bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
‘To Teach Philosophy To Speak German’
Authors: Harris H. S. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe first section describes the polemic against mysticism and formalism. Rosenkranz presented a summary of Hegel's introductory lecture that he gave in Winter 1804/5. In this introduction, Hegel attacked several enemies at once: the mystical naturalism of Boehme, the scholastic Latinity of Kant, and most particularly, the ‘formalism’ of Schelling's philosophy of nature. The connecting thread of his polemic was his claim that the philosopher must concern himself with the conceptual interpretation of the ordinary natural language of everyday life, and that he should use the language which he clarifies. The second section describes Hegel's polemic against romanticism. This continuity between ordinary experience, or ordinary reflective thought, and the contradictory absolute experience and absolute reflection of the philosopher, puts Hegel on the side of the Enlighteners against the Romantic cult. The last section discusses the revolution in Hegel's logic.
The Philosophy of Spirit of 1805/6
Authors: Harris H. S. 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThe first section of this chapter describes the concept of spirit. The whole philosophy of spirit is logically just the final stage in the actualization of the concept of organism. However, the spirit is also a self-contained whole, and this perspective is ultimately more important than the comprehensive standpoint of ‘reality’. Thus, spirit is the reality of the cognitive aspect of total process; and cognition is the comprehending of the real in its universal significance. The second section discusses the concept of volition. The remaining sections examine legal status, the law, the constitution, social classes, the government, and the concept of the Absolute Spirit.
Where Meanings Were Made
Authors: Jardine Nicholas 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter presents several guidelines for historians out to describe and explain the production of meaning in the sciences. It considers two important implications of the question-based account. First, the account links historical interpretation with the explanation of novelty in the sciences. Secondly, the apprehension of past styles of inquiry involves many practices that are relevant to the historical understanding of past works of the sciences. The chapter discusses how the study of the formation, maintenance, and dissolution of questions in the sciences tackled in this book shows affinities with much recent social and cultural history of science. It concludes that the study of scenes of inquiry in the sciences should form the core of the history of sciences.
Events as Changes
Authors: Steward Helen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter looks at the account of events offered by Lawrence Lombard in Events: A Metaphysical Study. Lombard thinks that events are changes, which is a view which fits well with the particularity constraint. It is therefore quite promising as a candidate for a view of events which might permit them to perform the sort of role which they ought to play in the philosophy of mind. It is also undeniable that it is a very natural view. But it is argued that, its appeal notwithstanding, it cannot be quite right. There seem to be events which cannot be fitted into Lombard's account; and reflection on these examples reveals that it is not change, but something else, which is really fundamental to the category.
States and the Type-Token Distinction
Authors: Steward Helen 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter attempts to explain how we come by the nouns and nominal phrases which suggest reference to states, before going on to argue that the idea that events and states are close relations in the same ontological family — an idea present either explicitly or implicitly in the writings of many philosophers — has been a huge and serious mistake. It suggests, in particular, that the concept of a token state has been widely misunderstood and that the sorts of stative nominals which are sometimes alleged to refer to these entities are usually best understood as nominalizations of whole sentences, and as expressions, therefore, which refer to facts rather than to particulars.
Minor Eastern Versions
Authors: METZGER BRUCE M. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter describes the origins, varieties, early manuscripts, and textual affinities of the Arabic version of the New Testament. Arabia comprises the territory west of Mesopotamia, east and south of Syria and Palestine, extending to the isthmus of Suez. When and how and by whom the Gospel was brought to these diverse areas is not known. This chapter also considers other minor Eastern versions of the New Testament such as the Nubian, Persian, Sogdian, and Caucasian Albanian versions.
The Gothic Version
Authors: METZGER BRUCE M. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The Gothic version of the New Testament is the earliest surviving literary monument in a Teutonic language. This chapter discusses the introduction of Christianity among the Goths and the translation of the New Testament. It describes the characteristic of the Gothic version and lists all the extant manuscripts and fragments of the New Testament. It also examines the textual affinities of the Gothic version and the limitations of Gothic in representing Greek.
Introducing the Other New Testament Books
Authors: Reumann John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The New Testament writings apart from the four gospels and Paul's acknowledged letters—a dozen to sixteen books, depending how one counts, among the twenty-seven in the canon are often looked on as the ‘et cetera’ of Christian Scripture. The so-called ‘catholic epistles’, plus Hebrews, the single apocalyptic book in the New Testament, and the pastoral epistles, and finally the letters that are often denied by historical and literary criticism and theology to Paul himself have often been treated as orphans. There is an analogy between the New Testament writings and the threefold Old Testament canon of the law, the prophets, and the sacred writings. The gospels, like the Pentateuch, are foundational. The epistles of Paul are like the prophets in applying and advancing the significance of the great redeeming event, the exodus in the one case, Jesus Cross and resurrection in the other.
