bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Princeton Theology
Authors: Rios Christopher M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A theological school in the Reformed tradition emanating from Princeton Theological Seminary (PTS) between 1812 and 1929 that integrated stringent Biblicism, Reformed confessionalism, Scottish Common Sense philosophy, and religious experience. The Princeton Theology (PT) began when Archibald Alexander (1772–1851) became the first professor of PTS in 1812. An engaging, effective, and experienced leader, Alexander had served as a Presbyterian pastor and President of Hampton‐Sydney College before moving to Princeton. Though widely published, his considerable influence came more from the institution he established and his work in the classroom than from his writings. His theology determined the direction of PTS for well over a century.
Priscillianism
Authors: Gray Patrick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Priscillianism was a movement that originated in Spain c.370 and spread to southern France with the temporary exile of its leaders. Its founder was Priscillian, a noble‐born layman who became Bishop of Avila despite censure at the Council of Saragossa in 380. With the cancellation of the decree of exile, he attracted a considerable following in Galicia, especially among women. Opposition persisted, however, and a synod at Bordeaux in 384 condemned his doctrines. When Priscillian was beheaded at Trier in 385, along with six of his disciples, he became the first person executed for heresy in the recorded history of the church. The perceived injustice of the sentence — Martin of Tours and Ambrose of Milan, among others, expressed outrage — led many followers to venerate Priscillian as a martyr. The movement eventually disappeared after the anathemas of the Council of Braga in 563.
Psychology and Christianity
Authors: Bruce James E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The relationship between Christianity and psychology is a complicated one, not least because of the challenge in securing consensus on definitions for the terms involved.
Psychology
commonly refers to a relatively recent discipline, experimental or scientific psychology. Psychology by this reckoning began with, among others, Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), who offered a course in psychology in 1862 and opened a psychological laboratory in 1879, and William James (1842–1910), whose
Principles of Psychology
was published in 1890. Modern psychology has, at times, taken a critical view of religion generally. So J. H. Leuba (1868–1946), in
Psychology of Religious Mysticism
(1925), concludes that the mystical experiences of Teresa of Ávila (1515–1582) and Saint Catherine of Genoa (1447–1510) were hysterical attacks, and he advocates progress through the advancement of medical knowledge and procedures rather than Christian reflection and practice. With a similar spirit, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), an atheist who founded the psychoanalytic school in psychology, saw a connection between psychological problems and the repression of sexual desire demanded by religion. Freud also wrote a book, titled
Moses and Monotheism
(1939), which contradicts the biblical account of Moses and explains the history of the Jewish people through Freudian psychology.
Publishing, Christian
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Christian publishing has distinct goals that set it apart from general publishing. The major aim of Christian publishing is to explain, defend, and promote biblical truth. This aim covers the broad range of Christian perspectives, from the conservative, evangelical position, to what might be considered more liberal. While most Christian publishers will be consistent as far as the general aim of publishing is concerned, some are owned by secular parent companies or individuals that may disagree with this perspective or that may have other divisions that publish non‐Christian materials intended for the general public. For instance, one division of Thomas Nelson publishes books on “True Crime” (e.g.
Aruba
). What remains consistent with publishers with these diverse interests is their desire to publish books that have a good moral content and value and that in some way point the reader to God.
Reconstructionism
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Reconstructionism, as a Christian movement, began development in the 1960s. The presuppositionalism of Cornelius Van Til is regarded as the intellectual foundation of the movement (e.g. the axiom concerning the sovereignty of God and the nonautonomy of man). Van Til, however, always denied that he was a reconstructionist. Reconstructionism is a neopostmillennial view that God created man with a mandate to subdue the earth on his behalf by forcing society to obey the law of God. Christianity agrees that the mandate was originally given in Genesis 1:28, and applied not only to Adam but also to his posterity (i.e. all humanity). Adam did not lose his dominion when he rebelled against his Creator. Since it was a stewardship responsibility, humanity still retained the dominion that God had given even after the Fall. The mandate does not have to be regained. Psalm 8:6–8 clearly states that man does now possess dominion over the creation. The mandate was restated as a component of the everlasting Noahic covenant (Gen. 9:1–3). Ecclesiastes 2:26 explains that even those in rebellion to God will contribute to the fulfillment of the mandate; God's sovereignty makes even the rebellious accomplish his will. Reconstructionists understand that the intended outcome of this mandate would be the establishment of the kingdom of God (i.e. a Christian republic) on earth. A theology of dominion is an essential tenet of the reconstructionist goal of establishing a Christian republic wherein the law of God governs all dimensions of society. The responsibility of all Christians is to extend personal moral holiness to encompass public social responsibility whereby obedience of society to the law of God is mandated. The reconstruction of society according to the law of God is the intended goal of the movement. Unique to reconstructionism is their understanding of the law of God, or theonomy (

