bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Everyday Life
Authors: Ray Larry 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Anthony Giddens (1999: 19) famously described globalization as a “runaway world,” emerging in an anarchic, haphazard, fashion, “carried along by a mixture of economic, technological and cultural imperatives.” This suggests a process out of control that crashes into everyday life from somewhere beyond. But globalization is also an accomplishment of everyday life involving human agents engaged in the active construction of global forms of sociality. Debates about globalization raise some central sociological questions about the extent to which social processes are indirect and self‐steering as opposed to constituted and sustained through the ways in which actors make choices and meaningfully construct social life. Some dominant approaches to globalization in contemporary sociology (e.g., Beck, Giddens, and Urry) emphasize the systemic properties of globalization as an emergent phenomenon, often suggesting how it undermines preexisting social bonds. But they have relatively little to say about how social life nevertheless “gets done.” In particular, theories of reflexive individualization contain the risk (so to speak) of being pre‐social in the absence of any account of how everyday life is sustained. They also lack a critique of how the ideology of individualism might belie a reality of more complex social bonds and interdependencies. It is true that globalization lifts forms of life out of specific contexts – for example through long‐distance monetary or institutional networks – and in the process previously tacitly organized capabilities become self‐conscious, codified knowledge on which actors reflect. The market is a prime example of this since it generates homogeneity, impersonality, and routinized exchanges over long distances. Nonetheless markets, even globally organized ones, require complex social, cultural, and institutional underpinning and even long‐distance social relations have a “stickiness,” a social connectedness, which is reinforced by the way participants often consolidate communications through face‐to‐face interactions. Further, social interactions that take place over long distances, just as much as those within immediate proximity, still presuppose shared norms, conventions, values, expectations, and routines arising from commonly experienced frameworks or institutions.
Film festivals
Authors: Vogel Ann 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Film festivals are event‐centered organizations which operate temporal exhibitions of film. They usually do so on an annual or biannual basis, running typically over the course of one or two weeks in cinemas and other screening venues in a concentrated location. By a rough estimate, there are at least 3000 such organizations in the world and most are arts nonprofit organizations with small budgets and disproportionately large numbers of volunteer workers. Festivals aim to show new films unless they are committed to specific themes and retrospectives. How many new films are screened depends heavily on the organization's budget and its standing in the film festival hierarchy, as art work travels from one festival to another and organizers compete for product. The film festival population is highly differentiated into organizations with international programs, by movie length, by film type (e.g., short film), and by genre (e.g., women, human rights, science fiction, etc.). While there are recognized exhibition formats for festivals, a multitude of informal events exist, with some even just playing a weekend session.
Fordism, Post‐Fordism
Authors: Bonanno Alessandro 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Fordism refers to the twentieth‐century phase of capitalism (c.1918–1978), characterized by the centrality of bureaucratized firms, an interventionist state, national unions, and the coordination of mass production and mass consumption. This system reached its peak in the first two post–World War II decades, and entered its final crisis in the 1970s. By the 1980s, pertinent literature described the contemporary socio‐economic conditions as
post‐Fordist
.
Foreign Direct Investment and Development
Authors: Moran Theodore H. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractForeign direct investment (FDI) takes place when a corporation in one country establishes a business operation in another country, through setting up a new wholly‐owned affiliate, or acquiring a local company, or forming a joint venture in the host economy. Foreign direct investment flowing to developing country economies takes at least four distinct forms: FDI in extractive industries; FDI in infrastructure; FDI in manufacturing and assembly; and FDI in services. Each has distinctive contributions to make to host country growth and welfare. Each offers distinctive dangers or harmful threats to host country growth and welfare. Each poses distinctive policy challenges to host authorities, to enhance the positive contributions and minimize or avoid the potential damages (Moran 2011).
Frictions
Authors: Tsing Anna 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe termfrictionis derived from descriptions of the physical world, where it refers to the resistance to relative motion between bodies in contact. Considerations of friction entered studies of globalization as a counterpoint to stories of “friction‐less” transnational flows of goods, ideas, people, and money. Such stories were popular in the 1990s among scholars and pundits caught up in the excitement of globalization who thus imagined a new world without boundaries. In contrast, friction‐based approaches show how global trajectories come into being through specific histories of engagement and encounter. Thefrictionis the engagement and encounter through which global trajectories take shape. Moving beyond stereotypes of the “global” as everything new, powerful, and trendy, friction draws attention to the unpredictable heterogeneity of worlds coming into being.
