bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Ecological Century
Authors: Worthington E. Barton 
Published: August 2009

The historical perspective is becoming ever more important in scientific research and development—especially in regions of rapid political and social change, such as former colonial empires, where the past is readily forgotten. Therefore this essay attempts to reconstruct the evolution of Ecology as the scientific basis for environmental conservation and human progress, as seen through the eyes of a biologist who has exercised that science during a number of tasks in various parts of the world over most of the twentieth century.From its beginnings in evolutionary thinking during the nineteenth century, ecology emerged from natural history at the beginning of the twentieth. At first the running was made by botanists; but this was soon followed by zoologists, who dealt with more mobile communities. The first quarter-century was mainly exploratory; the second was mainly descriptive (although biological exploration was still dominant in the tropics). The third quarter saw ecology developing into an experimental science, and, as the environmental revolution got into its stride, ecology became organized both nationally and internationally.Although the term is now often misused and sometimes misunderstood by laymen, the last quarter-century is seeing the wide application of ecology in environmental and human affairs, and this gives some assurance that the twenty-first century will not become one of chaos. The Author expresses the hope that experienced practising ecologists will in future give higher priority to applying what they already know than to learning more and more about less and less.
World Campaign for the Biosphere
Authors: Worthington E. Barton 
Published: August 2009

The Devil's Advocate, who is a cynic, points to many international programmes which are related to The Biosphere, whether past or ongoing. He asks what a World Campaign for The Biosphere could do beyond attempting to coordinate the coordinators.The Archangel answers by drawing attention to the success of such programmes in stimulating activity on many important subjects and fronts. But the critical situation of the world now demands more. He therefore hopes that all who have at heart the future health, wealth, and happiness, of mankind, which can only flourish in a healthy Biosphere—whether they be pessimists or optimists—will support the Campaign with all the means at their disposal.For the purposes of the Campaign, The Biosphere can be defined in summary as ‘the peripheral envelope of the Earth in which living things exist naturally’. Thus it includes parts of the geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere—and, most important, it includes mankind as the pandominant member of the animal kingdom.As to a starting-date for the Campaign, there is a case for deferment owing to the time necessary for preparing and approving a programme and then establishing a network organization for putting it into operation. However, considering the urgency of the problems at issue and the timing of related programmes, there is a stronger case for starting now, in 1982, and for including the preparatory phase within the Campaign, which would then commence with the second decade of UNEP.Four aims are included in the Draft Declaration about the Campaign: (1) education and allied activities, (2) scientific understanding, (3) practical activities, and (4) accommodation of humanity to The Biosphere. The aims (1), (2), and (3), should go forward hand-in-hand in order to achieve (4). The main emphasis could be on (1); but as (2) is already the subject of several international programmes, (3), which provides good material for (1), should also receive emphasis. Meanwhile, much careful discussion will be needed in order to prepare a plan that will be acceptable to participating organizations.
The Biosphere Reserve: A Tool for Environmental Conservation and Management
Authors: Batisse Michel 
Published: August 2009

The concept of ‘biosphere reserve’ emerged from the programme of Man and the Biosphere (MAB) of which it constitutes an essential part. This paper describes how the concept has progressively evolved as the Programme was being implemented, and as the multiple objectives and characteristics of Biosphere Reserves were clearly identified.The primary function of Biosphere Reserves remains the in situ long-term conservation of plant and animal genetic resources, together with research on ecosystem management and conservation, monitoring of changes in The Biosphere, training of specialists, and environmental education. They are being progressively integrated into a world-wide network of ‘representative ecological areas’ that is intended to cover all major representative natural and semi-natural ecosystems.The paper stresses the flexibility and versatility of the new concept, and gives examples of how this concept is being implemented. It underlines current trends in the building-up of the international network, which now includes 214 Biosphere Reserves in 58 countries, and the future prospects for its full development. The paper also suggests that the direct involvement of the local population in the management of Biosphere Reserves, together with the maintenance of research and monitoring activities in them, constitute the best guarantee for long-term conservation of genetic resources on a world-wide basis. It announces the proposed ‘International Conference on Biosphere Reserves’, which it is hoped can be held in Minsk (USSR) in the autumn of 1983.
Our Global Environment and the World Campaign for the Biosphere
Authors: Polunin Nicholas 
Published: August 2009