, “God”;

, “law”). Reconstructionist theonomists emphasize the continual application of the judicial and social (not ceremonial) laws of the Old Testament as a “biblical blueprint” for the direct rule of God (viz. theocracy:

, “God”;

, “rule”). Apparently, the term “theocracy” was first used with a political connotation by Josephus to describe Jewish society. Theocracy is a concept central to the covenant nation receiving the Mosaic Law in the Old Testament (Exod. 19:4–9; Deut. 17:14–20; 33:4–5; 2 Sam. 7:13–16). Reconstructionist “rule by God” would also extend the Mosaic Law to encompass New Testament principles since it is understood that Jesus established and restored the theocracy (cf. Matt. 5:17–19). Therefore, theocracy is now to be the Christian's rule of life.
Reformed Epistemology
Authors: Clark Kelly James 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Reformed epistemology rejects the widely held Enlightenment evidentialist assumption that one must have evidence for belief in God to be rational, where evidence is understood as a propositional argument (a theistic proof) for the existence of God. The evidentialist objection to belief in God holds that it is irrational to believe in God without sufficient evidence; and there is not sufficient evidence for the existence of God. Hence, although God might actually exist, it is irrational to believe in God.
R
eid,
T
homas (1710–1796)
Authors: Bruce James E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Thomas Reid, a Presbyterian minister in 18th century Scotland, is most well known for his commonsense philosophy, a response to the skepticism of another Scottish philosopher, David Hume. Reid was born on April 26, 1710, in Strachan, Scotland, a town near Aberdeen. Reid attended Marischal College (merged with King's College, Aberdeen in 1860 to form the University of Aberdeen).
Religious Experience
Authors: Geivett R. Douglas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Bible reports many direct experiences of God. In the Old Testament, Moses comes across a burning bush in the desert, and God commands him to return to Egypt to free his people (Exod. 3–4). The Angel of the Lord promises Gideon divine deliverance from Israel's enemies, the Midianites (Jud. 6:11–8:32). The Lord promises Abraham that he and Sarah, both of whom are beyond child‐bearing age, will have a son through whom Abraham will become the father of a great nation (Gen. 12 and 28). God frequently appears to kings and prophets with numerous warnings and promises (see 1 and 2 Kings).
R
embrandt (1606–1669)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn was born the son of a wealthy miller and baker's daughter in Leyden, July 15, 1606, and died in Amsterdam, October 4, 1669. He began his studies at Municipal Latin School in 1613 where he received a classical education, and enrolled at the University of Leyden in 1620. Rembrandt withdrew from academic training at Leyden to study art. From 1622–1624, he studied as an apprentice with a local painter, Jacob van Swanenburgh, who was influenced by Flemish painter Hieronymus Bosch (1474–1516). Swanenburgh taught him to reproduce models and to seek inspiration from other artists. He developed his artistic ability during approximately six months of training with a separate artist, Pieter Lastman, in Amsterdam. Lastman was a renowned historical painter who influenced Rembrandt to paint portraits, still lifes, and portraits, but especially in regards to the biblical and mythological subjects of his art. Following his training with Lastman, he returned to Leyden in 1625, so highly regarded that he accepted his first student, Gerrit Dou (1613–1675), in 1628. By 1629, Rembrandt was already renowned, and his reputation extended to The Hague where he worked for the Prince of Orange, with another artist, John Lievens. Following his father's death in 1630, Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam in 1631 and lived with Dutch art dealer Hendrick van Uylenburgh as his landlord.
Repentance
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Hebrew word for repentance,

