bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The liquid state
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
In the gaseous state, molecules are to a good approximation isolated entities traveling in space at high speed with sparse and near elastic collisions. At the other extreme, a perfect crystal has a periodic and symmetric intermolecular structure. The structure is dictated by intermolecular forces, and molecules can only perform small oscillations around their equilibrium positions. In between these two extremes, matter has many more ways of aggregation. This chapter deals with proper liquids and the liquid state. Molecular diffusion in liquids occurs approximately on the timescale of nanoseconds, to be compared with the timescale of molecular or lattice vibrations. This chapter also discusses molecular dynamics (MD), the Monte Carlo (MC) method, structural and dynamic descriptors for liquids, physicochemical properties of liquids from MD or MC simulations, simulations of enthalpy, heat capacity and density, crystal and liquid equations of state, polarisability and dielectric constants, free energy simulations, and simulation of water.
Intermolecular bonding
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Two atoms are joined by a chemical bond when the pristine electron densities of both atoms are significantly perturbed by the approach. As a consequence, the energy of the system is lowered and a restraining force acts against separation of the nuclei. Thus, the nuclei are constrained at a distance which is significantly less than the sum of the radii of the bare atoms. This description of a chemical bond fits rather well with the idea of a bond electron density accumulating between nuclei, introducing the concept of a relationship between the topology of the molecular electron density and the formation of chemical bonds. This chapter discusses intermolecular bonding, the decline of the intermolecular atom–atom bond, the Feynman–Ehrenfest chemical bond, Coulombic energy, polarisation energy, dispersion energy, repulsion energy, total energies and parameters, generation of crystal coordinates, systematic application of the Pixel theory to intermolecular bonding, glossary of intermolecular recognition modes, and directed bonds versus diffuse bonding.
Phase equilibria, phase changes, and mesophases: Analysis and simulation
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
All matter, from the simplest fluid such as gaseous helium to the most complex system like a biological cell, is made of electrons and nuclei. Electric potentials tend to glue the nuclei together, while kinetic energy, connected to atomic (nuclear) masses moving with given velocities, tends to pull them apart. It is this eternal struggle between electricity and temperature that ultimately gives rise to the entire world as we see it, with its properties and its changes. This chapter focuses on the analysis and simulation of the phase equilibria, phase changes, and mesophases of molecules using a variety of methods such as light scattering, calorimetry, chemical spectroscopy, X-ray scattering and diffraction, electron micrography and atomic force microscopy, and evolutionary molecular simulation. The basic thermodynamic functions are discussed, along with melting, solid–liquid equilibrium and nucleation from the melt, vapor–liquid and vapor–solid equilibrium, glasses, liquid crystals, nucleation and growth from solution, crystal growth and morphology, and prediction of crystal faces, attachments, energies, and morphology.
Legal Liability-Responsibility
Authors: LUCY WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the concept of legal liability-responsibility. Legal liability-responsibility refers to all the general components usually necessary to incur legal blame and, in private law, to be compelled to comply with a court order to pay damages or otherwise remedy the harm done. There are other kinds of liability-responsibility, the most significant being ‘moral liability-responsibility’. This lays down the requirements for legitimately praising and blaming those whose conduct is either morally wrong or morally commendable. Both moral and legal liability-responsibility have a similar function, namely, attributing conduct and its outcomes to agents. However, whereas legal liability-responsibility usually concerns itself only with the attribution of conduct and outcomes that are baleful, moral liability-responsibility deals with both good and bad conduct and its outcomes.
Responsibility I: Basic Responsibility
Authors: LUCY WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the basic responsibility requirement. It identifies three related claims about what basic responsibility requires of those in the frame for liability in private law. They are that those in the frame for liability (i) must either be aware of their conduct, or have had the capacity to be aware of it; (ii) that some aspect of their conduct must be ‘theirs’ in the sense that they did it and had reason to do it; and (iii) they must usually either be aware of, or be capable of being aware of, some of the circumstances or outcomes of that conduct.
Responsibility II: Alternate Possibilities
Authors: LUCY WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the alternate possibilities requirement. It begins by clarifying exactly what the principle of alternate possibilities might entail, offering two principal interpretations of how it can be understood, and arguing that only one of these interpretations is ultimately defensible. This allows a defence of that (‘sophisticated’) interpretation against some ostensibly powerful arguments. This is combined with additional commentary upon the alternative (‘simple’) interpretation. The two interpretations of the principle of alternate possibilities are then put to work upon two segments of legal doctrine to demonstrate the superiority of one over the other.
