bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
FMS Airline Experience to date
Authors: Guest T. C. R. 
Published: November 2009

The term flight management system (or FMCS, flight management computer system) is used to cover some equipment types which have been coming into service in recent years. In this context, it is taken to mean a system for handling horizontal and vertical navigation by various means (as distinct from purely performance management systems).Such an FMS consists of a computer or computers fed by data from a variety of services, and outputting information and control signals. In horizontal navigation, inputs may be inertial sensors and/or ground-based radio navigation facilities. For performance optimization, data are fed from a number of aircraft systems. This type of system is capable of independently computing several parameters and ‘pooling’ their information to provide a ‘best estimate’. Cockpit information in INS configuration is confined to specific digital displays and data input is, in the main, manual and limited to numerics. FMS goes a number of stages further and provides ‘pre-loaded’ storage of navigational information, and the ability to gain access to this information through an alphanumeric keyboard. It also handles, either directly or through a thrust management computer, the vertical profile of the flight. This includes both climb and descent, and cruise control.
Secondary Radar for Vessel Traffic Services
Authors: McGeoch Ian 
Published: November 2009

The second half of the present century has witnessed the advent of intensified conflict of sea-use. The elements of this are well known: expanding international trade, carried in more numerous, often larger, and faster ships; the exploitation of oil and gas deposits under the sea bed; and always the fisheries, life-support of much of the still increasing population of the world.The particular aspect of sea-use conflict which the establishment of Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) is intended to resolve is that arising from the concentration of shipping in the approaches to great ports, and in straits. The protagonists in this conflict are, on the one hand, any authority on shore which, with or without the sanction of international agreement, seeks to impose order upon the flow of vessel traffic, and on the other, the masters of vessels, each of whom is responsible ‘under God’ for the safe navigation of his ship. The pilot, as professional adviser to both the protagonists is now acquiring a new responsibility as ‘ honest broker’ between the ship master and the port authority. Indeed, it would accord with this role if the pilot were to be paid, in some proportion, by the port authority as well as by the shipowner. Be that as it may, since the establishment in 1948, at Liverpool, of the world's first port radar station, it could be said that experience has confirmed that by far the most important features of a Vessel Traffic Service are its radar coverage, which provides ‘the authority’ with an overview of all traffic in the area of responsibility; and the v.h.f. radio network for voice communication with the pilots, shipmasters, tugmasters and other individuals directly concerned with the operation of the port. It is a curious fact that, so far, there has been no concerted move to introduce the technological device required to enable the port operator to correlate an echo on his radar display with its corresponding identity and hence, radio call sign. It is the aim of this paper to compare the existing means of identification and recognition of radar contacts in a VTS with what is technically and economically feasible; to determine the operational requirement; and to set out the characteristics of a system which would meet the requirement.
Safety Standards for a 22-metre Deep-draught Route
Authors: van Riet J. A. , Kaspers J. , Buis B. 
Published: November 2009

The design of a route through Dover Strait to Europoort for very large carriers (VLCs) with a draught of up to 22 metres is described. The results are compared with established international safety criteria. A number of subjects for further study by institutes of navigation are mentioned. Van Riet (DG Shipping and Maritime Affairs), Kaspers (Public Works, North Sea Directorate) and Buis (Hydrographic Service, Royal Navy) participated in this design process. The views expressed, however, are those of the authors and not necessarily those of their organizations.Since 1974 deep-draught ships of up to 20·70 metres (68 feet) have been navigating the English Channel and the Dover Strait with destination Europoort in the Netherlands. To a lesser extent ships with these large draughts have been passing through the Strait with destinations in Scandinavian countries.
User Charges for Marine Aids to Navigation
Authors: Matthews N. F. 
Published: November 2009

When considering user charges for the provision and maintenance of marine aids to navigation, it must be recognized that the basis on which they are calculated and levied is to a large extent due to historical accident. There is no internationally recognised system for levying these dues and every country has its own ideas as to how much money, if any, should be raised by this means.User charges paid by shipping for marine aids to navigation normally fall into two categories. First there are national charges which go towards the running of the national lighthouse authority, either in whole, or in part. Such charges are referred to in this paper as ‘light dues’.
Statistics of Collisions at Sea
Authors: Cockcroft A. N. 
Published: November 2009

