bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Active Attitude Control Mechanisms
Authors: Horri Nadjim M. , Palmer Phil , Giffen Alice 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
This section describes the fundamentals, operating principles, and dynamical modeling of the actuators used for active spacecraft attitude control. Magnetic torquers and thrusters are presented as a way of applying external control torques to a spacecraft to alter both attitude and momentum. Momentum exchange devices, consisting of reaction and momentum wheels and control moment gyros are then presented as means of generating internal control torques for the operational attitude control of a spacecraft. The evolution of space applications is putting increasingly stringent requirements on satellite attitude control performance, thence the increasing importance of attitude control hardware.
Aircraft Flight Regimes and Applications
Authors: Howe Denis 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
Having defined an aircraft, consideration is given to the nature of the primary forces that act on a platform in flight. The means of generating lift in the context of lighter‐than‐air craft and fixed and rotating wing platforms are discussed. The development of thrust and the associated propulsion and overall efficiencies are described as they are affected by the type of power plant employed. This enables the many classes of operational aircraft to be placed in flight regimes determined by the speed and altitude at which they fly. Comments are made on some unusual and outstanding designs. The interaction of take‐off and landing with the local environment is considered.
Re‐Entry Vehicle Flight Profiles
Authors: East Robin A. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractAn historical perspective of re‐entry issues is presented, and factors that determine the flight profiles of re‐entry vehicles are considered. An outline is given of the aerothermal environment encountered during re‐entry. Analyses of approximate equations of motion of ballistic and lifting re‐entry trajectories through an atmosphere in which the density varies exponentially are discussed. Results from these analyses demonstrate the importance of the ballistic parameterm/SCD, the lifting parameterW/SCL, and the entry angle and velocity in determining the deceleration and thermal environments during re‐entry. Quantitative results are also presented from numerical integrations of the equations of motion through a more realistic standard atmosphere model. These describe the effect of the entry angle, entry velocity, and the ballistic and lifting parameters on deceleration and maximum stagnation point heating. Outline discussions are given of the entry corridors that are accessible within the constraints of permitted decelerations and allowable heating. Various types of thermal protection systems are described that involve ablation, thermal insulation, heat conduction, and radiation, and their relevance to different types of re‐entry vehicles is considered. Consideration is also given to the effect of the vehicle environments encountered during re‐entry on the vehicle shape and design.
The Interplanetary and Planetary Environments
Authors: Garrett Henry B. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractThis chapter will focus on the interplanetary and planetary environments in which spacecraft, landers, rovers, and aerobots will have to survive as mankind explores and expands out into the solar system. Emphasis is on the expected range of magnetospheric, atmospheric, ionospheric, and dust environments that will be encountered at the planets, comets, asteroids, and the Moon and that can impact spacecraft performance. The discussion includes a description of Solar Wind, which is a primary source of many of these environments and the ‘ocean’ in which all the spacecraft must fly. The surfaces and environments of the terrestrial planets and the Moon will also be discussed.
Airframe Noise – High Lift Device Noise
Authors: Zhang Xin 
Published: December 2010

AbstractHigh lift devices, together with landing gears, are the main sources of airframe noise during the approach‐and‐landing phase of aircraft flight. Typical high lift devices include leading edge slats and trailing edge flaps. Other high‐lift‐related noise‐generating devices include spoilers if deployed during a steep approach operation. All the above aerodynamic devices are retracted during the cruise phase of aircraft operation. A slat, when deployed, forms a cove region between the slat and the central main element of the aircraft wing. Flow separation, flow recirculation, an unsteady shear layer, and slat settings together generate noise of mainly broadband content. For a flap, the outboard flap side edge and vortex system associated with it are the main sources of noise. The intensity of high lift device noise generally follows a power law of flow velocity. The main sources of noise are identified and described in this chapter. Introduction is provided concerning main semi‐empirical and computational fluid dynamics methods. Noise attenuation methods are also described.
Atmospheric Modelling
Authors: Braesicke Peter 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
This chapter describes the fundamentals of atmospheric modeling. It begins with introducing general concepts and develops these concepts in the context of numerical atmospheric models. The chapter will highlight the elementary building blocks of such models and will introduce fundamental ideas of forecast and climate models in use today. Concluding remarks looking at transport problems and how to model chemistry and aerosol physics in the atmospheric environment will close the chapter.
Aircraft Disposal and Recycling
Authors: van Heerden Derk‐Jan , Curran Ricky 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
This chapter addresses the issues surrounding the end‐of‐life for aircraft and their components, including disposal and recycling. Firstly, some definitions are considered in order to clarify the range of terminology, which is often used in an ad‐hoc manner, for example, reuse, recycling, recovery, disposal, disassembly, and dismantling. Performance measurement is also considered with indexes presented to show how recyclability and recoverability can be quantified. Subsequently, the end‐of‐life process is considered in terms of either the disassembly, dismantling, or recycling processes. This in turn leads to consideration of the treatment of the associated aircraft components, in terms of classification, commonality, component end‐of‐life, and piece parts. Finally, this chapter considers the economic aspects associated with end‐of‐life, from the point of view of the aircraft, the operator, and the market; with some attention also on aircraft parking. The conclusion summarizes some of the current and future challenges, and also considers the role of legislation and learning from other industries that are more advanced in how to cope with disposal and recycling.
Aircraft Design for Manufacture and Assembly
Authors: Eakin David 
Published: December 2010

