bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Kinetic Equations
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter derives the kinetic equations for the two-component distribution function in a gauge-invariant form. The collision integrals for interaction of excitations with impurities, phonons, and with each other are written down. The gauge-invariant expressions for electron density, electric current, heat current, and order parameter are obtained. Kinetic equations for dirty superconductors are derived. Heat conduction in superconducting state is considered.
Vortex Dynamics in Dirty Superconductors
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The force exerted on a vortex from the environment is derived microscopically using the quasiclassical Green function formalism. The kinetic equation is solved for the distribution function of excitations driven out of equilibrium by the moving vortex. The flux flow conductivity in a dirty superconductor is calculated. The vortex viscosity appears to be much larger than what is predicted by the conventional TDGL model. The flux-flow conductivity is discussed as a function of temperature and the kinetic parameters.
Mean-Field Theory of Phase Transitions
Authors: Nishimori Hidetoshi 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Methods of statistical mechanics have been enormously successful in clarifying the macroscopic properties of many-body systems. Typical examples are found in magnetic systems, which have been a test bed for a variety of techniques. This chapter introduces the Ising model of magnetic systems and explains its mean-field treatment, a very useful technique of analysis of many-body systems by statistical mechanics. Mean-field theory explained here forms the basis of the methods used repeatedly throughout this book. The arguments in the present chapter represent a general mean-field theory of phase transitions in the Ising model with uniform ferromagnetic interactions. Special features of spin glasses and related disordered systems are taken into account in subsequent chapters.
Image Restoration
Authors: Nishimori Hidetoshi 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The problem of statistical inference of the original image, given a noisy image, can be formulated in a similar way to error-correcting codes. By the Bayes formula, the problem reduces to a form of random spin systems, and methods of statistical mechanics apply. This chapter shows that image restoration using statistical fluctuations (finite-temperature restoration or MPM) gives a better performance than the zero-temperature MAP if we are to maximize the pixel-wise similarity of the restored image to the original image. This produces the same situation as in error-correcting codes. Mean-field treatments and the problem of parameter estimation are also discussed.
Optimization Problems
Authors: Nishimori Hidetoshi 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
A decision-making problem is often formulated as the minimization or maximization of a multivariable function, an optimization problem. This chapter shows that the methods of statistical mechanics are useful to study some types of optimization problems including the number partitioning, the graph partitioning, the knapsack problem, and the satisfiability problem. All these problems are shown to be formulated and solved using the theory of spin glasses, in particular the replica method. Then, discussions are continued on the mathematical properties of simulated annealing, an approximate numerical method for generic optimization problems.
Bimolecular reactions, dynamics of collisions
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y. 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses the dynamics of bimolecular collisions within the framework of (quasi-)classical mechanics as well as quantum mechanics. The relation between the cross-section and the reaction probability, which can be calculated theoretically from a (quasi-)classical or quantum mechanical description of the collision, is described in terms of classical trajectories and wave packets, respectively. As an introduction to reactive scattering, classical two-body scattering is described and used to formulate simple models for chemical reactions, based on reasonable assumptions for the reaction probability. Three-body (and many-body) quasi-classical scattering is formulated and the numerical evaluation of the reaction probability is described. The relation between scattering angles and differential cross-sections in various frames is emphasized. The chapter concludes with a brief description of non-adiabatic dynamics, that is, situations beyond the Born–Oppenheimer approximation where more than one electronic state is in play. A discussion of the so-called Landau–Zener model is included.
The Early Latin Verb System
Authors: de Melo Wolfgang David Cirilo 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Early Latin has archaic futures like faxō ‘I shall do’, archaic subjunctives like faxim I may do’, duim ‘I may give’, or attigās ‘you may touch’, and archaic infinitives like impetrāssere ‘to achieve’. These forms are already quite rare in Plautus; a generation later, in Terence, they are almost non-existent. This study focuses on such forms from a synchronic perspective. It examines their meaning, distribution over clause types, register, and productivity. In order to reach reliable conclusions, the book looks at the usage of ‘regular’ futures, subjunctives, and infinitives in the early period. Thus, morphosyntactic phenomena such as the sequence of tenses and the use of subjunctives in prohibitions are examined and compared with classical practice. The work contains diachronic elements as well. Not only does it discuss the reconstruction of elements of the Proto-Italic and Proto-Indo-European verb systems, but it also shows the patterns by which archaic forms were lost in classical and later Latin.
