bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Impact of Energy Taxes on Competitiveness: A Panel Regression Study of 56 European Industry Sectors
Authors: Enevoldsen Martin K. , Ryelund Anders , Skou Andersen Mikael 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThe focus of this chapter is the extent to which energy taxes – via the resulting increase in real energy prices, or in their own right – reduce or enhance industrial competitiveness. From a panel data set covering 56 industry sectors throughout Europe over the period 1990–2003, we estimate how changes in real carbon‐energy taxes and real energy prices affect, on the one hand, competitiveness measured in terms unit energy costs and unit wage costs and, on the other hand, economic performance expressed in terms of output (value added). Accordingly, the chapter distinguishes between competitiveness as an economic potential, for example low unit energy costs, and the effects of that potential which, for example, could be higher economic output. If the industries experience a lasting impact on unit energy costs leading to significantly lower output as a consequence of a tax‐imposed increase in real energy prices, it is a clear indication that this outcome resulted because the energy taxes reduced their competitiveness. Findings do not allow us to reject the Porter hypothesis in the specific case studied.
Energy‐Intensive Industries: Approaches to Mitigation and Compensation
Authors: Skou Andersen Mikael , Speck Stefan 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter addresses the approaches for mitigation and compensation applied to energy‐intensive industries in the countries which have introduced unilateral carbon‐energy taxes under environmental tax reform. While the gross burden of carbon‐energy taxes has amounted for up to 5 per cent of gross operating surplus, revenue recycling via reductions in employers' social security contributions has been employed to compensate for competitiveness effects. Energy‐intensive industries also enjoy benefits from the improvements in energy efficiency resulting from the tax incentives. As a result only few energy‐intensive sectors experience a net tax burden larger than 1 per cent of gross operating surplus.
Carbon Taxes and Emissions Trading: Issues and Interactions
Authors: Ekins Paul 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThe chapter puts carbon‐energy taxation and ETR in the context of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS), which has been operational since 2005. It describes the basic principles behind emissions trading and discusses the effects on competitiveness which have been estimated from the scheme, both as it is now and how it might develop to 2020. Many of the issues and effects are similar to those discussed elsewhere in the book in relation to ETR. The chapter then moves on to the interaction between taxes and trading, both in theory and as they exist in practice in the European Union. There are a number of good reasons why carbon‐energy taxation should be combined with the EU ETS, especially before the EU ETS moves to the full auctioning of quotas. However, the requirement for unanimity among EU member states on proposals for taxation at the EU level means that, notwithstanding the potential benefits, it will not be easy for new EU carbon‐energy taxes to be introduced.
Towards a typology of focus realization
Authors: Büring Daniel 
Published: February 2010

AbstractChapter 8 ‘Towards a Typology of Focus Realization’ by Daniel Büring presents a first attempt to formulate a cross‐linguistic theory of focus realization, that is, of how different languages express focusing. By far not all languages mark focused constituents via pitch accent placement, the way Germanic languages do. Rather, focusing is variously reflected in prosodic phrasing, constituent ordering, via special focus morphemes, and perhaps in some cases, not at all. The chapter explores the hypothesis that there is still something systematic to be said about focus realization, that is, that there is a common analytical apparatus that can capture the cross‐linguistic variation, based on the Prominence Theory of Focus Realization.
15 Given and new information in spatial statements
Authors: Hörnig Robin , Weskott Thomas 
Published: February 2010

AbstractChapter 15 ‘Given and New Information in Spatial Statements’ by Robin Hörnig and Thomas Weskott investigates the given‐new partitioning in (German) spatial statements with unmarked and marked word order. Given‐new and poset licensing are examined as explanations of the remarkably good comprehensibility of marked sentences with an appropriate partitioning. It is proposed that word order optimizes partitioning for new and given locata.
1 Introduction: European Democracy in Transformation
Authors: Eriksen Erik O. 
Published: February 2010

AbstractThis Introduction spells out some of the supranational aspects of the multi-level constellation that makes up the European Union, which distinguish it from an ordinary international organization. Then, the presumption of democracy as the legitimation principle of power is outlined, and the question of why constitutionalism rather than state sovereignty comes to the fore in a post-Westphalian order is discussed. Thereafter, theories of European democracy are revisited and three different positions are outlined. Lastly, an overview of the following chapters is presented.
Chapter 3 The Case for Marking Public Plan Liabilities to Market
Authors: Gold Jeremy , Latter Gordon 
Published: February 2010

