bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Mental Status Examination
Authors: Schwartz Eliezer 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe Mental Status Examination (MSE) is a structured method of observations and inquiry that guides examiners in collecting observable behaviors and manifestations of emotions and cognitions and categorizing them for diagnostic purposes. The MSE does not need to be a standardized test. Its validity and reliability are not based on psychometric properties, but on its simplicity and its consistent sequential inquiry (Rogers, 2001). This method of investigation is relatively independent from the verbal content of an interview, and it is uniquely tuned to the identification of specific behavioral manifestations that are diagnostically and prognostically significant. The MSE can be part of a formal clinical interview or part of any type of interaction with a patient. The MSE method allows the examiner to observe and identify selected targeted behaviors that are specific objectives for intervention.
Modeling
Authors: Bandura Albert 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Psychological theories have traditionally emphasized learning through the rewarding and punishing effects that actions produce. Natural endowment provides humans with enabling biological systems but few inborn skills. Competencies must be developed over long periods and altered to fit changing conditions over the life course. Direct experience is a tough teacher, because errors can be highly costly and some types of missteps are deadly. If knowledge and competencies could be acquired only by direct experience, human development would be severely retarded, not to mention unmercifully tedious and perilous. A given culture could never transmit the complexities of its language, mores, social practices, and essential competencies if they had to be shaped laboriously in each new member solely by response consequences, without the benefit of models to exemplify the cultural patterns. The abbreviation of the acquisition process is, therefore, vital for survival as well as for successful human development. Moreover, the constraints of time, resources, and mobility impose severe limits on the situations and activities that can be directly explored for the acquisition of knowledge and competencies.
Morality
Authors: Krebs Dennis L. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Traditionally, psychologists have focused on the moral development of children and have derived their models from psychoanalytic, social learning, and cognitive‐developmental theory. Each of these models focuses on a different aspect of moral development—respectively, conscience, moral behavior, and moral judgment—and defines morality in a different way. In contrast to philosophical theories of ethics, which attempt to derive ultimate moral principles, psychological theories attempt to explain why people conform to moral norms and how they develop a subjective sense of morality. In recent years, psychologists have joined with scholars from other disciplines in attending to the evolution of morality in the human species.
Morphology
Authors: Feldman Laurie Beth , Aronoff Mark 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The central focus of those who study morphology is how language users understand complex words and how they create new ones. Compare the two English words
secure
and
insecurity
. The word
secure
cannot be broken down further into meaningful parts. It is morphologically simple. By contrast,
insecurity
is morphologically complex because it consists of three unanalyzable meaningful components (i.e., in + secure + ity), which linguists call morphemes. The study of the patterning of morphemes within a word and how morphemes combine to form new complex words falls within the domain of morphology. Morphemes are meaningful elements and must be distinguished from units of sound, because a simple morpheme may be complex in its sound structure: The simple morpheme
secure
is complex in terms of sound, consisting of two syllables and six phonemes. The study of the sound structure in language processing is well established. Only relatively recently, however, have psycholinguists begun to examine morphology as a window into understanding how we process words.
Motion Parallax and Structure from Motion
Authors: Braunstein Myron L. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Motion parallax and structure from motion are two related sources of information for the perception of the shape of 3‐D objects and surfaces as well as the layout of objects and surfaces in 3‐D scenes. Motion parallax refers to the inverse relation between the speed at which the projection of an object moves across the retina and the distance of the object from the eye. When the head moves horizontally, for example, projections of stationary objects closer than fixation move across the visual field in the direction opposite the head while projections of more distant objects move in the same direction as the head. The same is true for parts of objects or surfaces; the relative speeds with which objects move in the retinal projection provides information about their relative distances in the environment, assuming that the 3‐D distances between the objects remain constant. This assumption is known as the
rigidity constraint
. Stationary objects move rigidly when an observer moves, but the validity of a rigidity constraint is less clear for moving objects. If the moving objects are associated with a continuous surface that is moving relative to the observer, a rigidity constraint may be reasonable.
Multiple Correlation
Authors: Cohen Barry H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Multiple linear correlation, which is the simplest and most common form of multiple correlation, is usually measured by a coefficient that ranges between zero and one (symbolized as
R
); it represents the highest possible degree of association between a weighted linear combination of several given predictor variables and a single criterion variable. For any particular case in a dataset, a prediction can be generated by multiplying its values on each of the predictor variables by the optimal weighting coefficients found by the least‐squares method and adding a constant.
