bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Ethics of Privacy
Authors: Christians Clifford G. 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter argues that the sophisticated ethics of privacy is a sine qua non for news media, with the common good being the primary principle. For communications, the best definition of privacy is the protection of one's innermost self by determining who or what enters our personal life space. In the digital era of networking and cyberspace, establishing an ethics of privacy is especially urgent. Because intrusion is a wide-ranging public issue using digital technology, the ethical framework ought to be commensurate in scope. A liberal ethics of human dignity for print or broadcast media, even one that appears able to stand on its own, needs to be expanded into an ethics of the common good. Thus, privacy must be understood primarily in terms of the general morality, not in terms of professional standards. The ethics of privacy is not focused on decisions that journalists make but is centered on the victims' need to control information about themselves. A reasonable public determines whether, when, and how information about them is communicated to others. From the common-good perspective, important social concerns regarding privacy are made transparent and inescapable.
Conflicting Loyalties and Personal Choices
Authors: Banaszynski Jacqui 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the tension between journalists' ethos-driven adherence to personal detachment from story sources and “personal values and instincts.” The goal is to break down this perceived dichotomy: “Walking onto the job doesn't mean walking away from ourselves. Presuming to do so is, at best, dishonest. At worst, dangerous.” Rather, a journalist's humanity is what allows her to get closer to the truth of a situation, thereby serving journalism's highest purpose. The chapter reinforces the book's “this is hard stuff” mantra; ethical journalists cannot just engage in knee-jerk adherence to standard principles, such as detachment, but must carefully think through the values underlying those principles and determine whether they should be followed in specific cases.
Mitigation Watchdogs: The Ethical Foundation for a Journalist’s Role
Authors: Wilkins Lee 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
Katrina was what practiced journalists might call a systems story with a human face. First, Katrina was about the systems put in place to deal with disasters and hazards. The political systems Katrina engaged had their roots in local, state, and national government. But there were culture, economics and science as well, each having an impact on how the story was portrayed and understood. There were journalistic systems too, including definitions of news and understandings of role, mechanisms of news delivery, and craft demands to humanize the event. Ethical decisions played a part in all of it, from the individual words and images journalists selected, to what stories were covered and what staff was assigned. The thesis of this chapter is that the ethical principles that best fund such coverage can be subsumed under the notion of harm prevention, in part by being a “mitigation watchdog.” Ethically informed news coverage can both report on immediate events and work to prevent harm in ways that allow citizens of a democracy to hold themselves and their social and governmental institutions to account.
Ethics and Images: Five Major Concerns
Authors: Lester Paul Martin 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
Photographs have long been known to spark more emotional responses than stories. This chapter uses a picture taken during a tragic news situation as an example of journalistic wrongdoing. Violence and tragedy are staples of U.S. journalism because many readers are attracted to gruesome stories and photographs. “If it bleeds, it leads” is an undesirable rule of thumb. This chapter uses a five-step systematic moral analysis to determine if the image's use can be justified despite the assumed harm to the woman in the photograph.
Threshold Deontology and Its Critique
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses moderate (or threshold) deontology, its critique, and possible responses. Deontological theories prioritize values such as autonomy, human dignity, and keeping one's promises over the promotion of good outcomes. In prohibiting the infliction of harm on other people, they resort to distinctions such as that between actively doing harm and merely allowing it, and between intending to do harm and merely foreseeing it. Moderate deontology holds that constraints (and options) have thresholds. A constraint may be overridden for the sake of furthering good outcomes or avoiding bad ones if enough good (or bad) is at stake; and an option not to promote the good may be overridden for the sake of attaining enough good or avoiding enough bad. The chapter analyzes the main critiques leveled against deontology in general and moderate deontology in particular. It concludes that threshold constraints (and options) are an indispensable part of any acceptable factoral moral theory, but that threshold deontology suffers from a lack of methodological rigor and precision.
Private and Public Morality
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the claim that even if moderate deontology is the correct moral theory for individuals, consequentialism is the appropriate moral theory for legal policymakers such as legislators, judges, and regulators, and for academic policy-analysts. It refutes the argument that the distinction between actively doing harm and passively allowing it is inapplicable in the public sphere. It similarly counters the argument that the distinction between intending harm and merely foreseeing it is only applicable in the private sphere. The chapter contends that these arguments confuse, among other things, between constraints and options, and between the actor's perspective and the perspective of an external reviewer. It ultimately rejects the alleged dichotomy between personal and public morality.