Conclusion
Authors: LUCY WILLIAM 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter highlights some of the themes and loose ends that have emerged in both Parts I and II of this book and tries, where possible, either to trim or tie up the latter. The main burden of the analysis of the components of legal liability-responsibility in Part I was to show which components are in play in private law and to make sense of them. The primary task was to attempt to make those components intelligible. Part II tackled three broadly different accounts of the normative basis of private law. These accounts in principle function so as to provide a normative basis for both the core substantive and structural concepts of private law. Thus, components of liability-responsibility as well as doctrines like, for example, duress in contract, might ostensibly depend upon a normative foundation.
A Historical Introduction to the Law of Obligations
Authors: Ibbetson David 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The English law of obligations has developed over most of the last millennium without any major discontinuity. Through this period each generation has built on the law of its predecessors, manipulating it so as to avoid its more inconvenient consequences and adapting it piecemeal to social and economic changes. Sometimes fragments borrowed from other jurisdictions have been incorporated into the fabric of English law; from time to time ideas developed elsewhere have, at least temporarily, imposed a measure of structure on a common law otherwise messy and inherently resistant to any stable ordering. The book exposes the historical layers beneath the modern rules and principles of contract, tort, and unjust enrichment. Small-scale changes caused by lawyers successfully exploiting procedural advantages in their clients' interest are juxtaposed alongside changes caused by friction along the boundaries of these principal legal categories; fossilized remnants of old doctrines jostle with newer ideas in a state of half-consistent tension; loose-knit rules of equity developed in the Chancery infiltrate themselves into more tightly controlled common law structures. The result is a system shot through with inconsistencies and illogicalities, but with the resilience to adapt as necessary to Take account of shifting pressures and changing circumstances.
5. The Substantive Law of Contract
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses how the structure of contractual liability was laid down by the end of the 13th century and remained fundamentally the same through the 14th and 15 centuries. Liability depended on the voluntary agreement; whatever form of action was in issue, only the parties to the agreement were affected by it; whatever the form of action, the purpose of the plaintiff's claim was to obtain the value of the intended performance; and in informal contracts, the law was concerned only with relationships of reciprocity.
8. Trespass, Case, and the Moral Basis of Liability
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter shows how central to the later medieval law of torts was the division between the action of trespass and action on the case. The former lay for invasive interferences to land, goods, or the person; the latter covered a range situations where loss had been caused wrongfully. The formal division between trespass and case, and the crystallization of negligence are discussed.
9. The Law of Torts in the Nineteenth Century: The Rise of the Tort of Negligence
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter shows how the law of torts at the start of the 19th century was still recognizably medieval. It was characterized by the division between the action of trespass and the action on the case, the latter of which was subdivided into a number of nominate forms and a large residuary group linked together by nothing stronger than that the defendant was alleged to have caused loss to the plaintiff. In the 19th century, a substantial part of this residuary group coalesced as the tort of negligence. This brought about a wholesale realignment of the law of torts, as this tort, defined by the reference to the quality of the defendant's conduct, cut across the previous categorization of torts.
14. Unjust Enrichment
Authors: IBBETSON D. J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses unjust enrichment. The conceptual categories of contract and tort cover much of the range of personal obligations but do not exhaust it. Beyond them lies the residuary group characterized as ‘obligations arising from various other causes’. A third category emerged from this group, to be known as ‘quasi-contract’, ‘restitution’, or ‘unjust enrichment’. The common feature of the cases falling into this category is that the defendant has received money or property that ought in justice to be made over to the plaintiff, or has benefited from the performance of some service that ought in justice to be paid for.
“Constitutional” Interpretation
Authors: ALVAREZ JOSÉ E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses ‘constitutional’ interpretation of a Charter. It compares the United Nations Charter and the United States Constitution, citing that both provide institutional mechanisms to accomplish goals identified only as ‘majestic generalities.’ As with the U.S. Constitution, there also appears to be a separation of powers notion at work within the UN Charter. The chapter also provides details on the people, procedure, and reason behind interpreting a Charter. It considers how international organization organs have interpreted their chapters, indicating the malleability of both institutional charters and the underlying rules of treaty interpretation. In detailing the procedure of interpreting a Charter, it mentions the Vienna Rules of Treaty Interpretation, institutional practice, implied powers, and intent. The interpretation of international organization charters is more than the sum of the application of rules — whether contained in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties or reserved for ‘constitutional’ treaties.
Have International Organizations Improved Treaty-making?
