bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The ‘Ecosystem’ Approach to Managing Human Uses and Abuses of Natural Resources in the Great Lakes Basin
Authors: Vallentyne John R. , Beeton Alfred M. 
Published: August 2009

An approach to planning, research, and management, that relates people to ecosystems of which they are part, is described and related to the Canada-United States Great Lakes Water Quality Agreements of 1972, 1978, and 1987. Factors favouring the development of an ‘ecosystem approach’ in the Great Lakes Basin include: a shared, highly valued resource; the long residence-times of ‘conservative’ pollutants in the Lakes; use of the Lakes for drinking-water supplies by c. 23 million people; threats to the integrity of the Lakes (pollution, water diversion); advances in ecosystem theory; the rise of voluntary membership associations with interests in the resource; institutional arrangements for managing nationally shared resources; and common economic ties and cultural heritages.The principal obstacle to implementation of an ‘ecosystem’ approach in the Great Lakes Basin is the lack of policies for comparable approaches in the political jurisdictions surrounding the Great Lakes. The principal obstacle to global implementation of an ‘ecosystem’ approach is the lack of international institutional arrangements for joint advice and operational capabilities in respect of the management of nationally shared resources. Another impediment is the widespread egocentricity of governments, corporations, individuals, and the general public.
Desertification or Sustainable Yields from Arid Environments
Authors: Cloudsley-Thompson John L. 
Published: August 2009

Throughout their existence, civilized peoples have been turning their environment into desert. The causes of desertification are well known—overgrazing, the felling of trees for fuel, and bad agricultural practices. Their effects are apparent in disasters such as the Sahel drought and recent famines in Ethiopia, the Sudan, and elsewhere. The population explosion enhances the extent of the environmental degradation. More agricultural land is currently being lost through salinization and waterlogging than is being created by new irrigation schemes, but this is only part of a problem that faces all tropical third-world countries and for which multinational organizations and the affluent nations of temperate regions are, regrettably and often unknowingly, largely responsible.Because the poorer countries receive, for their agricultural products, cash of which the market value does not take into account the cost to the environment of overexploiting the land, they are apparently doomed to a vicious circle of increasing poverty, deprivation, and famine. Yet it is not beyond the abilities of civilization to devise a viable scheme, based upon sound ecological principles, by which the quality of life of desert peoples could be immeasurably improved. Instead of trying to change the land to make it conform to present economic and political expectations, development should be adapted to exploit the potentialities of the environment as it exists. Such a scheme, profiting from the diversity of microenvironments that occur in desert regions, would encompass multiple land-use and the development of numerous small agricultural and other projects—rather than the large-scale schemes hitherto initiated in fragile environments, and which have so often led to large-scale disaster. By adopting it, the world would simultaneously be made both more stable and more productive for the benefit of all its inhabitants.
Tropical Deforestation and Climatic Change
Authors: Myers Norman 
Published: August 2009

As tropical forest cover is eliminated, there appear to be—despite earlier supposition to the contrary—a number of significant repercussions for climatic regimes, whether at local, regional, or even global, levels. These are manifested through disruptions of hydrological systems and precipitation patterns, through changes in albedo and associated evapotranspiration rates, and through contributions to the ‘greenhouse effect’. Certain of these processes are well established scientifically, whereas others remain speculative pending urgently-needed research.This exploratory paper reviews some of the ecological linkages at work in the above super-serious circumstances. Further, it assesses the profound consequences that may arise for major development sectors such as agriculture, energy, and human settlements. It concludes with a short appraisal of some policy responses available, though here again choices for adoption should be based on the results of far more scientific research and allied investigation than has yet resulted in reliable knowledge.
The Greening of Estonia
Authors: Westing Arthur H. 
Published: August 2009

The environment and natural resources of Estonia (area 45,000 km2, population c. 1.5 million) are described: Estonia is a flat country of which 40% is forested (managed on a sustained-yield basis), 20% is covered by peat bogs (widely cut for agricultural purposes and fuel), and 22% is under cultivation, often on drained land (largely growing grain for livestock). Rich deposits of oil-shale (used for fuel, etc.) and phosphorite (used for fertilizer, etc.) are exploited, especially in the north-east. Both of these resources are to a large extent strip-mined, causing enormous local surface disruption and more widespread water and air pollution— especially so in the case of the phosphorite extraction. Estonia has, however, recently been able to prevent a planned expansion of phosphorite exploitation.About 3% of Estonia is set aside as Nature reserves, including some wetlands of international importance. Environmental protection is an important item on Estonia's agenda; the prognosis is quite favourable, not only because of a commendable population density, but also in large part (as there is considerable evidence to suggest) because the population has a keenly-developed Nature ethic of long standing.
Classical Biological Control and Insect Conservation: Are They Compatible?
Authors: Samways Michael J. 
Published: August 2009

