bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Safety and Integrity in Vehicle Systems
Authors: Drysdale Alexander T. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractSafety is one of many attributes that has to be designed into a new air vehicle. This chapter describes how, by identifying system failure conditions and their various technical and non‐technical causes, the required levels of safety can be produced by design. The activities carried out, as the product is developed, will identify, analyse and control the risk of hazards. The controls identified during this process produce derived system requirements to keep the hazard risks within acceptable levels. A system safety program plan is produced and integrated with other system development activities to ensure the required safety tasks are visible to all and are properly managed and resourced. The program puts in place the organization that enables decisions to be made about the acceptability of risks identified. It identifies the hazard risk acceptance criteria to be applied and the analysis techniques to be used. A system safety assessment is provided at the completion of the development activities and is used to summarize the program work and show how well the safety requirements have been achieved. This assessment, along with other verification test evidence, and so on, is used to support the certification of the aircraft prior to its entry into service.
Electromagnetic Integration of Aircraft Systems
Authors: MacDiarmid Ian 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
The electromagnetic integration of complete aircraft is a multidisciplinary activity, involving aerodynamic constraints, structural design constraints, electrical installation, systems architecture, high‐frequency electrical engineering, and equipment design. It is not the intention of this chapter to replicate the many excellent textbooks on electromagnetics and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), rather to create a way of thinking about the problem and challenges. Thus ensuring that via good engineering management processes, and a wide variety of technical solutions, (many of which are published in the literature, although a small number remain proprietary) the problem is treated appropriately. Often this has to occur in large complex organizations with diverse cultures sometimes dominated by the clearly, very important, original aircraft concerns of aerodynamics and structures.
Formulating Design Problems as Optimization Problems
Authors: Arora Jasbir S. 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
Proper formulation of a design problem as an optimization problem is an important step in the solution process. A procedure used to formulate optimization problems is described, discussed, and illustrated. The mathematical definition of an optimization problem has three basic elements: design variables, an objective function, and constraints. These terms have been defined and discussed in this chapter. Examples are used to illustrate the process of transcribing a design problem into an optimization problem. Then a general model that can represent many different types of design optimization problems is defined and discussed. Various concepts and terms associated with the solution of an optimization problem are explained. Many engineering design problems require numerical methods to simulate their response to the inputs. Formulation of such optimization problems involves implicit functions of the design variables. Such formulations are also presented and discussed. In addition, there are formulations that use the design variables, the analysis variables, and other intermediate variables simultaneously as unknowns of the optimization problem. These are known as alternative formulations and are also described. Practical optimization problems require numerical methods to solve them. Many good programs are available that incorporate modern computational algorithms to solve these problems once they have been formulated properly. Excel is one such program that is widely available. Its use is demonstrated by solving some of the example problems.
Review of Optimization Techniques
Authors: Venter Gerhard 
Published: December 2010

AbstractA basic overview of optimization techniques is provided. The standard form of the general nonlinear, constrained optimization problem is presented, and various techniques for solving the resulting optimization problem are discussed. The techniques are classified as either local (typically gradient‐based) or global (typically non‐gradient based or evolutionary) algorithms. A great many optimization techniques exist and it is not possible to provide a complete review in the limited space available here. Instead, an effort is made to concentrate on techniques that are commonly used in engineering optimization applications. The review is kept general in nature, without considering special cases like linear programming, convex problems, multi‐objective optimization, multi‐disciplinary optimization, etc. The advantages and disadvantages of the different techniques are highlighted, and suggestions are made to aid the designer in selecting an appropriate technique for a specific problem at hand. Where possible, a short overview of a representative method is presented to aid the discussion of that particular class of algorithms.
Continuous Optimization in Aerospace Structures
Authors: Sienz Johann , Luege Mariela , Fuerle Fabian 
Published: December 2010

AbstractIn structural design optimization, engineers and designers aim to obtain more efficient designs with regards to measures such as weight, stiffness or frequency, for a given set of design variables. These design variables can be of different type such as material properties or geometric variables. Hence, depending on the design variables that are chosen, different techniques such as topology, shape, and size optimization have been introduced. This section presents a brief introduction to the topic in their continuous and corresponding discrete formulation based on the finite element method (FEM). Basic concepts of the advanced technologies that are involved in a typical structural design progress are also briefly included, such as: modelling analysis using the FEM, mesh generation/adaptivity, and error estimation. Illustrative examples of numerical instabilities in the FE solution, of shape and topology optimization, and of fully integrated engineering design optimization processes are also presented.
Fundamentals of Wind‐Tunnel Design
Authors: Cattafesta Louis , Bahr Chris , Mathew Jose 
Published: December 2010

