bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
D
ominic (c.1171–1221)
Authors: Macy Gary 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Dominic de Guzmán, founder of the Order of Preachers (Dominicans), was born into a noble family in the village of Caleruega in Castile, Spain. He attended school at Palencia and became canon of the church of Osma c.1196. In 1203 and again in 1205 Dominic accompanied Bishop Diego de Azevedo of Osma on diplomatic missions to Denmark. While on these journeys, Bishop Diego and Dominic passed through Toulouse and there met with the Cathar heresy. On the return from the second trip, the bishop stopped in Rome and requested that the pope allow him to resign his see in order to undertake missionary work. The pope refused, but while passing through southern France, Diego and Dominic joined the mission against the Cathars. Dismissing their entourage, Diego and Dominic decided to match the austere life of the Cathar leaders by committing themselves to a life of poverty and preaching, earning their way by begging. The mission met with success, and Dominic was placed in charge of mission headquarters in Toulouse in 1215. The preachers who joined him adopted the Rule of St. Augustine, and were recognized by Pope Honorius III as a new religious order, the Order of Preachers.
Dominican Order
Authors: Murphy Francesca Aran 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In 1216, St. Dominic (1170–1221) created a new kind of Christian missionary — the Friar. A friar is a brother. Whereas monks take vows to their abbot, and come under his jurisdiction, a friar belongs to a brotherhood. Instead of a physical basis, like a monastic house, this brotherhood has a constitutional or legal basis, the Dominican Constitutions. Bound by the authority of a constitution rather than that of a person or place, the Dominican friars were intended to be mobile preachers of the Gospel of Christ. The ecumenical Council of Lyons II (1274) named the Dominicans (along with the Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustinians) as one of the four legitimate mendicant orders. The Dominicans were originally a “mendicant” order, that is, a “begging” order, owning little property. This added to their freedom from the constraints of physical ownership of buildings. Dominic created such an order to produce preachers who could evangelize in the new urban centres of Europe. A further need was for preachers who could argue cogently against proponents of heresies such as Albigensianism. The Dominican friars entered the university cities just as the first universities were emerging. Some Dominicans, such as Hugh of St. Cher (+1263) achieved the philological reconstruction of an accurate text of the Scriptures. Others, notably Albert the Great (c.1206–1280) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) were great theologians.
D
onatello (1386/1387–1466)
Authors: Drake Joshua Farris 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Donatello Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi was among the first artists to present sacred themes with an earthy realism — that is, to present Christ and the saints as fully human — without sacrificing the theological meaning of the more stylized Gothic sculpture that preceded him. In 1550 Giorgio Vasari recorded Donatello's reaction to a crucifix by Brunelleschi. After standing in awe for a moment, Donatello remarked, “to you it is given to do Christs and to me peasants.” In fact, however, he did both at once.
Donatism
Authors: Mueller Steven P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Donatism is a heresy named after Donatus (bishop of Carthage from 313 to 347), influential leader of the movement that developed from this heresy that broke with the Catholic Church. Donatism emerged following the persecution of Diocletian (303–305), which was particularly harsh in North Africa. Under persecution some clergy had given up their bibles for destruction rather than face death. When these clergy, known as traditors, later repented, the Donatists objected and claimed that their ministry was invalid since clergy were to be holy. The Donatists maintained that a traditor had removed himself from the true church and would need to be rebaptized if he was to return. They believed that the visible church was a holy presence in the world and could not contain hypocrites. The most significant and troublesome teaching of Donatism was that sacraments performed by impious or hypocritical clergy were invalid. This is the teaching most often in view when Donatism is alleged today.
D
onne,
J
ohn (1572–1631)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
John Donne was born in London in 1572 to Roman Catholic parents. His father, also John, was a wealthy ironmonger, and he and his wife Elizabeth gave their son a Jesuit education. Later, after studying law, John Donne the younger converted to the Church of England in order to advance his ambitions at court. Here he won a reputation for his wit, his womanizing, and his strikingly original love poems. Eventually, though, Donne became an Anglican priest, known for his vivid sermons, piercing devotional writings, and his equally original religious poems. Donne pioneered the style that would be known as “metaphysical poetry,” which would prove especially influential in the 20th century.
