bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
B
ullinger,
H
einrich (1504–1575)
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Heinrich Bullinger was a major Swiss reformer, the successor of Ulrich Zwingli as head of the Protestant Church in Zurich and probably the most influential author of theological books and confessions of his time. A much less controversial figure than John Calvin or Martin Luther, his importance has long been underestimated. Recent research has shown that Bullinger was one of the most influential Reformed theologians of the 16th century, who wrote more books than any other theologian. As adviser to church leaders and politicians all over Europe, author of major confessions (especially the Second Helvetic Confession), and father of the covenant theology and the synodal constitution of churches, he formed church and state in Switzerland and left his mark on all Protestant churches in Europe.
B
ultmann,
R
udolf (1884–1976)
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Rudolf Karl Bultmann is regarded by many as the most influential New Testament scholar of the 20th century. He was born on August 20, 1884, in Wiefelstede, a village in the duchy of Oldenburg, Germany. Several members of his family had served in the German Lutheran Church. His father was a pastor, as were his grandfather and great‐grandfather. In 1903, Bultmann graduated from the
Gymnasium
in Oldenburg and went on to study theology at the Universities of Tübingen, Berlin, and Marburg. Bultmann's teachers included Wilhelm Herrmann, Johannes Weiss, and Wilhelm Heitmüller. Heitmüller, together with the writings of Richard Reitzenstein and Wilhelm Bousset, exposed Bultmann to the history of religions school, which sought to understand early Christianity by comparing it to other religious movements of the same period, such as Jewish apocalypticism or Hellenistic gnosticism. Bultmann earned his first degree at Marburg in 1906; he completed his doctorate in 1910 and his postdoctoral dissertation in 1912. In the same year, he joined the faculty at Marburg; after brief tenures in Breslau (1916–1920) and Giessen (1920–1921), he returned to Marburg in 1921, where he taught until his retirement. Rudolf Bultmann died on July 30, 1976, at the advanced age of 91.
B
unyan,
J
ohn (1628–1688)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Born near Bedford, England. His father, Thomas, was a tinker, a repairer of metal household utensils. Having had only two to four years of education, John took up the trade. Despite these humble origins, John Bunyan became the author of
The Pilgrim's Progress
, one of the most popular books ever written.
B
uxtehude,
D
ietrich (1637–1707)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Danish composer, the most influential composer of organ music in the 17th century. He is particularly associated with the category of sacred vocal music known as cantatas. Born in Holstein of German parentage, he was trained by his father, an organist and school teacher whom he succeeded as organist at Helsingborg about 1657. From 1660 to 1667 he served as organist at the Marienkirche in Helsingor (Elsinore). In 1668 he won a competition to serve as organist of Marienkirche in Lubeck in Germany where he spent the next 40 years. Here he led the famous concerts known as
Abendmusiken
held annually on five Sundays between Martinmas and Christmas. Under his direction the concerts featured sacred musical works, organ recitals, and chamber concerts. Contemporaries described these concerts as
Starke Musiken
or powerful music.
Ryrie,CharlesCaldwell (b. 1925)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractCharles Caldwell Ryrie was born the son of John A. and Elizabeth (Caldwell) Ryrie in Alton, Illinois, on 2 March 1925. His father was a banker and gentleman farmer, and his mother was a homemaker. Whereas his older brother, George, became a banker, Charles pursued academics and music. He attended the Stony Brook School on Long Island, which kept him from home for much of his adolescence. Ryrie intended to follow his father in the career of banking and finance. However, a meeting with Lewis Sperry Chafer in 1943 convinced him of God's call into the ministry and he transferred to Dallas Theo‐logical Seminary. He earned a B.A., majoring in mathematics, from Haverford College in 1946. In 1947, he was ordained to the ministry by the First Baptist Church of Alton. At Dallas Seminary, he completed the Master of Theology in 1947 and the Doctor of Theology in 1949.The Basis of the Premillennial Faith(1953) was the result of his studies at Dallas Seminary. He taught for several years as professor, and later as Dean of Men and chairman of biblical studies and philosophy at Westmont College in Santa Barbara. In 1951, he continued his studies in Scotland at the University of Edinburgh, where he earned the Ph.D. in 1954.The Role of Women in the Church(1958) was the result of his studies in Scotland.
Calvinism
Authors: Culpepper Scott 
Published: January 2012

Abstract“Calvinism” is a popular term that has been coined to describe the Reformed theological tradition. The name of 16th century French theologian John Calvin has become closely identified with Reformed theology because of his classic presentation of the system in hisInstitutes of the Christian Religion(1536–1559). Reformed theologians typically point beyond Calvin to Pauline theology (particularly in Paul's Epistle to the Romans) and the later works of Augustine of Hippo (354–430) as the earliest roots of the formal system named after Calvin.
