bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Human trafficking
Authors: Jakobi Anja P. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Human trafficking (also: trafficking in human beings) is the movement of people and their subsequent exploitation in the labor market (e.g., child labor, prostitution, construction sites) or other contexts (e.g., forced marriage, adoption, war, removal of organs). In the context of trafficking operations, humans are conceived as a “product” to be selected, transported and sold, the underlying criminal business logic of traffickers is comparable to those related to other illicit goods. Human trafficking can take place within and across countries. This entry focuses on cross‐border trafficking, which has been facilitated by globalization processes, particularly by modern means of communication and transportation, growing disparities in living conditions, and governance gaps with regard to transnational organized crime groups.
Oil (Petroleum)
Authors: Labban Mazen 
Published: March 2012

AbstractOil has occupied center stage in global politics and economics, as well as everyday social life and cultural imaginaries, for more than a century. There is hardly any facet of modern social life that is not touched by oil, and its significance for modern globalization is emphasized by its intimate connections with the development of the modern corporation, monopoly capital, and the world market; imperialism, geopolitics, war, and questions of national security; economic development, human rights, and political ecology. From the early beginnings of its use, oil became synonymous with power, economic development, and modernization, but also with misery, destitution, and destruction; effortless, intoxicating wealth but also toxic waste: at once “black gold” and the “devil's excrement,” in the words of Juan Pablo Perez Alfonso, former Venezuelan oil minister and founder of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). The historical geography of oil is a historical geography of relentless expansion and fierce rivalry: pioneering forms of corporate organization, financial management, and technological innovation, but also intrigue, corruption and countless forms of physical and symbolic violence. There is perhaps no other industry that demonstrates the violence inherent in the global expansion of capitalism as does the oil industry.
Tax Evasion, Global
Authors: Guerrero Alejandro 
Published: March 2012

AbstractTax evasion was traditionally a domestic phenomenon, as individuals tried to escape from the fiscal burden imposed by government by legally avoiding some taxable practices, or by resorting to illegal activities in the underground economy. The degree of domestic tax evasion was thus determined by the actual enforcement capacity of the tax administration, and by the perceived legitimacy and trustworthiness of government, which determined the effort individuals will put into avoiding taxation.
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
Authors: Jachertz Ruth 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is one of the United Nations' specialized agencies. FAO's mandate is to raise levels of nutrition, improve agricultural productivity, better the lives of rural populations, and contribute to the growth of the world economy. Presently, FAO has 192 member nations and one member organization, the European Union (EU). It is governed by the Conference consisting of delegates of all member nations who meet biennially. The Conference elects the 49 members of the FAO Council, which supervises the work of the FAO Secretariat. The FAO Secretariat has 1736 professional members and 1905 support staff. Roughly two‐thirds of staff work in the headquarters in Rome. FAO has five regional offices, 10 subregional offices and 74 country offices.
Tourism and The Media
Authors: Tzanelli Rodanthi 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Tourism is inextricably linked to the historical development of diverse forms of media and of mediations as such. “Media” is a concept inclusive of communicative intermediary products that come in the form of print (such as books and magazines), visual (paintings, photographs) and audiovisual (film, the Internet). If the media act as vehicles of socio‐cultural messages, “mediations” refer to the ways these messages are communicated and the very act of their communication (such as transmission). To understand how this communication takes place in relation to tourism we need to examine its context and the actors involved in the production and consumption of messages. An increasing globalization of the media diffused tourist‐orientated messages beyond national boundaries, ultimately assisting in the globalization of tourist service provision.
Washington Consensus
Authors: Montecinos Verónica 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe core precepts of the Washington Consensus – trade liberalization, privatization, macroeconomic stability – played an unequalled role in the worldwide expansion of the “free‐market revolution” of the late twentieth century. The economic orthodoxy of the Washington Consensus is widely associated with the encompassing phenomenon of neoliberalism, which spread globally at an uneven pace and scale (Babb & Fourcade‐Gourinchas 2002). National variability in economic and institutional structures affected the degree of support and resistance to market strategies as well as the extent to which the free‐market paradigm was applied, and yet there was considerable cross‐national uniformity in the reconfiguration of state–market interactions. The relative transnational convergence of the reform process was anchored in the competitive pressures of globalization, in the practices of influential Washington‐based institutions, and in contemporary patterns within the economics profession. In its original version, the Washington Consensus codified a set of 10 economic policy reforms that emphasized free markets as the royal road to economic prosperity; 20 years later, it remains central to economic policy debates and very much a part of the global political lexicon.