Drama, Modern
Authors: Roark Carolyn D. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe story of the contemporary relationship between Christianity and theater actually begins well before the modern period, as the Renaissance brought sweeping changes to Western Europe that encompassed political, social, intellectual, and creative endeavors throughout the region. Prior to the Renaissance, many western cultures had an active theater practice that was in some way connected to the religious life of the community. For the Ancient Greeks, plays formed an important part in their yearly celebrations honoring Dionysus. The Romans thought that their gods enjoyed entertainment, and often set statues of various deities in the stadiums and playhouses so that they could watch the action. Though the founders of the early Christian communities disapproved of Roman spectacles for a variety of reasons, as the medieval church developed priests occasionally staged short plays in their worship services, called liturgical dramas, and helped to sponsor the grand cycle plays that the laity of their communities produced for feast days. But both political and intellectual changes that happened in the region after 1500celed to a kind of parting of the ways between the church and the theater. While the relationship has continued to grow and change, there has not since been the kind of confluence between them that existed prior to the “re‐birth” of Europe and its accompanying rise of humanism, strife within and between the developing nations, and growing zeal for commercial trade. In the 16th and 17th centuries, in the aftermath of the Protestant Reformation, drama enjoyed less support from the church.
E
astern Catholic Churches
Authors: Warner Christopher B. , Warner David B. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Eastern Catholics are those Christians who are in full communion with the Bishop of Rome, and worship according to one of the five ancient liturgical Traditions (Rites) of the Christian East: the Alexandrian, East Syrian, West Syrian, Byzantine, and Armenian Traditions. This entry is focused on the historical development and current status of the 22 Eastern Catholic churches.
Dominion/Ecological Ethics
Authors: Phillips Benjamin Blair 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Christian notion of dominion, or ecological ethics, has been a subject of much controversy in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Lynn White Jr. articulated the classic critique of the Christian idea of dominion as the driving force behind the modern ecological crisis. The “mastery hypothesis” argues along three major lines: Christianity is said to have killed off humanity's wonder and awe of nature by de‐sacralizing nature; it promotes an anthropocentrism which legitimates exploitative human rule over nature; and it relegates the physical world to a lower status and value than that which is spirit. Yet the perception of a worldwide ecological crisis is much more recent than the ancient Judeo‐Christian worldview which is supposed to be its source.
Ecumenism
Authors: Vondey Wolfgang 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The term “ecumenism” refers to any attempt to establish and preserve visible unity among Christians. The word derives from a family of Greek terms that refer to the inhabited world (
oikoumene
), or more basically, the house (
oikos
). These two realms mark the frontiers of all ecumenical endeavors. Historically, an ecumenical praxis emerged from the houses of the faithful that formed the place of meeting for the primitive Christian communities until Christianity became more firmly established and buildings could be designated as the official place of worship. Theologically, the goal of all ecumenical endeavors is the establishment of visible unity among all Christians on a global scale. Ecumenism is therefore determined by individual and private endeavors as well as by communal, local, national, and international practices that seek the reconciliation, renewal, and unity of the visibly divided churches.
E
dwards,
J
onathan (1703–1758)
Authors: Caldwell Robert W. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
New England Congregationalist minister and leading theological defender of North America's Great Awakening, Jonathan Edwards is arguably the most influential colonial American theologian of the 18th century. His writings, which wedded a penetrating psychological analysis of Christian experience with a powerful Puritan Calvinism, provided American Protestants of many persuasions with a formidable defense of revivalism and spawned a new school of theology that carried his revivalist vision well into 19th century America. Today, many evangelical Protestants worldwide still revere Edwards as a theological mentor and spiritual guide.