In this paper, which was read at an Institute meeting in London on 11 February 1976 with Mrs. Mary Pera in the Chair, Captain Cockcroft examines the incidence of collisions in relation to the numbers and classes of ships at risk and their trends, pre-war and post-war. Total and partial losses are included and compared with other forms of loss, e.g. strandings.In several previous papers statistics of marine collisions have been given for particular areas such as the Dover Strait, Western European rivers, the Baltic Sea and Japanese waters. This paper is concerned with worldwide statistics with particular reference to sea collisions. The information is mainly derived from the Statistical Tables published by Lloyd's Register of Shipping and from the casualty reports compiled by the Corporation of Lloyd's. Statistics of shipping casualties must obviously be related to the number or tonnage of vessels at risk; for insurance purposes loss ratios are usually expressed in terms of tonnage lost to tonnage afloat but navigators are more concerned with the number of casualties and number of vessels at risk in various categories.
A Marine Electrical Analog-type Dead Reckoning Computer
Authors: Gatehouse R. N. B. 
Published: November 2009

The device described, which is in prototype form, accepts ship's speed from the Harrier electronic log and heading data from the Halcyon transmitting compass and continuously displays the north–south and east–west components of the water distance traversed from a starting position. It is a development of the Hadrian distance-offtrack computer which, with the Harrier log, has been described in a previous article published in this Journal.The Sensors. Harrier is a through-hull impeller-type electronic log which records distance run in steps of 0·01 n.m. on an electromagnetic counter and indicates speed on a suitably calibrated milliammeter. Halcyon is a recent development, being a two-axis fluxgate transmitting compass which senses the Earth's magnetic field directly, thus avoiding the major problems associated with the use of pivoted magnetic systems in fast power vessels. The two rectilinear fluxgates are mutually perpendicular and are pendulously mounted with their axes in the horizontal plane. Viscous damping prevents their oscillating when subjected to vibration and shock. The outputs of the compass circuits are two d.c. analog signals which represent in magnitude and sign, the sine and cosine of the heading angle respectively.
Optoelectronic Displays
Authors: Ellis Brian 
Published: November 2009

With the ever increasing information rates characteristic of modern electronic systems it is not surprising that display technology is one of the most vigorous fields of current research. A wide variety of phenomena is being exploited in order to produce displays suitable for a diversity of applications. This paper, which was presented at a meeting of the Institute in London on 17 December 1975, with Captain B. J. Calverb in the Chair, reviews recent developments in both emissive and passive displays, emphasizing the advantages of alternative types for particular applications.Man's knowledge of the world in which he lives is steadily increasing and, compounded with a rapidly increasing capacity for communication, this leads to a need for new means of displaying the available information. The development of computers further increases this requirement since they make large quantities of information quickly accessible. It is to be expected that in many situations, where formerly the printed page or spoken word would at best have been the only practical possibilities, the advantages offered by modern electronic displays will increasingly be appreciated. In both civil and military applications it is clear for example that much information transmitted at present by letter could be better sent telegraphically, once suitably convenient displays are available; the need for ‘hard copy’ can be met where required. Considerable savings in time and convenience, not to mention paper, could clearly be made.
Automatic Radar Plotters: the Importance of the Future Position Control
Authors: Wylie F. J. 
Published: November 2009

Anyone who has read articles by the present writer about automatic radar plotters but has not handled at sea one of those systems in which the vector lengths are time-correlated and have a fine (minute-by-minute) adjustment, might think that they tend to exaggerate its importance as an aid to realistic and rapid appraisal. I hope that the pictorial presentation which follows may serve to reverse such opinions even though, with still pictures, it is difficult to create the sense of a continuous and rapid series of brief manual movements and mental assessments.Far from needing elimination, as suggested by Riggs (Journal, 28, 143), the rapidly extensible vectors lend apparent acceleration to the radar picture, which always changes so slowly on the PPI, and thus convey with verisimilitude a sense of the predicted movement of the entire complement of echoes in their proper mutual relationship. Further, in situations demanding particular care or perhaps a change of course or speed, they can be used to give a rapid forecast of the probable duration of the emergency.
The Role of Time in Navigation
Authors: Stratton A. 
Published: November 2009

Time is so much a part of everyday experience that no thought is normally given to the meaning of the word. The scientific measurement of a quantity such as time, however, requires the definition of a gauge as a standard of measurement that is reasonably invariant to human experience and the creation of a measurement language capable of independent empirical reproduction so that one laboratory can share experience with another using only a written language to do so.Time as a means of scientific measurement for navigation requires a further extension of this experience to independent reproduction on a moving craft.
Collision Avoidance Manoeuvres in Restricted Visibility
Authors: Barratt M. J. 
Published: November 2009

