bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Light Emission from Flames
Authors: Ciatti Stephen A. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThis chapter describes the radiation phenomena that occur during fuel/oxidizer reactions; specifically the ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR) light that is emitted via a variety of mechanisms during combustion events. Significant information about combustion can be acquired by analyzing the light‐emission profile of combustion events. Techniques such as emission spectroscopy, two‐color optical pyrometry, radiation thermometry, and combustion visualization are all utilized to study combustion. Both, sooting and nonsooting flames can be studied effectively with light‐emission techniques. The inherent advantage to utilizing emission‐based techniques to study combustion is that they require only minimal access to the combustion event; only a method is needed for light to leave the measurement area, such as fiber optics, endoscopes and borescopes, and small windows. Explanations of each of these techniques and their advantages/disadvantages in different applications will be discussed.
Cool Flames
Authors: Kolaitis Dionysios I. , Founti Maria A. 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionTheoryPhenomenologyNegative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)Stabilized Cool FlamesChemical KineticsApplicationsLiquid Fuel Evaporation for Premixed CombustionLiquid Fuel Reforming for Fuel Cell ApplicationsInternal Combustion EnginesKnockingLow‐Temperature Combustion andHCCIEnginesLean Premixed Prevaporized Combustion in Gas TurbinesIndustrial SafetyNumerical Modeling of Stabilized Cool Flame ReactorsOne‐Dimensional Chemical Kinetics Simulation of a Linear FlowSCFReactorTwo‐Dimensional Two‐PhaseCFDSimulation of a Linear FlowSCFReactorThree‐Dimensional Two‐PhaseCFDSimulation of a Recirculating FlowSCFReactorOutlookSummary
Industrial Steam Boilers
Authors: Barroso Jorge , Barreras Félix , Ballester Javier , Fueyo Norberto 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThis chapter summarizes the essentials and trends of steam generation in industrial boilers burning fossil and biofuels. A descriptive overview of the present technology, main combustion systems and heat transfer schemes is first provided, after which the principles of conventional design methods and trends and achievements of computational fluid dynamics‐based techniques for boiler design are discussed. Combustion diagnostics and control systems, and their influence on both boiler efficiency and fouling and slagging on heat‐transfer surfaces, are also analyzed. Finally, the technology outlook for steam boilers is discussed, notably in respect of improving their efficiency and reducing the environmental impact of gas and solid emissions. New boiler concepts are addressed, including topics such as supercritical boilers, low‐NOxburners, and oxycombustion systems.
Flame Retardants: Chemistry, Applications, and Environmental Impacts
Authors: Beard Adrian , Angeler David 
Published: June 2010

AbstractFlame retardants, also often referred to as fire retardants, are a diverse group of chemicals which are added to plastics, wood, or textiles to reduce their flammability. Steel is coated with flame‐retardant formulations to provide thermal insulation in the case of fire, in order to prevent the rapid collapse of a steel structure; flame retardants are also used in forest fire fighting to reduce the speed of fire spread. Flame retardants are classified according to their “active” chemical element: the main groups include products based on bromine, chlorine (halogenated flame retardants), phosphorus, nitrogen, aluminum, magnesium and, to a lesser extent, boron and carbon (expandable graphite). Apart from the different active elements, flame retardants cover a broad range of chemistries, from inorganic small molecules to organic oligomers or substances which can form part of a polymer structure. The flame‐retarding effect can be achieved by several different mechanisms: for example, “poisoning” of the chemical reactions in the flame zone, formation of char on the surface of the burning item, or release of inert gases. Since the mid 1990s, the use of nanoscale materials has been investigated, although nanoclay minerals and carbon nanotubes have not yet found significant commercial use. Since the 1990s, flame retardants have begun to raise environmental concerns, because some brominated flame retardants (e.g., polybrominated diphenylethers, PBDE) were found to form halogenated dioxins and furans in uncontrolled combustion, and also because flame retardants were found in various environmental compartments and biota, including humans. The producers of flame retardants have responded to these concerns, and are developing more environmentally compatible products, mainly nonhalogenated alternatives.
Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in Industry
Authors: Bernatik Ales 
Published: June 2010

