created by capitalist industrialism, or what is now known as ‘economic globalization’. It also explores the complement to non-profit civil society in the for-profit business world.
Post‐Conflict Peacebuilding
Authors: Paris Roland 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article describes the trial-and-error experiments of helping fix war-torn countries in the 1990s. It identifies the principal features of peacebuilding operations during the end of the Cold War, and describes the main issues and controversies surrounding these missions. The article also examines the record of peacebuilding since the end of the Cold War.
Minorities And Indigenous Peoples
Authors: Lâm Maivân Clech 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article provides a clear delineation of the nature of the two budding regimes of international human rights law that respond to both collective and personal vulnerabilities. It determines that UN efforts have aimed to ensure that minorities are protected and can even participate in the dominant societies in which they live. The cultures of indigenous peoples, on the other hand, need protection from the societies around them. The article shows that globalization has threatened the existence of indigenous peoples and made it possible for other people to be aware of their troubles.
Introduction
Authors: Boix Carles , Stokes Susan C. 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article discusses several crucial questions that comparative political scientists address. These questions also form part of the basis of the current volume. The article first studies the theory and methods used in gathering data and evidence, and then focuses on the concepts of states, state formation, and political consent. Political regimes, political conflict, mass political mobilization, and political instability are other topics examined in this article. The latter portion of the article is devoted to determining how political demands are processed and viewing governance using a comparative perspective.
The Case Study: What it is and What it Does
Authors: Gerring John 
Published: September 2009

Abstract
This article presents a reconstructed definition of the case study approach to research. This definition emphasizes comparative politics, which has been closely linked to this method since its creation. The article uses this definition as a basis to explore a series of contrasts between cross-case study and case study research. This article attempts to provide better understanding of this persisting methodological debate as a matter of tradeoffs, which may also contribute to destroying the boundaries that have separated these rival genres within the subfield of comparative politics.
Civil Wars
Authors: Kalyvas Stathis N. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article studies civil wars. Kalyvas defines a civil war as armed combat taking place within the boundaries of a recognized sovereign entity between parties that are subject to a common authority at the outset of the hostilities. The article starts by determining why a study of civil war is important. This is followed by a section on the various macro findings and debates on civil war. The issue of the relation between a country's rural dimension and civil war is discussed, in order to help illustrate some of the complexities in figuring and sorting out competing causal mechanisms. The article ends with discussions of the types of civil war and the possible future research agendas.
Contentious Politics and Social Movements
Authors: Tarrow Sidney , Tilly Charles 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article discusses contentious politics and social movements, specifically during the Philippines' turmoil of January 2001. It first defines ‘contentious politics’, and then relates it to social movement. It identifies the many ways of studying the dynamics of contention and ends with a study of democracy, violence, and several questions of the future of social movements.
Parties and Voters in Emerging Democracies
Authors: Hagopian Frances 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article looks at the parties and voters in emerging democracies. It describes the weak and unstable nature of the connections between parties and voters in new democracies. It addresses the question of what explains partisan cleavages and party choices about which voters to mobilize, and reviews familiar institutionalist and structural explanations for how parties mobilize voters. The article also offers an alternative framework to understand the mobilization strategies that parties choose. The last section focuses on an assessment of the state of one's theory and knowledge about parties and voters in emerging democracies.
Separation of Powers
Authors: Samuels David 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article tries to answer the question ‘what difference does the separation of powers make?’. It begins by defining the differences between democratic regimes, and moves on to study four key questions about the extent to which the separation of powers ‘matters’. The discussion concentrates on these questions because they address the central theoretical and empirical concerns of comparativists, which are the ‘big issues’ in the study of politics.
The Welfare State in Global Perspective
Authors: Carnes Matthew E. , Mares Isabela 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThis article studies the welfare state in a global perspective. It argues that the most exciting research opportunities in the study of welfare lie in examining the variation in the politics of social protection in developing economies. It identifies the levels of industrialization and economic openness and views the power resource perspective. Cross-class alliances and state-centered approaches are examined. This article shows that existing literature has given important insights for an understanding of a very consequential political outcome, which are the measures to protect workers and disadvantaged members of society through permanent or temporary economic difficulties.
Inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase variability in renal transplant patients on long‐term mycophenolate mofetil therapy
Authors: Chiarelli Laurent R. , Molinaro Mariadelfina , Libetta Carmelo , Tinelli Carmine , Cosmai Laura , Valentini Giovanna , Canton Antonio Dal , Regazzi Mario 
Published: September 2009

