bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Unconscious Mind
Authors: Morsella Ezequiel , Bargh John A. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractIn the words of George A. Miller, “In some sense not yet defined we are both conscious and unconscious at the same time.” Miller's eloquent assertion is illustrated perhaps most dramatically by an experiment conducted by Logothetis and Schall (1989), in which subjects were trained to self‐report the contents of their conscious experience under conditions of binocular rivalry, a striking perceptual phenomenon in which visual inputs cannot be resolved into a single percept. In this kind of experiment, subjects are first trained to respond in certain ways when presented with certain visual stimuli (e.g., to button‐press when presented with the image of a house). After training, a different visual stimulus is presented to each eye (e.g., an image of a house to one eye and an image of a tree to the other). Surprisingly, the subject does not consciously perceive both objects (e.g., a tree overlapping a house) but responds as if perceiving only one object at a time (e.g., a house followed by a tree). Each percept occupies consciousness for only a few seconds, even though both images are continuously present and each exerts a nontrivial influence over nervous processing (e.g., activation of the visual system and other brain regions). At any given moment, the subject is unaware of the computational processes leading to this bizarre “one at a time” outcome and of the systematic influence that the inexperienced percept has on neural, cognitive, and even emotional processes (Williams, Morris, McGlone, Abbott, & Mattingley, 2004). Muraya, Yang, and Blake (2007) discuss the factors that influence the outcome of the visual competition, including how voluntary action toward the stimuli modulates rivalry. However, paralleling what has been found in countless studies with undergraduate participants, the subjects of Logothetis and Schall—in this case, rhesus monkeys—exhibited binocular rivalry and were, in a sense, conscious and unconscious at the same time.
Underachievement
Authors: Peterson Jean Sunde 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Academic underachievement is often a concern for parents and educators when classroom performance is not at an expected level. Definitions of underachievement vary, but they generally reflect discrepancy between potential and performance. Broad definitions allow flexibility in identifying underachievers; narrow definitions may preclude participation of some who could benefit from special programs (Reis & McCoach, 2000). Although underachievement can occur across a wide range of ability, it is probably most often discussed in regard to highly able students and academic work. These are the focus of the present article, which discusses the pertinent research and conceptual literature and the author's clinical observations.
Validity
Authors: Coolidge Frederick L. , Segal Daniel L. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Validity can be defined as the extent to which a test accurately reflects or assesses the specific construct it purports to measure. Whereas reliability is concerned with the consistency or stability of measurements, validity is concerned with the meaningfulness and usefulness of the specific inferences made from test scores. For a test of anxiety, for example, the question of its validity would be whether the test actually measures the known domains of anxiety, such as anxious thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. A truism is that a test can be reliable (i.e., stable and consistent) but not valid, but a test cannot be valid without first being reliable. The question of a test's validity is both an empirical issue and a theoretical one. The validity of any psychological test cannot be absolutely established but only relatively established, because there is no gold standard of validity in measurement. There are also many different types of validity including face, content, criterion, construct, and concurrent validity.
Video Applications
Authors: Dowrick Peter W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Video is used in psychology to help people change (behavior, feelings, attitudes), to gather and disperse information, and as experimental stimuli. These uses are summarized in this entry. In the 1970s, video recorders became available to therapists and trainers, who rushed to use them so their clients and trainees could see themselves as others see them. In the 1980s, the most prevalent use of video in the behavioral sciences was for data gathering. In the last decade or so, technology has made video editing easy—hence a gathering interest in
creating
video images, not just documenting events for scrutiny.
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales
Authors: Drew Clifford J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS) are a series of instruments aimed at assessing social competence. Social competence has also been termed adaptive behavior, and it has been incorporated as a major consideration in several types of disability. Adaptive behavior or social competence has been the focus of considerable measurement effort over several decades, with part of the challenge being accurate and reliable measurement.
Visual Illusions
Authors: Wade Nicholas J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Illusions of space and motion have fascinated students of vision for over 2,000 years, but it is only in the last century and a half that they have assumed a central position in psychology (Wade, 2005). Psychologists would now say that an illusion occurs when there is a mismatch between the proximal stimulus (the projection of the stimulus onto the retina) and perception. The term visual spatial illusion is now applied mainly to such mismatches in size and orientation of specific two‐dimensional figures. They were not referred to as geometrical‐optical illusions until the mid‐nineteenth century, and many novel spatial illusions were named after those who first described them (Robinson, 1998).
Vocational Testing
Authors: Taber Brian J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