The Type attigās in Archaic Latin
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Subjunctives of the type attigās clearly have old aorist stems, but the origin of the subjunctive morpheme remains unclear. As with the other extra-paradigmatic subjunctives the meaning is always non-past. Again we find the same restrictions of use: absence in commands and ut-clauses, but high frequency in prohibitions and subordinate nē-clauses. Like most other archaic forms they belong to an elevated register.
Organizing the Space of Knowledge
Authors: Jenkins Alice 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Landscape metaphors tended to figure knowledge as an immense tract of country through which hardy and determined learners must struggle. But many efforts were made in the early 19th century to picture knowledge as a harmonious, balanced system, which could be mastered more gently, often simply by detached observation, and in these attempts too spatial models were widely and variously deployed. This chapter discusses some contemporary attempts to construct a model for laying out knowledge in comprehensible patterns. Opening and closing with a reminder via Middlemarch of some of the practical and ethical issues involved in organizing knowledge, the chapter moves on to use readings of Wordsworth's Guide through the Lakes and Coleridge's Biographia Literaria to highlight different ways of imagining knowledge as a visual spatial pattern. It focuses on the hub-and-ray pattern, where the observer is placed at the centre of a series of radiating lines each formed by items of knowledge, and the aerial view, which locates the observer high above an array of information which can have a more random distribution. Each model constructs a different power relationship between the observer and the knowledge spread below or around him. Radically differently from the landscape images in Chapter 1, though, all these models aspire to present knowledge in an atemporal form — to arrange it in such a way that no time is taken in assimilating it. These models respond to the challenge from mass education by trying to take the narrative out of knowledge and to render it as dehumanized pure form.
Disciplinary Boundaries and Border Disputes
Authors: Jenkins Alice 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter focuses on debates about the construction of boundaries between scientific disciplines in the period. Even as the physical sciences were rapidly separating into disciplines, each with its own dialect and infrastructure, voices were being raised against the process. One powerful objection to specialization was the early 19th-century sense that nature constituted a single uniform field, governed by a very small number of universal laws. Carving science up into artificial disciplinary areas ran counter to the way nature itself worked. A further objection to disciplinization was that specialisms meant exclusivity and yet it was vital to keep the educated general reader abreast of the new scientific knowledge and alive to the growing confidence of scientific claims to cultural authority. The chapter shows how geographical imagery was used in this argument, with rhetoric based on borders, battlefields, nations, and kingdoms widely deployed to increase the emotional pressure on both sides.
Aspiring to the Abstract: Pure Space and Geometry
Authors: Jenkins Alice 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter argues that geometry carried profound cultural significance for the early 19th century by representing space in its purest form. Geometry offered access to space set free from the clumsiness and limitation of human perception. Geometry's space of pure thought gave the most certain and secure rational knowledge possible and was used as a yardstick for other claims to truth and universality. Euclidean geometry had traditionally enjoyed enormously high prestige as the foundation not only for a scientific education but for any kind of systematic thought. Its authority was appropriated by many other discourses claiming cultural power. But by the early 19th century cracks were appearing in its status as groups with no geometrical training and no belief in its relevance to their educational needs denounced its prestige as a repressive outdated shibboleth. Even much more moderate writers, with vested interests in retaining geometry and other kinds of mathematical education at the heart of the British elite educational system, offered suggestions for reforming its teaching, and for making it more usefully applicable to the needs of industrial and technological workers. Geometry was the unlikely locus of important struggles in the class politics of education in the early 19th century: at stake was the privileging of ideal over actual space, and of abstract over practical science. Readings of contemporary writing on geometry are interwoven in this chapter with a study of Victorian geometry textbooks for both elite and artisan readers.
Chaos, the Void, and Poetry
Authors: Jenkins Alice 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Previous chapters have explored ways in which early 19th-century writers valorized space as a fundamental of science, as a transcendental abstraction, and as a unified, homogeneous field which underlies the fragmentation of disciplinary formation. This chapter shifts the focus from space as reliable, ordered, and ideal to space as random, unstable, and chaotic. With this shift we move from science to pseudo-science, and from non-fiction prose to poetry — albeit a kind of poetry that has never had a place in the critical canon.