R
is then the ordinary Pearson's coefficient of linear correlation (
r
) between the predicted and actual criterion values.
Myelin
Authors: Colello Raymond J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Myelin is a protein and lipid‐rich substance that is produced by oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. Myelin is elaborated into a sheath and wrapped, in a concentric fashion, around an axon. The deposition of myelin in a spiraling pattern around an axon generates two morphological features of the myelin sheath: the major dense line (DL) and the intraperiod line (IL). The DL is formed when the cytoplasm within the myelin process is lost, and the apposing plasma membranes come together. As the myelin sheath spirals around the axon, the outer faces of the plasma membrane of each wrap oppose each other to form the IL. The ensheathment of an axon with myelin is not continuous along its length, but is laid down as segments of myelin (internodes) that are interrupted, at regular intervals, by areas devoid of myelin, which are termed the nodes of Ranvier.
Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator (
MBT
)
Authors: Quenk Naomi L. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator
®
assesses healthy personality differences by identifying 16 personality types that result from interactions among two pairs of bipolar mental functions and two pairs of bipolar attitudes, as described in C. G. Jung's theory of psychological types (1923/1971) and as interpreted and extended by Katharine C. Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers. Versions of the instrument have been published since 1943, with three manuals (Myers, 1962; Myers & McCaulley, 1985; Myers, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998). The specified mental functions and attitudes are identified using forced‐choice items that elicit preferences for one or the other pole within four pairs of opposites. These four pairs are as follows: (1) opposite ways of perceiving‐sensing (S), gathering information through the five senses and trusting facts and details, versus intuition (N), perceiving patterns, interconnections, and inferences and trusting future possibilities; (2) opposite ways of judging—thinking (T), reaching conclusion through logical analysis to arrive at trust, versus feeling (F), reaching conclusions by weighing important values to arrive at harmony; (3) opposite attitudes or orientations of energy—extraversion (E), gaining and using energy primarily in the outer world of activities and people, versus introversion (I), gaining and using energy through the inner world of ideas, concepts, and internal experience; and (4) a judging (J) attitude when functioning in the outer world, using the preferred form of judgment (thinking or feeling) to organize the world and achieve closure, versus a perceiving (P) attitude in the outer world, using the preferred form of perception (sensing or intuition) to stay open as long as possible to incoming information. The judging‐perceiving dichotomy was added by Myers and Briggs to Jung's original three dichotomies as a way of identifying the dynamic character of each type.
Narcissism
Authors: Miller Joshua D. , Campbell W. Keith 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Narcissism has been conceptualized and studied both as a general personality trait on which individuals exist on a continuum from nonnarcissistic to narcissistic and as a mental disorder (narcissistic personality disorder; NPD) in which there is an emphasis on the maladaptive nature of narcissistic traits. Regardless of the type of conceptualization used, the traits ascribed to narcissism are similar. Narcissistic individuals tend to be grandiose, arrogant, entitled, manipulative, preoccupied with status, and nonempathic. Although narcissism was originally conceptualized within a psychoanalytic or psychodynamic framework, more empirically based work began when NPD was included as an official diagnosis in the third version of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐III; American Psychiatric Association, 1980). Interestingly, most of this research has been undertaken by social and personality psychologists who have studied narcissism in a dimensional manner using nonclinical samples. Empirical data on NPD are sparse.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
Authors: Li Ting‐Kai 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) is one of the 27 institutes and centers of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the largest funding agency of biomedical research, both biological and behavioral, in the United States. NIAAA's name implies a mission focused on alcohol‐use disorders (AUDs), consisting of alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence; and a considerable investment is made into understanding the etiology, progression, heterogeneity, prevention, and treatment of these disorders. The mission of the Institute, however, is much broader than the name suggests and includes research on alcohol use as it relates to health across the lifespan of the individual.
National Institutes of Health
Authors: Zerhouni Elias A. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The National Institutes of Health (NIH), the nation's medical research agency, is the primary federal agency for supporting and conducting medical research, including basic, clinical, and translational research. Leading the way to important medical discoveries that improve health and save lives, NIH scientists investigate ways to prevent disease as well as to discover the causes, treatments, and cures for both common diseases and the more than 6,000 rare diseases that affect our nation's citizenry. NIH also contributes knowledge about disease to the global community and collaborates on international health threats. For more than a century, NIH has played a key role in improving the health of the nation.