Cambridge Platonists
Authors: Carrigan Henry L. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Cambridge Platonists were an influential group of 17th century philosophers and clergy whose teachings on philosophy and theology later influenced Leibniz, Locke, the Scottish common sense philosopher Thomas Reid, and Kant. They thrived at Cambridge largely between 1633 and 1678, though their younger disciples carried their thinking into the early 18th century. They identified themselves neither with the Puritans nor the High Anglicans, and they encouraged toleration within the church. The Cambridge Platonists drew on the dualistic philosophies of mind and matter of Plato (427–347bce) and Plotinus (ce205–270), contending that mind is prior to matter and that reason is superior to knowledge derived from the senses. They developed the ideas that reason and morality reside in the human mind and that reason is indeed the indwelling of God in the mind that allows individuals to judge both natural and divine revelation. This group of thinkers, who were among the first to write philosophy primarily in the English language (rather than in Latin or French), believed that the rational and the spiritual could go hand‐in‐hand. These philosophers taught that human nature possessed an innate tendency toward goodness and that human nature was perfectible. Humans possess free will, and they learn rationally the wisdom of practicing Christ's universal love. Thus, while the Cambridge Platonists devoted their energies to metaphysical questions regarding the immortality of the soul and the existence of God, they also attended closely to morality and the principles of daily living.
C
ampbell,
A
lexander (1788–1866)
Authors: Brenneman Todd M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Minister, author and religious leader. Alexander Campbell was born in Ireland in 1788 to Thomas and Jane Campbell. In 1808 Thomas immigrated to the United States for health reasons, intending to have his family follow him soon after. Due to several difficulties, including a shipwreck, the rest of the Campbell family was unable to do so. In the interim, Alexander pursued scholarly studies in Glasgow, Scotland. Here he became acquainted with the teachings of the Haldanes and Robert Sandeman, leading Alexander to question his Seceder Presbyterian approach to biblical interpretation. Drawing on Scottish Commonsense realism, Lockean empiricism, and Baconian naturalism, Alexander claimed that he would approach the Bible as if he never read it before. Based on this experiment, he began to question his allegiance to the Presbyterian Church.
Canterbury
Authors: Quantz Amanda D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

This ancient Roman town in southeast England was founded between 43 and 150
ce
. Its original name was Durovernum meaning “the stronghold amidst alders.” There were Christians in this Roman town almost from its inception but around the year 450 it suffered from Saxon invasions. In the 6th century the town was renamed Cantawaraburgh which means “the town of the Kentishmen.” In 561, Ethelbert became King of Kent, making Cantawaraburgh his capital. A bishopric was established there in 597 when the Roman monk Augustine arrived with a few dozen companions on a mission from Pope Gregory the Great to the people of England. King Ethelbert and his French Christian queen, Bertha, provided Augustine with the Church of St. Martin, which had been established during the city's Roman period. Today St. Martin's is the oldest of the continually used churches in Englandand has served as a pilgrimage destination for 1,500 years.
Capital Punishment
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Today this form of punishment is rare in the Western world. The European Convention of Human Rights, to which all member states of the European Union must subscribe, bans it unqualifiedly, and extradition of criminals to the United States is made contingent on American authorities' covenanting that they will not seek the death penalty for the accused. The US Supreme Court's position today is that the constitutional prohibition against “cruel and unusual punishment” does not apply to capital punishment per se, but only to painful and degrading methods of carrying it out. Considerable pressure, however, is continually being exercised by American opponents of the death penalty, especially in light of the high proportion of executions involving members of minority races and the significant number of miscarriages of justice revealed by subsequent DNA testing.
C
aravaggio,
M
ichelangelo
M
erisi
D
a (1571–1610)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Italian painter, founder and chief exponent of the naturalistic school of painting. Born at Caravaggio, near Bergamo, he left for Rome after the death of his parents. Here he attracted the attention of Cardinal del Monte, who obtained for him the commission for his first major work. It was a series of three pictures for the Contarelli Chapel in S. Luigi dei Francesi depicting the
Calling of St. Matthew
,
Martyrdom of Saint Matthew
, and an altarpiece of
The Inspiration of St. Matthew
(1599–1603). The Contarelli Chapel paintings were the first of six major Roman church commissions, including the masterpiece
The Death of the Virgin
. Caravaggio's crude and down‐to‐earth realism was thought to be revolutionary, especially the dirty feet and sweaty clothes of the poor pilgrims in
Madonna di Loreto
(1604–1605), the coarse peasants in
Madonna dei Palafrenieri
(1605), and the deep pathos of the poor and outcast in
The Entombment of Christ
(1602–04). Caravaggio completed a second major public commission, two paintings for the Cerasi Chapel in S. Maria del Popolo showing the
Crucifixion of St. Peter
and the
Conversion of St. Paul.
