bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Material Elements of the Sacraments
Authors: Lang David P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A sacrament, according to traditional Catholic theology, consists of two intrinsic aspects: a “formal” structure of audible words (with visible gestures) and a “material” factor organized by the form (on which the form operates). Since God employs the sacraments as channels or instruments for bestowing invisible grace on the spiritual soul, it is appropriate for the embodied human condition that these external rites signify what they effect (and, conversely, effect what they signify). Hence, not just any material element is suitable for this role in a given sacrament; only certain special matter is fittingly conjoined with a form to symbolize what is occurring. Consider particular examples illustrating these general principles.
Maundy Thursday
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Maundy Thursday is a Christian holy day that occurs the day before Good Friday. The name “Maundy” is commonly regarded as having come from the Latin statement
Maundatum novum do vobis
, which Jesus said to his disciples the night he instituted the Lord's Supper, which was also the night before his crucifixion, when he told them, “a new commandment [
mandatum
] I give to you …” (John 13:34), that they were to love one another.
Mc
Gavran
,
Donald
Anderson
(1897–1990)
Authors: Proffitt Thurber D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born of Anglo‐American Missionary parents in Victorian British India and educated in the United States, Donald Anderson McGavran was a third‐generation missionary with the United Church Missionary Society of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), an American denomination. A disciple of Methodist bishop J. W. Pickett, McGavran is best known for Church Growth theory, the homogeneous unit principle, and the Institute for Church Growth and School of Intercultural Studies at Fuller Theological Seminary, California.
M
echthild of
M
agdeburg,
S
aint (c.1207–c.1282)
Authors: Harrison Anna 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Mechthild of Magdeburg is the author of
The Flowing Light of the Godhead
, the first collection of visionary writings to be composed in the German vernacular. Comprised of seven sections written over the course of approximately three decades,
The Flowing Light
was probably composed in Low German. A complete version survives in a 14th century Middle High German manuscript.
Medieval Church, the
Authors: Lilliback Peter 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The medieval period of church history focuses on the growth, theology, and practice of the church in Europe during the vast period beginning around
ad
600 and concluding shortly after
ad
1500. But just what exactly makes this period the “middle ages” as implied by the word “medieval”? Is it because it comes between the vast learning of the classical Greek and Roman world and the renewal of classical studies in the Renaissance? Or is it because it comes between the high water mark of Patristic Theology and the renewal of original biblical language studies that marked the humanists of the Reformation Age?
M
endel,
G
regor (1822–1884)
Authors: Watts Thomas D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Gregor Mendel was an Augustinian priest and monk, and noted biologist. In 1843, he entered the Augustinian Order at St. Thomas Monastery in Brünn (now Brno in the Czech Republic) and was ordained a priest in 1847. The Augustinians had been established in Moravia since 1350, and St. Thomas Monastery was renowned as a center of learning. Mendel later wrote that his preference for the natural sciences developed in this stimulating setting, for the monastery had a mineralogical collection, a herbarium, a botanical garden, and other resources that provided a fertile environment for experiments and research.
M
ennonite Churches
Authors: Stoltzfus Philip 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Mennonite churches represent a worldwide family of Christian communities tracing their roots back to the 16th century Anabaptist movement. As early modern advocates of Christian voluntarism and separation of church and state, Mennonites have come to be identified with the distinctive practices of believer's baptism, discipleship, nonviolence, simple living, community life and mutual aid, and service to the world through disaster relief, international development, and peace and justice work. The most significant concentration of Mennonites is found in North America (451,000 baptized members), with the largest denominational bodies (reorganized in 2000–2002) being Mennonite Church USA and Mennonite Church Canada. Other groups and designations signaling an organic connection to the Mennonite tradition include the Amish, Hutterites, Mennonite Brethren, Brethren in Christ, Missionary Church, Doopsgezinden (Netherlands), Täufer (in German scholarship), and Anabaptists (an increasingly common identifier for contemporary Mennonites).