After a requested account of how, starting from his student days, he had come gradually to ‘care about our Only One Biosphere’ and think globally (even if commonly acting only locally), the Author presents his ‘thoughts on what might best be done to [foster a World Campaign for the Biosphere] and make it operationally effective’. This Campaign should be world-wide and have the objective of educating everybody everywhere to full realization of the following facts and their often imperatively grave implications: (1) The Biosphere constitutes a single integrated whole of which all parts are often intricately interdependent, (2) we humans form an integral part of the Biosphere but are becoming far too numerous and heavily dominant for its or our own good, (3) we are absolutely dependent on the health of the Biosphere for our own subsistence and more as it constitutes our sole life-support, (4) The Biosphere in part or even in toto is in several ways fragile, but (5) it is gravely threatened by various human activities and out-sized capabilities such as those of nuclear weaponry which are said to be sufficient to destroy our civilization several times over, and conceivably even the entire Biosphere.The second, longer part of the article is devoted to consideration of the following chosen ‘round dozen’ recommended activities through which it is thought the Campaign might best be advanced, at least in its early stages: (1) Publishing and broadcasting pertinent information and support by all appropriate means; (2) Using other vehicles of desirable publicity, including posters and stickers; (3) Instructive advertising and audienceattracting showmanship; (4) Books on the Biosphere and illustrated study manuals; (5) Specialist research and its vigorous application; (6) Need to control human numbers and behaviour; (7) National Parks, Biosphere Reserves, and Biological Gardens, etc.; (8) Pertinent conferences, meetings, and other ‘free’ deliberations; (9) Need to change human attitudes and priorities; (10) Need to establish due ethics and laws; (11) Institutional and organizational involvement towards survival; and (12) ‘Guardians of the Biosphere’ recognition and awards.The above 12 points largely follow those presaged in the Editorial in our preceding issue, since completion of which it has emerged that this Campaign should be socalled (without reference to any time-scale), and that it might best be furthered by two United Nations agencies, an intergovernmental one, and at least one nongovernmental one—all hopefully working in concert.
Major Requirements for Environmental Education
Authors: Biswas Margaret R. , Biswas Asit K. 
Published: August 2009

Environment can be better managed only if people have understanding and appreciation of it. This can be achieved only through environmental education, and that is one reason why environmental education is so important and essential at present. Another is to understand our complete dependence on The Biosphere as our only life-suppert and safeguard it against increasing population-pressures.The basic aim of environmental education is to make individuals and communities understand the complex nature of natural and Man-made environments resulting from the interaction of their biological, physical, social, economic, and cultural, aspects. There are several major requirements which are likely to contribute to its success. These are interdisciplinarity, interrelatedness, flexibility, non-dogmatism, problem anticipation, emphasis on problem-solving, and ‘practise what you preach’.Environmental education alone and by itself will not solve all environmental problems, but environmental education is a prerequisite for better environmental management and, ultimately, for safeguarding The Biosphere.
Impact of Utilization of Natural Resources on Forest and Wooded Savanna Ecosystems in Rural Ghana
Authors: Dorm-Adzobu Clement 
Published: August 2009

The enthusiasm with which Ghana's natural resources, particularly mineral and forest products, have been exploited during the past century, has resulted in serious environmental degradation in many of the resource-rich areas. The impression has been created, and accepted, that the existence of these resources constitutes a sound basis for social and economic development, and precipitous steps have therefore been taken to utilize these resources—irrespective of the consequences on the natural environment. The present situation is that the costs of utilizing the country's forests, minerals, and soils, are obviously high, when estimated in terms of environmental degradation, and even higher, when calculated in terms of risk of depletion.There is evidence of the realization, particularly among decision-makers, of environmental and ecological harm having been done through past development, and although there is general concern over inadequate ‘resources’ to rectify existing damages, steps are being taken to ensure long-term integrated management in the future of the country's remaining resources. For example, a national Environmental Protection Council has been established to coordinate all activities relating to the environment, and to advise the government in environmental matters (Dorm-Adzobu, 1980). One of the major concerns of the Council is the education of the public, to understand and appreciate the values of a healthy environment.Faced with the necessity to combine development and environment in the use of natural resources, developing countries, most of which are basically concerned with nursing ailing economies, have a difficult decision to make—a decision which will not only affect the present developmental process but also have implications for the future. In the interests of a sustained future, such a decision must be based on a serious consideration of the conservational and socio-cultural aspects of natural resource use.
Desert Ecosystems: Their Resources in Space and Time
Authors: Crawford Clifford S. , Gosz James R. 
Published: August 2009