Two Blunt Apologists for Early Christianity: Jude and 2 Peter
Authors: Reumann John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The Second Epistle General of St. Peter, as a letter of three chapters has sometimes been known through claims to be by ‘the prince of the apostles’ and it refers to I Peter, and the little note said simply to be by Jude, and forms a sub-corpus within the catholic epistles and the New Testament canon. They have certain features in common. Each letter has been attributed to a prominent early Christian figure, one to the leader of the twelve apostles, Peter, the other to the ‘brother of James’ and on the tradition that this is James, a brother of the Lord. The two letters have been recognized over the centuries as sharing certain similarities of content. Of course, there are differences in the way the key words and phrases in these ‘parallels’ are used. There are verses unique to Jude, like the closing benediction.
Holy Scripture and Post-Biblical Exegeses
Authors: Lim Timothy H. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
There are five sections and eleven chapters in this book. Part I discusses post-biblical exegeses, the relevance of the Qumran scrolls and the new perspectives of investigation that the evidence demands. Part II consists of two chapters that treat literalistic features of ancient exegesis. These chapters aim to show how issues raised in this book about the Qumran pesharim and Pauline letters address neglected aspects of ancient bible interpretation. Part III consists of three chapters on the exegetical techniques and hermeneutical principles of the pesharim. Part IV consists of three chapters on Paul’s use of the biblical quotations. Finally, Part V compares the hermeneutical principles together.
Features of Literalism
Authors: Lim Timothy H. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Features of literalism do appear even within a thorough reworking of the biblical texts. This chapter draws attention to some of these. There are three well-known features of the pesharim that show how the biblical text was important to the Qumran commentator: the verse-by-verse explication of the biblical text; the isolation and identification of key scriptural words; and the lexical play between the biblical quotation and exposition. Turning to the Pauline letters, the clearest appeal to the word rather than the sense of the biblical text is to be found in Galatians 3 and the arguments for the one seed.
Did the Pesherists alter their Biblical Quotations?
Authors: Lim Timothy H. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the putative Vorlage of the biblical quotations. The discussion questions the entire procedure by which previous scholarship frequently asserts that the Qumran commentators modified this or that word of holy scripture simply by comparing the pesherite lemmata to the Masorceic Text. Such a procedure is highly questionable. Even if, for argument’s sake, it is granted that the pesherite lemmata are proto-Masoretic Texts, the sheer number of different readings enumerated should at the very least give one pause to reflect as to what these supposedly unmodified readings were and how they were so.
Attitudes to Holy Scripture
Authors: Lim Timothy H. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The writings that together make up ‘holy scripture’ are sacred not because they have been formalized and fixed in stone, but because in them it is thought that the divine will of God can be found. One of the deductions to be drawn from these exegetical adaptations is that ancient interpreters felt the need for changes, because the literal sense of the words does not correspond to what they wish to say. Now the pesherists and Paul do not have to construe the words in this manner. Within their writings are displayed exegetical techniques that range from the literalistic to the figurative and allegorical. Obscure though the choice of exegetical techniques is, the hermeneutical centre of their scriptural interpretations no doubt lies in the revelation of God. Significant, too, for Paul’s hermeneutics is the centrality of the person and work of Jesus Christ.
Eschatology
Authors: Flegg Columba Graham 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter examines the eschatology of the Catholic Apostolic Church. It describes the church's Great Testimony, apostolic writings, and liturgical worship. It suggests that Catholic Apostolic eschatology presented a comprehensive and coherent prophetic view of the whole course of future events from the contemporary scene to the final presentation of the Kingdom by Christ to the Father. Though it may be considered a millenarian, it was also pre-millennialist and pre-tribulationist.
Early Thought
Authors: HARRISON CAROL 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter describes the early thoughts of Augustine. The first section examines the role of beauty in Augustine's conversion. Here, Augustine recounts the questions which he asked himself as a young teacher of rhetoric, at the age of 26 or 27, before writing his first work, a treatise on ‘the beautiful and the fitting’, De Pulchro et Apta. The second section describes the themes in his early works, such as the body and soul, and the role of the senses, liberal arts, poetry, and music. The third section charts the different approaches to Augustine's aesthetic thought, including the theories of Svoboda, OʼConnell, and the present approach to beauty as a revealed form. The last section describes the doctine of the Fall, and its pivotal place in Augustine's aesthetic.
