bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
12 Monarchs
Authors: Mclean Iain 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Purpose of a head of state. Executive and non‐executive heads of state in some democratic constitutions. Australian constitutional crisis 1975. Sir David Smith fails to wake the Queen's Private Secretary. Argument for monarchy: certainty. Arguments against: democracy; quality of head of state. The Hanoverian dynasty as UK heads of state. How to elect a head of state?. What would happen to the Royal Prerogative in a democracy. The George V—Asquith exchange of letters in autumn 1913.
The uniqueness of child health and challenges to measuring costs and consequences
Authors: Ungar Wendy J. , Gerber Andreas 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers the uniqueness of child health and provides an overview of the methodological challenges in applying current approaches to children. The unique ways in which child health may be distinguished from adult health that are relevant to economic evaluation are discussed in the first half in sections on child development, dependency, patterns of health and disease, and health resource use. Methodological challenges in conducting health economic evaluations are described in the second half. In the section on costing, the text addresses perspective and setting, child and parent productivity costs, the time horizon, and long-term costs. A section on defining health-related outcomes follows. The next section on measurement examines utility assessment, proxy measurement, measurement within the family collective and the use of cost-benefit analysis. Finally, the analysis section scrutinizes issues pertaining to modeling and discounting.
The reliability and validity of children’s and adolescents’ self-reported health
Authors: Bevans Katherine B. , Forrest Christopher B. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter argues that obtaining children's direct reports of wellbeing, symptoms, strengths, and needs using developmentally appropriate strategies is an essential component of thorough and accurate health status assessment. Failure to do so devalues children's perspectives on their own health and results in the loss of essential information. Evidence is reviewed that demonstrates that children are reliable and accurate reporters of their health status when assessment methodologies are sensitive to their cognitive competencies and to their understanding of health and illness. Topics discussed include general cognitive competencies, children's understanding of health and illness concepts, assessment instruments, proxy measures of child health status, and the reliability and validity of children's self-reports of quality of life. The chapter ends with recommendations for health status assessment in children at various developmental levels.
Incorporating caregiver and family effects in economic evaluations of child health
Authors: Brouwer Werner B.F. , van Exel N. Job A. , Tilford J. Mick 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Patients are not isolated individuals, but have friends and families who care about them and, often, care for them. This is especially true for children. Parents' well-being and quality of life is likely to be affected by the illness of their child, especially when the illness is severe, even if they do not provide informal care. This chapter deals with the inclusion of the costs and effects on caregivers and other family members in economic evaluations, with a focus on informal care. Key topics are illustrated using data from previous studies. In the first part of the chapter, the burden of providing informal care to children and its valuation for economic evaluations is described. Next, attention is turned to family effects. Finally, recommendations and conclusions are provided for incorporating caregiver and family effects in economic evaluations of child health.
Economic evaluations of newborn screening
Authors: Grosse Scott D. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Screening for metabolic, endocrine, and other diseases in newborns is performed through the laboratory analysis of dried blood spot specimens. This chapter reviews economic evaluations of newborn dried blood spot screening strategies published during 2002-07, focusing on the cost-effectiveness of screening for cystic fibrosis, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCADD). The use of tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) to detect MCADD is presented in detail, through examinations of the costs of screening and medical management, and of outcomes, including quality-adjusted life year (QALY) measurement, disability, and mortality. Ways to generate higher quality evidence are presented. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the use of economic evaluations to inform newborn screening policies.
Health technology assessment in child health
Authors: Costa Vania , Ungar Wendy J. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The generation of high quality evidence, while a necessary condition for informed allocation decision-making, is not sufficient. Health technology assessment (HTA) is a discipline which considers not only the production of high quality health economic evidence, but also the consumption of that evidence by decision and policy makers. The first half of the chapter begins with a definition of HTA and explains how health technology assessment is conducted globally, describes who produces and uses health technology assessment, and takes a look at international health technology assessment organizations and networks. In the second half, the challenges associated with HTA in child health are described and results comparing the number and type of HTAs in children and adults are presented. The chapter ends with a discussion of the value of health technology assessment in health policy decision-making.