M
essiah
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The term “messiah” (Hebrew,
mashiah
) means “the anointed one.” The Greek translation equivalent, found about 45 times in the Septuagint and over 500 times in the New Testament, is
Christos
, “Christ” (originally an adjective, “anointed,” from the verb
chriō
, “to smear with ointment or oil”). The transliterated form
Messias
, from the Aramaic

m
e
shiha

, is attested in the New Testament as well (John 1:42; 4:25), which suggests that in 1st century Judaism “messiah” had become a technical term. “Anointed” designates the special ceremony of installing an individual in an exalted position, most notably that of king or ruler (1 Sam. 9:15–16; 10:1; 16:3, 12–13; 2 Sam. 2:4; 5:3; 1 Kings 1:34, 45; 2 Kings 9:3, 6; 11:12; 23:30).
M
iller,
W
illiam (1782–1849)
Authors: Hasel Frank M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

William Miller was a Baptist lay preacher who played an instrumental role during the so‐called Second Great Awakening or Great Revival. He has been called “the most famous millenarian in American history” (Sandeen 1970: 50), and is credited with the beginning of the Adventist movement of the 1830s and 1840s in North America. Among his direct spiritual heirs are several major religious denominations, including
Seventh‐day Adventists
and
Advent Christians
.
Mingdao, Wang (1900–1991)
Authors: Harvey Thomas Alan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Wang Mingdao is recognized as one of the most influential Chinese church leaders of the 20th century. After leaving his position as a teacher in Presbyterian college in Baoding owing to conflicts with missionaries over Christian Pacifism and believer's baptism, Wang entered a period of self‐imposed isolation and intense self‐study of the Bible. Emerging in 1923 he began preaching in churches throughout Northern China. By 1927 his preaching tours had spread throughout China. One of China's first mass evangelists, his sermons held large audiences spellbound. His preaching was practical and powerful and he was willing to criticize foreign missionaries as well as modernists and Protestant liberals who questioned the historical veracity and authority of Scripture.
Ministry, Five‐Fold
Authors: Shields Candace C. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The five‐fold ministry designates a specified ministry that focuses on the building and equipping of the saints of God within the church. The five‐fold ministry derives its title from Ephesians 4:11, which names five specific gifts that God has given to the church for the purpose of working with the saints to edify them and to bring them to perfection. The Apostle Paul wrote in the Book of Ephesians that the five‐fold ministry was divinely appointed by God for the church. There appears to be some controversy surrounding whether it is needed at the present time within the church or whether there ever was a five‐fold ministry. The five‐fold ministry consists of five gifts, designated as apostle, prophet, evangelist, pastor, and teacher. Each gift has a specific role by which they are to operate within the church. The five‐fold ministry is often referred to as a hand, because of the power of fingers working together. The same concept is how the five‐fold ministry is to operate within the church. No one gift operates on its own with efficiency; it is when all of them flow together that they are most effective and are at their best for equipping the saints of God.
Miracles
Authors: Cowan Steven B. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Though many people in the contemporary world, including those within the movement known as theological liberalism, reject belief in miracles, such belief has always been part of Christian faith. The Christian worldview embraces the notion that the natural order is not a closed system and that God, the Creator, is able to intervene in the course of history by suspending or superseding natural regularities. In fact, biblical writers teach that the truth and significance of the Christian faith hinges on the truth of one miracle, namely, the resurrection of Jesus Christ. The Apostle Paul made this clear when he wrote, “If Christ has not been raised, then your faith is worthless” (1 Cor. 15:17). If Paul is right, then miracles are indispensable to the Christian faith.
Missional Church
Authors: Baltrip Ryan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The missional church represents a distinct spiritual and theological shift in ecclesiology. It describes a movement that emerged from missiology studies during the late 20th century that wanted to recapture the true nature and essence of the church as representing the reign of God in the world. The Kingdom of God is the unifying theological motif for the missional church, and it creates a unique character, focus, and attitude.