Eighteenth Century
C
hristianity
Authors: Moody Joshua 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The 18th century witnessed a marked development in human understanding, learning, and modern scientific investigation. Later termed the “Age of Enlightenment,” and at the time referred to by those contemporaneous with events as “this age of light and inquiry” or equivalent statements, the 18th century was home to such well‐known intellectual giants as John Locke and Isaac Newton, the “philosophes” Jean‐Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire and Montesquieu, as well as Benjamin Franklin and Jonathan Edwards in the Americas. Everywhere in the 18th century there is new discovery, questioning, and research.
Eighth Century
C
hristianity
Authors: Casiday Augustine 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The 8th century was a time of political reconfiguration across the Christian world that was witness to conflicts, but also great achievements — notably, in the arts, in missionary work, and in the renewal (and, to some extent, the restructuring) of monastic institutions. Several Christian kingdoms began a period of cultural decline and, eventually, failure; others merged or expanded. The two conspicuous Christian political orders within Europe — the Frankish and the Byzantine — had fractious relations, particularly as they competed for influence over the Italian peninsula. Within the shifting frames of these political orders, huge strides were made in spreading Christianity into northern Europe; by the century's end, the institutional structures were in place that would support the Christianization of Scandinavia. In these enterprises, the efforts of Anglo‐Saxon missionaries were critical. Other significant accomplishments were made in the arts. Indeed, it is within this domain that the greatest theological debate of the day — over the propriety, or even necessity, of religious imagery and known as the “iconoclast controversy” — was fought. The debate was closed (for the 8th century at least, since a new phase of debating began in the 9th century) by the Second Council of Nicaea (787), which was subsequently reckoned as the Seventh Ecumenical Council.
Election
Authors: Hector Kevin W. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The term “election” refers to God's choosing of and covenanting with a people; God's covenant with ancient Israel is the paradigmatic instance of election, as God pledges to be the Israelites' God, and that the Israelites will be God's people. Christians see Jesus Christ as the fulfillment of this election: it is in view of
this
Israelite, according to Christians, that God is the Israelites' God and the Israelites are God's people; their original election looked forward to, and was in a sense for the sake of, God's election of this one. Jesus Christ fulfills the covenant from both sides, so to speak: in Jesus Christ, God has come to dwell among the Israelites as God's people, and in Jesus Christ, Israel has wholeheartedly covenanted itself to God in return. Moreover, Christians believe not only that Jesus Christ fulfills God's election of ancient Israel, but that he also opens Israel's election to those who are not Israelites by birth; through the Spirit sent by Jesus Christ, one can be adopted as a member of God's family even if one is not a descendent of Abraham.
Emerging Global Church
Authors: Johnson Todd M. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractChristianity, expanding and contracting throughout its history, now has a ubiquitous presence around the world. However, over the course of many centuries and especially with the rise of European Christendom and colonialism (by 1500, 92 percent of all Christians were Europeans), Christianity increasingly became identified with the political and economic agenda of the West. This European colonial world system gave rise to the impression that the Christian faith was exclusively Western — even though significant non‐Western Christian movements began as early as the 16th century.
English Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Britain was one of the earliest countries in Europe outside of Greece, Italy, and Spain to receive the Gospel. The first church, according to tradition, was erected in Glastonbury in
ad
61. In 314 three English bishops attended the Council of Arles in France. The Anglo‐Saxon invaders set back the fledgling church and Christians were driven to the western part of the island. The conversion of the pagan conquerors was the work of Columba and other Celtic missionaries from Ireland who established monasteries such as the celebrated one at Iona. In 597 the pope sent St. Augustine to bring England back into the Roman fold. Because England was divided into several petty kingdoms called the Heptarchy, Christianization moved only slowly. There were also fundamental differences between Celtic traditions and the Roman tradition. At a synod held at Whitby in 664 the conflict was resolved in favor of the Roman tradition. Augustine became the first archbishop of Canterbury. He was followed by Theodore of Tarsus, who was the first in a long line of ecclesiastical statesmen in British history. He set up the administrative organization of the English church and summoned ecclesiastical councils. Under Theodore learning flourished and the church produced great scholars such as the Venerable Bede, the historian. Willibrord and Boniface were sent out as missionaries to Holland and Denmark. Norwegian and Swedish kings educated in England helped to introduce Christianity to their own countries. Under King Edgar, Archbishop Dunstan labored with St. Ethelwold and St. Oswald to reform monasteries and cathedral chapters.