AbstractState and local US pension plans hold an estimated $3 trillion in assets, with market values regularly disclosed in plan financial statements. By contrast, public defined benefit pension liabilities are routinely reported at actuarial values that may differ substantially from market values. The authors propose that a more accurate way to value plan liabilities measures the present value of accrued benefits discounted at market interest rates for fixed income investments that are (or are nearly) default-free. They illustrate the difference between these measures for a set of public sector pensions using publicly available information.
Chapter 11 Unifying Pension Schemes in Japan: Toward a Single Scheme for Both Civil Servants and Private Employees
Authors: Sakamoto Junichi 
Published: February 2010

AbstractA topic of long-standing discussion in Japan has been how to equitably merge the retirement plans for civil servants and private employees, which in the past have been managed separately. Recent legislation sought to unify social security pension schemes for all employees by extending the coverage of the Japanese Employees’ Pension Insurance Scheme, which covers private employees, to include civil servants as well. The author describes how Japanese social security pension schemes have evolved, the forces driving the merger of these plans, and what future prospects may be.
Introduction and overview
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Relativity means that physically it is impossible to detect absolute motion. This can be stated as a “symmetry in physics”. Special relativity (SR) is the symmetry with respect to coordinate transformations among inertial frames, general relativity (GR) among more general frames, including the accelerating coordinate systems. GR is also the relativistic theory of gravitation, and SR is valid only in the absence of gravity. Einstein's motivations to develop GR are reviewed, and his basic idea of curved spacetime as the gravitation field is outlined. Relativity represents a new understanding of space and time. GR provides the natural conceptual framework for cosmology. Experimental foundation of GR will be emphasized in our presentation. The necessary mathematics is introduced as it is needed.
Special relativity: The basics
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Special relativity is introduced as the symmetry of Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism. The fact that a signal cannot be transmitted instantaneously led Einstein to propose a new kinematics: the passage of time is different in different inertial frames. The operational definition of time, consistent with a universal speed of light, is presented. Relativity of simultaneity, time dilation, and length contraction are discussed. We present an elementary derivation of the Lorentz transformation and discuss the physical meaning of each term in this transformation. The pole-and-barn and twin paradoxes are worked out to illustrate some of the counter-intuitive features of relativity.
Special relativity: The geometric formulation
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Constancy of light speed allows us to interpret geometrically the relativistic invariant interval s as a length in the 4D manifold, called Minkowski spacetime, with a metric equal to diag(-1,1,1,1). Physics of SR follows directly from the Lorentz transformation, which is a rotation in the Minkowski spacetime. We introduce 4-vectors as the simplest example of tensors in Minkowski space, and construct their scalar products. Besides the 4-position vector, we also introduce the 4-velocity and 4-momentum. The principal features of a spacetime diagram and its representation of Lorentz transformations are presented. In particular, the causal structure of SR is clarified in terms of lightcones in a spacetime diagram.
Black holes
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Black hole is an object so compact that it is inside its event horizon: a one-way surface through which particle and light can only traverse inward, and an exterior observer cannot receive any signal sent from inside. The Schwarzschild geometry is viewed in the Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates as well as in the Kruskal coordinates. Besides a black hole, the GR field equation also allows the solution of a white hole and a wormhole. The gravitational energy released when a particle falls into a tightly bound orbit around a black hole can be enormous. The physical reality of, and observational evidence for, black holes are briefly discussed. Quantum fluctuation around the event horizon brings about the Hawking radiation. This and the Penrose process in a rotating (Kerr) black hole comes about because of the possibility of negative energy particles falling into a black hole.
Tensors in general relativity
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
Differentiation of tensor components in a curved space must be handled with extra care. By adding another term (related to Christoffel symbols) to the ordinary derivative operator, we can form a “covariant derivative”; such a differentiation operation does not spoil the tensor property. The relation between Christoffel symbols and first derivatives of metric functions is re-established. Using the concept of parallel transport, the geometric meaning of covariant differentiation is further clarified. The curvature tensor for an n-dimensional space is derived by the parallel transport of a vector around a closed path. Symmetry and contraction properties of the Riemann curvature tensor are considered. We find just the desired tensor needed for GR field equation.
GR as a geometric theory of gravity — II
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