The purpose of vocational testing lies in the premise that the selection of an occupation requires the clarification of one's self‐concept and its implementation in the world of work (Super, 1951). This basic premise has its roots in the foundation of career counseling that was laid down a century ago. Frank Parsons's (1909) landmark work,
Choosing a Vocation,
outlined a model for effective vocational guidance that continues to be a mainstay of modern career counseling. In making a wise vocational choice, Parsons stated that there are three factors that need to be considered:

(1) a clear understanding of yourself, your aptitudes, abilities, interests, ambitions, resources, limitations, and their causes; (2) a knowledge of the requirements and conditions of success, advantages and disadvantages, compensation, opportunities and prospects in different lines of work; (3) true reasoning on the relations of these two groups of facts.
(Parsons, 1909, p. 5)
W
atson,
J
ohn
B
. (1878–1958)
Authors: Staff  
Published: January 2010

Abstract
John B. Watson grew up in Greenville, South Carolina, and matriculated at nearby Furman University at age 16. He graduated from Furman and earned a master's degree by age 21. He then was a school principal for one year before entering graduate school at the University of Chicago to study with the functionalists, Dewey and Angell, along with other Chicago faculty. He soon became interested in the Russian conditioning studies of Sechenov, Bekhterev, and Pavlov, and he gravitated to the study of behavior rather than the “functions” of the mind. He stayed at Chicago for several years and continued his studies of animal behavior. While at Chicago, he married Mary Ickes (sister of future Secretary of the Interior, Harold Ickes). In 1907, Watson was hired as an Associate Professor at Johns Hopkins University.
W
ertheimer,
M
ax (1880–1943)
Authors: Wertheimer Michael 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Max Wertheimer's father Wilhelm directed a private business college for many years; his mother was an accomplished amateur violinist. A competent violinist and pianist himself, Wertheimer was educated at a Catholic school in Prague and then studied at Charles University in Prague, first law and then philosophy and psychology. He was particularly impressed by the teachings of the philosopher‐psychologist Christian von Ehrenfels, who in 1890 had published an important paper on form qualities. In 1902, Wertheimer transferred to the University of Berlin, where he studied primarily philosophy and psychology with a number of notable members of the faculty, especially Carl Stumpf. In 1904, he moved to the University of Wurzburg, where he completed his PhD in psychology the same year, under Oswald Kulpe, with a dissertation on the use of the word‐association method for the detection of criminal guilt.
Wide‐Range Achievement Test
Authors: Robertson Gary J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Wide‐Range Achievement Test (WRAT) was developed in the 1930s by psychologist Joseph Jastak and first published for operational use in 1946. Two subsequent revisions of the WRAT were issued in 1984 (WRAT‐R) and 1993 (WRAT 3; Wilkinson, 1993). The current edition—WRAT 4—retains the focus of the previous editions by providing norm‐referenced measures of reading, spelling, and mathematics computation. Designed for use with individuals age 5–94 years, the WRAT 4 contains four subtests: word reading, sentence comprehension, spelling, and mathematics computation. The reading and sentence comprehension tests must be administered individually, whereas the spelling and mathematics computation tests may be administered either individually or in small groups. The administration time required is 15–45 minutes, depending on the age of the test taker. The various editions of the WRAT have enjoyed widespread use due to their ease of administration and scoring and the amount of information obtained in a relatively brief amount of testing time.
Wisdom
Authors: Staudinger Ursula M. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractSince the beginnings of human culture, wisdom has been viewed as the ideal end point of human development (Baltes & Staudinger, 2000). Historically, wisdom was conceptualized in terms of a state of idealized being, as a process of perfect knowing and judgment as in King Solomon's judgments, or as an oral or written product such as wisdom‐related proverbs. Wisdom is considered an ideal that is difficult to be fully represented in the isolated individual.
W
itmer,
L
ightner (1861–1956)
Authors: McReynolds Paul W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