Modalism
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The term “modalism” as a descriptive for a kind of Christian unitarianism, or what the ancients often called “patripassionism,” was not used until the early 20th century when Adolph von Harnack coined it. Because this view advocated the primacy of monotheism in Christianity, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were construed as three instances of the one God, as opposed to three different realities within God. The singular Divine substance manifested himself in history sometimes as the Father, sometimes as the Son, and other times as the Holy Spirit. In every instance it is the same God. Following this logic, critics claimed that the Father suffered on the cross, no less than the Son; hence the name “patri‐passion.”
M
öhler,
J
ohann
A
dam (1796–1838)
Authors: Kaplan Grant 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

A professor of Theology and Church History in Tübingen and later Munich, Johann Adam Möhler was the most prominent member of the Catholic Tübingen School, a forerunner of communion ecclesiology, and an inspiration to such influential 20th century theologians as Karl Adam and Yves Congar. Many consider him to be the “grandfather” of modern Catholic ecclesiology. His two most important works,
Unity in the Church
(1825) and
Symbolik
(1832; mistranslated
Symbolism
), greatly impacted Catholic theology. He also wrote a book on Athanasius, an important study of Anselm, and an influential series of articles on celibacy.
M
oltmann,
J
ürgen (
b
. 1926)
Authors: Castelo Daniel 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Often considered one of the most influential theologians of the latter half of the 20th century, Jürgen Moltmann has been a dominant figure in German Protestant theology through his many published works, especially those undertaken during his tenure as professor of Theology at the University of Tübingen (1967–1994), where he is now emeritus professor of Theology. Born into a secular family in Hamburg and having his interest in theology piqued as a prisoner of war during World War II, Moltmann studied at Göttingen immediately after the war and came to consider himself a Reformed theologian, though many associate him with Lutheran theology because of his work on the theology of the cross, most notably in
The Crucified God
(1972). The work that brought him to early prominence, however, was
Theology of Hope
(1964) where he considers eschatology as a hermeneutical premise for understanding Christian theology as a whole. The work, drawing its impetus largely from the philosophy of Ernst Bloch, created a significant trend in theology, and its influence partially extended to other theological currents, including political and liberation theologies. Moltmann's optimism shifted with a number of developments during the 1960s, leading him to work on
The Crucified God
as a text that interrelated the themes of suffering and God in ways that have been termed a “theology after Auschwitz.” Given that the work focuses on the doctrine of God,
The Crucified God
includes many themes that he would later develop. These first two texts along with
The Church in the Power of the Spirit
(1975) constitute a trilogy of sorts in that each work explored the “whole of theology” under a single focus. Moltmann took a different approach with his subsequent major works, beginning with
The Trinity and the Kingdom
(1980), in which he intended to offer “contributions” to the academic field. Additional themes considered in this way included creation (
God in Creation
, 1985), Christology (
The Way of Jesus Christ
, 1989), pneumatology (
The Spirit of Life
, 1991), eschatology (
The Coming of God
, 1995), and theological methodology (
Experiences in Theology
, 2000).
Monasticism and Asceticism
Authors: McGuckin John Anthony 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The term “monasticism” derives from the Greek word signifying “aloneness.” Originally it denoted a Christian who dedicated him or herself to withdrawal and radical simplicity, seeking a life lived as a celibate and centered on prayer. The term “asceticism” derives from the Greek word for physical exercise, and describes the sense, much witnessed within the early monastic movement, that the achievement of celibacy and prayerful focus were matters of great struggle, requiring a mental and physical discipline comparable to that undertaken by the ancient athletes. Monasticism is, therefore, a particular (Christian) form of the life of Askesis. The ascetical lifestyle was present beforehand (not least in aspects of the Apocalyptic movement's “resistance” of the world powers, and extensively among Hellenistic philosophical circles) but it came to a precise and recognizable shape in the church of the 3rd century, taking more explicit forms in the 4th, and afterward enduring as a central part of Christian life until the present, especially in the eastern Christian world; although the Reformation much diminished the impact of monasticism in the early modern and more recent west. Even so, allowing for Reformation Christianity's more or less wholesale repudiation of monastic values, monasticism's influence in the formation of the Christian west is monumentally important.