AbstractThis chapter introduces a short review of the background to product design for manufacture and the emergence of the design for manufacture and assembly (DFMA) methodology. Experience and results from specific aircraft DFMA improvement projects are presented along with development of the synergy between DFMA, six sigma quality, and lean manufacturing for competitive aircraft production. Concluding comments describe the experience gained from these DFMA applications and the synergy with quality and lean.
Value‐Driven Manufacture: Digital Lean Manufacture
Authors: Curran R. , Butterfield J. , Jin Y. , Collins R. , Burke R. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractThe chapter presents the utilization of digital manufacture with a value‐driven Manufacture context, including the development of digital manufacturing capability for integration into the Integrated Product Process Development process. As part of the business process the key phase being addressed is the concurrent integration of manufacturing requirements at the stage when design geometry has been released. The digital manufacturing platform is used to provide simulations of the assembly process that have been developed in order provide simultaneous estimation of the associated learning curves, cycle time, recurring cost, and throughput. The integration of Lean principles at the program and functional levels will also be addressed as the Lean approach underwrites the entire program. Fundamentally, the compression of lead time, increase in value‐added effort, and reduction in waste and inefficiency are the key Lean challenges being addressed. Consequently, a Lean Implementation Methodology will be presented while the Lean characteristics of the functional development will also be highlighted. The latter also includes the Lean Flow Accounting Methodology that addresses the Lean flow of work through a plant in order to maximize value‐added effort according to a top‐down assessment of financial value and optimal throughput, thereby reducing Work In Progress.
Evolution of the Lean Enterprise System
Authors: Bozdogan Kirkor 
Published: December 2010