Caribbean Christianity
Authors: Gerloff Roswith 
Published: January 2012

AbstractCaribbean history of Christianity can be divided, with overlaps, into four main periods: the rather monolithic form of Spanish Catholicism from 1492, and of the Church of England from 1620; the arrival of the Evangelicals or nonconformist missionaries, Moravians, Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists, and Presbyterians from the mid 18th century; consolidation and growth of various European denominations in the region in uneasy tension with the proliferation of independent black Christian groups and African religions in the post‐emancipation era from 1833; and the contest for political, economic, and religious independence after 1870, including the shift from British imperial intervention and influence to those from North America, and national independence after 1962.
C
arissimi,
G
iacomo (1605–1674)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Italian composer of oratorios and cantatas. As a youth he became a singer at the Tivoli Cathedral. From 1629 he was the
maestro di cappella
at the Church of Sant'Apollinare, Rome. Later he assumed the same position at the Collegio Germanico also in Rome. In 1637 he became a priest. After 1650 he directed music at the Oratory of the Most Holy Crucifix, the Center for Latin Oratorio in Rome, and later entered the service of Queen Christina of Sweden.
Carthusians
Authors: Beiting Christopher J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Carthusian Order is a strictly contemplative monastic order, founded in 1084 by St. Bruno of Cologne (1030–1101), at La Grande Chartreuse, north of Grenoble, France. The name comes from the medieval Latin
Carthusianus
, derived from the French
Chartreuse
, which is itself the source of the English term “charterhouse.”
Catechetical Schools
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
As Christianity spread from Jerusalem to various parts of the Roman Empire, it developed schools for those desirous of becoming members of the church and also for those who wanted in grow in knowledge and understanding after they had become baptized members. The first noteworthy Christian school was the catechetical school (Didaskaleion) in Alexandria, Egypt. This school added to Alexandria's academic reputation.
Catholic Social Teaching
Authors: Berendt Emil B. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Catholic social teaching includes the corpus of teaching that applies moral theology to social issues. It builds upon Scripture, the tradition of the church (e.g. the early church fathers and the doctors of the church), and the natural law tradition (Compendium, #87). Rooted in the biblical imperative to care for the poor, the purpose of Catholic social teaching is to give guidance in social life (Catechism, #2423). In particular, it addresses issues of justice and charity in three social spheres — civil, political, and economic. It also evaluates modern ideologies and social structures from a moral perspective.
Catholic Worker Movement
Authors: Watts Thomas D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Catholic Worker Movement was founded in New York City in 1933 by journalist Dorothy Day (a convert to Catholicism) and Peter Maurin. The
Catholic Worker
is a newspaper published by the organization. A four point program was espoused by Maurin: 1) the distribution of a labor newspaper for workers and the unemployed; 2) the establishment of houses of hospitality for people who are hungry and homeless; 3) round‐table discussions for clarification of thought about questions pertaining to the social order; and 4) the establishment of farming communes to employ the unemployed and provide food for the houses of hospitality. Maurin was a French, itinerant, Catholic activist, idealist, and utopian, interested in creating a nonviolent, communitarian‐oriented society. Dorothy Day, of similar mind, helped put these lofty ideals into action. There are now over 185 Catholic Worker communities providing hospitality for the homeless, hungry, and forsaken, committed to nonviolence, voluntary poverty, prayer, advocacy for the needy and the oppressed in society, and addressing the unequal distribution of wealth in society.
Catholicism
Authors: Hayes Patrick J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe term Catholicism, probably of 17th century French derivation, applies to the nature and state of affiliation to the Roman Catholic Church. Today Catholicism is seen as a way of life by adherents and is frequently described as a complex of (sometimes competing) ideologies and practices. Catholicism has been interjected into the cultures of the earth with remarkable facility and tenacity, often in the face of inhospitable conditions, and simultaneously it has been enhanced by those same cultures in which it finds itself. Although the church has devised numerous tests for membership over the centuries, there are some general themes around which one's Catholicism is both identified and actualized. These themes include liturgical participation, assent to the Magisterium, popular piety, missionary outreach, intellectual contributions, and adherence to a long tradition of personal and social morality.
Celtic Christianity
Authors: Boyd Matthieu 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The phrase “Celtic Christianity” attempts to describe the style or brand of Christianity that was practiced in the Celtic‐speaking countries (the modern nations of Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany, as well as Roman Britain) from the 4th century until the 12th. It is also a label for more recent attempts to revive, imitate, or derive inspiration from Celtic spirituality of this period. Such attempts (which are not within the scope of this entry) show varying degrees of concern, or unconcern, for historical fact and authenticity.