(
sûbh
), indicates a change in direction of the entire person. When the prophets used the word in the context of God's covenant with Israel (sc. Gen. 12:1–3; Deut. 28–30) it denoted a return to covenantal relationship with God. The primary word for repentance in the Greek is

(
metanoeō
), which is a compound word of the preposition

(
meta
, “after, with”) and

(
noeō
, “to notice, to perceive”) meaning a change of mind. Repentance is the conscious turning from sin toward God. As a change of mind will affect behavior, genuine repentance is determination to forsake sin. The Latin Vulgate translated “repent” (Matt. 4:17) as
poenitentiam agite
thus denoting sorrow or doing penance. Sorrow and repentance are not the same (cf. Matt. 27:3; Luke 18:23; Acts 2:37–38; 2 Cor. 7:9). Sorrow involves regret (
metamelomai
) and may culminate in repentance (cf. Acts 2:37–38; 2 Cor. 7:10), but it does not necessarily precede repentance (Rom. 2:4). Repentance and faith are necessary commands of God in genuine conversion (Matt. 3:1–8; 9:13; Mark 1:15; Luke 13:3; 24:47; Acts 5:31; 17:30; 26:20; 2 Pet. 3:9). Some biblical texts demand repentance (Acts 2:38); others stress the necessity of faith (16:31); and some texts reveal that conversion comprises both faith and repentance (20:21). Faith and repentance are separate concepts and ought to be distinguished. Faith and repentance are not synonymous, but form a consistent relationship that cannot be separated in the application and appropriation of salvation by grace. Defined in relation to conversion, faith is trust in Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior. Biblical faith not only includes the desire to receive forgiveness of sin, but also the conscious desire to be delivered from sin. Repentance involves repudiation of sin and the desire for sanctification. In apostolic preaching, both were interchangeable in proclamation. Genuine repentance always involves faith, and genuine faith always involves repentance. Both are necessary components of conversion. Repentance certainly denotes a turning of the mind that leads to a transformation from the old nature and practice. It may be debated whether repentance precedes faith, but it is certainly a consequence (fruit) of faith. Repentance (Acts 5:31; 11:18; 2 Tim. 2:24–26) — like faith (Eph. 2:8–10; Phil. 1:29; 2 Pet. 1:1) — is a gift of God's grace, and both evidence spiritual life (regeneration).
Return of Christ
Authors: Steinacher C. Mark 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The return of Christ is broadly accepted within Christianity, from charismatic splinter groups to the largest single organization, Roman Catholicism. This acceptance is not as selfevident as might appear, given that other biblically justified practices, such as the sacraments, are universal. Routine emphasis on Christ's return tends to be more frequent among evangelists, the doctrine being relatively unpopular since the early 20th century's Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy. A core paradox is the tenet's attempt to make sense of time by speaking about its destruction upon Jesus' return; the goal lends meaning to the interim.
Revelation
Authors: Peterson Ryan S. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractRevelation is God's self‐disclosure to humanity. Because it isself‐disclosure, the content of revelation and the agent of revelation are the same: the triune God. Jesus Christ, the very Word of God, is the light of the world, and it is in the life, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus where God has disclosed Godself definitively. The Holy Spirit ensures the reception of the Word and acts to bring about the full fruits of the gospel. God reconciles and saves humanity through revelation as it is a means of bringing humanity into fellowship with God. Revelation stretches into the future, for Christians still await the day when we will see God face to face (1 Cor. 15) and when we will be like Christ because we will see him as he is (1 John 3:2).
Rights of Women
Authors: Crabtree Mara Lief 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe phrase “women's rights,” as comprehensively understood, defines those basic human rights due to individual women and to all women in every global context of life. These rights are considered inclusive of the basic human rights, as understood in Judeo‐Christian tradition, for women to be treated by others with dignity, respect, and legal equality and to be considered as possessing human rights that are equal to those rights accorded to men in all areas of life including, but not limited to, the familial, religious, legal, educational, and vocational contexts. The definition and understanding of women's rights differ and are interpreted differently in various religious contexts, depending on ecclesial rules and laws, theologies, and cultural practices of specific Christian faith traditions including those of specific denominations and other groups.