Circumstances of collision. Over a fourteen-year period more than 80 per cent of all collisions in the Dover Strait occurred in reduced visibility. The majority of the ships concerned were carrying radar, so a possible inference is that the information available from this source is less effective than direct vision in successfully resolving close-quarters situations. The introduction of the Imco recommended routing scheme, the support measures mounted from the two sides of the Channel and sustained improvements in navigation have together led to a significant reduction in the number of collisions in poor visibility. However the risks, though reduced, remain higher than in good visibility.The circumstances leading to collision are very rarely known reliably or in any detail, but such facts as are known can be helpful if treated with caution. Reference 1 gives details of manoeuvres preceding 47 collisions, nearly all in fog, where helm orders were noted in crew reports (Table 1). About three-quarters of these collisions (and of collisions as a whole) occurred when ships were on opposing courses, as defined by their ports of call.
Navigation and the Schools: I.
Authors: Anderson E. W. 
Published: November 2009

On 29 October 1969, taking the chair at a Duke of Edinburgh Lecture, the great educator Lord Butler commented, ‘…in my view, it would do a great deal of good if navigation could be considered an educational subject’. Indeed, we know that by 1700 the discipline was being taught in ordinary schools in this country, and it is perhaps worth repeating Isaac Newton's remarks on the Christ's Hospital syllabus: ‘he that is able to argue nimbly and judiciously about figure, force and motion is never at rest until he gets over every rub’.The inclusion of navigation in the curricula of schools during the 17th century was for financial rather than for educative reasons. In those days, the master of a ship was responsible for its navigation and invariably had a stake in the marine enterprise. Thus he might make a small fortune in a single voyage. By 1800, the introduction of the limited liability shipping company and the growth of marine insurance were beginning to relegate the captain to the status of a hired servant paid the minimum wage. Navigation rapidly disappeared from ordinary schools and was taught only in the specialized nautical establishments. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that today, the mariner, the submariner, the pilot and the astronaut have restored to the subject its original lustre and the yachting explosion has given the discipline a wide appeal.
Traffic Control in Separation Schemes
Authors: Filipowicz Włodzimierz 
Published: November 2009

The paper deals with the formulation and analysis of the problem of ship's traffic control in separation schemes. The branch and bound procedure has been used for optimal solution of the problem. The proof for a possible computational process is given together with the results of a numerical example.In view of the rapid development of the world merchant fleet the problem of safety at sea appears now as neither fully defined nor sufficiently analysed. Some measures and partial solutions to improve the safety of sea traffic have been suggested and implemented, e.g. in papers by Ciletti and Glas. As examples of such implementation one can mention traffic lanes, the calculation of separation-scheme optimal crossing angles, etc. In areas with heavy traffic where either natural constraints such as islands, submerged obstacles or traditional routes exist, all the separation lanes create sophisticated systems called traffic separation schemes. Many steps now being taken to improve safety of navigation are based essentially on traffic separation. Some innovations and improvements in designing the structures of the separation schemes must be taken into account. It seems that all such passive measures will be efficient up to natural limits connected with the magnitude of the traffic flow. In heavy traffic the author believes active control should be established.
Fully-Automated, Pilot-Monitored Air Traffic Control
Authors: Ford R. L. 
Published: November 2009

A recently completed preliminary long-term study of air traffic control systems in Europe1 suggests that traffic density is likely at least to double before the end of the century. The study also concludes that, apart from the problem of airport capacity, which was not considered, the existing ATC systems in Europe will not be able to cope with such an increase in traffic. There is therefore a need to consider methods of increasing the capacity of the European ATC system or providing a new system and, in view of the time required to effect significant changes to such systems, the task is becoming urgent.Assumingthere is to be no deterioration insafety, theprime requirements for any proposed changes are economy and flexibility. Apart from its obvious intrinsic value, economy is necessary because there is an increasing trend towards recovering the total cost of ATC from the user. Higher charges are therefore likely to stultify the growth in air transport and an underlying assumption is that this would be undesirable. Flexibility is required because traffic forecasts so far into the future are likely to be in error and the system design must allow for this because there is likely to be some economic penalty if the forecast proves to be either too high or too low.
Collision Risks for Fixed Off-Shore Structures
Authors: Goodwin E. M. , Kemp J. F. 
Published: November 2009

The presence of any structure in the sea is a potential hazard to shipping navigating in its vicinity. It is therefore of considerable interest both to mariners and to engineers placing structures such as oil platforms in the sea to try to assess the attendant risk of collision, with such a structure.We have over a period of time attempted several methods of assessing these risks and it was felt important to link this with our work on marine traffic flows, as experience of the traffic patterns in the southern North Sea was a useful input to the study. Hence we considered an area in the southern North Sea, to the eastwards of the outer Thames Estuary as far as the Middlebank and between the parallels of 51° 08´N and 52° 15´N, since we wished to look at the offshore situation; the area is nowhere less than 3 miles from the coast.
A New Larboard Helm Rule for Power-driven Vessels
Authors: Hinsch Werner 
Published: November 2009