The mathematical realization of equivalence principle (EP) is the principle of general covariance. General relativity (GR) equations must be covariant with respect to general coordinate transformations. To go from special relativity (SR) to GR equations, one replaces ordinary by covariant derivatives. The SR equation of motion turns into the geodesic equation. The Einstein equation, as the relativistic gravitation field equation, relates the energy momentum tensor to the Einstein curvature tensor. The Einstein equation in the space exterior to a spherical source is solved to obtain the Schwarzschild solution. The solutions of Einstein equation that satisfy the cosmological principle is the Robertson-Walker spacetime. The relation of the cosmological Friedmann equations to the Einstein field equation is explicated. The compatibility of the cosmological-constant term with the mathematical structure of Einstein equation and the interpretation of this term as the vacuum energy tensor are discussed.
Private prisons and the democratic deficit
Authors: Aman, Jr Alfred C 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter describes the case of prison privatization in the United States. Prisons offer an interesting insight into debates over which coercive aspects of the state should be kept within government hands, and thus shed some light on the outsourcing of military functions. They also present a slightly more developed example of administrative oversight of outsourced functions. The chapter argues that the question of what is and is not ‘inherently governmental’ is a decision that must be made democratically, through an open political process that meets standards of transparency and accountability set in place by legislatures and overseen by courts. A new kind of administrative law thus may need to be created to respond to the democratic deficit associated with modern privatization.
Police informants
Authors: Ross Jacqueline 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter considers the circumstances in which a state can use private informants in criminal investigations. Informants raise concerns of abuse and lack of accountability similar to those posed by PMSCs, it is argued that the unique nature of informants as criminal insiders (that is, members of a criminal enterprise) makes delegation to them of investigative functions particularly troubling. Criminal insiders recruited as informants often remain in place in their targeted organizations and continue to participate in crimes in order to provide investigators with information about the organization's activities. In doing so, informants may purchase and sell contraband undercover, or participate in other offences with their criminal associates.
Intelligence services
Authors: Chesterman Simon 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter surveys the manner in which US intelligence functions have been outsourced in collection activities such as electronic surveillance, rendition, and interrogation, as well as the growing reliance on private actors for analysis. The different incentives that exist for private and public employees call for wariness in determining whether and to what extent intelligence functions should be outsourced. The simplest way of containing some of the accountability-related problems would be to forbid certain activities from being delegated or outsourced to private actors at all. A determination of which activities to forbid, however, is far from simple. In the United States, this question is framed in the language of ‘inherently governmental’ functions: those to be carried out by government employees only. There is, however, great uncertainty over the meaning of the term and little prospect of intelligence agencies adopting a robust definition of ‘inherently governmental’ functions.
4 Fighting Talk
Authors: Butterfield Ardis 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
uses the vituperative mid‐century ballade exchange between Philippe de Vitry and Jehan de le Mote, in which Philippe accuses Jean, a Hainuyer working for Edward III, of being an English traitor, as a focus for a broader consideration of the language of invective and ‘national’ identity in the period. After a section discussing nation through the eyes of Deschamps and also its university and trading connotations, the chapter turns to Deschamps's famous ballade extolling Chaucer as a ‘grant translateur’. It argues that it participates in this larger cross‐channel dialogue, and that it is a subtle articulation of praise and insult, playing on the witty, mutually condemning admiration (or mutually congratulatory contempt) of the Vitry‐Mote exchange. Deschamps registers a new sense of the impact of war on the cultural meanings of French for both insular and continental writers.
5 Exchanging Terms
Authors: Butterfield Ardis 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter investigates the language of diplomacy in more detail, looking at evidence from Froissart's Chroniques of his views on language and language use, and at the role language played in the battles for supremacy between English and French diplomats, lords, and kings. We see from a broad range of writing how potential linguistic misunderstandings are used as a subtle means of exerting diplomatic leverage on both sides of the Channel. The literary form of the envoy, revived by poets working in diplomatic roles, records a sensitivity to the role of language in cross‐cultural exchange. Two of Chaucer's major narratives, the Knight's Tale and Troilus and Criseyde, are saturated with this language of negotiation and represent subtle accounts of the tensions involved in fraternal relationships caught up in war.
7 Lingua franca: The International Language of Love
Authors: Butterfield Ardis 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter develops the argument of Chapter 5 by comparing groups of ballades, written in both English, French and Anglo‐French, on the continent and on the island, specifically composed in the ‘international’ language of love. Reading across and between Machaut, Froissart, Chaucer, Gower, and Graunson, teaches us to move on from the notion of source and ‘original’, or impersonal intertextuality, towards a much more flexible sense of love poetry as a deeply and multiply layered linguistic process, that passes from a large area of mutual self‐reference up through to examples of individual retorts and ripostes. Such a process cannot be easily characterized as ‘English’ or ‘French’: instead, poets are working with a much less rigid notion of linguistic — and literary — difference.
The Library (as) Book: The Fantasy of the Total Text
Authors: Too Yun Lee 
Published: February 2010