Exotic insect pests worldwide are many. They are accidental biotic contaminants. Classical biological control (CBC) agents can be considered as deliberately introduced biotic contaminants that, when successful, reduce the overall biomass of contamination and often bring considerable self-sustaining economic relief to farming communites.Although the introduction of exotic agents would seem to be contrary to conservation philosophy, there are no quantified instances to date where the introduction of arthropod agents has been shown to have harmed a specific conservation programme or has been categorically damaging to native fauna. There is only limited anecdotal evidence that introduced parasitoids may have damaged certain specific native taxa. CBC in some cases actually assists conservation by reducing the level of exotic pests in nature reserves.As CBC is an important socio-economic method of pest control, especially for tropical farmers, and as the taxonomic groups and life-histories of its targets are so different from those insects of endangered status, the two approaches are not in conflict. But as CBC is virtually irretrievable, it must continue to be carried out carefully and selectively only by truly responsible CBC agencies using appropriate quarantine facilities.Tourists and general travellers pose a greater threat to native faunas than do the activities of such CBC agencies. It is well known that vertebrate agents and certain invertebrates, especially snails, can be devastating to certain native biotas. Additionally, and in view of the impending world-wide biotic diversity crisis, even traditional agents such as insect pathogens, insect parasitoids, and insect and mite predators, should be viewed with extreme caution—especially when oligophagous, and unquestionably when polyphagous.
Empirical Evidence for the Effect of Tropical Deforestation on Climatic Change
Authors: Clark Colin 
Published: August 2009

If large areas of tropical rain-forest are replaced by grassland, there is likely to be about 300 mm less evapo-transpiration and 650–800 mm less rainfall during each year in these areas than is currently experienced. Lower rates of evapotranspiration will allow more energy to be used for sensible heat, and this will lead to surface air temperatures that are higher than currently by about 3°C. Reduced cloud-cover will also lead to even higher temperatures, because clouds have a net cooling effect. When this additional heat is combined with the extrasensible heating, the overall effect is expected to be a rise in temperature of about 4–5°C.These contentions are based upon data obtained from ‘natural experiments’. They have given results which suggest that tropical deforestation will have a larger effect on temperature than was hitherto expected, and that the effect on both temperature and rainfall will be more widespread than has been expected hitherto. The effects on global climate cannot as yet be determined by a ‘natural experiment’.The removal of so much of the tropical rain-forest as is now projected will have such a dramatic effect on local and even wider climate that no further replacement of the rain-forest ecocomplex by others or other land-uses should be allowed to take place.
Environmental Implications of Aquarium-fish Collection in the Maldives, with Proposals for Regulation
Authors: Edwards Alasdair J. , Shepherd Alec Dawson 
Published: August 2009

Export of aquarium-fish from the Maldives began in 1980 and in 1989 almost 54,000 marine fishes, worth approximately US$ 130,000, were exported. The collection of aquarium species is confined to a relatively small area around the capital island, Malé. Estimates of annual exports of 95 species were obtained by examining packing-lists held by Maldivian Customs. In parallel, the population densities of about 70 aquarium-fish species were estimated by visual assessment. Using a number of assumptions, potential (maximum sustainable) yields for 65 of these species — those for which export data were available — were estimated for the area (530 km2) within a 13-km radius (one hour's journey by local boat) of Malé.For 27 species there were some reasons for concern about the levels of exploitation, although only 12 of these species appeared to be ‘at risk’ in 1986 (the year of highest exploitation). If the assumptions made in estimating potential sustainable yields were valid, these 12 aquarium-fish species were being overexploited or exploited at levels close to maximum sustainable yields. Should the trade expand threefold, a further 12 species are considered to be potentially at risk of overexploitation. Two species of butterflyfish, Chaetodon meyeri and C. triangulum, which feed exclusively on coral polyps and generally die in captivity after a short time, were being exported in significant numbers. Both clownfishes (Amphiprion spp.) and their host sea-anemones were being heavily exploited. Because of the symbiotic relationship between these fishes and their anemone homes, this group may be particularly susceptible to overexploitation.Damage to branching corals may result from the collection of specimens of Dascyllus aruanus, which shelter within them. With many thousands of individuals of this species being exported each year, this could represent considerable collateral coral damage. Although levels of exploitation of ‘cleaner wrasses’ (Labroides bicolor and L. dimidiatus) appear well below potentially sustainable ones, it is unclear whether the health of reef fishes might locally be adversely affected in heavily exploited areas.Monitoring and regulation of the aquarium-fish trade is discussed, together with the need for collection of catch statistics by those involved in the trade. The importance of regulation of collection techniques, of standards of facilities, and of satisfactory packaging of fish for export, is stressed. If more accurate estimates of sustainable yields are to be obtained, there needs to be monitoring of populations of key aquarium-fish species in designated collecting areas where exploitation levels are known. Until such estimates become available, the cautious approach adopted in the Maldives to estimate yields and set species-based quotas will, it is hoped, prevent local overexploitation.
The Pastoral Road to Extinction: Competition Between Wildlife and Traditional Pastoralism in East Africa
Authors: Prins Herbert H.T. 
Published: August 2009