The steering and sailing rules are changing with the development of available sources of information. This latest development is of special interest, as radar navigation has prompted a return to the principles of the ‘Larboard Helm Rule’ -if the compass bearing of an approaching vessel does not appreciably change, each of the vessels involved shall alter course so as to place herself to the right of the line of compass bearing o t the approaching vessel’.This rule offered simple sailing instructions: each party to an encounter was required to take action. There was no stand-on vessel and no right of way. Our modern steering and sailing rules are based on the right of way of the vessel on the starboard side and this gives rise to difficulties unknown in the days of the larboard helm rule:(i) There are two vessels on collision course, one large and slow-acting, the other small and manoeuvreable; the smaller vessel can easily take avoiding action. As, however, she is approaching from starboard she is the stand-on vessel. The large vessel, though restricted in her ability to manoeuvre is thus obliged to take avoiding action.(ii) The officer on the bridge of the stand-on vessel recognizes risk of collision. The navigator on the bridge of the burdened vessel is distracted from his duty of keeping a proper look-out. Our existing rules require avoiding action on the part of the vessel that has not recognized the risk of collision.
The En Route Alternate and a Rational Basis for Contingency Fuel
Authors: Kimmins A. R. 
Published: November 2009

When airline fuel is calculated before flight, ‘contingency fuel’ has been included either separately or in combination in various forms over the years. The primary calculation has always been the fuel required in expected conditions to fly to the destination and thence to a nominated alternate. The next is the provision, in the words of the Air Navigation Order, of a ‘safe margin of fuel’ for contingencies. For aircraft operated under an Air Operator's Certificate, CAP 360 specifies ‘an allowance for contingencies such as errors in forecast winds and temperatures, navigational errors and ATC restrictions on altitude and route’. Also, ‘45 minutes holding reserve’ is stated to be a normally overriding requirement. The wording of CAP 360 is, perhaps intentionally, not precise but is broadly in line with Annex 6 of the ICAO Chicago Convention which requires:(i) a reserve ‘to provide for contingencies’ plus, for turbojet aircraft,(ii) 30 minutes' low level holding, plus(iii) an amount ‘to provide for the increased consumption on the occurrence of any of the potential contingencies specified…’
Determination of Mariners' Reaction Times
Authors: Curtis R. G. 
Published: November 2009

This account of a recent simulator experiment at the City of London Polytechnic on encounter reaction times at sea will also be published as an internal National Maritime Institute report.Two ships are said to have an encounter when they pass within a certain distance of one another, say half a mile. The encounter rate bears a relation to the collision rate in a given area of sea and consequently it is desirable to minimize the encounter rate. The effect of routing in sea areas with a high density of shipping has been to reduce the total number of encounters but to increase the number of overtakings. Thus the introduction of a routing scheme greatly increases the proportion of overtaking encounters in the main lanes. For example, the routing scheme in the Dover Strait (with I per cent of through rogues) has increased the proportion of potential overtaking encounters from 27 to 95 per cent.
Conflicts between Random Flights in a Given Area
Authors: Ratcliffe S. , Ford R. L. 
Published: November 2009

This paper, which was presented at a meeting of the Institute in London on 2o May 1981, with Captain R. Maybourn in the Chair, describes some studies of the conflicts arising between a multiplicity of aircraft in straight-line flight through a volume of airspace. Topics include the effect of coercing traffic to fly fixed routes, the direction from which a threat can be expected and the choice of alerting criterion for a groundbased advisory service or an airborne collision-warning system. There are some analogies, perhaps, with marine traffic problems.There exists, worldwide, a complex scheme for the segregation and control of various classes of air traffic. To fit into this scheme aircraft must make detours, horizontally and/or vertically, the cost of which in Europe alone must be at least £50M per annum. The cost of the rare failures in traffic management is higher still. To authors trained in electronic engineering it is therefore rather surprising that the published theory of air traffic management and control is still in a rather rudimentary form.
The Circumstances of Sea Collisions
Authors: Cockcroft A. N. 
Published: November 2009

This paper, which was originally presented at the Fourth International Symposium on Vessel Traffic Services held in Bremen from 28 to 30 April 1981, here summarizes the results of an investigation into collisions world-wide, with particular emphasis on the circumstances of collisions associated with different types of encounter for conditions of both clear and restricted visibility.Information relating to the circumstances of collisions is available from various sources but analysis of casualty information has usually been restricted to ships under one flag and been mainly applicable to accidents in restricted waters.