Introduction
Authors: Fodor Jerry A. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis introductory chapter begins with the author's evaluation of his book The Language of Thought (LOT 1). It contends that the language-of-thought hypothesis endorsed in LOT 1 was not just any old hyper-realism about the mental; it was, in particular, a species of representational theory of mind. It further says that the nearest approximation to the view of cognition that LOT 1 had in mind was perhaps the sort of computationalism that was pervasive in artificial intelligence (AI). Cognitive science did not, as it turned out, develop in the way that LOT 1 thought it would. Rather, the mainstream view, not just in AI but in philosophy and cognitive psychology, is now a kind of pragmatism: what is essential to thought is not its relation to the things in the world that it represents, but its relations to the actions (the ‘behaviours’) that it guides.
Preconceptual Representation
Authors: Fodor Jerry A. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter argues that at least some of the mental representations that are causally implicated in the formation of perceptual beliefs are indeed non-conceptual. The line of argument offered goes like this: on the one hand, it is (empirically) plausible that at least some of these representations are ‘iconic’ (rather than ‘discursive’); and, on the other hand, it is in the nature of iconic representations not to be conceptual.
The Metaphysics of Reference
Authors: Fodor Jerry A. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractOnly matter has causal powers. The underlying metaphysical intuition is perhaps clear enough to be getting on with: whatever enters into causal interactions is constituted of the sort of stuff that basic physics is about. Call that the ‘physicalist’ thesis (PT). This chapter argues that PT functions as an a priori methodological constraint on scientific practice; ‘a priori’ in the sense that any theory that fails to conform to PT to that extent counts as disconfirmed. This applies to intentional psychology inter alia: only matter can think. It also discusses what philosophers call the ‘naturalization’ of intentional psychology.
The process of health care innovation: problem sequences, systems, and symbiosis
Authors: Consoli Davide , McMeekin Andrew , Metcalfe J. Stan , Mina Andrea , Ramlogan Ronnie 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter examines the role of process in innovation. It analyses an interesting evolutionary perspective and presents empirical evidence from an example of the intra-ocular lens and the treatment of glaucoma. It focuses on systems of innovation, arguing that generation and delivery of new medical practices is dependent on the creation of sophisticated innovation systems that rely on the specialization, diversification, and co-ordination of activities that are complementary to health care institutions.
Treatment uncertainty and irreversibility in medical care: implications for cost-effectiveness analysis
Authors: Zivin Joshua Graff , Neidell Matthew , Feldman Lauri 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter discusses the introduction of uncertainty and irreversibility in cost-effectiveness analysis to determine optimal funding and resource allocation for medical technologies, research, and treatment. It is essential to use a valuation model that considers the uncertain arrivals of future diseases and the varying degrees of effectiveness with which they can be treated. Irreversibility raises the value of the option-preserving treatment. The existence of an option value — that value above and beyond the direct value of treatment for the current condition — means that a treatment that is inferior to an alternative for its indicated use may be the superior choice when lifetime welfare is considered. Optimal decision-making requires a careful comparison of the ‘costs’ of a less effective treatment for a condition today with the ‘benefits’ of more effective treatments for conditions in the future. The size of the option value and thus the degree to which valuations that ignore it are miscalculated, depends critically on the relative effectiveness of treatments, the likelihood of diseases arriving in the future, the extent to which current interventions limit the ability to treat these future conditions, and the relevant discount rate.
Home or nursing home? The effect of medical innovation on the demand for long-term care
Authors: Lichtenberg Frank R. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter tests the hypothesis that medical innovation has reduced the age-adjusted nursing home residence rate, and estimates the contribution of medical innovation to the decline in the rate of nursing home residence during the period 1985–1999. It investigates the effects of four types of medical innovation: drug innovation, and innovation in three types of procedures (therapeutic and preventive, diagnostic, and laboratory procedures).
Institutional pathways for integrating genetic testing into mainstream health care
Authors: Petkova Hristina 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter considers how new knowledge generated by advances in science can be assimilated into public health care systems, allowing quicker integration of new technology into routine care. An example is drawn from maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) study applied to two very different health care systems: Germany and the UK. The chapter shows that differences in the organization, funding, and delivery of care generally can affect genetic innovation. The degree of institutional take-up of testing for MODY as a single gene disorder with highly differential diagnosis and established clinical implications for alternative treatment shows strong association with the general pattern of the health care structures. The implementation trajectories for MODY diagnosis in the two countries diverge at several points, from research expertise and pattern of provision, to diffusion channels in mainstream service.