Epiphany
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The Feast of the Epiphany occurs each year on January 6, the twelfth day after Christmas. Through the centuries the Epiphany, meaning manifestation or appearance, has been a day to mark the birth of the Christ (Luke 2), the Baptism of the Lord (Mark 1), the visit of the Magi to the Christ child (Matt. 2), and the first miracle of Jesus at a wedding feast in Cana of Galilee (John 2).
E
rasmus,
D
esiderius (
c.
1468–1536)
Authors: Maas Korey D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Desiderius Erasmus, Dutch biblical humanist and moral reformer, was born in Rotterdam and educated by the Brothers of the Common Life. He devoted his adult life to the reform of letters and morals. Northern Europe's standard‐bearer for the revival of classical learning begun in Italy a century earlier, Erasmus early on turned his attention to a program for the reform of education. In original works such as
De ratione studii
(1511),
De copia verborum ac rerum
(1512), and
De pueris instituendis
(1529), he outlined a program for liberal studies inspired by the best of classical antiquity, supplementing these more formal treatises with numerous and ever‐expanding editions of
Colloquia
(model Latin discourses) and
Adagia
(Greek and Latin proverbs), in which were exemplified both the eloquent style and moral wisdom of the ancients.
Etchmiadzin
Authors: Hovhanessian Vahan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The city of Etchmiadzin (Ejmiatsin) is located in the Armavir region of Armenia in the foothills of the biblical Mount Ararat, approximately 13 miles west of the capital, Yerevan (Erevan). The historic center of the Armenian Church and the residence of the Catholicos — the Supreme Patriarch of All Armenians — are located in the city of Etchmiadzin.
Ethiopian Christianity
Authors: Abate Eshetu 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Christianity in Ethiopia goes back to its first centuries. There are two reasons for that. The first one is the geographical proximity of the Pre‐Axumite and Axumite kingdoms (
ad
150–770) to the cradle of Christianity, and the second is the constant contact among peoples of the regions in pursuit of political supremacy, trade, and culture, particularly using the Red Sea routes leading to the Far East.
Ethiopian Art
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The oldest Christian monuments in Ethiopia are found along an ancient road which climbs from Adulis to the highlands and goes through Cohaito, Toconda, Cascasse, and Ieha to Aksum. The most common churches are rectangular with a square apse, the body of the building being usually divided into three aisles by two rows of monolithic stone pillars. In the Middle Ages the center of Ethiopian civilization moved from Aksum toward Lasta where, at Imraha, the churches are different. The pillars dividing the church into three aisles support arcades, and the sanctuary consists of three rooms, the central one covered by a small dome, while the nave is raised above the aisles. The most important monuments of the Zagwe period (1137–1270) are the celebrated rock‐cut churches of Lalibela, similar to ones found in Cappadocia built out of solid rock. Even here there are differences. The church of Libanos and Mary has an Axumite structure while others have five aisles and are cruciform, such as the church of St. George. They often have arcades on pillars and women's galleries. The church of Golgotha is remarkable for its sculptures of saints and an altar with the symbols of the Four Evangelists. With the advent of the Solomonic dynasty in 1270 there was a decline in church building. Round churches are more common during this period. Medieval churches have numerous paintings and some of them, like the church of Debra Mamo, have inlaid wooden panels. There are a large number of sacred vases, thuribles,
tabot
(sacred stones), and other liturgical objects richly ornamented with precious metal. But the most common and numerous of these objects are the codex miniatures, whose style and iconography betray Egyptian and Syrian influences. By the 15th century evidence of a western influence is unmistakable, as in the church of Martula Mariam in Gojam. Finally, among Ethiopia's most unique artistic treasures are the illustrated magic scrolls (
asmat
or
talsam
) with their protective prayers. These parchment texts are illustrated with angels, saints, crosses, the Virgin, and imaginative geometric designs.