AbstractChapter 4 looks at the phenomenon of a single work that calls itself a library. It considers the Library of Apollodorus as a work that plays on seeming to be a full and complete text while actually containing conspicuous absences to which it consciously draws the reader's attention. It is a mythological compendium that offers moments of recognition that there are other narrative traditions than the present one. It becomes apparent that this Library is, as all other libraries, anything but a complete one.
The Library of Universal History: Diodorus Siculus and Literary Cosmopolitanism
Authors: Too Yun Lee 
Published: February 2010

AbstractChapter 5 considers another book that calls itself a library, the Library of History of Diodorus Siculus. Here the book has a particular world view, which demonstrates that the library may have a particular function in the world. Diodorus espouses a cosmopolitanism that sees all history and all mankind as inextricably linked, with harmony as the ideal and enmity as a non‐ideal. This is the substance of his narrative. At the centre of this cosmopolitan paradigm is Rome, which accepts everyone into itself and governs other nations peacefully. The Library of History is a work that draws together humanity and its experiences of justice and injustice, kindness and cruelty, as the inhabitants of a single, ‘civic’ community.
Is the European Court of Human Rights an Alternative to Investor-State Arbitration?
Authors: Kriebaum Ursula 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter discusses to what extent the EctHR can replace or complement international arbitration bodies, and under what conditions investors can and should file their claim at the ECtHR rather than at the traditional bodies for the settlement of investment disputes. The analysis focuses on a variety of indicators concerning jurisdiction and merits. By means of its judicial protection of property rights and ‘possessions’, the ECtHR already operates as one among many other European bodies responsible for the settlement of investment disputes. Resorting to the ECtHR can also entail significant disadvantages for investors, such as the lack of protection of indirect damages, the procedural requirement to first exhaust local remedies, and the risk of an only partial compensation. The chapter concludes that the ECtHR is no real alternative, but rather a remedy of second and last resort complement to traditional arbitral investment tribunals for investors.
Balancing Property Rights and Human Rights in Expropriation
Authors: Waincymer Jeff 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter concentrates on the protection of property rights through expropriation norms and the way the articulation and adjudication of these may impact upon human rights goals. The purpose of this chapter is two-fold: firstly to consider whether anti-expropriation norms are a barrier to human rights promotion through their content, application, or even the regulatory chill effects that might flow from expansive indirect takings norms; and secondly, to consider to what extent the development of comprehensive and balanced tests at the interface of potentially conflicting international governance regimes places great responsibility on adjudicators to expand upon the more open-ended norms that typically arise from treaty negotiations. A subsidiary question is whether the traditionally private field of international arbitration is as well suited to perform this function as a more permanent body such as the Appellate Body of the WTO or a body with broad public international law expertise such as the International Court of Justice.
‘Proportional’ by What Measure(s)? Balancing Investor Interests and Human Rights by Way of Applying the Proportionality Principle in Investor-State Arbitration
Authors: Krommendijk Jasper , Morijn John 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter explores the possibility of applying the proportionality principle, which is currently used by the ECtHR in its jurisprudence, in investor-state arbitration and, particularly, in expropriation-related claims. It argues that when States' obligations flowing from international investment treaties and human rights law come into tension, the application of the ‘proportionality test’ in the course of investor-state arbitration concerning expropriation may represent one of the routes through which a balancing of human rights protection imperatives and investor interests can take place. The complexity of this interplay relates to the fact that interests on both sides of the balance have human rights aspects. By virtue of ‘double proportionality’ testing, investor-state arbitration practice may be merging investment and human rights law proportionality standards — a development that is to be encouraged.
The Human Right to Water Versus Investor Rights: Double-Dilemma or Pseudo-Conflict?
Authors: Thielbörger Pierre 
Published: February 2010

Abstract
This chapter recalls that the human right to water is still not clearly accepted as a binding human right in international law. This absence of a clear legal status makes the settlement of important legal investment disputes in the field of water privatization even more difficult. In detailed case studies, the chapter holds that the notion of the right to water shows only little advantage for the states in the arbitral settlement of these disputes; if so, the advantages occur only in indirect and subtle ways. States must therefore take care of the protection and promotion of the right to water themselves, namely before water disputes even arise. They must try to include references to the right to water in the concession contracts with the investors — and thereby make the right part of the applicable law — in order to ensure stable water prices and high water quality.