bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Information Costs
Authors: Buckley F. H. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
Paternalistic restrictions on choice might in three ways economize on the cost of producing information. First, contracts that appear to impose extreme burdens upon a party, such as contracts of slavery, might be banned because of the information production or screening costs that a court would incur in determining whether the party really consented to be bound. Second, the plethora of choices offered a consumer might be thought to impose the excessive search costs of finding exactly the right goods to buy. Third, a person might have an incentive to bear excessive signaling costs in revealing information about himself unless paternalistic rules prevent him from doing so. Except in extreme cases, none of these provide a strong basis for paternalism.
Social Perfectionism
Authors: Buckley F. H. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
A subject's actions may have the third party spillover effects which economists call externalities. What you do affects others, for good or for ill, and this may supply a reason to restrict your freedom. John Stuart Mill descried this, as an invitation to tyranny. This assumes that legislating morality is a slippery slope, and that any move to enforce morals will necessarily lead to extremism and abuse. However, this is an empirical proposition, and the evidence in western countries is that liberal regimes can adopt moderate forms of perfectionism without tumbling into a holy fascism. These issues were discussed fifty years ago in a debate between H. L. A. Hart and Lord Devlin.
An Extension: Nationalism
Authors: Buckley F. H. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
Nationalism refers to the patriotic sentiments we have for our country or nation. It is also an externality that depends upon the shared nationalistic feelings that fellow-citizens have. The liberal nationalism of the United States is rooted in a common allegiance to the libertarian principles of the Founders and the Constitution, and this serves as a corrective against nationalistic excesses. A nationalist perspective suggests that basic liberties should enjoy constitutional protection at the national level, and not be left for the states to legislate. But for the argument from nationalism, a strong case could be made for limiting national constitutional liberties to a thin set of rights, or for empowering states to opt out of the Bill of Rights.
Antitrust and IP: 21st Century
Authors: Carrier Michael A. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
Intellectual property (IP) maintained its predominance over antitrust in the first decade of the 21st century. This chapter starts by looking at Microsoft, the most prominent antitrust case in recent years, exploring the IP aspects of the U.S. and European Union cases. It then examines innovation markets, standard-setting organizations, and patent pools before concluding with settlements and other activity in the pharmaceutical industry.
Damaging Copyright Damages
Authors: Carrier Michael A. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the issue of the danger posed by statutory damages. It begins with an overview of the law of statutory damages. It then examines Congress's intent, describing the purposes of assuring adequate compensation and deterring infringement. It discusses two cases that demonstrate the perils posed by bond requirements and the application of statutory damages in the context of indirect infringement. The chapter concludes with a proposal to prohibit the application of statutory damages to secondary infringers. Such a recommendation would increase radical, disruptive innovation.
Better Patents: A Post-Grant Opposition Procedure
Authors: Carrier Michael A. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins by detailing difficulties with the application process at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) that explain the issuance of invalid patents. It then shows why this problem is not effectively addressed by other means (litigation and reexamination). It demonstrates the benefits of a post-grant opposition system that would allow any party to challenge a patent after it is issued. They system would provide a quicker and cheaper determination of validity than litigation, and would target the most valuable patents. It would allow the PTO to access important information held by competitors. It would reduce uncertainty, thereby encouraging investment and commercialization. It would also reduce the number of invalid patents and it would benefit antitrust law.
Less Dangerous Patents: A Framework for Relief
Authors: Carrier Michael A. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins by describing the problems posed by courts automatically granting injunctive relief in patent infringement cases. It discusses nonpracticing entities (often referred to as “trolls”). It summarizes the Supreme Court's decision in eBay v. MercExchange and examines the post-eBay landscape, synthesizing the cases and offering a framework that provides guidance to courts in determining the form of relief in patent infringement cases. The framework considers factors such as competition between the patentee and the infringer, the relationship between the patented technology and the defendant's product causing a willful infringement of the patent, and the effect of injunctive relief on the public.
Innovation Markets: Saving Lives and Money in the Pharmaceutical Industry
Authors: Carrier Michael A. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins by defining innovation markets, which are markets for research and development (R&D). It then sets forth the critiques that have been leveled against the markets. It proposes a new five-part test for the antitrust enforcement agencies—the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) and FTC—to apply to innovation markets. The test improves the current analysis by replacing the seemingly ad hoc approach with a comprehensive framework based on the Merger Guidelines. It also breaks new ground in considering not just the number of firms in research and development but also their respective stages of U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) review. The chapter provides background on preclinical studies as well as clinical trials. It concludes by presenting the results of five case studies from the past two decades—four mergers that the FTC challenged and one that it did not.