Nature‐Nurture Controversy
Authors: Loehlin John C. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The so‐called nature‐nurture controversy is a family of controversies about the relative roles of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) in shaping human characteristics. These controversies exist not so much because the scientific questions involved are difficult—although many are—but because the proposed alternative solutions are perceived as having profound implications for cherished beliefs concerning human equality, social justice, and individual responsibility.
Neurochemistry
Authors: Agranoff Bernard W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
A chemical approach to understanding the nervous system had its origins in the late nineteenth century. Early neurochemists found that mammalian brains contained large amounts of fatty substances (lipids), many of which were found to be unique to the nervous system. The human brain contains about 10% lipids, 10% protein, and 78% water, with the remaining 2% represented by DNA, RNA, electrolytes, and other small molecules. The gray matter contains mainly neuronal cell bodies and astroglia, generally regarded as support cells that are often interposed between cerebral blood vessels and neurons. White matter contains nerve axons, which are ensheathed in multilayers of lipid‐rich membranes (myelin) produced by oligodendroglia (Schwann cells in peripheral nerves). Brain lipids contain long, highly unsaturated fatty acids incorporated into phospholipids, as well as glycolipids, and little or no free cholesterol or triglyceride (conventional dietary fat, also found in adipose tissue).
Neuropsychological Rehabilitation
Authors: Prigatano George P. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractNeuropsychological rehabilitation refers to training experiences and learning exercises that attempt to restore higher integrative brain functions following an acquired brain injury (Luria, 1948/1963) and/or teaching patients to compensate for residual higher order brain disturbances in their personal and interpersonal life (Prigatano, 1999). These activities are employed with both adults and children. Neuropsychological rehabilitation with adults attempts to help them deal with the problem of “lost normality” by having them return to a productive lifestyle and find ways of maintaining mutually satisfying interpersonal relationships (i.e., work and love). For children and their parents, the attempt is to help them both deal with the problem of the child “not developing normally.” This requires considerable effort at helping the child and parent realistically adjust to whatever permanent changes may be imposed by brain injury, without having children lose their “individuality.” That is, in both adults and children, the goal is to help them improve in their higher cerebral functioning and adjust to those functions that cannot get better, but to do so in a manner that still allows them to be true to who they are. The goal is not simply to have them adjust to society at the risk of losing their individuality.
Nicotine‐Related Disorders
Authors: Feldstein Ewing Sarah W. , Hutchison Kent 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Nicotine is a pale yellow, toxic liquid found in the leaves of 66 different species of plants. Nicotine is generally extracted from dried
Nicotiana tabacum
leaves, for the production of tobacco products and insecticide (nicotine sulfate). Nicotine falls within the category of chemical compounds called alkaloids, organic substances whose bitter taste (and often poisonous properties) discourage animals from eating the plants that contain them. Nicotine's first use dates back centuries (as early as the 1500s), during which nicotine was consumed for its stimulant and hunger‐reducing properties. However, nicotine is extremely poisonous and can cause respiratory failure, convulsions, nervous system paralysis, and death if a single dose of 50 mg or more is consumed.
Nonparametric Statistical Tests
Authors: Streiner David L. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Statistical tests in the ANOVA and correlation families (e.g.,
t
‐test, Pearson's correlation, multiple regression, path analysis) require the distribution underlying the dependent variables to be normally distributed. Because the normal curve is defined by two parameters (the mean and standard deviation), such tests are referred to
parametric
. Another class of tests is called
nonparametric
, or more properly,
distribution‐free
, because they do not make any assumptions about the parameters of the population from which the sample(s) are drawn. However, while they are distribution‐free, they are not assumption‐free. Many of the nonparametric tests have the same assumptions as parametric ones, such as that the observations are independent; that they are at a certain level of measurement (e.g., nominal or ordinal); and with some, that the distributions are similar across groups (i.e., if they are skewed, then they are skewed in the same direction for all groups).
Nonsuicidal Self‐Injury
Authors: Klonsky E. David 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Nonsuicidal self‐injury (NSSI) refers to the deliberate destruction of one's own body tissue without suicidal intent and for purposes not socially sanctioned. Although terms such as self‐mutilation and deliberate self‐harm have also been used for this behavior, NSSI has increasingly become the term of choice. Common examples of NSSI include skin‐cutting, burning, scratching, needle‐sticking, rubbing against rough surfaces, hitting or banging body parts, and interfering with wound healing. In general, behaviors associated with eating disorders (e.g., binging or purging) and substance disorders (e.g., alcohol or drug use) are not considered NSSI, because they are not accompanied by specific intent to physically damage one's body tissue. Similarly, most cases of tattooing and body piercing are not considered NSSI, because they are socially sanctioned forms of body decoration or artistic expression. Importantly, NSSI can be distinguished from suicidal behavior. Unlike suicide attempts, NSSI is not performed with the intent to die, and the injuries caused by NSSI are rarely life‐threatening or medically severe (Klonksy & Muehlenkamp, 2007).