The dynamics of desert ecosystems control levels of resources that are essential to the survival of desert biotas. Because precipitation is both low and relatively unpredictable in arid regions, the climates, topographies, and soils, of these areas present formidable constraints to resource availability in space and time. And for the same reason, the processes of production, consumption, decomposition, and nutrient-cycling in deserts are also highly irregular and difficult to predict with accuracy. For example, global models relating actual evapotranspiration to primary production and decomposition apply poorly in arid regions.Surprisingly great amounts of carbon are stored in desert soils, particularly in caliche deposits which represent a major ‘sink’ of carbon from the atmosphere. In Arizona desert soils, inorganic carbon exceeds organic carbon by a factor of > 10. Direct use of organic carbon is made principally by organisms that break down desert litter and simultaneously cause relatively high rates of nitrogen mineralization. While nitrogen is traditionally considered deficient in arid environments, its flux is considerable because of high rates of gain by fixation and loss by denitrification and volatilization. Nitrogen accumulates in ‘islands of fertility’ beneath desert shrubs where it becomes relatively available because of (i) its high concentration in plant litter, and (ii) reduced activity of any aromatic modifiers that retard decomposition.It is misleading in deserts to relate nutrient availability to yearly averages, as nutrients may become highly available following pulses of ‘effective’ precipitation. Moreover, mineralization and subsequent availability to plants of phosphorous, the ‘master element’ in nutrient cycling, are moderately independent of nitrogen mineralization and can proceed rapidly. Clearly, the case for nutrient deficiency in deserts may be overstated.Consumption of primary production has varying effects on rates of resource availability in desert ecosystems. Generally weak regulation of primary production is predicted for consumers of green vegetation, except occasionally during early drought. Carnivores should exert variable controls over their prey, while pollinators, seed-eaters, and detritivores—most of which are strongly soil-associated—should have the greatest impacts on primary production and nutrient cycling.
The Imperative of Disarmament
Authors: Tolba Mostafa Kamal 
Published: August 2009

You have heard many eloquent arguments in favour of disarmament, but the deliberations of this Assembly have served to show the watching world that in 1982 we are still where we were in 1978—facing the same stark choice of survival or annihilation.Modern weapons have the deadly capacity not merely to wipe out cities, industries, and even entire populations, but also to destroy the life-giving systems on which we all depend. I am convinced that the need to preserve our shared environment provides the most persuasive argument for nations to stop this dangerously escalating spiral of the arms race.
Comparison of Parks, Reserves, and Landscape Protection, in Three Countries of the Eastern Alps
Authors: Barker Mary L. 
Published: August 2009

Conservation policies adopted in the Provinces of Tirol (Austria), Salzburg (Austria), Bavaria (West Germany), and Südtirol–Alto Adige (Italy), reflect the specific constitutional settings, management fields, and regional planning strategies, of these four regions in the eastern European Alps. Despite differences in historical–political heritage, their conservation programmes exhibit a number of similarities:1. Early conservation efforts by local communities were justified on the basis of perceived economic benefits, while those of organized conservation groups were directed towards establishing reserves with the objective of strict preservation.2. Government involvement in conservation increased in the 1970s, when comprehensive legislation covering Nature protection and regional planning was enacted by provincial authorithies.3. Much of the land in projected and existing parks or reserves remains in private ownership, and long-held traditional land-use rights are upheld.4. Reserves are established under individual legal ordinances which specify prohibited practices, allowable uses, and permit approval procedures. A land-use zoning approach is used only in the management of National Parks.5. Provincial legislation requires the integration of Nature protection into regional planning policies and programmes (e.g. the Bavarian Recreational Landscape Plan). Efforts to integrate government programmes on an international level have been limited to discussion and consultation.The controversy surrounding the proposed Hohe Tauern National Park (Austria) illustrates that, within a setting of long-established vested interests, it is difficult to reach agreement between provincial governments (with their power-utility corporations), local communities (with their economic self-interest), and environmental groups (with their often strict preservation philosophy).
Evaluation of a Natural Park System
Authors: Framarin Francesco 
Published: August 2009

The Author's method of evaluating a natural park system is based on that devised and used some 10 years ago by the National Park Service of the USA (i.e. exactly a century after the institution of the first national park of that country and of the world, Yellowstone). In the American evaluation of 1972, serious gaps and inadequacies were identified in the national park system of the USA, which until then did not grow as a ‘system’ but rather as an aggregation. However, that system and its features are not described or commented on, but only the method itself is described.Then the method is applied to a much smaller (Italian) region—Piedmont—in which the ‘natural parks and reserves system’ has only recently been planned and is beginning to be set up—generally with good individual choices, but apparently without any other sound criterion. The Author finds that the method is still meaningful and useful and, after a brief description of Piedmont in so far as the method requires it, he expounds his main conclusions about the inadequacies of the system and the possible remedies.Finally, the method is briefly examined in a general way and some remarks are made about it, in order to point out its main merits, which are its synthesizing capacity and its simplicity: so appealing are they, that it is felt necessary to give some warnings about its limitations, which include lack of consideration of sizes of areas, their number, and their distribution.
The Case for High-forest National Parks in Ghana
Authors: Asibey Emmanuel O.A. , Owusu J. G. K. 
Published: August 2009