Authors: ALVAREZ JOSÉ E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses whether international organizations have improved treaty-making. It also explains the facilitation of cooperation through iteration and access to information, reduction of transaction costs, self-enforcing behaviour, creation of property rights, and issue linkage. The chapter also takes a broader look at international organization forms of treaty-making. UN-sponsored treaty conferences provide a relatively stable negotiation forum that permits negotiators to continue their interaction beyond a single round of negotiations. Organizational mechanisms for treaty-making also reduce transaction costs associated with the conclusion of an agreement and with its maintenance once concluded. Self-enforcing behaviour is a stable equilibrium in which compliance with treaty obligations is maintained. The most familiar example of an international organization-sponsored treaty regime that create or recognize property rights among various rights holders is perhaps the TRIPs Agreement under the WTO regime. Treaty efforts in UN fora often consist of ‘package deals’.
Dispute Settlement by “Quasi-judicial” and “Judicial” Bodies
Authors: ALVAREZ JOSÉ E. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses dispute settlement by ‘quasi-judicial’ and ‘judicial’ bodies. It also explains the concepts of regime-specific law, general public international law, national law, and other sources of international ‘obligation.’ The Human Rights Committee under the ICCPR and the European Court of Human Rights or Strasburg Court, are quasi-judicial or judicial bodies engaged in the examination of individual communications or complaints concerning a similar set of human rights obligations imposed on states. The quasi-judicial and judicial bodies now operating impact, on a regular basis, one or more of the following four categories of law: substantive obligations of the treaty regime in which the adjudicator is embedded; ‘general’ public international law; other sources of potential international obligation, hard and soft, not clearly included in the traditional article 38 categories; and national law relevant to resolving the dispute presented to the international forum.
Considering Networks: A Methodological Introduction
Authors: Thompson Grahame F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book brings some clarity to the discussion of networks. It tests the case as to whether it is possible to construct a clearly demarcated idea of a ‘network’ as a separable form of socio-economic coordination and governance mechanism with its own distinctive logic. In doing this, the primary contrast is to markets and hierarchies as alternative and already well-understood forms of such socio-economic coordination each with its own particular logic. Thus, the focus is on the domain of the socio-economic (which includes political aspects of networks), and it is about the organisational domain of the socio-economic. A distinction is made between network as a conceptual category and network as a social organisation. Three approaches to networks are considered: social network analysis, transaction cost analysis, and actor-network theory. Finally, the book explores the whole area of information and communications technology and networks and how they are argued to be radically transforming the nature of international relations.
Social Network Analysis, Transaction-Cost Analysis, and Actor-Network Theory: Three Approaches to Networks
Authors: Thompson Grahame F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter compares and analyses three theoretically driven approaches to the analysis of networks: social network analysis (SNA), transaction cost analysis (TCA), and actor-network theory (ANT). Each approach makes a claim to analysing hierarchies and markets as well. In the ANT approach, a network is not an intermediate form of organisation, but a set of relations between actors and techniques. Both ANT and SNA view network as an analytical tool that encompasses and explains both markets and hierarchies as variations of network structures. Only TCA offers an explicit defence of networks being intrinsically different from markets or hierarchies—in the way they coordinate and govern—but these differences can be conceptualised using a single analytical technique and transaction costs. This chapter examines the arguments against the ubiquity of TCA for the analysis of socio-economic coordination and governance, along with the ANT approach to market, organisation, and management, and interlocking directorates as an example of the SNA approach.
Conclusions
Authors: Thompson Grahame F. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This book concludes by summing up the logic and limits of network forms of organisation. It has investigated the contemporary forms of network organisation as seen in the conceptual literature and in terms of their appearance in concrete empirical settings. The key features of the network model that describe how a certain range of social relations operate that specify a network model of socio-economic coordination and governance have been described. These practices do not operate in the same manner for either hierarchies or markets. The arguments against the actor-network theory of networks have been considered, along with social network analysis and its view of networks as relational organisations.
From the Inns of Court to Military Intelligence: MI5, Marriage, and Fatherhood
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter details the further changes in H. L. A. Hart's life following the outbreak of the Second World War. In 1940 Herbert began working for MI5. He was assigned to B division, which was the core of MI5. It was concerned with counter-espionage, running surveillance, and investigation operations which aimed to prevent espionage and identify spies within the UK. Most important of all, B Division developed and operated the highly successful ‘Double Cross’ system through which strategically damaging misinformation was fed back to Germany by double agents.