Water
Authors: Hoekstra Arjen Y. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Protecting freshwater resources can no longer be regarded as an issue for individual countries or regions. Consider Australia as an example. Australia is currently using a substantial amount of its water resources in making export products. Freshwater scarcity in Australia cannot thus be understood as being related to demands from Australian consumers alone. The total volume of water consumed in Australia within the various economic sectors amounts to about 90 billion cubic meters per year. The water footprint of Australian consumers amounts to no more than one‐third of that (Hoekstra & Chapagain 2008). By exporting huge volumes of water‐intensive commodities, Australia and the Americas are the big “water suppliers” to the rest of the world, especially Europe and Japan.
Weak States
Authors: Tyagi Juhi 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe term “weak state” is a contentious one. It is generally used to define a state that is weak in its core functions of providing security to its citizens (security gap), providing basic services to its citizens (capacity gap), and having legitimacy among its people (legitimacy gap). Though used after the Cold War, the idea of weak states became salient post 2001, after the 9/11 attacks in the United States. Since, several governments and international organizations dominated by bureaucrats and experts from a handful of countries have involved themselves in the task of recognizing states that are weak or failing. From 1992 to today, over 40 quantitative indexes have been generated to measure state failure/fragility (Woodward 2008). The immediacy of recognizing and intervening in weak or failed states comes from the apparent, though undertested, link between state weakness and terrorism. Weak states have come to be considered a security threat because they are seen as more susceptible to organized crime, privatized violence, arms proliferation, the spread of infectious diseases, environmental degradation, and civil war. Within a globalized world, such states are considered a threat to all nations, having spillover effects, especially on stable states. Weak states have low or stagnant economic growth and weak governing institutions that are unable to implement policies or maintain autonomy due to corruption or conflict. Weak states are distinguished from failed states by degree. Failed states are said to be nonfunctional and characterized by a complete lack of legitimacy of the government. For example, Somalia consistently topped the list of failed state indexes on the grounds of having an illegitimate government, civil war, and lack of economic or personal security. The term “rogue state” can also be distinguished from “weak state.” Rogue states, in contrast to weak ones, can have strong governance institutions, but are said to disregard international law and violate international treaties.
Women and Economic Development
Authors: Heger Boyle Elizabeth 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Since the era of decolonization in the mid twentieth century, international actors have committed themselves to promoting economic development within former colonies. In recent decades, scholars have begun to study how these various strategies affect women and gender relations within countries. Even if strategies create economic growth at the national level – an outcome that cannot be taken for granted – the growth may not benefit all individuals within countries.
Women's Movement(s), Transnational
Authors: Berkovitch Nitza 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
With the advance of globalization to the forefront of social scientific writing, transnational aspects of contemporary as well as early women's movements have attracted the attention of an increasing number of scholars from a variety of disciplines. It has become clear that the history of ties and connections among groups and individuals from various regions of the world – women especially, in our case – constitutes an important element in the history of globalization, contributing further to the growing interconnectedness of the world.
World Social Forum
Authors: Kohler Kristopher 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The World Social Forum (WSF), also referred to as the “Movement of Movements,” is the world's preeminent gathering of anti‐neoliberal globalization forces, arrayed since 2001 under the banner “Another World is Possible.” The WSF and its regional, national and subnational counterparts have provided hundreds of thousands of participants with a space for networking, discussion, learning, and sharing strategies to resist the cultural, economic, social, and political threats of neoliberalism.
World Summit on the Information Society
Authors: Zehle Soenke 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) was the highest and broadest platform for global negotiations on communications in the history of the United Nations. Hosted by the oldest UN agency, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) responsible for the international regulation of the radio spectrum and telecommunications, the multiyear process‐event included two intergovernmental summits (Geneva 2003 and Tunis 2005). Adopting a multi‐stakeholder model as its consultative strategy, WSIS invited formal participation from other UN bodies and international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, the private sector, and civil society. While WSIS fell short of creating a global framework to deal with the challenges posed by the information society, its outcomes included a Declaration of Principles promoting “a people‐centered, inclusive and development‐oriented information society” (Panel of the United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development 2006), various monitoring initiatives to implement a plan of action, and an Internet Governance Forum created to sustain a multi‐stakeholder policy dialogue.
World Values Survey
Authors: Minkov Michael 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The World Values Survey (WVS) is an international academic project studying human values, beliefs, norms, self‐descriptions, and other elements of national culture, as well as political attitudes and opinions, across the globe. The scholars who lead the project are mainly interested in the relationships between economic development, cultural change, and political life on all continents. The WVS data have also been widely used by cross‐cultural psychologists, anthropologists, and other social scientists.