In 1896, Lightner Witmer established the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania. This event is universally recognized as marking the beginning of the science and profession of clinical psychology—although not yet by that name. In 1907, Witmer founded the journal
The Psychological Clinic
, and in the first issue he called for the establishment of a new helping profession, to be called clinical psychology.
Woodcock‐Johnson III: Test of Cognitive Abilities and Achievement
Authors: Mather Nancy , Wendling Barbara J. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Woodcock‐Johnson III (Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001) consists of two conormed batteries: the WJ III Test of Cognitive Abilities (WJIII COG) and the WJ III Tests of Achievement (WJ III ACH). When used together, these batteries provide a comprehensive framework for evaluating and exploring the relationships and interactions among cognitive abilities and academic performance for individuals between the ages of 2 and 90+ years. The WJ III is based on the principle of selective testing; the examiner administers only the tests most relevant to the referral questions.
Workplace Violence
Authors: White Stephen G. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
“Workplace violence” typically conjures up images of mass murder by disgruntled employees. Broader definitions include other forms of aggression and a range of severity: threats, yelling and angry outbursts, bizarre communications, bullying, stalking, assaults, sabotage, and property damage. Workplace violence has varying impacts, including death and physical harm, fear and trauma, disruption and lost productivity, and employer liability.
W
undt,
W
ilhelm (1832–1920)
Authors: Haynie N.A. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Wilhelm Wundt studied medicine at the University of Tubingen and at Heidelberg, where he changed his major to physiology and earned his doctorate in 1855. He remained there until 1874, teaching and formulating his ideas about psychology. His books of 1858 and 1862,
Contributions to the Theory of Sensory Perception
, formalized these ideas. He was appointed professor of philosophy in 1875 at Leipzig, where he worked for the next 45 years. Edward B. Titchener was Wundt's student and the proponent of his “structuralism” psychology in the United States. Many other prominent individuals came to Leipzig to study and work with Wundt; these included G. Stanley Hall, Emil Kraepelin, Lightner Witmer, J. Mck. Cattell, Hugo Munsterberg, and E. C. Spearman.
Z‐Score
Authors: Madsen Joshua W. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Z‐scores, also known as
standard scores,
represent a transformation of raw data that is typically expressed as “Something minus its mean divided by its standard deviation.” The “something” in this statement is typically either a raw data point within a set of observations or the observed mean of a sample of data. When such a transformation is applied to all observations within a data set, the first step of subtracting the mean from each individual observation has the effect of recentering the distribution at a mean of zero. Because dividing all observations within a data set by a constant results in the standard deviation of the distribution similarly being reduced by that constant, the second step in the transformation results in a standard deviation of 1 for the distribution of z‐scores. Thus, when a distribution of scores is converted to z‐scores, the resulting distribution is centered at a mean of 0 with a standard deviation of 1.
Lifespan Depression
Authors: Craighead Margaret C. , Craighead Benjamin H. , Craighead W. Edward 
Published: January 2010

AbstractIn the United States, the word “depression” refers to everything from a transient mood state (feeling down) to the clinically diagnosed disorder known as Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). In order to receive a diagnosis of MDD, a person must experience marked psychological distress as well as a decrease in cognitive and behavioral functioning. In addition, the two weeks prior to diagnosis the patient's life must be characterized by an almost daily occurrence of a dysphoric mood (i.e., sadness) and/or a loss of interest or pleasure in almost all activities (anhedonia). The individual must also experience at least four of the following seven symptoms nearly every day for at least a two–week period: (1) significant weight change or change in appetite; (2) insomnia or hypersomnia; (3) psychomotor agitation or retardation; (4) fatigue or loss of energy; (5) feelings of worthlessness or of excessive or inappropriate guilt; (6) decreased concentration or indecisiveness; and (7) suicidal ideation, plan or attempt (see American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Only three of the above additional symptoms are needed for a diagnosis if dysphoric mood and anhedonia are both present. Other mood disorders related to MDD include Dysthymic Disorder, Bipolar (Manic‐Depressive) Disorder, and Cyclothymic Disorder.
Rapid Eye Movement Sleep
Authors: Howland Robert H. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The two main phases of sleep are rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non‐rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. REM sleep is often called dreaming (or D) sleep, because dreams are reported by about 70–80% of persons awakened during this period. REM sleep also is referred to as paradoxical sleep, because the brain paradoxically seems to be in an activated state that is similar to, but not identical to, the waking state. REM sleep is characterized by an activated electroencephalogram (EEG) pattern (low‐voltage, fast‐frequency brain waves), muscular paralysis (with the exception of diaphragmatic and ocular muscles), periodic bursts of rapid eye movements, and autonomic nervous system instability (e.g., variable blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration). Brain metabolism is normal or slightly increased during REM sleep.
Convulsants
Authors: Thompson Scott M. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract

Convulsants are substances that induce seizure‐like paroxysmal behaviors by producing patterns of electrical activity in the brain that resemble those seen in human epilepsy. Epilepsy is characterized by recurring episodes in which the electrical activity of many thousands of neurons becomes abnormally elevated and pathologically synchronized. This discharge interrupts normal brain function and leads, in some forms of epilepsy, to alterations in behavior (seizures). Seizures come in many varieties, ranging from brief, barely detectable losses of consciousness in what are called
absence
or
petit mal epilepsies
, to uncontrollable tonic‐clonic contractions of large muscle groups in the so‐called
grand mal epilepsies
. The behavioral manifestations and severity of the seizure reflect primarily the size and localization of the abnormal electrical discharge.
Psychotherapy, Efficacy of
Authors: McGinn Lata K. , Sanderson William C. , Steinberg Jennifer 
Published: January 2010