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT • Mycophenolic acid (MPA) is a potent, selective and reversible inhibitor of inosine 5′‐monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH), the rate‐limiting enzyme for de novo guanosine triphosphate biosynthesis.• The large IMPDH interindividual variability could be responsible for the differences in therapeutic effects and side‐effects observed with MPA.• Induction of IMPDH activity has been observed in whole blood during immunosuppressive therapy. WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS • Our data were acquired in long‐term mycophenolate mofetil‐treated renal transplant recipients on different combinations of immunosuppressive agents (ciclosporin, tacrolimus, sirolimus) and with different treatment duration (up to 8.8 years post transplant).• The increasing trend in IMPDH activity that we observed throughout our 12‐month observation period was significantly higher in rejecting than in nonrejecting subjects.AIMS Long‐term mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) therapy may induce inosine 5′‐monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), thus decreasing MMF immunosuppressive properties. Pharmacodynamic monitoring was used to investigate whether biological activity is altered after long‐term therapy.METHODS IMPDH activity was measured in PBMC samples from 54 stable kidney transplant patients, already on MMF (for at least 3 months), before (t0) and 2 h after (t2) MMF morning dose administration; levels were monitored for up to 15 months, together with total mycophenolic acid (MPA) and free MPA concentrations.RESULTS During the 15 months' monitoring, t0 IMPDH activity in transplant recipients increased from 5.9 ± 3.7 nmol h−1 mg−1[95% confidence interval (CI) 4.9, 6.9] to 9.0 ± 3.9 nmol h−1 mg−1 (95% CI 7.2, 10.8), with an intra‐ and interpatient variability of 28% and 42%. Five patients experienced acute rejection during the follow‐up: t0 IMPDH activity was increased during rejection vs. nonrejection, and the trend was significantly higher in rejecting than in nonrejecting subjects for the whole monitoring period.CONCLUSIONS Even though a correlation has been found between IMPDH activity and rejection, its efficacy as a predictive tool in long‐term transplant outcomes may be affected by high interpatient variability; on the other hand, continuous monitoring of the IMPDH trend could make an effective prognostic parameter of rejection. Other trials also including pre‐transplant data on both IMPDH expression and activity are warranted to better assess their role as biomarkers for MPA effect in clinical practice.
Inhibition of capsaicin‐induced increase in dermal blood flow by the oral CGRP receptor antagonist, telcagepant (MK‐0974)
Authors: Sinclair Simon R. , Kane Stefanie A. , Van der Schueren Bart J. , Xiao Alan , Willson Kenneth J. , Boyle Janet , De Lepeleire Inge , Xu Yang , Hickey Lisa , Denney William S. , Li Chi‐Chung , Palcza John , Vanmolkot Floris H. M. , Depré Marleen , Van Hecken Anne , Murphy M. Gail , Ho Tony W. , De Hoon Jay N. 
Published: September 2009