The Old Stoics
Authors: SCOTT ALAN 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter discusses the Stoic school, founded by Zeno in 301, which was succeeded in turn by Cleanthes and Chrysippus. The Stoics differed from Plato and Aristotle in denying that spiritual activity could account for the maintenance of the world. The two principles which are responsible for all things are causal and material, but even so, the causal principle acts corporeally, since whatever acts or is acted upon must be a body. Thus God is equated with corporeal substance, but this material was not passive like Peropatetic or neo-Platonic matter. Since the Stoic God was not located only in heaven but was immanent in the world, the stars were not supreme deities, and they play only a small role in the piety of some of the greatest Stoic philosophers, such as Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius. Yet, the Stoics are important since they also emphasize the religious importance of the heavens.
Philo
Authors: SCOTT ALAN 
Published: October 2011

AbstractThis chapter discusses Philo of Alexandria. Many of the gaps in the understanding of the Hellenistic philosophical concept of the stars have been filled by him because of his strong interest in this problem, and because there is a large body of his writings that are still in existence. Moreover, Philo's interpretation of Judaism in new terms was a great achievement which stands as a landmark in the history of theology. Philo suggested that, though astral worship is not correct, it is better than the worship of images made by human minds, and is in fact part of the divine plan to move pagans towards true religion. Though he is unsure of the stars' precise ontological status, he believed that they are part of the created order and so on a footing with humans rather than with God.
The Finitude of the Past and the Existence of God
Authors: Craig William Lane 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter presents an essay which evaluates the history of the argument about the finitude of the past and the existence of God in Christian, Islamic, and Jewish thought. It argues in defense of this argument in light of contemporary developments in science and philosophy, and updates relevant aspects of observational and theoretical cosmology. This chapter also discusses Zeno's paradoxes, Immanuel Kant's first antimony concerning time, God's relationship to time, and the thermodynamic confirmation of the beginning of the universe.
A Defence of the Cosmological Argument for God's Non-existence
Authors: Smith Quentin 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter argues in defence of the cosmological argument about God's non-existence. It proposes a coherent and plausible Big Bang cosmology that is better justified and is capable of standing up to the challenge of the theistic interpretation. It explains that the objective of the argument is to further establish that Big Bang cosmology is actually inconsistent with theism, and argues that if Big Bang cosmology is true, then God does not exist.
‘What Place, then, for a Creator?’: Hawking on God and Creation
Authors: Craig William Lane 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter discusses the position or opinion of cosmologist Stephen Hawking on the existence of God. In a review of his recent book, A Brief History of Time, a critic suggested that in Hawking's system, there is no room for a Creator God and that God never existed. This chapter argues that while Hawking rejects the role of God as Creator of the universe, he appears to retain God's role as the Sufficient Reason for the existence of the universe.
Introduction: The Problem Stated
Authors: Weir David A. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
One of the basic theological shifts during the 16th and 17th centuries was the manner in which Reformed Protestant theologians of northern Europe divided biblical time. Whereas John Calvin, in his Institutes of the Christian Religion, spoke of an Old Covenant which extended from Christ to the Day of Judgement, the Westminster Confession of Faith, written eighty years later, spoke of a covenant of grace. There were basic differences between these two concepts, differences which affected the way Calvinists thought and acted. Thus far, no one has explored thoroughly the origins of the shift from the Old Covenant/New Covenant distinction to the covenant of works/covenant of grace distinction, and where the covenant of works or prelapsarian covenant idea had its origin. This book explores as thoroughly as possible the origin of and the reasons for this transformation in theological thinking, and shows some of the implications it would have for Protestant Reformed thought.
Conclusion
Authors: Weir David A. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The overwhelming predominance of the federal theology in Puritan thinking and Puritanism's emphasis on duty must have something to do with the ‘Puritan-Presbyterian character’, with its emphasis upon diligence, duty, and discipline. However, the seeds of the federal theology are not to be found in ethics or morals; it only affected these areas. Its origin and rise must be seen within the context of the flow of the history of Reformed theology in the 16th and 17th centuries. Two questions plagued the Reformed Churches of Europe and later of New England: the question of predestination and the question of the sacraments. It is out of the questions concerning predestination that the federal theology flowed, for one of the great themes of the 16th-century intellectual thought is that of theodicy.