E
thiopian Orthodox Church
Authors: Abate Eshetu 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The Ethiopian Orthodox Church is the largest of the Oriental Orthodox churches. The other churches are the Coptic Orthodox, the Syrian Orthodox, the Armenian Orthodox, and the Indian Orthodox. Unlike the Byzantine (Eastern) Orthodox churches, the Oriental Orthodox churches do not accept the decision of the Council of Chalcedon in
ad
451 on the two natures of Christ. They follow the “one nature” Christology of Cyril of Alexandria (c.378–444).
Mass Evangelism
Authors: Baltrip Ryan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Mass evangelism has been used from Pentecost to the present day as a means of spreading Christianity. From the 18th century to the early 21st century, the term “mass evangelism” has meant a cooperative and focused large evangelistic event aimed at presenting the gospel to a mass audience and encouraging conversions to Christianity. Although sometimes known as “evangelical crusades,” the term came under scrutiny in the late 20th century because of historical connotations. Churches and organization still hold mass evangelistic “crusades” today; however, they are just called festivals, conferences, or some other name.
Evangelical Wealth
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Wealth (riches) is a major theme of both Old and New Testaments (Deut 6:10–12; 8:10–18; 31:20; 32:15; 1 Sam. 2:7; Ps. 37:16; Prov. 10:2, 22; 11:4, 28; 13:7–8; 14:24; 15:6, 16–17; 16:8; 19:4; 21:6; 23:4; 27:23–24; 28:8, 20, 22; 30:8–9; Eccles. 5:9–20; 6:1–2; 7:1–12; 10:19; Isa. 5:8; Jer. 48:36; Hos. 12:8; Matt. 6:19–21; 13:22; 19:16–29; Mark 4:19; 10:17–25; Luke 12:15; 18:18–25; 1 Tim. 6:4–19; James 2:6–7; 5:1–5; 1 John 3:17). The Old Testament provides limitless teaching regarding the godly and ungodly use of riches. Wealth itself was initially created as a component of God's creation over which mankind was given dominion (Gen. 1:26). Although the dominion mandate remained after the Fall, sin greatly tainted the process (9:1–3). As wealth is a component of God's creation, it is rightly considered “good” even though humanity may abuse the creation for evil purposes. Although there are many condemnations of the rich and wealth in the Old Testament, there are also examples of righteous individuals who were wealthy. However, each Old Testament example of the wealth of the righteous demonstrates the riches to be the blessing of God.
Evangelicalism
Authors: Olson Roger E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Although the word “evangelical” has several uses, evangelicalism is generally understood to mean the movement of mostly conservative Protestant Christians that arose out of Protestant fundamentalism after World War II. Evangelicalism is a movement and network of individuals, churches, publishers, parachurch organizations, and missionary agencies all of which adhere to the following distinctives identified and described by evangelical scholars David Bebbington and Mark Noll: biblicism, conversionism, crucicentrism, and activism.
Evangelism
Authors: Heck Joel D. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Evangelism refers to the activity “speaking the Good News,” that is, the Good News of the story of Jesus: his suffering, death, and resurrection with the accompanying message of forgiveness and eternal life through faith in him. Evangelism began at Pentecost, when Peter gave his sermon to those Jews who were gathered in Jerusalem. The Bible relates that when people heard this Good News, they could not contain themselves and had to speak, even if this risked persecution …
Excommunication
Authors: Gray Patrick 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Excommunication is formal exclusion from a religious community. Although typically associated with Christianity, most religions practice some form of exclusion as a means of regulating the belief and behavior of their members. Reasons for and effects of excommunication vary according to the denomination, and while such a sentence is reversible in most cases with the satisfaction of certain requirements, it is regarded as the most severe of ecclesiastical censures.