Gates Foundation
Authors: Vogel Ann 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (hereafter Gates Foundation) is an independent grant‐making foundation with its headquarters in Seattle, Washington, USA. It is currently the largest private foundation in the world. By 2008, it had an asset trust endowment of over US$34 billion and had made grants of $21 billion since its inception (in 1994). The Foundation combines two separate legal entities: a foundation for grant‐making, and a trust that manages the foundation's endowments assets. The Foundation's trustees are Microsoft co‐founder Bill Gates (William H. Gates III), his wife Melinda French Gates, and the investor and entrepreneur Warren Buffett. The Foundation's leadership team for nearly 800 employees comprises three family members (Bill and Melinda Gates, and Bill Gates's father, William H. Gates), the CEO (currently Jeff Raikes), the Presidents of the Foundation's three program entities, various principal officers, and the senior advisor to the three trustees, Patty Stonesifer, who was the first CEO for the Gates Foundation until 2008. The Foundation has offices in Washington, DC, London, Delhi, and Beijing. Its grant‐making operations extend to all US states and over 100 countries worldwide.
Globalism
Authors: Steger Manfred B. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

“Globalism” is a ubiquitous term often used in an imprecise manner to describe general globalizing trends as well as particular systems of ideas and values connected to various globalization processes. It is useful to distinguish between
globalism
– a political ideology that endows globalization with certain norms, values, and meanings – and
globalization
– a multidimensional set of social processes that extend and intensify social connections across the globe. This distinction helps to foreground the considerable role played by various globalisms to shape the conditions of our interconnected world.
Glocalization
Authors: Richard Giulianotti and Roland Robertson  
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The concept of glocalization has been widely deployed by social scientists to examine diverse types of interrelationship and interdependency between local and global processes. The concept has been used to explain the impact of globalization upon, for example, transnational crime, Asian beauty pageants, Chinese cinema, environmental governance, British television, South African cricket, social risk in Romania, the world car industry, community care, the status of citizenship, Italian radio, and European civic policies.
H
induism
Authors: Abrutyn Seth 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Like the other world religions born during the so‐called Axial Age (c. 800–200
bce
) Hinduism is a complex religious system, with tremendous regional variation. So much so, that past critics have argued that there is no real Hindu religion. Despite these assertions there are shared elements that comprise a core we can call Hinduism. This entry delineates a brief history of Hinduism, followed by an elucidation of the most central tenets, texts, and rituals. It concludes by examining the ways in which Hinduism has been a conduit facilitating larger economic and geopolitical forces, as well as how it has reacted against these universalizing, convergent global forces.
Hunger
Authors: Thompson Gretchen H. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
At one point or another almost everyone has experienced hunger, either the accidental skipping of a meal or the more wrenching inability to obtain enough food for days, weeks, or months. Hunger is ubiquitous, complex, and varied. It is estimated that on a daily basis over 24 000 people die of hunger (Vernon 2007). The recent global food crisis of 2008 brought to light untenably high and worsening international levels of food deprivation across a multitude of nations and millions of people. Academic and scientific researchers most often study the global manifestation of hunger, and this will be the focus of much of this entry. Hunger has been linked to global social, economic, and political processes. As a global social problem, hunger is complex and an important indicator of human well‐being and societal development that is closely linked to processes of power and inequality across the global system. Macro‐comparative research within sociology has emphasized these relationships and promises to be fertile ground for future scientific inquiry. But first, a general discussion of hunger, including its physiological manifestations, historical origins, and broader global patterns, is offered.
Hybridity
Authors: Pieterse Jan Nederveen 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Cut “n” mix experiences in consumption, lifestyles and identities are common, for example in food and menus. Hybridity refers to the mixture of phenomena that are held to be different, or separate. Hybridization is defined as “the ways in which forms become separated from existing practices and recombined with new forms in new practices” (Rowe & Schelling 1991: 231).
Imagined Communities
Authors: Roudometof Victor 
Published: March 2012

AbstractImagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalismis the title of a book originally published in 1983 by anthropologist Benedict Anderson. In the book, the phrase “imagined communities” was used to convey the nature of nationalism in the modern world. The book was so successful that it was reissued in 1991 with two additional chapters. The success of Anderson's conceptualization has been so extensive that the very phrase or notion of a group as an imagined community has become a powerful conceptual tool used widely in numerous areas and fields.
Indigenous peoples
Authors: Cole Wade M. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractAt first blush, the terms “globalization” and “indigenous peoples” seem contradictory. To be indigenous is to have a deep historical, cultural, and spiritual connection to a particular locale, whereas globalization refers to the process by which disparate localities become integrated into a global economy and polity. Yet indigenous peoples have been implicated by globalization for centuries. Indigenous peoples, indeed, are theproductsof globalization, insofar as indigeneity is defined by a group's relationship with colonizers and settlers who arrived from distant places. But while globalization commenced with the wholesale confiscation of indigenous peoples' land and the destruction of their traditional societies, it has culminated in the enumeration, expansion, and implementation of their rights.