AbstractTwo methods have been utilized to conduct scientific evaluations of psychotherapy. Efficacy and effectiveness research are both important and provide distinct information about how psychotherapy works. Although both methods are used, to date efficacy studies have dominated the field. As a result, most of what we know about how well psychotherapy works comes from efficacy rather than effectiveness research.
Cognitive Theories of Affect
Authors: Forgas Joseph P. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractOne of the greatest puzzles about human nature concerns the still poorly understood relationship between thinking and feeling, cognition and affect. Emotions represent a ubiquitous and powerful phenomenon in our lives, yet psychological research on emotions has remained a relatively neglected field until recently. Contemporary research linking cognition and affect has examined both (1) the role of antecedent cognitive processes in affective reactions and (2) the cognitive consequences of affect. This article reviews both orientations.
Early Childhood Education
Authors: Goelman Hillel 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The field of early childhood education (ECE) is dynamic and fluid and reflects trends and ideas in education more broadly. Traditional issues in ECE such as curriculum and teacher training are increasingly influenced by current research, interdisciplinary and international perspectives, postmodernism, and multicultural and other diversity perspectives. Whereas ECE has traditionally referred to formal programs for three‐ to five‐year‐old children, current definitions now include a wider range of formal and informal settings for children from birth to age eight offered through a wide range of sponsoring auspices.
Existential Psychotherapy
Authors: Schneider Kirk J. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractExistential psychotherapy derives from the philosophical and literary writings of such thinkers as Soren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, and Jean Paul Sartre; and from the phenomenological formulations of investigators such as Edmund Husserl, Maurice Merleau‐Ponty, and William James (Cooper, 2003; May, Ellenberger, & Angel, 1958). Phenomenology is the art and science of discovering intimate “lived” experience. While the phenomenological basis of existential psychotherapy varies some throughout the world, here our focus will be on the American perspective, which has partly drawn on humanistic psychology (Cooper, 2003).
Language Acquisition
Authors: McDonald Janet L. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractTwo basic questions in the field of language acquisition are (1) whether or not some part of language, particularly the structure of the language, is innate or whether it is all learnable from the input, and (2) whether acquisitional mechanisms are domain specific—that is, used only for language—or whether they are domain general—that is, used for learning across a variety of domains.
Occupational Health Psychology
Authors: Quick James Campbell , Casper Wendy J. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractOccupational health psychology (OHP) is an interdisciplinary specialty at the crossroads of psychology and public health within the organizational context of work environments. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1974 established that employees in the United States should have a safe and healthy work environment. Similar legislation has been enacted in The Netherlands, Sweden, and the European Union. OHP applies several specialties within psychology to organizational settings for the improvement of the quality of work life, the protection and safety of workers, and promotion of healthy work environments.
Measurement of varus/valgus alignment in obese individuals with knee osteoarthritis
Authors: Gibson Kyle , Sayers Stephen P. , Minor Marian A. 
Published: January 2010

AbstractObjectiveFrontal plane knee malalignment may increase progression of knee osteoarthritis (OA) and hasten functional decline. An accurate nonradiographic measure of knee alignment is necessary because the gold standard measure, the long‐leg radiograph, is costly and often unavailable. Moreover, nonradiographic measures of knee alignment have not been validated in an obese population, where knee OA is common. The purpose of this study was to develop and assess the concurrent validity and reliability of a nonradiographic measure of frontal plane knee alignment and demonstrate the accuracy of the measure in an obese population.MethodsFifty‐five subjects (41 women, 14 men; mean ± SD age 62.9 ± 10.3 years) with knee OA were examined. A nonradiographic measure (umbilical method) of frontal plane alignment, using the landmarks of the umbilicus, knee, and ankle, was compared with the radiograph gold standard. Statistical significance was accepted at P < 0.05.ResultsEighty‐nine percent of the participants had a body mass index (BMI) placing them in the overweight or obese category (mean ± SD BMI for all subjects 31.3 ± 6.1 kg/m2). Radiographic measures of alignment ranged from 9.1° valgus to 14.3° varus (76% of the participants had varus alignment, 12% had valgus alignment, and 2% had neutral alignment). Umbilical measures ranged from 1° valgus to 21° varus. The umbilical measure was significantly correlated with the radiographic method (r = 0.75, P < 0.001). The error of the umbilical measure was not significantly correlated with the BMI (r = −0.21, P = 0.13).ConclusionThe umbilical method of assessing frontal plane knee alignment is a valid surrogate for the radiographic gold standard and retains its accuracy in an obese population.