Implementation of a conservation policy of preserving representative samples of all the natural ecosystems in the country has led to the establishment, from 1974, of two high-foresi national parks, namely the Bia and the Nini-Suhien, of an area now totalling 252 square kilometres or 0.3% of the original high-forests of Ghana. Continuing pressures to permit logging and other forms of exploitation for short-term cash benefits suggest that, unlike the national parks in the savanna zone, the need for high-forest national parks is yet to be fully appreciated.High-forest national parks are vital as:– A reference-base for scientific studies and for comparison with forests that have been modified through logging, sylviculture, and farming; they may thus provide data for decisions on the most desirable future management of high-forest areas;– A genetic bank for the most important timber trees and for rare and endangered species and other taxa of fauna and flora;– A focal point for the breeding and spreading of wild animals which are widely exploited for meat throughout Ghana;– As a tourist and recreational asset; the high-forest itself is the chief tourist resource within the high-forest zone, providing a unique atmosphere for relaxation and outdoor recreation; and– As an educational, cultural, ecological, and scientific, heritage of the greatest importance.Internally, therefore, the policy of creating and maintaining high-forest national parks needs to be strengthened against political and economic pressures, with pursuit of a vigorous effort at educating decision-makers and the general public to an understanding of the many intangible values of natural forests. Externally, a common habitat-conservation policy for the West African subregion is urged—not only to prevent smuggling of protected, rare, and endangered, species across national borders, but also because the environmental consequences of the abuse of Nature recognize no such national frontiers.
Towards Comprehensive Conservation of Environmentally Significant Areas in the Northwest Territories of Canada
Authors: Fenge Terry 
Published: August 2009

A wide legislative base is available to conserve Environmentally Significant Areas in the vast Northwest Territories of Canada. However, existing conservation reserves have been designated in an ‘incremental’ fashion, without reference to a guiding plan. Intensive industrialization through hydrocarbon development and increased harvesting of renewable resources are threats to the integrity of many ESAs.An anticipatory and comprehensive policy to conserve Environmentally Significant Areas (ESAs) in advance of industrialization is required, but developing such a policy will be difficult, owing to the complex political and jurisdictional ‘environments’ in northern Canada. Despite these problems, the recently announced Northern Landuse Planning Policy could be a vehicle for the implementation of a comprehensive conservation policy for ESAs, if only the institutional structures and processes that will accompany this policy are adequately designed.
Conservation in Our Changing World
Authors: Slatyer Ralph O. 
Published: August 2009

Conservation must be set in a context in which it is recognized that:(i) Overall human impact on The Biosphere is the product of the number of people on Earth multiplied by the average impact per person. Both of these factors are continuing to increase although there is already compelling evidence that the present level of impact is exceeding the carrying capacity of the planet.(ii) The ability of the Earth's natural systems to tolerate different types of impacts varies from place to place. Not surprisingly it is in the world's tropical and arid regions, where rapid population-growth often coincides with ecological systems which are less able than most others elsewhere to tolerate intensive utilization, that many of the world's most intractable ecological problems are found.(iii) All countries must endeavour to minimize population growth and reduce the environmental impact per person until the overall global impact is reduced to a level at which all peoples can expect to be able to have a comparable but ecologically sustainable level of impact.(iv) Achieving sustainable levels of impact will require an unprecedented degree of international cooperation. This will involve at its core due recognition that ecologically sustainable development can best be achieved in conjunction with continued economic and social development. It will also require due recognition of how new, ecologically sustainable, technologies will often be the key to ensuring that such continued development is indeed ecologically sustainable.(v) There is at present insufficient recognition in the industrialized, i.e. ‘developed’, countries that their failure to pay ecologically realistic prices makes it extremely difficult, if not impossible, for commodity producers to follow ecologically sustainable practices. The consequence is land degradation in countries that are dependent on commodity exports, and a diminished or degraded global environment overall.(vi) There is a strong case for preserving Antarctica from development because of its importance in influencing global weather and climate, and because of its ecological fragility and biological uniqueness. To preserve it as a wilderness will be an important test of international resolve to manage such resources as are still accessible in the rest of the world in an ecologically sustainable manner.