AbstractWind tunnels offer an effective tool to rapidly obtain data associated with flow over scaled or full‐scale models. Given their ubiquitous nature and utility, a wind‐tunnel design project is a fairly common yet complex exercise. We therefore review in this article the fundamentals of low‐speed wind‐tunnel design. The research goals and the specific measurement requirements are discussed, as well as the various space, budget, and power constraints that guide the tunnel design. Design guidelines are provided for the most common wind‐tunnel components, including flow conditioners, contraction, test section, diffuser, drive, and other optional components. Finally, facility characterization procedures are briefly summarized, including flow uniformity, turbulence intensity, and background noise and vibration levels.
Fundamentals of Control Engineering
Authors: Atherton Derek P. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractThis chapter provides an introduction to the basic principles of classical feedback control. A short introduction covers the basic philosophy of feedback control and is followed by a consideration of differential equation, transfer function, and state space mathematical models for a component and how they can be entered in their different forms as an objectGin Matlab. Various basic aspects of transfer function models are then covered including, poles and zeros, relative degree and minimum phase, which is followed by some coverage of their step and frequency responses. The plotting of frequency responses using, Bode, Nyquist, and Nichols diagrams is explained together with the relevant instructions for obtaining the plots using Matlab. The basic feedback control loop is introduced and methods for evaluating its stability and relative stability discussed. Pole placement and the use of frequency domain techniques in controller design are briefly mentioned before examples of frequency domain design for a lead and a lag controller are given. The PID controller is then discussed including some comments on the early work of Ziegler and Nichols before the more modern approach of relay autotuning is briefly covered. Finally, a few comments are given on state feedback design.
Systems Engineering: Using Systems Thinking to Design Better Aerospace Systems
Authors: Burge Stuart E. 
Published: December 2010

Abstract

As aerospace systems have become more complex, the ability of the aerospace community to deliver a working system on‐time and on‐cost has diminished. Indeed, a review of major aerospace programs at the start of the twenty‐first century shows most to be late and over budget. There are many reasons why these programs have faltered yet there is a unifying thread that provides a rational basis for understanding the issues. That thread can be exposed by adopting a systems approach, moreover, it leads to a solution and this introductory chapter argues the case for a systems approach to the design of aerospace systems as the only realistic option to address the increasingly poor program performance. A lack of understanding of systems, Systems Thinking, Systems Approaches and Systems Engineering is cited as one of the major factors contributing to program performance. Accordingly this introductory chapter aims to:

introduce the concepts and benefits of Systems Thinking and of a Systems Engineering approach to the development of complex aerospace systems

show how Systems Engineering is the systematic application of Systems Thinking to the creation of a system

show that Systems Engineering demands the integration of people, processes and tools.
Supersonic Mixing and Combustion
Authors: Segal Corin 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
With the broad range of flying conditions in the hypersonic regime, the processes in the supersonic combustion chamber are subject to large thermodynamic condition variations. At the low range of the hypersonic flight regime, the heat deposition in the combustion chamber is relatively large compared with the incoming flow energy; hence, the heat deposition reduces substantially the air speed and a large pressure rise is experienced with possible flow separations. At the higher range of the hypersonic regime, close to Mach 25, which is considered the upper envelope of airbreathing propulsion, the heat addition may amount to only 10 % of the incoming airflow enthalpy. The heat release effects are less pronounced. The airspeed in the combustion chamber itself may be hypersonic and the heat deposition is distributed over a longer distance following mixing and chemical reactions. The pressure rise associated with combustion is less pronounced and is mostly due to the internal geometry of the combustion chamber. Throughout the flight domain there is a closed coupled interaction between fuel‐air mixing and heat release. In the following chapter, with the recognition that the two elements cannot realistically be uncoupled, a description of the salient features of mixing and combustion is presented.
Air Transportation and Operations
Authors: Curran Ricky , van der Zwan Frank 
Published: December 2010