In some developing countries there is a call to open-up protected areas and even National Parks for low-intensity use by the local population to alleviate the pressure of the rapidly increasing human population, or because conservationists have been able to ‘take’ too much land according to others. This conflict in land-use has been noted by conservation authorities, and proposals have been formulated to give way to such pressure. Moreover, it has been suggested that there can be a harmonious coexistence between wildlife and livestock, so that opening-up of protected areas would not necessarily be to the detriment of wildlife, and also that the indigenous populations were able to manage wildlife and their habitats in the past (so why not again in the future). The last point in the concerted attack on the status of the protected areas is that ‘conservation is an alien concept in Third World countries’.In this paper is reviewed the question as to whether there ever has been such a harmonious coexistence between wildlife and pastoral Man in East Africa, and aerial census data from a number of districts in Tanzania and Kenya have been used to demonstrate that livestock outcompetes wildlife. At present ‘prestige overstocking’ is not the case any more, due to the fact that the human population outgrows the livestock population. Apparently, a very high rate of population growth is at the root of the call for more land, and even if, for example, the whole of the Serengeti were to be handed over to the local Masai, this enormous, relatively undisturbed ecocomplex could absorb the growth of the Masai population for only some forty years.Finding the key to increased development should not be sought in an opening-up of protected areas but in payment of in absentia benefits by the rich western countries. This money should be used for developing programmes aimed at population limitation, increased income for the rural poor, and increased sustainable human densities in areas outside the protected areas.
Importance of Wild Animals and Their Parts in the Culture, Religious Festivals, and Traditional Medicine, of Nigeria
Authors: Adeola Moses Olanre 
Published: August 2009

Utilization of animal wildlife and their by-products by farmers in Nigeria, as confirmed by this survey, is for cultural and religious ceremonies and traditional medicine. The pattern of consumption of wild animals depends on what species are available in different ecological zones. In traditional medicine, some wildlife by-products are acceptable nation-wide, while in religion, farmers are very selective — especially the Muslims. Culturally, utilization is largely by tribal and ethnic background. In the installation of traditional rulers and in performing traditional rites, some specific wild animals and their byproducts must be sacrificed.Wild animals are so vital to the rural people that adequate consideration must be given to maintaining wildlife habitats when rural development projects are planned. This is especially important when these projects involve major land-use changes or modification of traditional agricultural practices. Much of the small mammal, bird, and reptile, habitat is comprised of small wild patches, marshes, or narrow riparian strips, which can easily be destroyed by short-sighted activities. This wildlife is a valuable renewable resource which can continue to produce benefits only if adequate habitats and protection are available.
The Wog Wog Habitat Fragmentation Experiment
Authors: Margules Christopher R. 
Published: August 2009

An experiment to study the effects of habitat fragmentation on biological diversity was commenced in anEucalyptusforest, in February 1985, at Wog Wog in southeastern New South Wales, Australia. The two hypotheses which are being tested are (1) that habitat fragmentation reduces biological diversity, and (2) that the reduction in diversity is fragment-size dependent.The experimental design consists of three fragment-sizes replicated six times. The sizes are 0.25 ha, 0.875 ha, and 3.062 ha, the two larger ones being progressivelyc.3.5 times the size of the smaller ones. Four replicates (12 fragments) were retained asEucalyptusforest when the surrounding land was cleared for a softwood (Pinus radiata) plantation. Two replicates (six fragments) are controls in an adjacent State Forest.The sampling is stratified into slopes, drainage lines, and inner and outer zones, with samples replicated twice in each stratum. Thus, there are two outer slope and two outer drainage-line sample sites, and two inner slope and two inner drainage-line sample sites. This gives 144 permanent sample sites within theEucalyptusforest.Following the experimental treatment, a further 44 permanent sample sites were established between the fragments. Aranae, Phalangida, Formicidae, Scorpionidae, Diplopoda, Coleoptera, and vascular plants, are the main groups of organisms involved in the experiment. Mosses and liverworts, breeding birds, small ground-mammals, skinks, and bats, are also being monitored.Monitoring commenced in February 1985. The experimental treatment,i.e.forest fragmentation, took place during 1987. Two years after the treatment there were still no experimental results, because of the inherent delays in sorting and identifying the arthropods, and in establishing and managing the very large database involved. However, the analysis of some pre-treatment data is used to assess the experimental design. This analysis demonstrates the importance of adequate replication in ecological field experiments.
Tundra Disturbance Studies, III: Short-term Effects of Aeolian Sand and Dust, Yamal Region, Northwest Siberia
Authors: Forbes Bruce C. 
Published: August 2009