Supporting Standard-Setting Organizations
Authors: Carrier Michael A. 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
A standard is a common platform that allows products to work together. This chapter begins by describing the various types of standard-setting. It then offers a brief history of antitrust treatment of standard-setting organizations (SSOs). It sets forth the anticompetitive concerns of standard-setting, including the harm posed by buyer power known as monopsony. It compares these concerns to the significant procompetitive benefits that SSOs and their IP rules offer. It concludes by calling for Rule-of-Reason analysis for SSOs.
Introduction
Authors: Olson Liesl 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter explores a paradox: how does a writer replicate what is overlooked, if the nature of literary representation is to look closely at its subject? The chapter argues that literary modernism’s stylistic innovations were driven by this question. An overview is then offered of theories of everyday life (Lefebvre and others) to argue for a more specific definition of ordinariness in relation to literary modernism. The ordinary is defined as 1) an affect of disinterest or boredom; 2) a genre of objects and events; 3) a style. The chapter then examines literary modernism’s emphasis on the everyday in connection to 19th-century modes of realism, especially the novel. It concludes with a discussion of the everyday in the context of the unprecedented violence of 20th-century wars.
Joyce and the Realism of the Ordinary
Authors: Olson Liesl 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines James Joyce&rsquo;s depiction of ordinary experience, beginning with his youthful hero-worship of Henrik Ibsen. Inspired by Ibsen&rsquo;s poetics of the everyday, Joyce&rsquo;s early writings attempt to represent life &ldquo;as we see it before our eyes,&rdquo; as evinced by the fragments known as &ldquo;Epiphanies&rdquo; and extended in later writings even as Joyce leaves his theory of epiphany behind. Epiphanies are linked with a desire to aestheticize experience, one of Stephen Dedalus&rsquo;s dominant tendencies, but this desire is dangerous largely because it extracts the individual from a context of community and civic commitment. Alternatively, the depiction of banal, daily routines in Ulysses demonstrates how Joyce&rsquo;s everyday does not evade historical conditions. Ulysses is also attentive to the limitations of the everyday, acknowledging the inability to trace and catalogue every fact of an individual&rsquo;s life. The lists in Ulysses aim to record the variety of ordinary things that flood experience, while gleefully acknowledging realism&rsquo;s defeat. The list introduces a more modest ordinary style than the epiphany: the equality of the list works against the desire to read and interpret particular moments (in a life and in a novel) as more or less important.
Wallace Stevens’s Commonplace
Authors: Olson Liesl 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter explores Wallace Stevens’ theory of the “commonplace,” a word he starts using in the mid-1930s. The “commonplace” initially refers to contemporary events, but it also takes on a sense of local concerns—the patterns of work, the changes in the weather, or the best place to buy bread and fruit. Stevens’ theory of the commonplace deeply registers his awareness of the politics of his times, even as his poetry may not seem as politically engaged as the work of some of his contemporaries (Auden or other 1930s poets). Ultimately the particularity of the commonplace is less important for Stevens than the approach to the commonplace. The chapter looks closely at “An Ordinary Evening in New Haven” to illuminate this approach: a circular, meditative style that never pins down the elusive subject. Stevens’ affirmation of the commonplace is distinctly linked with his interpretation of pragmatist principles. The chapter concludes by considering how Stevens’ concept of language is affected by his understanding of the commonplace: while other modernist writers were preoccupied with ordinary experience and how best to represent it, what makes Stevens unique is how he dwells on language as a satisfying, pleasing medium despite what he accepts as language’s limitations.
The Legacy of Cajal in Mexico
Authors: Díaz José Luis 
Published: May 2009

Abstract
Many Mexican neuroscientists consider themselves to some extent to be descendants or at least beneficiaries of the School of Santiago Ramón y Cajal. This chapter outlines the genealogy linking them to this great Spanish master not only scientifically, but culturally, linguistically, and philosophically—beyond a strictly academic affiliation to one that is social and political in nature.
Quantitative Electroencephalography in the Normal and Abnormal Developing Human Brain
Authors: Harmony Thalía , Alba Alfonso , Marroquín José Luis , Fernández-Bouzas Antonio , Avecilla Gloria , Ricardo-Garcell Josefina , Santiago-Rodríguez Efraín , Otero Gloria , Porras-Kattz Eneida , Fernández Thalía 
Published: May 2009

AbstractElectroencephalographic (EEG) waves recorded from the scalp are integrated excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials of neuronal membranes. They reflect extracellular currents caused by synchronized neural activity within the local brain volume. This chapter gives an overview of the normal and abnormal development of the EEG during the first year after birth. The power and synchrony of background EEG oscillations provide important information in relation to normal and abnormal brain development. Gamma activity increases during the first year of age in normal infants more than in infants with leukomalacia, which may be related to cognitive development. The study of auditory- and speech-induced EEG oscillations may be useful for the early evaluation of infants at risk of language disorders.
