bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conflict of Laws and Global Governance
Authors: Yokomizo Dai 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter will deal with some issues on conflict of laws (private international law) and global governance. Some authors claim that conflict of laws should contribute to global governance in response to challenges created by globalization to conflict of laws. About this proposal, some questions arise: should conflict of laws play a certain role in global governance? Is there any risk that conflict of laws would become a political instrument by being regarded as a means for global governance? Can conflict of laws play any significant role in global governance? This chapter will attempt to find answers to these questions. The author’s argument is as follows: conflict of laws needs to adapt itself to the transformation of the world, at least in some functionally differentiated fields; it can avoid becoming a direct instrument of state policies by refusing to introduce specific conflict-of-laws rules seeking for these policies; and, it can play a significant role if it enlarges the scope of legal orders to be coordinated to include non-state normative orders, and that of legal relations to include public relations.
“Learning toys” as education through commodification
Authors: Lewis Tyson E. 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter argues that learning toys actually transform toys into equipment, thus negating the “toyness” of toys. Learning, on this reading, is the educational logic of knowledge capitalism, emphasizing measurable skills necessary to become competitive in an economy driven by and through the production of social life, information, and affect. To save toys from becoming mere tools to promote such learning, the chapter turns to the critical theory of Walter Benjamin who, by not conflating toys with equipment, enables us to think through the logic of toys as toys. For Benjamin, toys do not elicit certain kinds of play/learning that accommodate children to adult expectations and assumptions concerning which skills, dispositions, and capacities ought to be developed. Instead, play creates toys as interventions into the status quo, making possible another kind of world not envisioned by adults. The chapter then explores the three dimensions of creative play—profanation, recycling, and repetition—that together produce toys, and looks at how these creative dimensions are internally related to the educational practice of study (as opposed to learning). It concludes by suggesting that toys are the creative production of open-ended, experimental play just as study is the creative production of ideas.
Can regions learn?
Authors: Johnsen Hans Chr. Garmann , Knudsen Jon P. 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
The concept of a learning region attained a certain popularity in the latter part of the twentieth century as a way of covering a variety of processes of development and social change, especially taking place in Europe and North America. This chapter goes back to the early roots of thinking on learning in the social sciences, and argues that the social and geographical concept of learning, as coined in the concept of the learning region, is too broad and imprecise to capture its complexity. This may be an explanation for a recent drop seen in the frequency of references to learning regions.
Belonging and being unique
Authors: Örtenblad Anders 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter presents a study of the values that could be said to lie behind ten multiword terms, all of which have learning as the premodifier: learning city, learning climate, learning community, learning country, learning economy, learning evaluation, learning organization, learning region, learning school, and learning society. As a basis for the analysis of these terms, a set of five discourses—some of which have their origin in stakeholder perspectives—are used. The texts on three of the studied terms are dominated by the learning for all discourse; three terms are dominated by the effectiveness discourse; one term is dominated by the Bildung discourse; and three terms are influenced by various mixtures of discourses. The chapter concludes that the sets of texts on the same term in many cases are consistent, but that there also is room for differences, and that the learning premodifier seems to give far more opportunities for divergence than one could have expected. On this basis, it suggests that the learning premodifier has dual functions—it can serve to offer the user belongingness and can also provide uniqueness, even at the same time.
Interpreting the decline in the common use of the learning premodifier
Authors: Papastephanou Marianna 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
Questions about how to interpret the conceptual history and reception of the learning premodifier operate at a diachronic rather than synchronic level. Such questions include, for instance: what caused the ascending popularity of the learning labels? And what may explain the noticeable decrease in the common academic use of them? The chapter begins with some thoughts about the synchronic and diachronic engagement with the learning premodifier. Then it offers some interpretive possibilities concerning what such a decrease in the common use of the learning premodifier may mean and what predictive value there may be in anticipating its course in the future. To illuminate the relevance of time to the politics of the learning premodifier that have affected the fluctuation in its use, the chapter utilizes the notions of kairos, chronos, and kairikotis (that is, the lifespan of an idea or label).
Basic Equality
Authors: Kirby Nikolas , Floris Giacomo 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
The acceptance of the idea of basic equality is widely recognized as one of the most significant achievements of modernity. However, what exactly does it mean to say that we are one another’s equals in some fundamental sense? How can it possibly be true, given that we are unequals in almost every other aspect of our lives? And, who, exactly, is meant to fall within its scope? In this introductory chapter, we outline the most significant challenges that theories of basic equality must face in answering these questions, as well as introducing some conceptual distinctions that clarify important aspects of this debate. This, in turn, provides background for understanding the questions that the essays in this book seek to answer.