Armenian Monasticism
Authors: Hovhanessian Vahan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Forms of ascetic life were essential components of the Christian experience since the earliest centuries of Christianity in Armenia. Historians refer to stories about ascetics who settled in Armenia as early as the 1st century. These stories remain powerful witnesses to the importance that the 5th century hagiographers placed on the role of asceticism in the spread of Christianity in Armenia.
Monergism
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Monergism is the doctrine that the Holy Spirit is the sole efficient agent in regeneration (new birth). Man has no more efficient agency to accomplish regeneration than Lazarus had ability in raising himself from death to life. By the free agency of the Holy Spirit, the fallen sinner receives a new nature (heart, mind, and will). Unregenerated human nature is dead in sin and completely unable to turn to God (Rom. 3:10–18; 1 Cor. 2:14–15; Eph. 2:1–10), but with God all things are possible (Matt. 19:26; John 3:6; 6:64–65; Rom. 9:16). The necessity of the new birth as a free and sovereign work of the Holy Spirit is due to the fact that the unregenerate are spiritually dead (Eph. 2:1–10), unable to repent (Jer. 13:23; Matt. 19:24; Acts 11:18; Rom. 8:6–8; 2 Pet. 2:13–14, 22), lawless, godless, self‐seekers (Ps. 14:2–3; Isa. 65:1; Rom. 1:21–28; 3:11; 5:6; 10:20), spiritually impotent and undiscerning (John 3:3; 1 Cor. 2:14; 3:20–21), blinded by the power of Satan (Acts 26:17–18; 2 Cor. 4:3–4; 2 Tim. 2:26), lovers of darkness (John 1:4–5; 3:19–20; Rom. 1:18–21, 28), dull and wicked of heart, and spiritually blind and deaf (Gen. 6:5; Prov. 20:9; Isa. 6:9–10; Jer. 17:9; Mark 4:12; 7:20–23; Luke 8:10; John 8:43–44, 47; Rom. 7:18; 14:23; Gal. 5:19–21; 2 Pet. 2:19; Jude 19), and enslaved with a heart of stone (Ezek. 11:19; 36:26; 44:9; Acts 7:51).
Monogamy
Authors: Laing Jacqueline 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The word monogamy derives from the Greek words μóνoδ meaning one and γάμoδ meaning marriage. When Christianity was founded, polygamy (the marriage of a man to many women) was still recognized by the Jews. The Gospel according to Matthew reports that Christ restored marriage to its original unity and indissolubility (Matt. 19:6). Monogamy is still deeply entrenched in the Christian tradition. It has long been held that polygamy and polyandry undermine the dignity due to man and woman as parties to the marriage contract. The command “What God has joined together let no man put asunder” (Mark 10:9) is still a central part of the marriage ceremony of many denominations notwithstanding widespread changes of attitude and practice.
Monophysitism
Authors: Neal Ryan A. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Monophysitism is the belief that in the one person Jesus of Nazareth there is one nature (
monos
, “single”;
physis
, “nature”), as opposed principally to the Chalcedonian formula, the Definition of Faith of the Council of Chalcedon (451), which declares two natures (dyophysitism) coexisting in one person. The Chalcedonian decree, according to the Monophysites, is ontologically speculative and theologically dubious. Monophysitism's principal difficulty is locating the unity of two natures, and resolves any apparent conflict by emphasizing the one divine nature, from the beginning of Jesus' incarnation forward.
Moody,DwightLyman (1837–1899)
Authors: Bruce James E. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractDwight Lyman Moody, a famous evangelist, was born on February 5, 1837, in Northfield, Massachusetts, and lived there until 1856, when he moved to Chicago. After a time as a shoe salesman, Moody became a fulltime, albeit unpaid, missionary in Chicago with the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in the early 1860s. Soon well over 1,000 children were attending Sunday school each week. During the American Civil War, Moody, along with the YMCA, ministered to thousands of soldiers from both sides of the conflict, both locally at Camp Douglas and nationally.