AbstractThe chapter considers the air transportation system in terms of its current structure, key components, and future challenges. Consequently, the current context of sustained growth is considered along with the impact, stakeholders, and evolving legal agreements. Future evolution of the system is then considered relative such initiatives such as SESAR and the emission trading scheme before going on to consider the key system components. Consequently, airlines, airports and Air Traffic Management are considered in terms of structure and organization, and operations and performance.
Obstacle Avoidance: Static Obstacles
Authors: Shanmugavel Madhavan , Tsourdos Antonios , White Brian 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
This article presents an overview of obstacle avoidance of static obstacles of autonomous vehicles. Two methods are discussed to handle the known and unknown obstacles. A brief introduction of road map methods are discussed which are used to avoid static obstacles which are known a priori. The pop‐up or unknown obstacles are handled by reactive method such as potential field and by replanning the paths. These methods avoid the obstacles by changing the original path produced by path planning. Relevant research on the obstacle avoidance is presented where optimization and other approaches are discussed.
Basic Principles – Gas Turbine Compatibility – Gas Turbine Aspects
Authors: Breuer Thomas , Bissinger Norbert C. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractEngine/intake compatibility covers the mutual dependencies between the aircraft intake and the gas turbine. Flow physical effects in both the intake and/or the gas turbine can reduce stability margins of the propulsion system dramatically, possibly resulting in unstable performance or engine flameout. Besides exhibiting optimal performance it is of utmost importance that stable propulsion operation in the whole flight envelope of a jet aircraft is ensured. In this chapter, the effects of intake flow distortions on the operation conditions of engine components and the whole gas turbine will be described. Methods for demonstration of engine distortion tolerance and carefree handling are presented. Mechanical loads due to compatibility effects and their influence on engine life are highlighted.Note: Intake aerodynamics aspects of distortion are dealt with in the companion Basic Principles: Gas Turbine Compatibility – Intake Aerodynamic Aspects.
Heat Pipes and Thermosyphons
Authors: Chen Tailian , Kim Jungho 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
There are numerous applications of heat pipes and thermosyphons. Heat pipes have been extensively used for thermal management of aerospace electronic devices. Readers can refer to the subject of heat pipe applications in aerospace and aircraft in this encyclopedia. This chapter provides an overview of fundamental concepts of heat pipes and thermosyphons, and some important applications of the two technologies.
Probe and Drogue Aerial Refueling Systems
Authors: Purdy Stephen I. 
Published: December 2010

Abstract

Probe
and
drogue
refuelling was invented by Sir Alan Cobham in 1950 and has undergone and continues to undergo development since that date. This chapter describes modern state of the art and provides references for those interested in the history of the subject. The various types of
tanker
are described and reference is made to the overall configuration of their refuelling systems. The installation of pod and
fuselage refuelling systems
is discussed and the operation of modern systems and their sub‐systems is discussed in some detail. The key aspects of any system are the
hose drum drive
control and
fuel systems
, performance requirements and salient operational and safety issues are discussed. References are provided to the most important aircraft and equipment specifications and operational procedures. Tanker operational envelopes and refuelling speeds are dictated by
receiver
requirements and the tanker configurations for helicopter, tilt rotor and fast jet refuelling are all described along with the structural adaptations and drogue configurations relevant to each. The chapter concludes with a brief look at future technologies and the long‐term outlook for the aerial refuelling tanker.
Space Tourism
Authors: Livingston David M. 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
Space tourism is an exciting, developing, and economically promising new industry. It is also an industry replete with both traditional and highly unusual risk factors, which depending on how a particular space tourism flight or even the industry develops, can be extremely profitable or highly damaging. This chapter examines the space tourism industry from a marketing and company perspective. The benefits to the tourists and the business as well as personal risk factors are examined. Since state and federal government regulations play an important role in shaping the space tourism industry, this chapter addresses the most important part of the primary laws and regulations in place now to regulate and control the industry. Finally, we look at the suborbital and orbital space tourism companies to see what they say about their space plane development, flight profiles, tourist adventure, and space tourism business plans.
Basics ofMAVFlight Control
Authors: Żbikowski Rafał 
Published: December 2010

AbstractThis chapter summarizes the basics of flight control practiced in large‐scale aviation, focusing on the aspects which are relevant to professional design of MAV flight control. Noting that the flight dynamics knowledge is the cornerstone of flight control design, the relation of control design to mission planning, navigation, and guidance is first described. The key notion of feedback is then explained together with the dependence of its implementation on sensing, actuating, and computing technology. This is followed by description of the fundamental importance of linear approach to feedback control design. Finally, two non‐linear flight control design methods are presented: gain scheduling and bifurcation control. The chapter concludes with recommendation to apply the relevant existing flight dynamics and control knowledge to MAV flight control design.
Ram Accelerator
Authors: Bruckner Adam P. , Knowlen Carl 
Published: December 2010