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT• Calcitonin gene‐related peptide (CGRP) was first described as a potent vasodilator.• CGRP is also increasingly recognized as a key player in the pathophysiology of migraine, and CGRP receptor antagonists potentially offer a new approach for treating migraine.• A novel pharmacodynamic assay to measure CGRP receptor antagonist activity non‐invasively in humans has been developed, which involves measuring the increase in dermal blood flow induced by topical application of capsaicin on the forearm.WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS• This study shows that the novel oral CGRP receptor antagonist, telcagepant, inhibits the increases in dermal blood flow induced by the topical application of capsaicin on the human forearm.• This experimental medicine model may have utility to assist in dose selection for the development of CGRP receptor antagonists.AIMSTo evaluate inhibition of capsaicin‐induced increase in dermal blood flow (DBF) following telcagepant (MK‐0974), a potent and selective orally bioavailable calcitonin gene‐related peptide (CGRP) receptor antagonist being developed for the acute treatment of migraine.METHODSA three‐period crossover study in 12 healthy adult men. Each subject received a single oral dose of telcagepant 300 mg, telcagepant 800 mg or placebo at 0 h, followed 0.5 and 3.5 h later by two topical doses of 300 and 1000 µg capsaicin per 20 µl water–ethanol mixture. Capsaicin was applied at two sites on the volar surface of the subjects' left and right forearms. DBF was assessed by laser Doppler perfusion imaging immediately before (‘baseline’), and 0.5 h after each capsaicin application at 1 and 4 h. Plasma samples to determine telcagepant concentrations were collected immediately after laser Doppler perfusion imaging. A pharmacodynamic model was developed to explore the relationship between plasma concentration and inhibition of capsaicin‐induced increase in DBF.RESULTSGeometric mean plasma concentrations after dosing with 300 mg and 800 mg telcagepant were 720 and 1146 nm, respectively, at 1 h,vs.582 and 2548 nm, respectively, at 4 h. The pharmacodynamic model suggested that the EC90for telcagepant inhibition of capsaicin‐induced increases in DBF was 909 nm.CONCLUSIONSTelcagepant inhibits the increases in DBF induced by the topical application of capsaicin on the human forearm. This experimental medicine model may have utility to assist in dose selection for the development of CGRP receptor antagonists.
Pharmacokinetic assessment of a five‐probe cocktail for CYPs 1A2, 2C9, 2C19, 2D6 and 3A
Authors: Turpault Sandrine , Brian William , Van Horn Robert , Santoni Alix , Poitiers Franck , Donazzolo Yves , Boulenc Xavier 
Published: September 2009

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT• Numerous cocktails using concurrent administration of several cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoform‐selective probe drugs have been reported to investigate drug–drug interactionsin vivo.• This approach has several advantages: characterize the inhibitory or induction potential of compounds in development toward the CYP enzymes identifiedin vitroin anin vivosituation, assess several enzymes in the same trial, and have completein vivoinformation about potential CYP‐based drug interactions.WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS• This study describes a new cocktail containing five probe drugs that has never been published.• This cocktail can be used to test the effects of a new chemical entity on multiple CYP isoforms in a single clinical study: CYP1A2 (caffeine), CYP2C9 (warfarin), CYP2C19 (omeprazole), CYP2D6 (metoprolol), and CYP3A (midazolam) and was designed to overcome potential liabilities of other reported cocktails.AIMSTo assess the pharmacokinetics (PK) of selective substrates of CYP1A2 (caffeine), CYP2C9 (S‐warfarin), CYP2C19 (omeprazole), CYP2D6 (metoprolol) and CYP3A (midazolam) when administered orally and concurrently as a cocktail relative to the drugs administered alone.METHODSThis was an open‐label, single‐dose, randomized, six‐treatment six‐period six‐sequence William's design study with a wash‐out of 7 or 14 days. Thirty healthy male subjects received 100 mg caffeine, 100 mg metoprolol, 0.03 mg kg−1midazolam, 20 mg omeprazole and 10 mg warfarin individually and in combination (cocktail). Poor metabolizers of CYP2C9, 2C19 and 2D6 were excluded. Plasma samples were obtained up to 48 h for caffeine, metoprolol and omeprazole, 12 h for midazolam, 312 h for warfarin and the cocktail. Three different validated liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry methods were used. Noncompartmental PK parameters were calculated. Log‐transformedCmax, AUClastand AUC for each analyte were analysed with a linear mixed effects model with fixed term for treatment, sequence and period, and random term for subject within sequence. Point estimates (90% CI) for treatment ratios (individual/cocktail) were computed for each analyteCmax, AUClastand AUC.RESULTSThere was no PK interaction between the probe drugs when administered in combination as a cocktail, relative to the probes administered alone, as the 90% CI of the PK parameters was within the prespecified bioequivalence limits of 0.80, 1.25.CONCLUSIONThe lack of interaction between probes indicates that this cocktail could be used to evaluate the potential for multiple drug–drug interactionsin vivo.
Bacterial community structure of glacier forefields on siliceous and calcareous bedrock
Authors: Lazzaro A. , Abegg C. , Zeyer J. 
Published: September 2009