Moravian Brethren
Authors: McCall Bradford 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A Protestant movement founded in 1457 in Bohemia and Moravia, what is now the Czech Republic. In the mid 9th century these countries converted to Christianity through the influence of Greek Orthodox missionaries. In the centuries that followed, churches within this province gradually became subject to the ecclesiastical authority of Rome. Some of the Czech people protested, including John Hus (1369–1415) who was a professor of philosophy and rector of the University in Prague. Hus objected to some of the practices of the Roman Catholic Church and wanted to return the church in Bohemia and Moravia to the practices of early Christianity. In particular Hus sought to provide the liturgy in the language of the people, to eliminate indulgences, and eliminate the notion of purgatory.
M
orrison,
R
obert (1782–1834)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Robert Morrison was born the youngest son of eight children to James and Hannah Morrison in Buller's Green, Northumberland, January 5, 1782, and died August 1, 1834 at his home in Guangzhou, China. His family were devout Scottish Presbyterians. His maternal uncle, James Nicholson, provided his elementary instruction, which included the study of biblical languages and multiple disciplines in the natural sciences. His father apprenticed him to manufacture boot‐trees but he still continued his studies. He received catechetical instruction, in a sort of Sunday School, from John Hutton at the High Bridge Chapel. According to one of his relatives, he was able to recite the entirety of Psalm 119 from memory by the age of 13. Although he was raised in the border country, he maintained relationships with the Church of Scotland. At 16, he devoted his life to Christ and became a member of the Presbyterian Church in 1798, and established a praying society in his father's workshop for evening devotions. In 1803, he entered Hoxton Academy in London, an evangelical college for training congregational ministers, where he learned the basics of Latin, in addition to the rudiments of Greek and Hebrew. His mother died in 1804, and in the same year he applied to the London Missionary Society, believing he was called to proclaim the gospel in China. He was able to receive instruction from Yong Sam‐Tak, a Chinese student, to read and write Chinese. To intensify his learning, he invited Sam‐Tak into his house, and was able to master the resources made accessible to him. Morrison obtained a Jesuit translation of the gospels into Chinese from the British Library that he studied daily with Sam‐Tak and labored to transcribe. The Royal Society loaned him a dictionary manuscript of Latin and Chinese which he also worked to transcribe. In 1807, he was ordained at Scots Church and departed for China.
T
eresa,
M
other (1910–1997)
Authors: Coulter Michael 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Mother Teresa, born Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu, was the third child of an Albanian couple living in Skopje, which is in modern day Macedonia. By the time Agnes turned 12, she felt a distinct vocation, which gradually became a desire to do mission work. Agnes left Skopje at 18 and joined the Irish order of the Sisters of Loreto, who operated schools in India. Upon her entry into the order, Agnes took the name of Sister Teresa in honor of St. Thérèse of Lisieux.
A
thos,
M
ount
Authors: Jorgenson Cameron H. J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Mount Athos, or the “Holy Mountain,” refers to the Macedonian peninsula that has long been an important center of Eastern Orthodox monasticism. Named for the imposing mountain (over 6,600 ft) at its seaward end, Athos is known for its beautiful yet rugged terrain, which makes its monasteries accessible only by boat. The earliest Christian presence is difficult to establish, but some monastic activity is likely by the 4th or 5th century. By the 9th century, efforts were underway to organize monastic practice according to the rule of St. Basil. By this time Athonite monks were so respected that delegates were allowed to participate in official conciliar deliberations. From the 11th century onward, Athos enjoyed a great degree of political autonomy, governing itself through a council comprised of the heads of the 20 most prominent monasteries. In the 14th century, the monks appealed to Pope Innocent III to shield them from the harassment of Latin Crusaders following the capture of Constantinople; however, their allegiance returned to Constantinople once political stability was re‐established. During the same period, Mount Athos played a central role in the Hesychastic controversy, a conflict over doctrines and spiritual practices common among its monks.