Abstract
The sections in this article are

The Problems of Major Accident Prevention: An Introduction

Accidents in the Past, and Legislation

Major Accident Risk Assessment

General Principle of Major Accident Risk Assessment

A Brief Overview of Partial Methods of Risk Analysis

Selection Method

Dow's Fire and Explosion Index

Dow's Chemical Exposure Index

Hazard and Operability Analysis (
HAZOP
)

Fault Tree Analysis (
FTA
)

Event Tree Analysis (
ETA
)

Scenario Probability Assessment

Direct Ignition

Scenario Consequence Assessment

Risk Acceptability

Probit Function

Calculation and Result Presentation

Major Accident Risk Management

Possibilities of Reducing Major Accident Risks

Outlook

Summary
Smoke Spread in Buildings
Authors: Yang Lizhong , Wu Laixi 
Published: June 2010

Abstract
Based on the analysis of comparability, a bench‐scale (1 : 4) facility with the configuration of a “fire room‐long passage‐remote room” has been designed to study the spatial distribution and risk of toxic gases in building fires. Experiments conducted with the facility showed that concentrations of toxic gases (CO) increased with probe height in the non‐firesource‐field. In the long term, the CO concentration decreased with distance from the fire source. CO concentrations were shown to vary widely at the upper long passage, but to be uniform at the lower long passage. The CO distribution in the remote room was in direct contrast, with CO concentrations greatly influenced by the openings. The characteristics of CO distribution in a non‐firesource‐field indicated that the long passage and remote room should be treated differently from a research aspect. The characteristics of smoke movement were investigated by numerical simulation, and the results of simulations and experiments compared to provide a clear understanding. In this chapter, the concept of an index of toxicity is proposed for analyzing smoke toxicity in a non‐firesource‐field, and to assess the risk grade in this environment.
An Overview of Combustion Diagnostics
Authors: Leipertz Alfred , Pfadler Sebastian , Schießl Robert 
Published: June 2010

AbstractIn this chapter, several of the diagnostic techniques commonly used to investigate combustion phenomena are reviewed, and a brief survey is provided of the mechanical probing techniques used to measure temperature, flow velocity, pressure and species concentrations (including flue gas diagnostics). The chapter includes an overview of optical techniques used for flow diagnostics, species concentration and temperature measurements in reacting flows. The use of imaging and multidimensional diagnostics for typical structures in the combustion field is also outlined. The simultaneous use of different planar measurement techniques describes state‐of‐the‐art of laser diagnostics in combustion research, and the potential for laser‐diagnostics to validate these approaches, as used in numerical simulations.
GC/MSfor Combustion and Pyrolysis Research
Authors: Cizdziel James , Chen Wei‐Yin 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe ability to determine combustion and thermal decomposition (pyrolysis) products at trace concentrations can lead to important information on catalytic pathways, the degradation process itself, and structural (fingerprint) information on the parent molecule(s), among others. Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) is well suited to separate and identify the volatile molecules and molecular fragments generated by combustion and pyrolysis processes. Whereas, pyrolysis (conducted in an inert atmosphere) is often used as a sample introduction device directly coupled to GC/MS, combustion is generally carried out offline and its products are collected and analyzed with GC/MS, or even pyrolysis‐GC/MS. In the past few years, this powerful technique has been used to examine a variety of sample types for quite diverse applications. This chapter describes the state of the art and the progress of GC/MS for the measurement of combustion and pyrolysis products. An introduction to the technique, including the principles of GC/MS, is first provided, followed by a demonstration of the instrument's capabilities for combustion and pyrolysis research. All reports discussed herein were selected in part to demonstrate the diversity of current combustion and pyrolysis research using GC/MS. The present authors' studies with temperature‐programmed desorption in conjunction with GC/MS to characterize oxygen shuttling on the chars derived from different gaseous environment, are highlighted. Finally, the use of GC/MS in combination with isotope‐labeling techniques to reveal complex reaction pathways and mechanisms is discussed.
Combustion Characteristics of Fossil Fuels by Thermal Analysis Methods
Authors: Kok Mustafa Versan 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe sections in this article areDSC,TG/DTGandDTAStudies on Coal SamplesDSC,TG/DTGandDTAStudies on Crude Oil SamplesDSC,TG/DTGandDTAStudies on Oil Shale SamplesConclusions
Gas Potentiometry: Oxygen‐Based Redox Process Diagnostics in High‐Temperature Environments
Authors: Schotte Eyck , Lemin Bert , Lorenz Heike , Rau Helmut 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionTheoretical Foundations of Gas PotentiometryPhysico‐Chemical Measuring PrincipleSolid ElectrolytesResuméGOPApplications in Research and IndustryMaterials, Design, and SystemsSensor MaterialsGOPDesignsElectrical MetrologyResponse TimeAnalysis and Characterization of Gaseous and Liquid Fuel CombustionIn SituMeasurementOn‐Line Measurement (Off‐Flame Gas Potentiometric Measurement)Analysis and Characterization of Solid Fuel ConversionGas Potentiometric Measurements in Combustion and Gasification ChambersBurn‐Out Characteristics of Solid Fuels, Biofuels, and Waste Materials under Combustion and Gasification ConditionsGas Potentiometric Combustion and Gasification Analysis: Burn‐Out Characteristics and Fuel‐Specific Makrokinetic ParametersModeling to Determine Fuel‐Specific Makrokinetic ParametersResuméApplications with Potential for DevelopmentThe Performance of a Velocity‐Oxygen ProbeMeasurement of Fluid Dynamics in a Fluidized‐Bed ReactorFeed Control in Solid Fuel GasificationO2Concentration Distribution in a Fluidized‐Bed Membrane ReactorOutlookConclusions
Spontaneous Raman Scattering Diagnostics: Applications in Practical Combustion Systems
Authors: Kojima Jun , Nguyen Quang‐Viet 
Published: June 2010