Censorship
Authors: Koh Daniel K. S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Censorship, for most people in a liberal society, carries a negative connotation usually seen as an irreconcilable enemy of freedom of expression. It is associated with suppression of ideas and regulation of thoughts conveyed in speech, writings, drama, the arts, and media. Censorship, as a preventive measure, preempts the publication and dissemination of materials deemed to be undesirable and, as a punitive measure, it punishes those who disregard the prohibition. It has often been used by the state and religious institutions, since antiquity, to control the morals and life of people under their charge. In 443
bc
, Rome introduced an office of censor, among other duties, to oversee public morality. In Greece, though Socrates was martyred (399
bc
) for exercising freedom of inquiry against accepted norms, his student, Plato, in his
Laws
(360
bc
) supported censorship to maintain certain purity of thoughts. Ancient China, under the first emperor, Qin Shi Huang, destroyed books deemed to undermine imperial ideology.
C
harlemagne (742 or 747/748–814)
Authors: Casiday Augustine 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Charlemagne was King of the Franks (768–814) and the Lombards (774–814); on Christmas Day 800, Pope Leo III (795–816) crowned him Emperor of the Romans, and under his reign the Holy Roman Empire embarked upon a period of cultural flourishing. Charlemagne was son of Pippin the Short and grandson of Charles Martel, who at the Battle of Tours (732) had halted the advance of the Ummayads from the emirate of Cordoba deeper into Western Europe. In their roles as mayor of the palace and duke of the Franks, Charles Martel and his son Pippin had insinuated themselves into effective control of the Merovingian dynasty that ruled the Franks. Pippin deposed the last Merovingian king with the tacit approval of Pope Zachary (714–752) and became King of the Franks. Pippin consolidated his family's preeminence by having his sons Charlemagne and Carloman (751–771) anointed by Pope Stephen II (752–757) who had come to Paris to anoint Pippin. Stephen sought from Pippin and his line support against the Lombards who had turned southwards and were encroaching on papal territories. So Charlemagne inherited from his father not only the rule over the Franks, but also a standing relationship of support and reciprocal legitimization from the papacy.
Chiliasm (Millenarianism)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The word “chiliasm” comes from the Greek word
chilias
, meaning one thousand. A related word for chiliasm is millenarianism. It is derived from the Latin
mille
that also means one thousand. Both pertain to the theological belief on the part of some Christians that Christ will reign personally with his saints on earth in great glory for a thousand years. After this reign the resurrection of the wicked and the final Judgment will occur. Many chiliasts or millenarians also believe there will be a general, large‐scale conversion of the Jews to Christianity at the millennium.
Chinese Christianity
Authors: Thompson Glen L. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractFor most of the past two millennia Chinese civilization has been xenophobic and resistant to what it has seen as a hostile and threatening rival culture — Christianity. Although Christianity has never been a dominant force numerically in China, there have been five periods during which inroads were made, and today, while theoretically under government control, Christianity is growing at a rapid pace. While its prospects have never looked stronger, the ultimate shape and impact of Christianity in China cannot yet be gauged.
C
hing‐
C
hing (
A
dam) (
c
.750
ce
(?)–after 782
ce
)
Authors: Knowles Brett 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Ching‐ching, a Persian Nestorian monk‐bishop and missionary scholar in T'ang dynasty China, was the grandson of a Persian priest‐missionary from Balkh (northern Afghanistan) and worked as a Nestorian monk‐bishop and missionary scholar in China during the late 8th century. Although a foreigner from the West, he is usually referred to by his Chinese name (Ching‐ching), rather than by his Persian name (Adam). He was famous for his scholarship in Chinese literature and language and was the chief composer of the elegant inscription on the Hsian‐fu monument, erected in 781 to commemorate 146 years of Christian activity in T'ang‐dynasty China.
Christendom
Authors: Shields Candace C. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe word Christendom encompasses the Medieval and Renaissance idea of the central place of Christianity in the lives of nations, countries, states, and individuals. The definition of Christendom is a group of people or nations under a Christian set of morals and values. The term Christendom refers to the impact of Christianity on the world. It refers not just to a group of people, but also to territory where Christianity became a vital part of the inhabitants' lives. Christendom in its earlier stages came to refer to Christians united into one body. This unity was very significant because it was a unity of religion, but it was also a political unity creating powerful alliances. Thus the east and west were united in belief in one Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. It is a historical term, which designates how Christianity was a unifying force and lent its tenets to be the basis by which nations, countries, and individuals lived during the time of Christendom. It is the time when Christianity regarded itself as the foundation for all civilized society. During this time the beliefs and values of Christianity became the guiding factor in the lives of those living in Christendom. Christendom is the impact of Christianity on the Roman Empire, moving through western Europe and on into areas of Scandinavia. Christendom marks the time in history when Christianity's prominence was in every detail of an individual's life. Christianity was the foundation by which society's culture was formed. The moral of society, the faith by which life was lived, and the values that established how individuals were to live became the marks of Christendom.