High temperature expansions for magnets at H = 0
Authors: McCoy Barry M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter presents the results of high temperature series expansions for classical n component spin models with nearest neighbor interactions for two and three dimensions. In dimension three this data is used to estimate critical exponents. In dimension two the three-component model exhibits what in field theory is called ‘asymptotic freedom’ where the critical temperature is at T = 0. The corresponding analysis is done for the quantum Heisenberg model and universality with respect to the quantum spin is evaluated. A discussion of the relation between statistical mechanics and quantum field theory is given.
6 A Health Capability Account of Equal Access
Authors: Ruger Jennifer Prah 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter evaluates health care's impact on individuals' health capability and addresses what equal access, quality and a right to health and health care mean for health system development. Along the political spectrum, access is variously viewed as a negative right (preventing access is wrong), a right to a decent minimum of care, or government‐guaranteed equal access to health. The chapter proposes recasting equal access to ensure social conditions that offer all individuals the capability for health. The health capability paradigm evaluates the justness of health care services by their effectiveness in enhancing health capability and bringing individuals as close to a level of optimal health functioning as circumstances permit. This is gauged by assessing individual health needs, health agency and health norms. The paradigm is needs‐based, requiring that health care be medically necessary and medically appropriate. It also provides justification for high‐quality care, and considers how health norms and risk determine health agency. It critically examines notions of proportionality, and horizontal and vertical equity. Finally, it addresses concerns about responsibility and health and the comparison between voluntary and involuntary risk and offers analysis of the fit between the health capability paradigm and public policies that invoke paternalism and libertarian paternalism.
2 Widespread Engagement
Authors: Casarini Nicola 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter examines the policy of widespread engagement adopted by the two sides in the post‐Cold War era. It shows that since the mid‐1990s, the EU and its member states have adopted a firm policy of engagement with China, while Chinese leaders would come to prioritize the enhancement of relations with Europe. A new discourse on economic security emerged in both Europe and China at the beginning of the 1990s would provide the intellectual underpinning for the development of EU—China relations. This chapter explains how this securitization discourse would tie the protection of the EU's economic security and socio‐economic welfare position with China's steady and sustainable development. At the same time, it is explained how the emergence of new notions of economic security would lead Chinese policy makers to make a linkage between the enhancement of economic and technological relations with Europe and China's modernization and comprehensive national power.
9 Back to the Future
Authors: Casarini Nicola 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThe last chapter begins by examining the emergence of negative perceptions about China among European public opinions in the last years, explaining how these dynamics, along with changes at the top political level both in the European Commission and within member states, would lead to a reassessment of the EU's China policy. This chapter subsequently analyses the last major blow to EU—China relations occurred in July 2008 with the decision to exclude Chinese contractors from the second phase of implementation of Galileo. With this move, the EU would put a temporary halt to satellite navigation cooperation with China and pave the way for a political readjustment of relations between the two sides. This would lend itself, in the remaining part of this chapter, to a final evaluation of the current state of EU—China relations and its future prospects.
Compact objects
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M. 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
When a star is near the end of its lifetime, and all of its fuel is used up, there is no longer enough outwards pressure due to radiation to resist the inwards pull of gravity and the star starts to collapse again. However, there is another source of internal pressure. The electrons inside a star, being fermions, are subject to the Pauli exclusion principle and take unkindly to being squashed into a small space. They produce an outwards electron degeneracy pressure which is calculated in the first section of the chapter. This concept leads to white dwarfs and, for the case of neutron degeneracy pressure, neutron stars. More massive stars can turn into black holes . The chapter considers how mass can accrete onto such objects and the entropy of a black hole.
Risk Communication and Pandemic Influenza
Authors: Petts Judith , Draper Heather , Ives Jonathan , Damery Sarah 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter examines a risk scenario that could form one of the most significant communication challenges both nationally and globally: an influenza pandemic. A pandemic occurs when a new influenza strain emerges and spreads rapidly because people have no natural resistance to it. Drawing upon the evidence gathered from healthcare workers — who might plausibly have an enhanced understanding of the potential risks — the chapter considers how information and knowledge might be exchanged amongst the wider public. This should help in understanding how risk communication efforts might most effectively engage with people, before (as well as during) an outbreak. Before outlining this evidence, the characteristics of pandemic influenza that may impact on people's understanding, information needs, and response are summarized.
Contesting the Science: Public Health Knowledge and Action in Controversial Land-Use Developments
Authors: Elliott Eva , Harrop Emily , Williams Gareth H. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis chapter explores two different forms of public protest against land developments that were considered by local people to threaten public health. They diverged in terms of their means of struggle and in the different opportunity structures open to them. In the first example, a protest group, known as ‘Rhondda Against Nanty-y-Gwyddon Tip’ or RANT, came to pursue an oppositional course in their struggle to close and make safe a local landfill site. In the second, local residents used the process of a health impact assessment (HIA), through a university-based HIA support unit and the national public health service for Wales, to present evidence on possible risks to public health in an appeal against an application to extend an opencast mine.