This paper describes the short-term responses of tundra vegetation and soils to aeolian sand and dust emanating from anthropogenically-bared surfaces in the low-arctic region of northwestern Siberia. Such surfaces, including roads and quarries, are increasing substantially each year as the region undergoes massive gas- and oil-producing development. Data are presented which emphasize the ‘cumulative’ impacts of corridor construction, namely those effects which are measurable laterally, at some distance from the actual surfaces of roads and quarries, four years after their creation. In particular, changes in plant communities are documented, in addition to the chemistry and macronutrient status of mineral soils and dominant vascular plants and mosses, respectively, as affected by road-dust.Dramatic changes in plant community composition and cover were evident up to 200 m downwind from a ‘typical’ sand quarry. Although a few species appeared to respond favourably to rapid sand deposition, the great majority that were beset with it have declined in status or disappeared altogether. The exceptions were those growth-forms having the ability to keep perennating buds at or above the surface of the deepening sand (e.g. Betula nana, Salix spp., and Polytrichum spp.). The most pronounced decreases recorded were among lichens, hepatics, Sphagnum spp., and pleurocarpous mosses. The decline in Sphagnum spp., which dominate the moss layer and contribute much of the hummock-hollow microtopography, is already having a profound impact on community structure by virtually eliminating surface heterogeneity.
Campesinos and Conservation in the Central Andes: Indigenous Herding and Conservation of the Vicuña
Authors: Bernhardson Wayne 
Published: August 2009

Efforts to protect the wild Vicuña, an endangered relative of the domesticated Llama and Alpaca of the central Andes, and to increase the species' numbers, have been more successful in achieving technical wildlife management goals than in complementing agro-pastoral activities of the indigenous peoples of the region. In both Pampa Galeras National Reserve in Peru and in Lauca National Park in Chile, lack of consultation with native pastoralists, whose lands the reserves occupy, reflects weak commitment to broader social and economic goals on the part of national authorities, as well as the inadequacy of international technical assistance in involving local communities in such projects.Specifically, those projects have neglected to consider the importance of local patterns of land tenure, which are only in small part communal, and of economic differentiation with those communities. At the same time, authorities have controlled or monitored access to such subsistence resources as pasture and fuel for local residents, while failing to offer short-term alternatives for economic opportunity. This is in contrast to the free hand enjoyed by energy and agricultural irrigation projects such as those which benefit Chile's Atacama port of Arica. Continuation of such policies jeopardizes long-term success of wildlife protection as well as the economic future of the region's human inhabitants.
Land Cover/Use Analysis of Prespa National Park, Greece
Authors: Karteris Michael A. , Pyrovetsi Myrto 
Published: August 2009

Prespa National Park in Greece is an important breeding-area for rare and endangered waterbird species, but people living within the Park and using its resources create serious conservation problems. An environmental management plan which will regulate mainly the human activities within the Park is therefore necessary. Such a plan should be based on a land cover/use analysis of the area, for which much of the necessary information, in the form of a thematic map, has been collected by interpreting blackand-white aerial photographs. The procedure involved the development of a classification system, transferring the interpreted data onto a base-map, field-checking the results, and tabulating the area measurements with the pertinent errors.Of the total Park area (25,690 ha), 66.5% is classified as terrestrial (forestland, rangeland, agricultural land whether irrigated, non-irrigated, or abandoned, wet meadows/marshland, barren and eroded land, and urban areas), and the remainder as aquatic (water, reedbeds). The most extensive category in the Park is forestland, much of which is seriously degraded. Rangeland provides forage for sheep and goats, being also degraded owing to uncontrolled grazing. Wet meadows/marshland are invaluable as waterbird breeding and feeding habitats, but the present use of this category as grazing fields, and its proximity to agricultural land and to the existing irrigation/drainage system, have all had negative impacts on the resource. Irrigated land is almost half of the cultivated area.The abandoned agricultural land is interspersed within the forestland and is a result of the human population decline in the area, while barren and eroded land has resulted from prolonged land misuse. Twelve old villages are distributed over the Park, being visually unobtrusive. Lake Mikri Prespa is the main water-body and covers almost the entire nucleus of the Park. Extensive reedbeds are found along the lakeshores, which are the main breeding habitats of certain waterbirds. As land cover/use analysis of the Park has shown much serious environmental degradation, conservation measures should be undertaken urgently.