Stochastic Dynamics In Hilbert Space
Authors: Breuer Heinz-Peter , Petruccione Francesco 
Published: January 2010

AbstractThis chapter contains the foundations of the stochastic formulation of continuous measurements carried out on an open quantum system. It shows that the time evolution of the state vector, conditioned on the measurement record, is given by a piecewise deterministic process in Hilbert space involving continuous time-evolution periods which are broken by randomly occurring, sudden quantum jumps. This so-called unravelling of the quantum master equation in the form of a stochastic process is based on a close relation between quantum dynamical semigroups and piecewise deterministic processes. The general theory is illustrated by means of a number of examples, such as direct, homodyne, and heterodyne photodetection. The chapter also treats the corresponding description of continuous measurements through stochastic Schr ö dinger equations and stochastic differential equations for the density matrix, as well as the stochastic representation of multitime correlations functions.
The Bridges of Medieval England
Authors: Harrison David 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Medieval bridges are remarkable achievements of design and engineering comparable with the great cathedrals of the period, and are also proof of the great importance of road transport in the middle ages, and of the size and sophistication of the medieval economy. This book rewrites their history from early Anglo-Saxon England right up to the Industrial Revolution, providing insights into many aspects of the subject. Looking at the role of bridges in the creation of a new road system, which was significantly different from its Roman predecessor and which largely survived until the 20th century, the book examines their design. Often built in the most difficult circumstances — broad flood plains, deep tidal waters, and steep upland valleys — these bridges withstood all but the most catastrophic floods. The book also investigates the immense efforts put into their construction and upkeep, ranging from the mobilisation of large work forces by the old English state to the role of resident hermits and the charitable donations which produced bridge trusts with huge incomes. The evidence presented in this book shows that the network of bridges, which had been in place since the 13th century, was capable of serving the needs of the economy on the eve of the Industrial Revolution. This has profound implications for our understanding of pre-industrial society, challenging accepted accounts of the development of medieval trade and communications, and bringing to the fore the continuities from the late Anglo-Saxon period to the 18th century.
Change: 400–1250
Authors: HARRISON DAVID 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
If the situation on the Great Ouse and the Thames is representative of most of the rest of England — and it is likely that it is — it follows that the bulk of the pre-industrial bridge network had been built by the first half of the 13th century. This means that most of the bridges standing in 1750 were on the site of a bridge constructed before 1250. A network of bridges replaced fords and ferries as the main river crossings, and many of these new bridges were on different sites from those of the Roman river crossings. Together with major new centres, they were the focal points of a new road system which was significantly different from the Roman network. By the first half of the 14th century, the new road system can be seen in considerable detail, but it is likely that it had been established centuries earlier.
Keeping the Bridge Network in Use
Authors: HARRISON DAVID 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
It was one thing for skilled masons and carpenters to build an extensive network of well-designed, mostly stone bridges, and another to ensure that they remained in use. According to the traditional view, this was not possible. Documentary evidence suggests that medieval bridges were so often unsafe and so commonly left in disrepair that a ferry may have been regarded as safer and more reliable. This means that a fortune would be spent on constructing bridges, but that effort would be not put into maintaining and repairing them. The evidence supports the contrary view: through the power of the state and the self-interest, generosity, and enterprise of many individuals, vast resources were mobilised for the upkeep of bridges. As a result, the network of bridges was kept open to travellers. Most bridges at most times remained in use.
Funding Mechanisms
Authors: HARRISON DAVID 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The bulk of the information available about bridges in England in the thousand years from the mid-8th to the mid-18th century relates to the efforts made to maintain and repair them. By the later middle ages, the repair of bridges was financed and organised in a variety of ways. Three main methods of funding bridge construction and maintenance are apparent. The first, wide category consists of methods involving state compulsion. The second method was the imposition of a toll on those crossing the bridge. Finally, the task could be left to private contributions. All general works on medieval bridges give examples of these methods of funding, but there has been no comprehensive consideration. Nor has there has been any attempt to assess the relative contribution each made to keeping the large network of bridges in repair, and how and why it changed over time.
Our Towns
Authors: Hinton James 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter returns to the wider female associational world, examining attempts to consolidate women's organizations around a non-partisan reformist agenda which reflected their conviction that, however extensively the state might or indeed should intervene, ongoing social problems would continue to provide fertile soil for middle-class social leadership. It examines the Women's Group on Public Welfare and its 1943 study of urban poverty, Our Towns; the local co-ordination of the women's movement through Standing Conferences of Women's Organisations; the role of the Townswomen's Guilds and the Soroptimists in these developments; and the limited wartime revival of feminism and efforts to promote independent women candidates in local elections. The ambition and self-assertiveness of this non-partisan feminine reformism was limited both by the inability of women to take on the male-dominated power of the political parties, and by the growing marginalization of philanthropic forms of authority as social work became increasingly professionalized in the welfare state.