AbstractMany aerospace enterprises and other organizations have adopted a variety of management approaches to achieve continuous process improvement, enterprise change and transformation, such as thelean enterprise system, total quality management (TQM), theory of constraints (TOC), agile manufacturing, and business process re‐engineering (BPR). Among them, thelean enterprise system, with its origins in the Toyota Production System (TPS), comes closest to providing a holistic view of enterprises as complex socio‐technical systems embodying a mutually supportive set of precepts and practices driving enterprise operations at all levels (i.e., strategic, tactical, operational) and throughout the enterprise value stream encompassing both upstream supplier networks and downstream customer‐focused activities. Lean enterprise principles and practices have evolved over many decades through a process of experimentation, learning and adaptation. A distinction is made between thebasic lean enterprise system(BLES), capturing salient developments over the period between the late 1940s and mid‐1990s, and thecontemporary lean enterprise system(CLES), capturing major conceptual and implementation‐related extensions of the basic model since the mid‐1990s. Thelean enterprise system, as a viable framework for explaining the structure and dynamics of modern networked enterprises, for managing them, and for improving their performance through either continuous process improvement or planned systemic change and transformation, remains a work‐in‐progress.
Seaplanes and Amphibians
Authors: La Rocca Gianfranco 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
Seaplanes are fixed‐wing aircraft able to takeoff and land from water. Two main types exist, floatplanes and flying boats, the first being conventional aircraft fitted with floats instead of wheels, and the second aircraft with the fuselage partially submerged in the water to provide the main source of buoyancy, as well as pilot and payload accommodation. Floatplanes and flying boats exist in amphibian versions, fitted with landing gears for ground operations. This chapter describes this special class of aircraft, addressing both their versatility and limitations with respect to conventional ground planes. The history of seaplanes and amphibians is summarized. The most relevant aircraft and technological developments from the pioneering days up to date are highlighted. A technical section is provided addressing the main design aspects related to buoyancy and static stability, hydrodynamic efficiency and dynamic stability, water spray and loads handling. Preliminary design rules and reference to specific certification rules are provided. A brief section on seaplanes and amphibians operation is included. An overview on wing‐in‐ground effect craft is provided as well, where the peculiarities and similarities of these vehicles with respect to seaplanes and amphibians are addressed.
Airplane Performance Optimization
Authors: Visser Hendrikus.G. 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
The considerable analytical foundation and theoretical body of knowledge as well as powerful practical computer codes for flight trajectory optimization that exist today cover a hierarchy of modeling fidelity level and rigor of optimization from the very approximate and computationally inexpensive to the rigorous high‐fidelity detailed mathematical models of flight vehicles and the robust optimization techniques used to obtain the optimal trajectories such vehicles can fly. This chapter complements another chapter in the encyclopedia on general trajectory optimization (see Trajectory Optimization) by reviewing this hierarchy as applied to airplane performance optimization and by presenting examples of those techniques in approximate airplane performance optimization that have influenced operation and design over the years, including techniques based on closed form expressions for different mission segments and techniques based on transformation of state variables and associated model order reduction.
Space Stations
Authors: Messerschmid Ernst W. , Renk Florian 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
The chapter describes the history of American and Russian space stations as well as early space station concepts and the development of the ISS. The technical discussion comprises the space station configuration, the characteristic subsystems and possible utilization scenarios. It aims at outlining the differences of a large manned space system compared to unmanned satellites with respect to assembly, operation, and utilization. An emphasis will be on the treatment of the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS), since this is a subsystem specific for manned space systems. Due to the diverse products to be handled by the ECLSS the advantages of synergisms with other subsystems are discussed. The outlook will treat requirements for space stations beyond the low Earth orbit.
The Survivability Balance
Authors: MacDiarmid Ian 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
The survivability of a platform in the battlefield is based on three issues – damage avoidance, damage tolerance, and damage repair. The design of a platform, in this case an aircraft, must consider in a balanced manner all three elements in order to reduce the chances of loss of the aircraft from the battle (attrition).
Damage avoidance is in itself a balance between observability, defensive aids performance, and maneuverability and mission planning endeavors to maximize avoidance given these three performance characteristics.
There are three levels of damage of concern – fatal damage resulting in loss of the aircraft, significant damage resulting in loss of performance and possible mission abort, and slight damage amenable to rapid repair, not impacting on availability.
Systems and structures are of concern, and highly critical and integrated designs require careful consideration.
Finally, damage repair (and repairability) is a vital consideration to enable rapid but effective repairs to maintain valuable combat assets in theatre.

This chapter introduces the considerations that need to be made when considering the overall topic as a means of introducing the more detailed
Chapters of 7.6.
Life‐Cycle Engineering: Economic Theory
Authors: Hartley Keith 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
Life‐cycle engineering involves costs, which is where economists have a role. The focus is on defense aerospace projects. The phrase “life cycle” is defined, and available cost data are reviewed. There is considerable published data on development and production costs but much less on ownership costs. Sensible informed choices require accurate data on life‐cycle costs and not solely on development and production costs. Economists stress both costs and trade‐offs. The implications for procurement policy are explained including the sources of cost growth and its future impact on both defense forces and defense industries.
Modern Aircraft Flight Management Systems
Authors: Cramer Michael R. , Herndon Albert , Steinbach Daniela , Mayer Ralf H. 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
This chapter describes the components, functions, and uses of Flight Management Systems (FMS) in current day air transport, regional and business aircraft. The integrated avionics components & functionality that provide flight crews with the ability to operate an aircraft efficiently and in compliance with the requirements of the Air Navigation Service Provider (ANSP) are listed and their integration is described. The FMS functions are defined in an operational context within the airspace system to provide a better level of understanding of system functionality relative to the purpose for which the FMS was designed.
Vehicle Systems Management
Authors: Moir Ian , Seabridge Allan 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
Most, if not all, of the vehicle systems need some means of measuring and monitoring of their performance, as well as the implementation of control functions. This chapter will describe how this function evolved from many individual control units, often based on relay logic into integrated software‐driven architectures, performing many sophisticated and safety critical functions. The development of the system through a range of military and commercial aircraft types will be described and the examples given. Descriptions of the input output interfacing, data bus types, processing and memory architectures, and total system architectures will also be provided.
Transport Aircraft Aerodynamic Integration: Subsonic
Authors: Smyth Richard 
Published: December 2010