Selling Philosophy to the Lawyers: The Chair of Jurisprudence
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on H. L. A. Hart's experiences as Chair of Jurisprudence at University College. Herbert's inaugural lecture as Professor of Jurisprudence, ‘Definition and Theory in Jurisprudence’, delivered in 1953, which laid out the positive and substantive agenda which he saw as defining the autonomous terrain of a jurisprudence informed by analytical philosophy. The lecture set out Herbert's stall as a linguistic philosopher prepared both to bring the insights of philosophy to law, and to exploit his legal understanding to generate a fund of examples suitable for philosophical analysis.
Law in the Perspective of Philosophy: Causation in the Law, The Concept of Law
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the publication of Causation in the Law and The Concept of Law. Causation in the Law represents a thoroughgoing application of the linguistic philosophical analysis to law. It presents a spirited defence of the idea that causation in law is indeed a distinctive ground for the attribution of liability, and a persuasive critique of the causal minimalist position as collapsing questions of the ground of liability (causation) into questions about its scope or extent (policy factors affecting the extent of damages or the scope of the rule), and, in doing so, as blurring what is argued to be the proper division of labour between judge and jury, between law and fact. In The Concept of Law Hart claimed to set out a general, descriptive theory of law: a theory of law as it is, and not an ideal theory of what law ought to be. This would be at once a contribution to ‘analytical jurisprudence’ and to ‘descriptive sociology’. In other words, Hart sought to elucidate a concept of law which would be relevant to all forms of law, wherever or whenever they arose.
West and East, California and Israel: Law, Liberty, and Morality; Kelsen Visited; The Morality of the Criminal Law
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter details H. L. A. Hart's travels to the US and Israel. In early September of 1961, Hart left Oxford for California to spend a sabbatical in the Law School and Philosophy Department at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). As in 1956, he arrived in America with a strong sense of the opportunities presented by the visit, with an acute sense of the need to overcome his difficulty about ‘giving my time a structure’, and with the usual pre-lecturing apprehensions. The occasion for this first visit to Israel was an invitation to Hart to deliver the Lionel Cohen lectures at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem in January 1964. Significantly, Herbert decided to use a sabbatical term to extend the two-week visit into a three-month stay.
Introduction: Transport and the Economy of the Roman World
Authors: Adams Colin 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter overviews previous scholarship on transport, introduces the most influential theories offering pessimistic views of the role of transport in the Roman economy, and surveys responses to these, before introducing the evidence for transport and economic activity from Egypt. It then discusses the quantification of this evidence and what this can tell us about the economics of transport. Attempts to establish the relative costs of land and water transport, while valuable, are based on evidence presenting many difficulties of interpretation, and can obscure the true picture of the role of transport. The chapter ends with a description of the nature of the following chapters and a statement of purpose: to show the importance of land transport as part of a system of transport, including water transport, which should be considered as a whole.
Conspiracy and Virtue
Authors: Wiseman Susan 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
What was the relationship between woman and politics in seventeenth century England? Responding to this question, Conspiracy and Virtue argues that theoretical exclusion of women from the political sphere shaped their relation to it. Rather than producing silence, this exclusion generated rich, complex, and oblique political involvements which this study traces through the writings of both men and women. Pursuing this argument, Conspiracy and Virtue engages the main writings on women's relationship to the political sphere including debates on the public sphere and on contract theory. Writers and figures discussed include many authors who are not often studied together, such as Elizabeth Avery, Aphra Behn, Anne Bradstreet, Maragret Cavendish, Queen Christina of Sweden, Anne Halkett, Brilliana Harley, Lucy Hutchinson, John Milton, Elizabeth Poole, Sara Wight, and Henry Jessey.
The Political Work of a Spiritual Text: Sarah Wight, Henry Jessey, and The exceeding Riches of Grace
Authors: Wiseman Susan 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter investigates the political implications of women's involvement in sectarian writing in the later years of the 1640s. The material discussed — printed writings — carries the discussion of women's relationship to politics into the explicitly public terrain of religious and political controversy. The chapter investigates women's relationship to spiritual and political discourses in the context of the disputes among the army, Independents, Presbyterians, and Levellers in the late 1640s. The exceeding Riches of Grace makes public Sarah Wight's experience. Events caught up the members of the gathered churches of London, Bristol, and Wales and their associates in the army, but also drew in men and women of a very different religious and political complexion from the text's ‘relator’, Henry Jessey. The exceeding Riches of Grace unfolds the question of the nature of testimony, the meaning of grace for the Christian, and the nature of spiritual versus political claims and hierarchies.