Zapatistas
Authors: Dinerstein Ana Cecilia 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The Zapatistas are an armed revolutionary movement that represents the voice of indigenous people of Chiapas, Southeast Mexico. The “Zapatistas” came to light on January 1, 1994, when the Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN) occupied several counties of Chiapas, an economic strategic area where abundant natural resources (biodiversity, oil, waterfalls) coexist with extreme poverty and social exclusion. The entrance of the Mexican state to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) demanded a reform of Article 27 of the National Constitution – which would facilitate the opening up of indigenous lands (
ejidos
) to large agro‐business. On January 1, 1994, the first day of NAFTA, the Chiapas peasants, represented by the EZLN ski‐masked leaders, exclaimed “Enough is enough!” (
Ya basta
!), declaring war on the Mexican state and characterizing globalization as “a war against humanity.”
Transnational Environmental Activism
Authors: Ignatow Gabe 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Transnational environmental activism refers to the actions of nongovernmental groups who work across national borders for environmental causes. The modern environmental movement, which began in the 1960s but grew most dramatically in the 1970s and then again in the 1990s, largely overlaps the “globalization era.” Therefore, the fact that environmental activism has often taken transnational forms is not surprising. Also, many of the most significant environmental problems, such as the ozone hole, species loss, and global warming are not limited to any one nation‐state. They cross national boundaries, and as such are understood to require international cooperation if they are to be effectively addressed.
Transnational Migration
Authors: Faist Thomas 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
“Transnational migration” and the broader term “transnationalism” entered the lexicon of migration studies in the early 1990s, over a century after earlier generations of migration researchers had introduced and made extensive use of the concept of assimilation. It did so in rather different circumstances, for whereas assimilation gained currency with relatively little reflection or debate at the time when migration research was in its early formative period, transnational migration and transnationalism entered a well‐developed sociological subfield dealing with cross‐border movements and migrant incorporation. The concept has undergone substantial revision since its earliest formulations, the consequence of an often‐spirited dialogue (see Levitt & Jaworsky 2007). Over time, the debate around transnationalism in migration has concerned broader issues in the social sciences, such as power, methodological nationalism and essentializing ethno‐cultural groups.
Transparency
Authors: Gupta Aarti 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Transparency is commonly understood as openness and the “opposite of secrecy” (Florini 1998), to be secured through greater availability and increased flows of information. In our globalizing era, transparency seems to be implicated in every controversy of the moment, from the 2010 WikiLeaks disclosure of United States' diplomatic cables, to the 2009 Copenhagen climate meeting's battles over “monitoring, reporting and verification” of greenhouse gas emissions and the 2008 global financial crisis with its attendant lack of disclosure about questionable business transactions. Transparency is thus linked to the most politically charged debates of our times, those relating to due process and good governance, human security and oversight of markets in an era of globalization.
Tuberculosis
Authors: Hall Jason K. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a potentially fatal disease that primarily affects poor populations – particularly young adults – in the developing world. In 2009, 9.4 million new cases of TB were reported and there were 1.7 million deaths resulting from the disease. The World Health Organization (WHO) South‐East Asia, Africa, and Western Pacific regions have the highest rates of incidence, accounting for 85 percent of all cases. TB is the third leading cause of death among women aged 15–44 globally and is a leading cause of death among individuals who are HIV positive. Led by the WHO and the Stop TB Partnership, a global effort is underway to reduce the incidence and mortality rate of the disease.
Twitter Revolution
Authors: Jurgenson Nathan 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe phraseTwitter Revolutionis a controversial label sometimes applied to a series of recent uprisings, most notably in the Middle East and North Africa in 2010–2011, that utilize social media services such as Twitter, Facebook, YouTube and others. A new concept widely discussed in the wake of recent social uprisings, the phrase has little history in academic scholarship. For the purposes of this entry, the phraseTwitter Revolutionwill refer to any uprising that utilizes social media to some extent.
Union of South American Nations
Authors: Kellogg Paul 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe Union of South American Nations, known by its acronym UNASUR (based on the SpanishUnion de Naciones Suramericanas), was formally constituted on May 23, 2008 through the South American Union of Nations Constitutive Treaty. It includes all South American countries except French Guiana. In 2009, the combined population of UNASUR countries (389 million) was less than but comparable to that of the countries in NAFTA, the North American Free Trade Agreement (458 million). However, the combined Gross Domestic Product of the UNASUR countries, at $2.9 trillion, was considerably smaller than the $16.3 trillion gross domestic product (GDP) of the NAFTA countries. (Compiled from United Nations 2011.)