Basic and Relational Equality
Authors: Waldron Jeremy 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
Theorists of ‘relational equality’ have defined and elaborated an attractive ideal, which they present as an alternative understanding of equality, superior to distribution-focused theories such as luck-egalitarianism. In my book One Another’s Equals, I presented an understanding of what I called ‘basic equality’, which I also differentiated from distributive theories such as luck-egalitarianism. Does this mean basic equality and relational equality are the same? No. To mangle Euclid, things which are different from the same thing (distributive equality) are not necessarily equal to one another. This chapter explores the differences between basic and relational equality, and shows that ideals like relational equality, important though they are as social ideals, still require basic equality as a foundation.
First Among Equals
Authors: Sher George 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
Elsewhere, I have argued that the moral equality of humans is explained by the fact that each of us is a complete centre of subjectivity. Because many animals are also complete centres of subjectivity, this explanation implies that many animals are our moral equals—an implication that appears to conflict with the common belief that it is often permissible to treat humans and animals differently. However, taking my cue from the permissibility of treating different humans differently, I argue that there is no real conflict here. To take two beings to have equal moral standing is simply to weight their interests equally in our deliberations about the principles that ought to guide us when the interests of different beings conflict. Because this weighting occurs prior to any substantive deliberation, it is quite compatible with our settling on principles that license many forms of differential treatment.
Experiencing the International Space
Authors: Furia Annalisa 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter seeks to reconstruct the main qualifying characteristics of the notion of international space Arendt derived from her intellectual analysis and existential experience, and that (implicitly and explicitly) informs her political theorizing. Without aiming at providing either an exhaustive review of the many international issues she addressed in her writings or a critical scrutiny of the consistency of her conceptualizations, this chapter argues that she delineates a notion of international space that is neither the simple reflection of what exists nor the simple product of an idea(l). Rather, it is conceived as a demanding dimension that can be safeguarded and kept alive by human action only if its constitutive relationships with reality, history, and plurality are preserved. This is one of the most important contributions Arendt’s thought offers to the contemporary debate on the theory and practice of the international.
“At tu nomen inane es”
Authors: Lorini Gualtiero 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
The few studies on the connection between Baumgarten’s practical philosophy and Kantian moral philosophy have revealed two dimensions of influence. First, Baumgarten influenced Kant’s moral terminology, with themes like obligation showing a positive impact. Second, Kant diverged from Baumgarten’s view of the role of the divine. While Baumgarten associates the legislator with God in defining natural laws and the obligations linked thereto, Kant rejects this notion, distinguishing between the “author of the law” and God as the “lawgiver.” Despite excluding God from the basis of morality, Kant draws on moral theology for support as a postulate, due to the structural necessity of justice within morality, even if this is not explicitly addressed. Exploring Kant’s position in the Metaphysics of Morals, this study seeks to assess the significance of employing a supreme lawgiver as a heuristic to ensure effective moral legislation in ethical and legal contexts, so as to avoid these becoming what Brutus called, in the words of Dio Cassius, empty names.
Perfectionism from Wolff to Kant
Authors: Fugate Courtney D. 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the evolution of moral perfectionism from Wolff to Kant through Baumgarten. Fugate argues that Kant’s moral philosophy can be understood as a form of perfectionism, focusing on the concept of natural perfection. Wolff initially presents this concept as a guide to identifying moral laws, while Baumgarten refines it into what Kant would call an “idea of reason,” i.e. a perfection from which arises certain regulative principles then applied to the system of moral laws. Fugate suggests that Kant, influenced by Baumgarten, adopts the idea of absolute perfection, viewing it as constitutive to free willing. Unlike earlier interpretations, Kant sees morality as stemming from the nature of free will itself rather than as a means to discover moral laws in nature. The chapter’s analysis of Kant’s notes on Baumgarten’s Elements highlights Kant’s emphasis on natural perfection as crucial to his ethical framework, marking a departure from traditional notions of perfectionism.