AbstractIn this chapter, the practical aspects of spontaneous Raman scattering (SRS) diagnostics are explained based on hands‐on experience in applications to high‐pressure combustion. Details of the state‐of‐the‐art instrumentation used in an advanced vibrational Raman spectroscopy apparatus for combustion diagnostics are described, after which techniques are discussed for the design and optimization of a temporally stretched pulsed‐laser Raman excitation system used in conjunction with a relatively low‐spectral resolution, high‐optical throughput Raman spectrograph system. This system enables a true single‐shot diagnostic capability for turbulent flame studies. Single‐shot‐capable Raman diagnostic systems demand both a high signal‐to‐noise ratio and a high dynamic range in order to accurately capture Raman scattering occurring in the turbulent combustion process. A brief account of the data reduction and post‐processing methodology used to obtain multiscalar information (temperature and species concentrations) via the calibration matrix formalism is then provided. Finally, the concepts and methodology are applied to a high‐pressure swirl‐stabilized flame are outlined, demonstrating the capabilities of an SRS system in a practical combustion device. Practical considerations on the use of calibration burners and flow control systems for high‐pressure combustion systems are also addressed.
CARS
Spectroscopy
Authors: Marrocco Michele 
Published: June 2010

Abstract
Coherent anti‐Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) is known for its potential for accurate thermometric measurements. In this chapter, an explanation is provided of how the unrivaled sensitivity of CARS spectral lines to temperature combines with chemical selection, high spectral intensities, directionality of the signal, spatial resolution and short integration times. These advantages contrast with the complexity of the technique involving the use of more than one laser beam. Details are presented of the fundamental principles and some typical examples are given. Uses related to species detection in current research and perspectives are also briefly outlined.
Laser Doppler Anemometry
Authors: Blondel Damien 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionMeasurement PrinciplesLaser BeamDoppler EffectThe Fringe ModelMeasurement VolumeBackscatterversusForward‐ScatterLDASystem DescriptionOpticsTwo‐ and Three‐DimensionalLDAfor Two‐ and Three‐Velocity ComponentsLaserFrequency ShiftSeedingSeeding as Flow Field TracersLight Scattering by Small ParticlesType and Size of Seeding ParticlesSeeding Particles GeneratorSignal Processing and Data AnalysisLDASignalsMomentsWeighting FactorTime, Length Scale, and Turbulence Velocity SpectraApplicationsAutomotive EnginesLarge‐Scale BurnersNonpremixed Turbulent FlameConditional Velocity in a Swirling Gas–Air FlameOutlook
Laser‐Induced Fluorescence
Authors: Leipertz Alfred , Braeuer Andreas , Kiefer Johannes , Dreizler Andreas , Heeger Christof 
Published: June 2010