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
Authors: Taylor Ian 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was formed in 1964 to generate an institutionalized forum where the developed nations of the United Nations would negotiate demands centered on measures aimed at benefiting the developing world. In short, it is a forum to significantly rework existing norms regarding trade and development. UNCTAD's founding reflected the growth in membership of newly independent states within the United Nations. A large number of the elites of these new entities keenly felt the iniquity of the world order upon which they had been launched. UNCTAD and the later call for a “New International Economic Order” (NIEO) therefore was a rejoinder to problems encountered by developing countries as a result of the creation and operation of the Bretton Woods institutions (BWIs).
United Students Against Sweatshops
Authors: J.S. Ross Robert 
Published: March 2012

AbstractOfficially founded in 1998, United Students Against Sweatshops (USAS) is a US‐based student organization that campaigns to support workers' organizations on college and university campuses and in the global apparel industry (Featherstone et al. 2002; Ross 2004a; USAS 2010). While the organization sees itself as broadly involved in global and worker justice issues, its original and still most effective focus is on ensuring garments that bear university or college insignia are made in factories where workers' rights are respected. As of 2010 there were approximately 200 USAS affiliates (with varying levels of activity) on US and Canadian campuses. In the course of the group's history there have been chapters on as many as 400 different campuses.
Vagabonds and Tourists
Authors: Ritzer George 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Zygmunt Bauman (1998) has offered a conceptual distinction between tourists and vagabonds that is highly applicable to globalization. The Northern prototype would be
tourists
who move about the world because they
want to
(and because they are “light”), whereas the Southern prototype would be (“heavy”)
vagabonds
who, if they are able to move at all, it is likely to be because they are forced to (e.g., forced to migrate to escape poverty (and to find work) because of war, discrimination, and the like). Moving about the world voluntarily as a tourist is a much more pleasant and rewarding experience than being forced to move about as a vagabond. Further complicating matters for vagabonds is the fact that they are often forced to move many different times. For example, illegal Mexican immigrants in the United States (estimated at 11 million people) are often forced to change jobs and to move home frequently, and may also be forced to return to Mexico, perhaps several times (Archibold 2008). Tourists, on the other hand, are forced to do little if anything – they go just about where they want, when they please, and they stay pretty much as long as their visas (and pocketbooks) permit.
Virtual Communities
Authors: Rutherford Larissa S. , Hoeninger Jr Carl R. , Wiest Dawn 
Published: March 2012

AbstractA virtual community is a technology‐mediated social group that is organized around common interests, experiences, or convictions. Like physically based communities, virtual communities are characterized by shared norms, rules, values, beliefs, and expectations that are constructed through interaction and shaped by the larger social environment within which they evolve. Examples of virtual communities include the popular social networking web sites Facebook, Twitter, and MySpace, as well as virtual communities organized around social movements, neighborhoods, religious or ethnic identities, and professions. The virtualization of social ties has raised questions about fundamental aspects of communal life. Whether participation in virtual communities reinforces the hierarchies and inequalities that characterize social relations anchored in real places; increases an individual's sense of well‐being; enhances social capital; yields new forms of democratic participation; or promotes shifts in the organization of power and social control are prominent questions in the academic research on the subject.
Pattern Formation in Nature: Physical Constraints and Self‐Organising Characteristics
Authors: Ball Philip 
Published: March 2012

AbstractPattern formations are apparent in natural systems ranging from clouds to animal markings, and from sand dunes to shells of microscopic marine organisms. Despite the astonishing range and variety of such structures, many have comparable features. In this article, Philip Ball reviews some of the common patterns found in nature. He explains how they are typically formed through simple, local interactions between many components of a system – a form of physical computation that gives rise to self‐organisation and emergent structures and behaviours. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Evolutionary Architecture? Some Perspectives From Biological Design
Authors: Turner J Scott 
Published: March 2012

AbstractArchitects' view of nature tends to rest on the assumption that it is inherently efficient in its use of materials and energy, and essentially ingenious and elegant in its solutions. This perception in science is one that has been propounded through Darwinism: the notion that refinement of ‘design’ is achieved through repetitive selection, variation and mutation. The renowned biologist J Scott Turner argues here that there is little evidence that living design actually comes about in this way. Instead, looking to Darwin's French contemporary Claude Bernard and his theory of homeostasis, he proposes that living systems converge on effective design much faster and more predictably than a simple regime of natural selection alone would suggest. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.