R
oberts,
G
ranville “Oral” (1918–2009)
Authors: Lamp Jeffrey S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Granville “Oral” Roberts was born in Bebee, Oklahoma, the youngest of five children, to Reverend Ellis, a Pentecostal Holiness preacher, and Claudia. Two features of his early life helped shape the theological emphases that would characterize his teaching. First, he was raised in poverty in a pastor's home; second, in 1935, he was miraculously healed of tuberculosis and stuttering. This background, in conjunction with his interpretation of 3 John 2, led to the conviction that God desired Christians to live in divine prosperity and health.
Roman Imperial Cult
Authors: Thomas David Andrew 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Roman imperial cult was the institutionalized system of religious devotion fostered by the Roman Empire which afforded sacrifice unto deceased and, in some respects, living emperors and their families. Emperor worship was practiced from the time of Julius Caesar through the end of the 3rd century
ad
, finally dying out when Constantine converted to Christianity and made it the religion of his empire.
R
omero,
O
scar
A
rnulfo (1917–1980)
Authors: Castelo Daniel 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
A Roman Catholic archbishop during the latter part of the 1970s in El Salvador, Oscar Romero is often remembered as a modern‐day martyr because of his assassination while administering the Eucharist. Romero served El Salvador during the rising violence that led to its civil war (1980–1992), in which many thousands were killed and millions displaced in a Central American country of less than 6 million. Although his death is still in many ways a mystery, it was most likely connected with the machinations of the ultraconservative and established political party (ARENA) that was attempting at the time to dispel a guerrilla insurrection associated with the FMLN and its backing among the masses of the working poor.
Roots of Christianity:
J
ewish,
G
reek,
R
oman
Authors: Leinweber David 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christianity has been described as a synthesis of Jewish ethics, Greek philosophy, and Roman administration. During the years in which Christianity rose to prominence from its somewhat obscure Jewish origins, Greek and Roman culture dominated the Mediterranean. Understanding how Christianity reflects these three major cultural streams from the ancient world can deepen an appreciation of its emergence as a major world faith.
Sacramental Theology
Authors: Macy Gary 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The English word “sacrament” is from the Latin word,
sacramentum
, which was used to translate the Greek
mysterion
and is best translated as “symbol” or “ritual.” In early Christian usage,
sacramentum
indicated particularly any religious symbol or ritual.
Sacramentum
, then, has referred throughout most of its history to any religious symbol or ritual, including the Jewish rituals that preceded the Christian era. Sacramental theology for most of Christian history, therefore, encompassed any speculation on the role of sensible realities in manifesting the role of God in human life. In the 12th century the custom grew up of referring to the seven most important Christian rituals as “the sacraments,” although the older usage of the Latin word persisted alongside this newer usage. By the 16th century, debates erupted over which rituals should be considered “sacraments” and which should not. Sacramental theology from that point on took on the more specific task of justifying the continued use of certain rituals by different Christian denominations while continuing to include the older and broader discussions of the role of symbol and ritual.
Satan
Authors: Oderberg David S. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
“Satan” is the biblical name given to the leader of the devils or demons in hell. He is one of the angels who disobeyed God in the beginning and was cast from heaven, destined to spend all of eternity in the pit of darkness. He tempted our first parents in Paradise and so brought about their Fall. During the lifetime of mankind, until the General Resurrection, he spends his existence tormenting souls, tempting men into sin, trying to make them forget the Lord, deceiving humanity through preternatural acts (pseudo‐miracles), and striving to drag as many people as he can with him into the unquenchable fire.
S
chwenckfeld,
C
aspar (1489–1561)