AbstractThe ram accelerator is a scalable hypervelocity launcher capable, in principle, of accelerating projectiles to velocities greater than 8 km s−11. The device operates as an in‐bore ramjet in which a subcaliber projectile, shaped like the centerbody of a cylindrical supersonic ramjet, is propelled through a stationary tube filled with a pressurized gaseous propellant mixture of fuel, oxidizer, and diluent. This propellant burns near the base of the moving projectile, generating thrust. The chemical energy density and speed of sound of the propellant can be adjusted, via gas pressure and composition, to control the in‐tube Mach number and acceleration history. Successful ram accelerator operation has been obtained at gas fill pressures up to 200 bar and projectile velocities up to 2.7 km s−1. Scaling has been demonstrated in bore sizes ranging from 25 to 120 mm in research facilities around the world. Potential applications of the ram accelerator include hypervelocity impact studies, hypersonic propulsion research, and direct launch of acceleration‐insensitive payloads to low Earth orbit. An overview of ram accelerator technology and representative experimental results from a 38 mm‐bore ram accelerator facility are presented.
Self‐Sharpening Mechanism of the Sea Urchin Tooth
Authors: Killian Christopher E. , Metzler Rebecca A. , Gong Yutao , Churchill Tyler H. , Olson Ian C. , Trubetskoy Vasily , Christensen Matthew B. , Fournelle John H. , De Carlo Francesco , Cohen Sidney , Mahamid Julia , Scholl Andreas , Young Anthony , Doran Andrew , Wilt Fred H. , Coppersmith Susan N. , Gilbert Pupa U. P. A. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractThe sea urchin tooth is a mosaic of calcite crystals shaped precisely into plates and fibers, cemented together by a robust calcitic polycrystalline matrix. The tooth is formed continuously at one end, while it grinds and wears at the opposite end, the sharp tip. Remarkably, these teeth enable the sea urchin to scrape and bore holes into rock, yet the teeth remain sharp rather than dull with use. Here we describe the detailed structure of the tooth of the California purple sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, and focus on the self‐sharpening mechanism. Using high‐resolution X‐ray photoelectron emission spectromicroscopy (X‐PEEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), EDX analysis, nanoindentation, and X‐ray micro‐tomography, we deduce that the sea urchin tooth self‐sharpens by fracturing at discontinuities in the material. These are organic layers surrounding plates and fibers that behave as the “fault lines” in the tooth structure, as shown by nanoindentation. Shedding of tooth components at these discontinuities exposes the robust central part of the tooth, aptly termed “the stone”, which becomes the grinding tip. The precise design and position of the plates and fibers determines the profile of the tooth tip, so as the tooth wears it maintains a tip that is continually renewed and remains sharp. This strategy may be used for the top‐down or bottom‐up fabrication of lamellar materials, to be used for mechanical functions at the nano‐ and micrometer scale.
Strategies for Post‐Synthesis Alignment and Immobilization of Carbon Nanotubes
Authors: Druzhinina Tamara , Hoeppener Stephanie , Schubert Ulrich S. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractCarbon nanotubes (CNTs) have developed into a standard material used as a building block for nanotechnological developments. Based on the unique properties that make CNTs useful for many different applications in nanotechnology, optics, electronics, and material science, there has been a rapid development of this research area and many different applications have emerged in the past few years. Frequently, the alignment and immobilization of CNTs play an important role for many applications and different strategies, in particular post‐synthesis approaches, can be applied. Recent developments of different techniques to immobilize and align carbon nanotubes are discussed and classified into three main categories: chemical immobilization and alignment, physical immobilization and alignment, and the use of external fields for these purposes. Many of the techniques involve multiple steps and may also cross these rather crudely defined boundaries. As such, the techniques are classified according to their most important or unique step.
Bionanoelectronics
Authors: Noy Aleksandr 
Published: December 2010

AbstractEvery cell in a living organisms performs a complex array of functions using a vast arsenal of proteins, ion channels, pumps, motors, signaling molecules, and cargo carriers. With all the progress that humankind has made to date in the development of sophisticated machinery and computing capabilities, understanding and communicating with living systems on that level of complexity lags behind. A breakthrough in these capabilities could only come if a way is found to integrate biological components into artificial devices. The central obstacle for this vision of bionanoelectronics is the absence of a versatile interface that facilitates two‐way communication between biological and electronic structures. 1D nanomaterials, such as nanotubes and nanowires, open up the possibility of constructing tight interfaces that could enable such bidirectional flow of information. This report discusses the overall progress in building such interfaces on the level of individual proteins and whole cells and focuses on the latest efforts to create device platforms that integrate membrane proteins, channels, and pumps with nanowire bioelectronics.