AbstractThe aerodynamic integration of the propulsion system is a key activity to ensure that the engine/aircraft combination meets the objectives and commercial guarantees of performance, economics and noise reduction of a given aircraft program. The scope of application is for externally installed propulsion systems, typical for current subsonic transport aircraft. A reliable assessment of thrust and external drag of the engine and nacelle configuration is essential early in the development phase. Methodologies, computational tools, and model tests with powered exhaust flow are available for early evaluation and later reference to flight test.
Trajectory Optimization
Authors: Rao Anil V. 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
A general overview of the topic of trajectory optimization is presented. The general trajectory optimization problem is posed, and the two broad classes of indirect and direct methods for solving trajectory optimization problems are discussed. A brief discussion is then given of well‐known software tools to solve trajectory optimization problems. Finally, a brief survey is given of famous trajectory optimization problems that have been solved in aerospace engineering.
In‐Flight Vehicle Health Management
Authors: Srivastava Ashok N. , Meyer Claudia , Mah Robert W. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractIntegrated Vehicle Health Management (IVHM) is a complex, multidisciplinary science that draws upon numerous fields including aerospace engineering, electrical engineering, computer science, mechanical engineering, statistics, and many sub‐disciplines of these fields. As operational costs rise for modern aerospace systems, health management technologies are becoming more critical from both safety and maintenance perspectives.The ultimate goal of an IVHM system is to detect, diagnose, predict, and mitigate adverse events during the operation of a system. Many traditional approaches to systems engineering break down the system into its constituent subsystems and components, each of which draws from its own scientific or engineering discipline. From a health management perspective, this is not sufficient; system‐level integration of subsystem health management capabilities is critical to the overall effectiveness of the final implementation. Moreover, the health management system design is sometimes an afterthought rather than an integral part of the design process. This can lead to a situation where appropriate sensing technologies, computational environments, and information management systems are not included in the final design.This chapter describes a systematic approach to the development of IVHM technologies and systems that emphasizes IVHM's most important goals – detection, diagnosis, prognosis, and mitigation – in a system or subsystem‐independent manner.
Cognitive Engineering and Aviation Safety
Authors: Pritchett Amy R. , Lewis David S. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractHumans are a unique and vital component of aviation that can adapt their behavior in response to new circumstances. Some aspects of human behavior, such as reaction time to clearly defined tasks, can be modeled in isolation. Other aspects can be predicted as a response to their situation, in which they will adapt to maintain “control” and achieve the desired combined system performance. Cognitive engineering is the discipline of designing complex, safety‐critical systems recognizing the need for good human performance. The design challenge is to properly enable humans' performance in situations both expected and unexpected. With the design of technology, procedures, and training to support their adaptation to the inherent dynamics of aviation operations, humans serve as the greatest contribution to safety. Conversely, in an inflexible system human dynamism becomes the source of error and faults. Thus, an important aspect of design is to both prevent predictable faults and to ensure the system has the flexibility by which humans can return things to right. This requires explicit choices in distributing responsibility for risk mitigation and safety between technology, operating procedures, and human performance, recognizing that automation brings with it risks that are increasingly difficult for human operators to handle.
Human Spaceflight Risk Management
Authors: Apt Jay 
Published: December 2010

Abstract
Deaths and close calls have occurred in both the initial development and mature operation phases of human spaceflight. The spacecraft, ground operators, flight crew, and the structure of the spaceflight organization each present opportunities for risk analysis, management, and mitigation. An understanding of the nature of problem definition and verification is required to adequately manage risks. If the formal requirements of verification of proposed solutions to design and organizational artifact construction are not understood, risks are greatly increased. Spacecraft and organizational design risk management can be addressed, but require both rigorous tools and continuous attention to both engineering and organizational behavior.
Digital Image Correlation in Experimental Mechanics for Aerospace Materials and Structures
Authors: Daly Samantha H. 
Published: December 2010

AbstractDigital Image Correlation (DIC) is a non‐contact optical method used to measure full‐field surface deformations. The technique is a fast, robust, highly scalable and accurate method for determining both the surface profile of a three‐dimensional object and the displacements (Lagrangian strains) on the surface of the object. From its inception in the early 1980s, the capabilities of computer‐based digital image correlation have grown tremendously. Since that time, it has proven to be an indispensable tool in the experimental characterization of structures and materials over a wide range of length and time scales. This chapter discusses the fundamental principles underlying the technique and its application in the experimental characterization of aerospace materials and structures.