Authors: Essick John Inscore 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Caspar Schwenckfeld was a Silesian Reformer and spiritualist born to a noble family in Ossig, Germany. Schwenckfeld matriculated in several European universities without completing a degree, but served as an adviser to Frederick II of Liegnitz. He was greatly influenced by Martin Luther and was an early convert to Lutheran reforming efforts. Schwenckfeld became an adviser to Duke Frederick II in 1522 and subsequently persuaded the duke to initiate evangelical reform. Schwenckfeld eventually left Silesia in a self‐imposed exile stemming from political pressure, disagreements with Luther, and his evolving spiritualism. The remainder of his life was spent as a wandering lay theologian. He died from a prolonged illness while in hiding in Ulm. Schwenckfeld's numerous writings are available in translation in the multivolume
Corpus Schwenckfeldianorum
.
Science and Christianity
Authors: Menuge Angus J. L. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Before science can get started, humans must have the idea that nature is congenial to systematic study. Not all ways of understanding nature support this assumption. Animism and polytheism suggest that nature itself is sacred, so that it would be sacrilege to dissect it, and also that nature is governed by a multiplicity of local deities and is thus too heterogeneous and capricious to support universal laws. Excessive spiritualism or exclusive concern for eternal truth may disparage nature as the realm of transience,
maya
(illusion), or corruption, making its systematic study a pointless or even sinful diversion.
Second Coming
Authors: Thomas David Andrew 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Second Coming (or
Parousia
) is by definition a concept confined to the arena of New Testament theology, being predicated upon the First Advent of Christ, which is central to that canon. From Jesus' teachings (especially in the Synoptic Gospels), through the epistolary writings of the apostles, and culminating in the Book of Revelation, the teaching that Jesus Christ will return in glory to establish his eternal kingdom is proclaimed and explained with remarkable constancy, being mentioned or implied in nearly every book. While some NT passages dealing with the Second Advent contain allusions to Old Testament prophetic traditions, such as the Day of the Lord and the eschatological rescue of God's people, there is little doubt that the teaching is fundamentally grounded in the Jesus tradition and consequently, the message of the original disciples. The Second Coming also figures prominently in extra‐biblical and patristic writings of the early church such as the
Didache, The Shepherd of Hermas
, and many others.
S
elbständige
E
vangelisch‐
L
utherische
K
irche (
SELK
)
Authors: Hasel Frank M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The SELK is an independent confessional Lutheran Church in Germany. There has been a moderate decline in membership over the past years. There are some 36,500 members (as of 2005). Members are organized in almost 200 congregations all over Germany, but mostly in Berlin, North‐Rhine‐Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse. Some 140 ordained pastors serve in the congregations.
Seraphim of
S
arov,
S
aint (1759–1833)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

St. Seraphim of Sarov was an influential Russian
staretz
(Greek,
geron
) or elder, a holy man recognized as bearing the
charism
, or ministry, of spiritual direction. Although he spent much of his life in solitude and ascetic struggle, he was celebrated throughout Russia as a great clairvoyant and worker of miracles, and today he is widely venerated in the Orthodox world, and beyond, as an outstanding modern exemplar of a life filled with the grace of the Holy Spirit. This remains especially the case in Russia, where he is the most beloved of all modern saints. Significantly, and ironically, it was in the basement of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg, which had for years been converted by the communist regime into a “Museum of Atheism,” that his lost relics were re‐discovered. Thus, as he had predicted, the recovery of his relics in 1991 was associated with the restoration of the Orthodox faith to Russia.
S
erra,
J
unípero (1713–1784)
Authors: Warner David B. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Spanish Majorcan missionary to the New World, Blessed Junípero Serra is known as the “Apostle of California.” His statue is one of only 100 “Founding Fathers” honored in the American Capitol's Hall of Fame. Padre (Spanish for “Father”) or Fray (“Brother”) Serra was a spiritual giant who personified some of the noblest contributions of Christian civilization, including the call to holiness, academic excellence, and authentic Christian mission.