AbstractLaser‐induced fluorescence (LIF) is a resonant absorption–emission interaction process between irradiated laser photons and atoms or molecules. Due to the resonant character of the excitation process, minor combustion species at very low concentration levels (ppm or sub‐ppm) can be probed using single‐photon absorption processes, or by tuning the exciting laser to a wavelength where the species absorbs two photons simultaneously (two‐photon LIF). Quantitative concentration measurements are feasible, but hindered by inter‐ or intramolecular energy transfer processes. Additionally, the temperature can be measured by determining the population distribution of the molecules, using Boltzmann's statistics. In many practical combustion systems the combustion fluid of interest (e.g., fuels or fuel components) does not give any LIF signal at all, or provides too‐strong fluorescence contributions that are composed of signals from numerous species. Here, quantitative interpretation of the signals is typically not feasible. For the quantitative analysis of non‐ or weakly fluorescing fluids, it is advantageous to add well‐characterized fluorescing tracers to the fluids (tracer LIF). The appropriate choice of the best suitable tracer system strongly depends on the particular application case. Recent laser developments have provided an increase of repetition rates into the multi‐kHz regime. Using these high repetition rates, integral time scales of typical turbulent flames can be resolved in the measurements. In combination with intensified complementary metal‐oxide semiconductor (CMOS) cameras, cinematographic imaging of flame dynamics becomes feasible, providing a complementary view compared to statistically independent sampling. This chapter includes a brief introduction to the most recent developments in the field of LIF at high repetition rates (high‐speed LIF), and also provides detailed information on suitable instrumentation for LIF applications, in particular for high‐speed LIF.
Measurement of Particle Properties: Concentration, Size Distribution, and Density
Authors: Gaderer Matthias , Kunde Robert , Brandt Christian 
Published: June 2010

AbstractVarious methods are available to investigate the particular emissions of combustion processes, and a brief survey of these is presented in this chapter. Within the flue gas of combustion, particle numbers may be measured continuously using either nucleus counters or light‐scattering instruments. The particle mass concentration is typically measured discontinuously by using filtering systems. Particle size distributions may be determined by applying fractionation to the aforementioned concentrations. On this basis, size‐classified particle number distributions or mass distributions may be measured. Typical fractionation methods can distinguish between aerodynamic separation on the basis of inertia (impactor, cyclone) and the electrical mobility of the particles. By comparing size distributions based on aerodynamic diameter with mobility diameter, the effective density of a particle collective can be calculated. A dilution system is normally required for the continuous measurement of particle concentrations in combustion flue gases, to reduce the dew point (avoiding condensation), and to adapting the concentrations to the instrument range. Ejector diluters, porous tubes and dilution tunnels are typically used to investigate stationary combustion processes. When analyzing the particle collective, it is essential to draw a representative sample; thus, in order to avoid sampling errors, certain criteria such as isokinetic sampling or transport losses must be respected.
Ultrafast Fluorescence Anisotropy for Combustion‐Produced Nanoparticles Analysis
Authors: Bruno Annalisa , de Lisio Corrado , Minutolo Patrizia 
Published: June 2010