SummaryForefields of retreating glaciers represent unique opportunities to investigate the initial phases of soil formation and microbial interactions with mineral surfaces. An open question concerns the physical and chemical driving‐factors affecting the establishment of microbial communities in these young ecosystems. In this study we compared the bacterial community structure of six glacier forefield soils belonging to two contrasting bedrock categories (calcareous and siliceous) through T‐RFLP profiling of the 16S rRNA gene. The community profiles were correlated with an array of physical (soil texture, water holding capacity, hours of sunshine, temperature, rainfall and exposure) and chemical (TC, TN, DOC, extractable nutrients and pH) factors using canonical correspondence analysis (CCA). A first comparison of the T‐RFLP profiles suggested that the degree of operational taxonomic unit (OTU) diversity of these soils was similar, and that community structure was dominated by ubiquitous taxa. CCA showed that both physical (e.g. hours of sunshine or rainfall) and chemical factors (e.g. SO2−4or PO3−4) played an equal role in shaping the soil bacterial communities. OTUs unique to specific sites appeared to be strongly influenced by the climatic regime and by texture. Overall, the community structure of the six glacial forefields showed no clear dependence on the bedrock categories.
Plasticity in maximum stomatal conductance constrained by negative correlation between stomatal size and density: an analysis using Eucalyptus globulus
Authors: FRANKS PETER J. , DRAKE PAUL L. , BEERLING DAVID J. 
Published: September 2009

ABSTRACTMaximum stomatal conductance to water vapour and CO2 (gwmax, gcmax, respectively), which are set at the time of leaf maturity, are determined predominantly by stomatal size (S) and density (D). In theory, many combinations of S and D yield the same gwmax and gcmax, so there is no inherent correlation between S and D, or between S, D and maximum stomatal conductance. However, using basic equations for gas diffusion through stomata of different sizes, we show that a negative correlation between S and D offers several advantages, including plasticity in gwmax and gcmax with minimal change in epidermal area allocation to stomata. Examination of the relationship between S and D in Eucalyptus globulus seedlings and coppice shoots growing in the field under high and low rainfall revealed a strong negative relationship between S and D, whereby S decreased with increasing D according to a negative power function. The results provide evidence that plasticity in maximum stomatal conductance may be constrained by a negative S versus D relationship, with higher maximum stomatal conductance characterized by smaller S and higher D, and a tendency to minimize change in epidermal space allocation to stomata as S and D vary.
Strong morphological support for the molecular evolutionary tree of placental mammals
Authors: LEE M. S. Y. , CAMENS A. B. 
Published: September 2009

AbstractThe emerging molecular evolutionary tree for placental mammals differs greatly from morphological trees, leading to repeated suggestions that morphology is uninformative at this level. This view is here refuted empirically, using an extensive morphological and molecular dataset totalling 17 431 characters. When analysed alone, morphology indeed is highly misleading, contradicting nearly every clade in the preferred tree (obtained from the molecular or the combined data). Widespread homoplasy overrides historical signal. However, when added to the molecular data, morphology surprisinglyincreasessupport for most clades in the preferred tree. The homoplasy in the morphology is incongruent with all aspects of the molecular signal, while the historical signal in the morphology is congruent with (and amplifies) the historical signal in the molecular data. Thus, morphology remains relevant in the genomic age, providing vital independent corroboration of the molecular tree of mammals.