Capitalism and Entrepreneurship in the Meiji Period (1868–1912)
Authors: Donzé Pierre-Yves , Yongue Julia S. 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
Chapter 3 focuses on the development of private firms during the Meiji period. After providing a general overview of the structure of business and the changes in the legal framework, it explores the role of private entrepreneurship through the activities of the ‘father of Japanese capitalism’, Shibusawa Eiichi. It then investigates the changing nature of Japanese capitalism through the development of the financial system and private banks, the zaibatsu and the growth of the modern corporation, the emergence of large private firms, namely Osaka Spinning, and the characteristics of the hundreds of SMEs located in and around Tokyo and Osaka. The first business schools, one of which was founded by Shibusawa, trained a new class of professional managers to head Japan’s industries. It concludes with a discussion of the import-substitution industrialization strategy devised by Meiji elites and implemented by private entrepreneurs with the support of the state. It emphasizes the many roles of capitalists during this period, and that industrialization did not lead to a homogenized capitalist system, but rather to the co-existence of several forms of capitalism. These include a waning form of state capitalism, Manchester-style laissez-faire capitalism at SMEs, emerging monopolistic capitalism controlled by zaibatsu, and American-style capitalism based on large modern enterprises and financial markets.
Global Competition during the Lost Decades
Authors: Donzé Pierre-Yves , Yongue Julia S. 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
Chapter 11 traces the transformation of Japanese capitalism towards a new model during ‘the lost decades period’. In the first lost decade (1990s), Japan faced the problem of restructuring its financial system, while in the second, Japanese firms experienced a decline in competitiveness in global markets. The distinction between the two lost decades is necessary to understand the changes in Japanese capitalism, which is characterized by a new system of corporate governance (1990s) and globalization through outward FDI (2000s). After examining the evolution in the institutional and macroeconomic environments, the chapter focuses on two case studies: the electronics industry, which attempted to cope with a loss of global advantages by shifting production to East Asia, and automobile manufacturing, which retained its competitiveness. The chapter also investigates two kinds of businesses which became major actors in most advanced economies, but not in Japan: foreign firms and start-ups. Their limited presence in Japan resulted from the features of communitarian capitalism. Consequently, foreign firms struggled to find distributors and local partners and adapt to Japanese business practices, namely the system of lifetime employment, while for start-ups, the major obstacle was the lack of incentives for venture capital funding. The chapter closes with a brief discussion of the government’s promotion of ‘Cool Japan’ and the expansion of the cultural industries in overseas markets. While many large firms suffered during the long recession, a new fast fashion brand, Uniqlo achieved success both in Japan and abroad.
Why Ecosystems Matter
Authors: Wills Christopher 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
The ecosystems of the world, the complex and resilient communities of interacting species that surround us, play a central role in our planet’s health and in our own survival. This book shows how recent insights into the many capabilities of ecosystems will enable us to understand and protect them. We will travel to remote deserts, thriving rainforests, coral reefs, and the open ocean to discover how each of their groups of fiercely competing and often cooperating species evolve and adapt to change. Laboratory experiments are now revealing the central roles played by communities of bacteria and viruses that make up ecosystems’ microbiomes. The speed with which ecosystems are able to seize new opportunities and adapt to new challenges depends to a surprising extent on the bubbling cauldrons of evolutionary activity that are taking place in their microbiomes. At the same time, extensive DNA surveys are detecting deep reserves of genetic diversity throughout the living world. These reserves, along with many mechanisms that aid the transfer of genes between species, provide additional powerful evolutionary resources to the species that share an ecosystem. We explore how these discoveries are leading to new interventions that can help restore a healthy balance to even badly damaged ecosystems, such as the many grasslands around the world that are becoming deserts. And we show how much we can learn from the few ecosystems where humans and nature have been able to coexist for centuries. This new research leads to a conclusion that is becoming clearer with every day that passes: we must protect and nurture the totality of our ecosystems, or our world may not endure.
The Genetic Contents of the Evolutionary Cauldron
Authors: Wills Christopher 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter traces the history of our growing understanding of the true nature and extent of the genetic variation that is concealed in the gene pools of each of an ecosystem’s component. It begins with a brief account of the author’s career-shaping experiences as a student of the distinguished evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky. One of the first scientists to probe species’ gene pools, Dobzhansky found that sometimes two or more “sibling” species can lurk hidden inside the gene pool of what seems to be a single species. These insights were basic to the later pathbreaking work of Martin Kreitman, who first glimpsed a gene pool’s variation at the DNA level. He saw clues to how gene frequencies have changed over time, and how the fates of groups of genes are often linked. Then we explore the latest cutting-edge technology that allows entire gene pools, and even the DNA of entire ecosystems, to be sequenced and compared. These studies have revealed new vistas of evolutionary potential that become available when groups of genetically variable species interact.