AbstractUnderstanding the formation mechanism of particulate matter due to incomplete combustion is fundamental to controlling the atmospheric impact of combustion systems. Toxicological studies have demonstrated that ultrafine aerosols can penetrate deep into the pulmonary alveoli, and affect human health. Different studies have identified in rich premixed flames a variety of carbon nanoparticles, ranging from those smaller than 3 nm (defined as nanoparticles of organic carbon, NOC) to larger soot particles of 20 nm, and more for aggregates. Optical methods represent the most desirable methods for nanoparticles studies, due to their accuracy, flexibility, and nonintrusive nature. Two principal uncertainties limit standard optical diagnostics in combustion systems:the spectroscopic properties of the NOC are similar to those of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; andwhen light scattering is weak and comparable to that from gas‐phase compounds, size measurement is affected by large uncertainties.Thus, it is necessary to exploit certain properties of fluorescence, which will depend unambiguously upon the size of the nanoparticles. This goal is achieved by using time‐resolved fluorescence anisotropy (TRFA), which leads to both size and spectral characterization of the investigated particles. TRFA shows much promise, and is highly sensitive for detecting nanoparticles, even in a flame hostile environment. It also differs from other sizing methods such as light scattering, as it does not depend on the refractive index. Moreover, exploiting spectral selectivity in light excitation and emission information on chemical functionalities of nanoparticles can be deduced. TRFA opens up new possibilities for combustion and environmental monitoring of nanoparticles. In this chapter, the theory of TRFA ultrafast technique is derived for different operating conditions. Experimental realizations, results and the analysis of nanoparticles produced in flames in two different configurations (directly in flames and for samples collected from the flame) are then presented and discussed.
Measurements in Large Power Plants
Authors: Juchelková Dagmar , Raclavská Helena , Raclavský Konstantin 
Published: June 2010

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Technologies for Combined Combustion

Applications

Color Measurements of Coal Combustion Products

The Color of Fly Ash and Possible Influences on It

General Relationships between Color and Properties of Fly Ashes

Examples of Color Measurements

Special Measurement of Alternative Sorbents

Caustification Sludge from Paper Mill Production

Saturation Sludge from Sugar Industry

Limestone
VFK
55™ and
VFK
80™

Utilization of Alternative Sorbent for Desulfurization

Special Measurements Inside Boilers

Summary
CO2Greenhouse Gas Formation and Capture
Authors: Bai Hsunling , Karthik Mani 
Published: June 2010

AbstractCarbon dioxide (CO2), which is emitted inevitably from the combustion of fossil fuels, has attracted increasing attention because of its potential impact on global climate change. To accurately quantify and mitigate the greenhouse gas effect, there is a need to understand the formation mechanism of CO2during the combustion processes, and to identify feasible means of reducing its emission. In this chapter the fundamental concepts of chemical equilibrium, chemical kinetics as well as stoichiometric fuel/air ratios which affect CO2formation during combustion processes are described in detail. Based on a basic understanding of the CO2formation theory, the typical amounts and concentration ranges of CO2emitted to the atmosphere are estimated. In addition, CO2‐reduction strategies and technologies are briefly described, and emerging CO2capture and storage (CCS) technologies also addressed.
Soot and Soot Diagnostics by Laser‐Induced Incandescence
Authors: Leipertz Alfred , Kiefer Johannes 
Published: June 2010

AbstractThis chapter provides a brief overview of soot formation in combustion environments, focusing mainly on the characterization of soot. The variety of soot diagnostics covering nonintrusive as well as sampling methods is briefly described. Laser‐induced incandescence (LII) is introduced in greater detail, covering the theoretical background of mass concentration and particle size determinations. Some experimental approaches, and results achieved in fundamental laboratory experiments and in practical applications, are also outlined.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Combustion
Authors: Fetzer John 
Published: June 2010

Abstract
The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous in any incomplete combustion; that is, one that does not generate only water and carbon dioxide. A huge variety of PAHs can be produced in combustion; the unsubstituted forms differ in ring number, ring isomerization, degree of condensation, and whether there are only six‐member carbon rings or some with five carbons. Substitution can be as simple as alkylation limited only to methylation. Various conditions can produce hydroxyl, carboxyl, and nitro substitutions. This chapter will mainly focus on the unsubstituted PAHs, as they are the prevalent type found in combustion products. This variety depends on combustion conditions such as the fuel and its concentration, residence time, and combustion temperature. Numerous reactions are involved that involve a multitude of production pathways, and to understand this complexity modern analytical tools must be used. Such tools include gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography with UV spectral detection, and are used to differentiate and identify specific PAHs. How these techniques work, and what types of information they provide, will be highlighted.