Constructing Threshold Functions
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses various substantive and methodological choices involved in formalizing deontological constraints and options. It proposes to determine the permissibility of any act or rule infringing a deontological constraint by means of a threshold function. It outlines the scope of this proposal by describing the role of threshold functions within a broader context that may involve conflicting constraints and require a choice between several deontologically permissible acts. It then delineates the general structure of threshold functions. To capture the essence of deontological constraints, threshold functions set the magnitude and shape of the threshold, as well as the types of costs and benefits that are taken into account in determining whether the act's (or rule's) net benefit meets the threshold. The construction of threshold functions for deontological options is also discussed.
Freedom of Speech
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses freedom of speech. It briefly describes current constitutional protection of this freedom and surveys its standard economic analysis. It then introduces the deontological constraint against curtailing free speech and analyzes in some detail the normative judgments involved in conducting a constrained cost-benefit analysis of speech regulation. As to calculating the benefit of speech regulation — which is tantamount to calculating the speech's expected harm — it examines the desirability of excluding, or radically discounting, various types of harms, such as chronologically-remote and low-probability harms, small harms, harms brought about through rational persuasion, and mere offensiveness. Various ways of formalizing such excluders and combining them are examined. The chapter then analyzes the threshold that has to be met to justify speech regulation, including its shape, the setting of different thresholds for content-based and for content-neutral regulation, and different thresholds for different categories of speech.
Antidiscrimination Laws
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines discrimination in the marketplace and, more specifically, the legitimacy and appropriate scope of anti-discrimination legislation. Following a brief survey of current legal norms, it relies on positive economic analysis to explain possible motivations for discrimination. It then examines the efforts made to justify anti-discrimination legislation on standard efficiency grounds. It argues that these efforts are unsuccessful. Rather, the appropriate way to adequately capture the issues pertaining to market discrimination is to directly take into account a deontological constraint against harming people by discriminating against them. The chapter analyzes the deontological constraint against discrimination, examines the relationships between this constraint and distributive bases for anti-discrimination legislation, and demonstrates how current legal norms are best understood as resting on moderate deontology and embodying threshold constraints.
Legal Paternalism
Authors: ZAMIR EYAL , MEDINA BARAK 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter analyzes legal paternalism in its various manifestations. It first argues that contrary to prevailing notions, normative economics does not entail principled anti-paternalism. In fact, the consequentialist nature of standard welfare economics — namely the absence of constraints on promoting good outcomes — opens the door to limiting people's freedom with a view to promoting their own good. Economists ordinarily object to paternalism, but rather than pointing to the intrinsic value of freedom, they base their anti-paternalistic stance on various secondary considerations, thus missing the real dilemmas inherent in paternalism. Adding deontological constraints to the analysis better captures the pertinent issues, and provides more accurate yardsticks with which to evaluate paternalistic legal norms and explain existing ones. The chapter constructs formal models to evaluate the desirability of paternalistic legal norms from both economic and moderate deontological perspectives.
2.1 Recording EEG Signals Inside the MRI
Authors: Gutberlet Ingmar 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the performance of parallel and concurrent electroencephalography (EEG), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measurements. Topics discussed include the technical challenges of recording EEG in the MR environment, types of MR-compatible equipment, patient safety during combined recordings, data acquisition considerations, and subject considerations.
2.3 Removal of MRI Artifacts from EEG Recordings
Authors: Eichele Tom , Moosmann Matthias , Wu Lei , Gutberlet Ingmar , Debener Stefan 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
The simultaneous recording of electroencephalogram (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) provides several advantages over multimodal integration based on separate EEG and fMRI recording protocols. However, the recording and analysis of simultaneous EEG-fMRI is not without pitfalls. The potential benefits of simultaneous recordings come at the expense of a massive, inevitable presence of artifacts, which corrupt the EEG signals recorded in the MR environment. This chapter presents different methods of EEG artifact correction. It also discusses the limitations of currently available approaches as well as possible future directions.