The Boundless Potential of Evolutionary Entanglements
Authors: Wills Christopher 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
The previous chapter has set the stage for a discussion of Michael McDonald’s experiments on populations of single-celled yeast. He has shown that these populations quickly accumulate genetic variation even when grown in a simple environment. The yeast populations retain the most advantageous combinations of these new mutant genes and tend to lose lineages that carry disadvantageous ones. “Super-advantageous” mutations appear to be common in these populations. McDonald and others are also exploring a newly discovered part of the story of how ecosystems evolve and adapt, by studying the role of transfers of genes between hosts and parasites in simple laboratory communities. These exchanges can greatly increase the speed with which laboratory populations evolve. The chapter closes with an account of the substantial role that has been played by gene transfers between species in our own microbiomes.
Venturing beyond the Red Queen
Authors: Wills Christopher 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines how networks of cooperating and competing species can reach a flexible stability, simultaneously remaining stable while retaining the ability to evolve in many directions. Cooperation among species alone cannot explain this, because such cooperation can only evolve if it makes the participating species, acting as a unit, better overall competitors in the larger ecosystem. We explore how these continually shifting cooperative and competitive interactions can result in a flexible, rather than an ossified, stable state. Remarkable new adaptations are free to appear, along with avenues for other members of the ecosystems to adapt to them. Such ecosystem flexibility explains the history of the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis. This system, on which almost all of Earth’s life now depends, began its evolution as types of more-limited anoxygenic photosynthesis in two bacterial lineages. Gene transfers brought these photosynthetic mechanisms together in a third bacterial lineage. There, they evolved cooperative interactions that allowed them to use carbon dioxide and water to generate chemical energy and release gaseous oxygen as a “waste” product. This did not result in the immediate death of all anaerobic organisms that were sensitive to oxygen, however. We explore why, in spite of the overwhelming advantage of oxygenic photosynthesis, it took two billion years for oxygenic photosynthetic organisms to fully take over the planet. This was because ecosystems still had many routes by which their species could adapt to this new selective factor, slowing its advance and increasing life’s complexity and flexibility at the same time.
New directions in the history and sociolinguistics of French
Authors: Carruthers Janice , McLaughlin Mairi , Walsh Olivia 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter positions the contribution of the volume in the wider research context in which it was designed. It charts the evolution of the two main strands of research at the heart of the volume—sociolinguistics and historical (socio-)linguistics—exploring in each case the influence of the field on our understanding of the French language. In so doing, it draws on theoretical and methodological approaches from around the world, notably work by scholars in North America and Europe, particularly in Francophone and Anglophone traditions. The chapter sets out the distinctive approach of this volume, notably its multilingual perspectives (within France, across Europe, and in North America), its comparative dimension (across languages, geographies, and historical periods), and, crucially, its focus on data-driven methodologies. While theoretically diverse, and addressing a range of linguistic and sociolinguistic issues, the chapters are unified by an emphasis on data, drawing on recent datasets and electronic corpora of different text types that allow us to shed new light on the French language, both diachronically and synchronically.
Language authority, language ideologies, and eighteenth-century bilingual lexicographers of French, German, and English
Authors: McLelland Nicola 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the construction of linguistic authority and adherence to language ideologies in three related eighteenth-century bilingual dictionaries which deal with English, French, and German: the bidirectional French–English dictionaries of Abel Boyer (1699, 1700), and two dictionaries closely based on Boyer’s works; Christian Ludwig’s English-to-German dictionary (1706), including its third edition, revised by J. B. Rogler (1763); and Lewis Chambaud’s French-to-English dictionary (1761). The chapter presents evidence that early modern bilingual dictionary compilers may claim authority over language, and that their works may also serve as vehicles of standard language ideology, no less than monolingual codifications, for example through their metalinguistic labelling. While Ludwig makes relatively little comment on language and makes less use of metalinguistic labelling than Boyer, Chambaud has firm views on what constitutes good French and accordingly uses a wide range of metalinguistic labels marking style, register, and social status.
The history of terms for varieties of Gallo-Romance
Authors: Kibbee Douglas A. 
Published: June 2024

Abstract
The various terms for the object of linguistic study—language, dialect, idiom, speech, patois—defy scientific definition. Typically, language is distinguished from the others by various tests, none of which stand up to close scrutiny. Within the history of the study of French, evolving versions of the nation-state—monarchy, empire, republic, and most recently the state within international organizations (Council of Europe, European Union)—influence the choice of terms, and the ways in which varieties are studied. The remarqueurs of the seventeenth century frequently reject as ‘not French’ forms used by the most celebrated authors. In the early nineteenth century variation is considered a vice, with many manuals condemning ‘locutions vicieuses’. The unity of the state, from the Middle Ages to the present, is seen to depend on the unity of the language but defining that language has proven most difficult.