The ʽAshāra and the Ṭariqa, in Public and Private
Authors: Johansen Julian 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter explores the contrast between the 'Ashīra as the publicly visible ‘face’ of the Order and the Ṭarīqa itself. This is to demonstrate the ways in which the Order is presented to the public, and to clarify the relationship between the initiatic and associational elements of its membership. The appeal of the Ṭarīqa is broadened, defined only as an Order of the Shādhilī way. This alteration of emphasis is taken a step further by the formation of the 'Ashīra Muṭammadiyya. By stressing the way of the Prophet over that of the Sūfī Sheikhs of subsequent generations, the organization's links of identity have been extended as far as human transmission allows. The conference for the implementation of Sharī'a and the local projects and social services are specifically discussed.
The Miracles of the Prophet
Authors: Johansen Julian 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The Muslims' sense of closeness and devotion to the Prophet has inspired especially passionate feelings amongst those who discuss his acts and qualities. Having sought to establish the permissibility of miracles in theory, Sheikh Muṭammad goes on to consider objections of a more technical nature. In examining the controversial status of the Prophet, it has been seen that Sheikh Muṭammad is keen to reject any suggestions that the Prophet was just an ordinary man, and brings to bear the methods of Ḥadīth scholarship to authenticate the accounts of prophetic miracles and to substantiate his claims. It is suggested that he maintains a cautiously pragmatic approach to the presentation of controversial material.
Tense and Aspect in Texts
Authors: Goldfajn Tal 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter examines tense and the concept of aspect in texts in biblical Hebrew (BH) language. It analyses temporal expressions proposed by the Discourse Representation Theory and evaluates whether some of the basic tenets of this theory could be useful in the analysis of the BH text. This chapter also discusses the results of previous surveys on discourse-oriented accounts of the BH Verb.
Human Growth
Authors: Behr John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
Irenaeus asserts that God has not created man according to man's passions. He argues that the notion of man's ingratitude comes from those who lack an understanding of the divine economy. Man has to allow God to mold him in order for him to truly become human. Irenaeus introduces the concept of apostasy, the refusal to submit to God's will. He also points out that despite Adam's disobedience, and unlike Cain, Adam took the initiative to repent and ask God for forgiveness. In this chapter, Irenaeus emphasizes how man would have been able to grow the way God meant them to, had he not taken control of himself. He also asserts that God, despite Adam and Eve's apostasy, adapts a way in which Adam and Eve can still live according to God's original plan of growth for them.
Rebirth and Christian Life
Authors: Behr John 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
The main themes of Paedagogus include the significance of rebirth and the childhood of the people of God and the divine paideia or character formation. Clement gives emphasis on baptism and two of its features: first, newly baptized people possess characteristics of perfection and second, how this granted perfection lasts. A neophyte, a newly baptized person, would then have a twofold life, his natural life and a supernatural life in Christ. Clement explains that being baptized does not mean simply following Christ's actions; this means that the Christian would have a union with Christ. Through rebirth in Christ, Christians are able to live an eternally youthful life anew. Clement asserts that the practice of this asceticism relies on man's own ability; it is in man's power to decide whether he would obey God's commandments and plans for him.
General Introduction
Authors: Evans T. V. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This study involves three interconnecting spheres of research, treating the Greek verbal system in general, translation-technical issues and the verb in the Greek Pentateuch, and specific features of Pentatcuehal verbal syntax in relation both to the underlying Hebrew and the history of the Greek language. This is accordingly presented in three parts. Part l is largely concerned with theoretical issues. Part II assembles and analyses complete data for the Masoteric Text (MT) formal matches of all verbal forms in the Greek Pentateuch. Part III contains four detailed studies on features of verbal syntax in the Greek Pentateuch. Aside from describing the aims of the study, this chapter also describes previous studies of verbal syntax in the LXX (Septuagint), general tools for study of the Koine Greek verb, and the questions concerning the text of the Greek Pentateuch.
The Optative Mood
Authors: Evans T. V. 
Published: October 2011

Abstract
This chapter examines the Pentateuchal optative, reassessing its relationship both to the Hebrew and to the usage of non-translation Greek. The use of the optative mood, showing delicacy in the adaptation of Hebrew context to bring out special Greek nuances, provides clear evidence of independent verbal syntax in the Greek Pentateuch. Only the volitive function is directly motivated by features of the Hebrew text. Yet it is always employed idiomatically and can be regarded as exhibiting bilingual interference only in terms of its frequency comparative to the optative's other functions. The general vigour of the optative mood in the Pentateuch points towards early Koine composition. Though an insufficiently sensitive guide for precise dating, it suggests the period of the 3rd to 2nd century bc and is certainly compatible with the consensus view that the Pentatetich was translated in the 3rd century bc.