Attention 3D U‐NET for dose distribution prediction of high‐dose‐rate brachytherapy of cervical cancer: Direction modulated brachytherapy tandem applicator
Authors: Gautam Suman , Osman Alexander F. I. , Richeson Dylan , Gholami Somayeh , Manandhar Binod , Alam Sharmin , Song William Y. 
Published: June 2024

AbstractBackgroundDirection Modulated Brachytherapy (DMBT) enables conformal dose distributions. However, clinicians may face challenges in creating viable treatment plans within a fast‐paced clinical setting, especially for a novel technology like DMBT, where cumulative clinical experience is limited. Deep learning‐based dose prediction methods have emerged as effective tools for enhancing efficiency.PurposeTo develop a voxel‐wise dose prediction model using an attention‐gating mechanism and a 3D UNET for cervical cancer high‐dose‐rate (HDR) brachytherapy treatment planning with DMBT six‐groove tandems with ovoids or ring applicators.MethodsA multi‐institutional cohort of 122 retrospective clinical HDR brachytherapy plans treated to a prescription dose in the range of 4.8–7.0 Gy/fraction was used. A DMBT tandem model was constructed and incorporated onto a research version of BrachyVision Treatment Planning System (BV‐TPS) as a 3D solid model applicator and retrospectively re‐planned all cases by seasoned experts. Those plans were randomly divided into 64:16:20 as training, validating, and testing cohorts, respectively. Data augmentation was applied to the training and validation sets to increase the size by a factor of 4. An attention‐gated 3D UNET architecture model was developed to predict full 3D dose distributions based on high‐risk clinical target volume (CTVHR) and organs at risk (OARs) contour information. The model was trained using the mean absolute error loss function, Adam optimization algorithm, a learning rate of 0.001, 250 epochs, and a batch size of eight. In addition, a baseline UNET model was trained similarly for comparison. The model performance was evaluated on the testing dataset by analyzing the outcomes in terms of mean dose values and derived dose‐volume‐histogram indices from 3D dose distributions and comparing the generated dose distributions against the ground‐truth dose distributions using dose statistics and clinically meaningful dosimetric indices.ResultsThe proposed attention‐gated 3D UNET model showed competitive accuracy in predicting 3D dose distributions that closely resemble the ground‐truth dose distributions. The average values of the mean absolute errors were 1.82 ± 29.09 Gy (vs. 6.41 ± 20.16 Gy for a baseline UNET) in CTVHR, 0.89 ± 1.25 Gy (vs. 0.94 ± 3.96 Gy for a baseline UNET) in the bladder, 0.33 ± 0.67 Gy (vs. 0.53 ± 1.66 Gy for a baseline UNET) in the rectum, and 0.55 ± 1.57 Gy (vs. 0.76 ± 2.89 Gy for a baseline UNET) in the sigmoid. The results showed that the mean absolute error (MAE) for the bladder, rectum, and sigmoid were 0.22 ± 1.22 Gy (3.62%) (p = 0.015), 0.21 ± 1.06 Gy (2.20%) (p = 0.172), and ‐0.03 ± 0.54 Gy (1.13%) (p = 0.774), respectively. The MAE for D90, V100%, and V150% of the CTVHR were 0.46 ± 2.44 Gy (8.14%) (p = 0.018), 0.57 ± 11.25% (5.23%) (p = 0.283), and ‐0.43 ± 19.36% (4.62%) (p = 0.190), respectively. The proposed model needs less than 5 s to predict a full 3D dose distribution of 64 × 64 × 64 voxels for any new patient plan, thus making it sufficient for near real‐time applications and aiding with decision‐making in the clinic.ConclusionsAttention gated 3D‐UNET model demonstrated a capability in predicting voxel‐wise dose prediction, in comparison to 3D UNET, for DMBT intracavitary brachytherapy planning. The proposed model could be used to obtain dose distributions for near real‐time decision‐making before DMBT planning and quality assurance. This will guide future automated planning, making the workflow more efficient and clinically viable.