2.4 Influence of EEG Equipment on MR Image Quality
Authors: Mullinger Karen , Bowtell Richard 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter first considers the detrimental effect of main magnetic field inhomogeneity in MRI, focusing on the particular effects of the differences in magnetic susceptibility between the materials used in EEG recording (electrodes and leads) and the human head. It then examines the importance of a uniform RF field in MRI, and analyzes how the presence of an EEG cap may affect the homogeneity of this field, thus reducing image quality. The ways in which these phenomena affect the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and cause local signal loss in EPI data collected for fMRI experiments, are discussed. The safety aspect of simultaneous EEG-fMRI, which is an extremely important consideration, is explored. Guidance is given relating to how to test the safety of an experimental set-up, and the importance of testing each new EEG recording arrangement in the scanner is emphasized. Finally, the chapter suggests some methods that may be used to overcome the problems of reduced MR image quality, which can be encountered when performing simultaneous EEG and fMRI.
3.1 Using ICA for the Analysis of Multi-Channel EEG Data
Authors: Debener Stefan , Thorne Jeremy , Schneider Till R. , Viola Filipa Campos 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
Independent component analysis (ICA) is a linear decomposition technique that aims to reveal the underlying statistical sources of mixed signals. The EEG signal consists of a mixture of various brain and non-brain contributions. Accordingly, a valid and powerful unmixing tool promises a better, more accessible representation of the statistical sources contributing to the mixed recorded signal. ICA, being potentially such a tool, may help in the detection of signal sources that cannot be identified on the raw data level alone using other, more conventional techniques. The application of ICA to EEG signals has become popular, as it provides two key features: it is a powerful way to remove artifacts from EEG data, and it helps to disentangle otherwise mixed brain signals. This chapter is concerned with evaluating and optimizing EEG decompositions by means of ICA. First, it discusses typical ICA results with reference to artifact- and brain-related components. Then, it elaborates on different EEG pre-processing steps, considered in light of the statistical assumptions underlying ICA. As such, the motivation for the chapter is to provide some practical guidelines for those researchers who wish to successfully decompose multi-channel EEG recordings.
3.2 Using ICA for the Analysis of fMRI Data
Authors: Valente Giancarlo , Esposito Fabrizio , de Martino Federico , Goebel Rainer , Formisano Elia 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter examines the most relevant aspects concerning the use of independent component analysis (ICA) for the analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data. In particular, after illustrating the fMRI-ICA model (“Problem formulation and application to fMRI”), the chapter compares the most commonly used ICA algorithms in the context of fMRI data analysis. The problems of choosing the dimensionality of the ICA decomposition, and of selecting the “meaningful” components, are considered. Optimizations of the ICA algorithms for dealing with the specific spatiotemporal properties of the fMRI data, and extensions of the ICA to multisubject fMRI studies, are described. For each of these aspects, different approaches from various groups are briefly reviewed.
3.6 The Hemodynamic Response of EEG Features
Authors: de Munck JC , Gonçalves SI , van Houdt PJ , Mammoliti R , Ossenblok P , da Silva FH Lopes 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter describes the hemodynamic response function (HRF) estimation problem in detail, and discusses its underlying assumptions. Different variants of the method are applied using the data of a single subject that was chosen for illustrative purposes.
3.7 Integration of Separately Recorded EEG/MEG and fMRI Data
Authors: Wibral Michael , Bledowski Christoph , Turi Georg 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents various strategies of combining separately recorded electroencephalography/magnetoencephalography (EEG/MEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data sets. To help the experimenter decide in the first place whether to use concurrent recordings of EEG and fMRI or separate recordings, it attempts to weigh the relative merits of combined versus separate EEG/MEG and fMRI measurements, and puts them in perspective with respect to various experimental goals. The principle of MEG recording and its advantages, as compared to EEG, are also described; these particular advantages of MEG recordings are important to consider because, at present, they are only available when data are recorded separately, due to the current incompatibility of MRI and MEG measurement equipment.
3.8 Analyzing Effective Connectivity with EEG and MEG
Authors: Kiebel Stefan J. , Garrido Marta I. , Friston Karl J. 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
Developments in M/EEG analysis allows for models that are sophisticated enough to capture the full richness of the data. This chapter focuses on dynamic causal modeling (DCM) for M/EEG, which entails the inversion of informed spatiotemporal models of observed responses. The idea is to model condition-specific responses over channels and peristimulus time with the same model, where the differences among conditions are explained by changes in only a few key parameters. The face and predictive validity of DCM have been established, which makes it a potentially useful tool for group studies.