Degeneration in Canine Brain Aging
Authors: Head Elizabeth 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter discusses some of the neurobiological characteristics of the aging dog brain. Aged canines develop signs of neuronal, white matter, and vascular degeneration as observed in human brain aging. Cortical atrophy, white matter degeneration, cerebrovascular dysfunction, and neuron loss may be due to progressive Aβ, tau phosphorylation, and oxidative damage accumulation. Neurodegeneration in the canine brain may form the basis for observations of cognitive decline in multiple domains, including learning and memory.
Developmental Profile of Newly Generated Granule Cells in the Adult Rodent Dentate Gyrus
Authors: Ribak Charles E. , Perez Zachary D. , Shapiro Lee A. 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the newly generated dentate granule cells in the adult rodent and describes the developmental profile of their dendrites and axons. Topics covered include progenitor cell types in the adult dentate gyrus, dendritic growth of newly generated granule cells in adult rats, spatiotemporal profile of dendritic outgrowth, synapses on the apical dendrites of newly generated granule cells in the adult, and axonal growth of newly generated granule cells in adult rats.
Neural Codes for Perceptual Decisions
Authors: Romo Ranulfo , Hernández Adrián , Lemus Luis , Luna Rogelio , Zainos Antonio , Nácher Verónica , Alvarez Manuel , Vázquez Yuriria , Cordero Silvia , Camarillo Liliana 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter uses a highly simplified sensory discrimination task to show that the comparison between stored and ongoing sensory information takes place in a distributed fashion. There is also a continuum between sensory- and motor-related activities. Neurons from areas central to the S1 cortex do not simply wait for a signal encoding decision; rather, they participate at every step of its generation by combining working memory and sensory inputs. This process is carried out by two complementary neuronal responses. This dual representation is found in all areas central to the S1 cortex examined in this task, and might serve to compute optimally the entire perceptual process of the task. This coding scheme has also been found in some cortices of monkeys performing tasks that require behavioral decisions based on a comparison operation.
Human Neural Stem Cell–Mediated Repair of the Contused Spinal Cord: Timing the Microenvironment
Authors: Cummings Brian J. , Hooshmand Mitra J. , Salazar Desirée L. , Anderson Aileen J. 
Published: May 2009

AbstractSpinal cord injury (SCI) is a debilitating and devastating condition that affects approximately 11,000 new people in the United States each year. Understanding of the pathophysiology and potential points of therapeutic intervention for human SCI has been shaped strongly by the results of studies performed in laboratory animals. This chapter discusses multiple targets for therapeutic interventions focusing on cell transplantation approaches, discusses the application of multiple cells types in SCI models, and considers how cell-intrinsic properties as well as exogenous factors in the host microenvironment may influence the ability of various cell populations to survive, differentiate, and promote locomotor recovery following SCI. Studies conducted on transplanting human central nervous system-derived neural stem cells (HuCNS-SCs) at selected time points along the acute to chronic continuum are described, demonstrating that, depending on timing, HuCNS-SCs have the ability to promote locomotor recovery and that the microenvironment influences cell fate.
Spinal Cord Injury Pathology Differs with Injury Type, Age, and Exercise
Authors: Siegenthaler Monica M. , Keirstead Hans S. 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter shows that type of injury, age at time of injury, and physical activity may dictate differing therapies for the treatment of spinal cord injury (SCI). Current therapies aimed at ameliorating demyelination following SCI may not be suitable for laceration SCI. In contrast, contusion SCI may benefit greatly from therapies targeting demyelination. However, therapies aimed at remyelinating axons may be complicated by age-associated loss in neuroprotection and regeneration. These age-associated deficits may be negated or attenuated in patients with a history of chronic exercise, or may be attenuated with proper rehabilitation and/or mimicry of the molecular microenvironment produced by physical activity.
Love and Desire in the Cinema
Authors: Grodal Torben 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter analyzes the evolutionary causes for the fascination with romantic films and why more men than women watch pornographic films, using film examples throughout. It argues that romantic films and pair-bonding are not social-ideological constructions but constructions based on innate dispositions. It discusses the neurological support for romantic love and the evolutionary reasons for romantic bonds: to provide resources for the “too early” born and slowly maturing human infants. It further discusses how the male fascination with pornography is based on biological structures much older than the c.2 million years of romantic pair-bonding and how, therefore, mainstream pornography focuses on anonymous and strongly promiscuous relations. The chapter discusses how films often portray conflicts between romantic love and other concerns; for instance, how films noir often portray “fatal” conflicts between romantic love, promiscuous desire, and the desire for money. The chapter also discusses how many romantic films focus on the conflict between partner choice and exclusive partner commitment. The chapter finally discusses how romantic love plays and has played different roles in different cultural contexts, so that romantic love in film and literature has sometimes been linked to emancipation, and sometimes used for opposite purposes.