Nonverbal Communication
Authors: Patterson Miles L. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractAlthough language is obviously important in interactions, the nonverbal side of communication usually has a greater impact on how we think about others and relate to them. Nonverbal communication may be defined as the sending and/or receiving of information and influence through one's immediate environment, appearance, and nonverbal behavior (Patterson, 2002). Unlike verbal communication, nonverbal communication is always “on” in social settings, with the sending and receiving sides operating simultaneously. That is, even in the absence of conversation, we are continually sending and receiving nonverbal signals. Although verbal communication requires some attention and deliberation, nonverbal communication often operates automatically and outside of awareness. In turn, this leads to another characteristic—cognitive efficiency. Thus, the nonverbal system typically runs with minimal effort, freeing cognitive resources for more demanding activities.
Object Relations Theory
Authors: Mills Jon 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Object relations theory is a psychoanalytic contribution that emphasizes the role of the object in psychological processes, that is, the role of other persons or elements of others, most notably an individual's parents or a primary caregiver. More specifically, object relations refer to a theory of intrapsychic activity based on the internalization of functional aspects of the experience of others and how they relate to one another in an individual's mind. There are many conceptual nuances to this generic theory that are derived from several historical traditions comprising the evolution of psychoanalytic thought. According to Freud, an object is the most variable aspect of drive activity and can be the source of pleasure, pain, anxiety, and wish and fantasy formation, whether real or imagined, and it is necessary for psychic development.
Optimal Functioning
Authors: Philip Daniel , Epting Franz R. , Brafman Rom 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThe area of optimal functioning was introduced into modern scientific psychology by Marie Jahoda. Those contributing most heavily to the area or optimal functioning were originally humanistic psychologists, who see optimal functioning as qualitatively different from normality or lack of pathology. More recently, the mantle of optimal functioning has been taken up by those in the fields of positive psychology and athletic performance.
Pakistan, Psychology in
Authors: Rahman Nosheen K. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Pakistan came into existence on August 14, 1947, after the division of British India into East and West Pakistan. At this time psychology was being taught as a branch of philosophy, but the history of psychology in Pakistan dates back to the 1920s. This history began with three departments of philosophy in the city of Lahore in West Pakistan that offered a master's program in both philosophy and psychology. Today there are more than 28 independent departments of psychology. In East Pakistan, a master's program in psychology was offered at two universities: Dacca and Rajshahi. These universities also offered MPhil and PhD degrees without a formal coursework. In 1971, East Pakistan was split away and became Bangladesh, and until the early 1980s there was no post–master's training offered in clinical psychology in Pakistan. Most of the clinical psychologists practicing in Pakistan at that time were qualified from abroad. Then two institutes were established to provide post–master's degrees, one at Karachi University in 1983 and the other at Punjab University in 1984.
Panic Disorder
Authors: Sanderson William C. , Dublin Randi A. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Panic disorder (PD) (with and without agoraphobia) is a debilitating condition with a lifetime prevalence of approximately 1.5% (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Studies have demonstrated that this prevalence rate is relatively consistent throughout the world. Approximately twice as many women as men suffer from PD. Although PD typically first strikes between late adolescence and the mid‐30s, it can also begin in childhood or in later life. Although data on the course of PD are lacking, it appears to be a chronic condition that waxes and wanes in severity. Consequences of PD include feelings of poor physical and emotional health, impaired social functioning, financial dependency, and increased use of health and hospital emergency services.
Parametric Statistical Tests
Authors: Rossi Joseph S. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractParametric statistical tests, as opposed to nonparametric or distribution‐free tests, are based on various assumptions regarding the characteristics, properties, and forms of the distributions of populations from which the data are drawn. A large number of statistical tests are included among the parametric tests, primarily hypothesis testing procedures derived from the general linear model. These include both univariate and multivariate statistical tests: thettest, univariate and multivariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) and covariance (including repeated measures), Pearson product‐moment correlation, simple and multiple regression (and variants including logistic regression), Hotelling'sT2, discriminant function analysis, canonical correlation, and multivariate set correlation.