Absolutism in Renaissance Milan
Authors: Black Jane 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This volume charts the rise and decline of absolutism in Milan from the early fourteenth to the early sixteenth century. The study shows how authority above the law, once the preserve of pope and emperor, was claimed by the ruling Milanese dynasties, the Visconti and the Sforza, and why this privilege was finally abandoned by Francesco II Sforza (d. 1535), the last duke. As new rulers, the Visconti and the Sforza had had to impose their regime by rewarding supporters at the expense of opponents. That process required absolute power (also known as plenitude of power), meaning the capacity to laws and the rights of subjects, including titles to property. The basis for such power reflected the changing status of Milanese rulers, first as signori and then as dukes. Contemporary lawyers were at first prepared to overturn established doctrines in support of the free use of absolute power: even Baldo degli Ubaldi accepted the latest teaching. But eventually lawyers regretted the new approach, reasserting the traditional principle that laws could not be set aside without compelling justification. The Visconti and the Sforza also saw the dangers of absolute power: as legitimate princes they were meant to champion law and justice, not condone arbitrary acts that disregarded basic rights. Black traces the application of plenitude of power in day‐to‐day government, and demonstrates how the rulers of Milan kept pace with the initial acceptance and subsequent rejection by lawyers of the concept of absolute power.
A Mechanism with a Bright Future: Joint Implementation
Authors: Hoogzaad Jelmer , Streck Charlotte 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Although the term Joint Implementation itself is not mentioned anywhere in the Kyoto Protocol, Article 6 of the Protocol establishes the basis for what has become known as ‘Joint Implementation’ (JI). Jointly with the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), JI belongs to the project-based flexible mechanisms defined by the Kyoto Protocol. JI involves the transfer of Emission Reduction Units (ERUs) between Annex I parties that have been generated by projects developed by Parties to the Protocol or authorized legal entities. This chapter first describes the current state of play for JI, explaining the procedural requirements for a successful participation in JI, including providing insights into the so-called Track 1 JI, a modality of the JI mechanism that is often overlooked due to its national rather than global character. Next, the claim that that JI has to accept a life as a wallflower compared to the more glamorous CDM is examined and argued to be untrue. Finally, the post-2012 future of JI is discussed, elaborating upon options for JI reform as well as proposals to introduce new elements to expand the mechanisms' sectoral coverage.
Interpreting the Additionality of CDM Projects: Changes in Additionality Definitions and Regulatory Practices over Time
Authors: Axel Michaelowa 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The concept of the ‘additionality’ of the emission reduction achieved by a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project lies at the heart of the CDM rules. The essential idea underlying the concept of additionality is that the emissions reductions of a CDM project would not have happened under ‘business-as-usual’. This chapter considers how the concept of additionality has evolved over time both in its theoretical definition and its actual implementation regarding registration of CDM projects. It starts with a discussion of the inability of the negotiators of the Kyoto Protocol and the Marrakech Accords to agree on an operational definition of additionality. The unexpected effort of the CDM Executive Board to introduce principles of additionality testing and the development of the consolidated additionality tool are discussed in section 3. Recent developments that allow the use of benchmarks and default discount factors to take into account non-additional projects, instead of using the additionality tool, are assessed in section 4. Section 5 describes how projects have been reviewed and rejected over time, with the CDM Executive Board (EB) developing ‘fashions’ of rejecting certain project types without prior warning. The fate of cement blending and waste heat recovery projects is assessed in detail. Given this situation, several proposals for reform of additionality testing have been made, which are dealt with in section 6. Section 7 discusses what would happen if additionality testing was scrapped. Section 8 summarizes the lessons of five years of additionality determination of CDM projects.
Carbon Contracting
Authors: Wilder Martijn , Fitz-Gerald Louisa 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
There are several types of carbon credits under the international, regional and national emissions trading schemes, and as to be expected, there are many different approaches to contacting for the sale and purchase of these assets. This chapter provides an overview of some of the options for contracting for carbon by focusing on the following: a history of carbon contracting approaches; the key issues involved in carbon contracting; some recent contracting issues; and some approaches to the structuring of financing arrangements for carbon projects.