Screaming Lambs and Lusty Wolves
Authors: Grodal Torben 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter contrasts different approaches to the question of the relationship between morality and the viewer’s simulation of emotions in film and uses The Silence of the Lambs as a test case for discussion. It discusses how some layers of morality are based on innate dispositions reflecting hunter-gatherer life conditions, whereas others are based on cultural moral norms that reflect more recent types of life in large social groups, and it assesses how different films or even different sections of the same film appeal to different moral norms and switch between norms. The chapter further discusses sociological evidence that morality is context-dependent and that viewers—contrary to claims by some, such as Noel Carroll—therefore can be influenced by a given film context to enjoy films that are different from their normal professed morality. The chapter also discusses why a neurocognitive approach has many similarities to a Freudian approach—for instance, in pointing out the importance of unconscious and eventually repressed thoughts and emotions—as well as many strong differences.
Sadness, Melodrama, and Rituals of Loss and Death
Authors: Grodal Torben 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter analyzes why tragic films are successful and prestigious although they evoke sadness and grief, whereas fitness-enhancing activities in general evoke pleasure. First, it focus on general brain mechanisms by which superior goals temporarily modify reactions of unpleasure to support coping in the service of goals, as in action and adventure films. Second, it argues that such general mechanisms cannot explain films with negative endings. It argues that viewer preferences for such stories may be explained as adaptations created during the evolutionary process. Third, it argues that there are two adaptive mechanisms at play: a general mechanism that makes negative events fascinating to support information about negative events (enhancing learning), and a cluster of more specific adaptations that support bonding—pair-bonding, male bonding, and tribal bonding—based on rituals of mourning. Rituals of mourning are often linked to scenes that elicit awe and submission to some higher power (fate or divine forces); the chapter discusses the biological-evolutionary underpinnings of such emotions and behaviors and analyzes Saving Private Ryan, The Last of the Mohicans, Hero, Pan’s Labyrinth, and others, in this light.
Introduction to Part II
Authors: Grodal Torben 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThe introduction to Part II discusses how knowledge of the brain’s processing of information provides crucial insight into central phenomena in visual aesthetics, especially in film aesthetics, and provides a general theory of film aesthetics. Central is the description of what the author calls the PECMA flow, an abbreviation for perception, emotion, cognition, and motor action, which describes the normal flow of information in real life and when watching film. The chapter analyzes how different types of film input may focus the film experience on different steps/brain regions: abstract film is focused on visual cortex processes, lyrical films on processes in the temporal and parietal cortices, and narrative films on frontal parts of the brain. The chapter analyses how and why these different foci provide different aesthetic experiences. The chapter also discusses how cultural and individual factors may influence and modify the innate biological factors.
Stories for Eyes, Ears, and Muscles
Authors: Grodal Torben 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThe chapter discusses how storytelling represents an innate mental capacity to synthesize an agency’s perceptual input, its emotions, and its output in terms of action. Insight into the architecture of the embodied brain and the PECMA flow clarifies how to understand the psychological function of stories and storytelling. The chapter further describes the way that different media—language and oral storytelling, drama, written stories, film, and video games—use different aspects of the mental “storytelling” that characterizes our ordinary experience of daily life and its actions, and it describes the historical development in narrative techniques of representation in different media. It uses this narrative theory to redefine the story-discourse dichotomy, and to argue that film narratives are typically experienced as taking place in a kind of presence, and also discusses the relation between narratives and playing games vital for interactive media. Finally, it discusses the relationship between storytelling interactivity and linearity and shows that there are a number of psychological and motivational reasons that nonlinear storytelling is difficult, and that many so-called nonlinear formats consist in fact of sets of linear stories.&lt;/ABS&gt;
Conclusion
Authors: Grodal Torben 
Published: May 2009

AbstractThis chapter contains an overview of the central findings of the book and provides additional perspectives on bioculturalism and the dynamic interaction between biology and culture. It summarizes how concrete embodiment and brain architecture, including the PECMA flow, molds central features of films, and discusses the interaction between universal forms controlled by deep-seated dispositions and the unlimited number of possible cultural variations made possible by innate dispositions. It discusses how and why films are made not only to provide pleasure, but also to activate hazard precaution and support bonding, as in sad melodramas and comic fictions, just as fictions are part of mechanisms that enhance insights into possible scenarios, vital for existential flexibility. It equally discusses why love for unique configurations in the individual films must be counterbalanced with a dedication to reductionism and to understanding what is universal in films.