3.9 Analyzing Functional and Effective Connectivity with fMRI
Authors: Stephan Klaas Enno , Friston Karl J. 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
Functional neuroimaging techniques, e.g. positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and neurophysiological methods, e.g. electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalograpy (MEG), are used widely in cognitive and clinical neuroscience. A common aim is to understand brain function along two dimensions: functional specialization and functional integration. Functional specialization assumes that AQ1 distinct brain regions are specialized for certain aspects of information processing, but allows for the possibility that this specialization is anatomically segregated across multiple regions. Most current functional neuroimaging experiments have adopted this view and interpret the areas that are activated by a certain task component as the elements of a distributed system. However, this characterization does not address how the locally specialized areas are bound together by context-dependent interactions among these areas, i.e. the functional integration within the system. This chapter reviews established techniques for characterizing functional integration on the basis of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data.
4.2 Clinical Applications: Epilepsy
Authors: Laufs Helmut , Thornton Rachel 
Published: May 2010

Abstract
This chapter reviews the clinical application of electroencephalography/functional magnetic resonance imaging (EEG-fMRI) to epilepsy at two levels. Initially, it summarizes the body of primary EEG/fMRI patient studies in epilepsy, focusing on the most comprehensive and up-to-date literature available. It then addresses the question of what researchers have learned about the potentials and limitations of this technique, which is still relatively new. Although EEG/fMRI has not lived up to some of its initial expectations, it will be seen that new avenues have appeared. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the immediate next steps, and an outlook on the future of the field.
Anterior Cingulate Cortex Contributions to Cognitive and Emotional Processing: A General Purpose Mechanism for Cognitive Control and Self-Control
Authors: Krug Marie K. , Carter Cameron S. 
Published: May 2010

AbstractThis chapter addresses the topic of self-control from the perspective of conflict theory, a well-studied framework for understanding the behavioral and neural adaptation effects seen during the performance of a selective attention task. We begin with an in-depth explanation of conflict theory and a review of recent literature in support of this theory. We explain how the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) monitors for processing or response conflict and recruits dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) to resolve these conflicts, increasing attention to goal-related stimuli and adaptively improving behavioral performance. Next, we review alternative theories and explanations of cognitive control and compare them to conflict theory. Finally, we focus on the recent application of conflict theory to the understanding of a wide range of mental processes including emotion regulation and appraisal as well as social cognitive phenomena such as moral reasoning and attitudes, social exclusion, and cognitive dissonance. We conclude that conflict theory, a mechanistic framework originally designed to account for cognitive control functions related to attention, also shows promise in its ability to elucidate higher-level emotional and social behaviors and their associated neural activity. We propose that this model should be considered in future studies of processes related to self-control.
Damaged Self, Damaged Control: A Component Process Analysis of the Effects of Frontal Lobe Damage on Human Decision Making
Authors: Fellows Lesley K. 
Published: May 2010

AbstractFrontal lobe damage can disrupt judgment, decision making, and self-control, often with devastating impact on the everyday life of the affected person. Studies of these phenomena can identify the specific brain regions important for self-control and can specify the component processes for which these regions are necessary. This chapter provides an overview of recent neuropsychological work on regional frontal lobe contributions to reinforcement learning and decision making in humans. These findings argue that self-control can be understood in terms of simpler component processes, including the ability to flexibly learn from reward and punishment, to track the value of potential choices, or to predict future events. Further, these processes have been shown to rely on particular brain regions, an important step in delineating the neural mechanisms underlying self-control.
Control in the Regulation of Intergroup Bias
Authors: Amodio David M. , Devine Patricia G. 
Published: May 2010

AbstractIn the intergroup relations literature, theories of control concern the interplay of basic cognitive mechanisms of self-regulation with intrapersonal and societal-level goals and motivations. By integrating multiple levels of analysis, this literature has been uniquely positioned to advance our understanding of control as it operates in the complex social world that the human self-regulatory system has evolved to negotiate. In this chapter, we review research and theoretical models of control that have emerged from intergroup approaches. The first section of this chapter describes four theoretical models of control that have been central to research in prejudice, stereotyping, and intergroup relations. The next section highlights some of the recent exciting advances in the study of control in the intergroup domain and notes how they are refining and, in some cases, redefining basic conceptions of control as a self-regulatory process. The final section outlines what we see as some major challenges faced by current theories of control, both in the intergroup domain and in the broader psychological literature.