Incorporation through Interpretation
Authors: Campbell Tom 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) is widely regarded as a characteristically British compromise between giving human rights more weight in the United Kingdom polity and preserving the constitutional primacy of the House of Commons. Thus, the HRA gives the higher courts the power to declare an act of Parliament to be incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights, but not to render it invalid. Only Parliament can change its own legislation, while courts, along with other ‘public authorities’, cannot override statutory law to achieve such objectives. This chapter argues that the impact of the HRA will severely diminish the effective authority of elected representatives of the British people. The HRA allows an open-ended amount of judicial activism that has the potential to remove control over a broad range of issues from the domain of ordinary, non-legal politics. This chapter also looks at issues surrounding judicial review of legislation on the basis of bills of rights and how its proponents have developed the idea of what counts as legal interpretation.
Human Rights in a Postnational Order: Reconciling Political and Constitutional Pluralism
Authors: Walker Neil 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter looks at the overall significance of human rights developments in the European Union (EU) domain for the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) of the United Kingdom. It argues that those who retain a healthy scepticism (rather than cynicism) about the beneficial consequences of the implementation of the HRA, and the possible hardening of its strong principle of favourable interpretation towards the European Convention on Human Rights catalogue, its judicial declaratory power of incompatibility, and its monitoring of executive and parliamentary prior compliance into a de facto system of domestic entrenchment, cannot afford to disregard the EU dimension. The development of the EU as a higher tier of government, with its own claims to democratic legitimacy, disturbs some of the empirical premises of this key aspect of the sceptic's argument. This chapter discusses the democratic critique of rights' constitutionalism, reconciliation of political and constitutional pluralism, and arguments in favour of reconciliation between democracy and rights constitutionalism in the European context.
Scepticism under Scrutiny: Labour Law and Human Rights
Authors: Fredman Sandra 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
Labour lawyers in the United Kingdom have been understandably sceptical of the role of the judiciary in the field of labour law. This chapter asks whether it is possible to construct rights so as to further rather than undermine the aims of social democracy. It uses the insights of the sceptical approach to move through scepticism towards a possible reconstruction of human rights in a social democratic context. First, the foundations of the scepticism of the role of human rights in the labour law context are considered. Surprisingly, even the most sceptical of social democratic labour lawyers believe strongly in the value of the International Labour Organisation. The Human Rights Act 1998 has begun to construct a framework for constraining the judiciary, both in respect of codification of rights and by giving Parliament the prime responsibility for protecting human rights, both in the original process of legislation and in having the final word on the matter.
Discrimination Law and the Human Rights Act 1998
Authors: McColgan Aileen 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
The Human Rights Act 1998 incorporates into British Law Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), which provides that ‘the enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this Convention shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status’. Article 14 has been widely, and rightly, criticised for its parasitic nature, the ECHR containing no free-standing prohibition on discrimination. This chapter examines the implications of incorporation of Article 14 for discrimination law in the United Kingdom. Currently, statute regulates discrimination on grounds of sex (including gender reassignment); race; disability; and (in Northern Ireland alone) religion and political opinion. In addition, specific statutory prohibitions are imposed in relation to some forms of work-related discrimination on grounds of trade union membership, enforcement of employment rights, etc. Discrimination on grounds of political or other opinion, social origin, property, birth, or other status is not generally prohibited.
Cue-Based Change: Inflection and Subjects in the History of Portuguese Infinitives
Authors: Pires Acrisio 
Published: January 2010

Abstract
This chapter analyzes two major instances of morphological change with syntactic effects in the behaviour of infinitives in Portuguese, and proposes an account for these changes in terms of a theory of acquisition that emphasizes the interaction between properties of Universal Grammar and the primary linguistic data. First, it discusses the origin of inflected infinitives in Old Portuguese and provides a new argument supporting one of the two major proposals for their origin, which argues that inflected infinitives developed from a previously finite verb form, and not from uninflected infinitives. Second, it analyzes the syntactic effects of the loss of inflected infinitives in contemporary colloquial Brazilian Portuguese, explaining why the loss of verbal inflection blocked the licensing of pro but not of overt subjects.