Individualism
Authors: Beck Ulrich 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

In the remote past individualism was a merely nominal value, an idea, an ideology. But more recently it has been consolidated and has crystallized into an
institutionalized morality
that powerfully and effectively establishes the foundations of what Eric Hobsbawm has called the twin revolutions of the nineteenth century: European First Modernity, the revolution that led to the modern, democratic nation‐state, and the other revolution that produced what Max Weber called the “spirit of capitalism,” which emerged from the Protestant work ethic. Both the democracy of the nation‐state and entrepreneurial capitalism are based on the principle of the free individual who represents his own enlightened self‐interest, while simultaneously claiming the right to make his political views known (and of course his right to private property), and who defends these rights in the arenas of the democratic polis. Individualization, closely bound up with the ethos of Christianity and modernity, signifies the cultivation of the autonomous will of all human beings without distinction.
Industrialization
Authors: Kiely Ray 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Debates on the relationship between globalization and industrialization essentially focus on the changing international division of labor, and how this has been altered by the so‐called globalization of production in recent years. At its most basic, the argument is about the shift from a manufacturing to a postindustrial society in the developed countries, and the rise of manufacturing in the developing world. This new international division of labor is said to have replaced the old, colonial division of labor whereby industrialization was concentrated in the developed world, and primary goods production in the developing world. The debates around these issues focus on two areas: first, the extent to which this is an accurate representation of international divisions of labor, both old and new; and second, whether the new international division of labor is leading to convergence or divergence between the rich and poor world.
Inequality
Authors: Beck Ulrich 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The conception of inequality as limited by the nation‐state collapses as ever more children in Europe are growing up in poverty. Millions of people risk their lives fleeing from the poverty of their native lands in order to share in the supposed wealth of Western countries. In Europe as in the United States, but also in China, Brazil, Russia, and India the gap between rich and poor is widening. Reports like these are founded on a conception of inequality among the world's inhabitants that arose in the transition to modern society. Now, at the beginning of the twenty‐first century, in the age of globalization and climate change, its foundations are being shaken. To understand this transformation of a worldview it is necessary to locate it historically, in outline.
Informationalism
Authors: A. Aneesh  
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Informationalism refers to a technological paradigm that replaces and subsumes the previous paradigm of industrialism (Castells 1996). From metallurgy to transportation, industrialism was marked by a revolution in materials engineering triggered by the Industrial Revolution. Informationalism, on the other hand, is connected with the information revolution that begins after World War II, covering developments associated with computer science and its various expressions in electronics and telecommunication networks. Informationalism manifests itself in the added importance of knowledge, information, and communication in the globalized world where human labor is increasingly involved in the production of
immaterial goods
(Hardt & Negri 2000). However, the rise of informationalism as the new paradigm does not suggest that industrialism disappears as a material fact; it only suggests that industrialism loses centrality in discourses of technology; indeed, informationalism subsumes and transforms industrial technologies from within. For example, the automobile, an important industrial artifact, does not become less important; it retains its role and appearance while undergoing an informational transformation whereby the automobile becomes an assemblage of computers and data‐communication networks that begin to mediate its basic functions, including acceleration, breaking, and steering.
Intellectual property rights
Authors: Blakeney Michael 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe first consideration of the possibility of an international intellectual property (IP) regime was a conference on patent law, convened on the occasion of the 1873 Vienna International Exposition. At the time that plans for the Vienna Exposition were announced, US inventors and manufacturers had threatened a boycott of the event unless the Austrian Patent Law could be improved to provide more satisfactory protection to foreign inventors. These discussions were taken further on the occasion of the Paris Universal Exposition in 1878, and in a diplomatic conference in Paris in 1880. The conference proposed the establishment of a “Union for the Protection of Industrial Property.” The term “Industrial Property” was defined broadly to include not only the products of industry, but also agricultural products. A convention was finally adopted at a second diplomatic conference in March 1883.
International criminal courts
Authors: Schabas William , McDermott Yvonne 
Published: March 2012

AbstractInternational criminal courts are tribunals established outside of the domestic legal systems of states, although they may depend upon national justice mechanisms for enforcement. There have been seven international criminal courts, with varying modes of creation: the two tribunals established by the Allied powers after World War II, at Nuremberg and Tokyo, threead hoccriminal institutions established by resolution of the UN Security Council for the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, and Lebanon, and a fourth by agreement with the Government of Sierra Leone; and a permanent International Criminal Court, established by international treaty and open to all states for ratification. The seven international courts also vary in terms of the crimes they were established to prosecute: Most have been confined to so‐called “atrocity crimes” of an international nature, namely genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crimes against peace (otherwise known as “aggression”). The Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) had jurisdiction over a combination of international and domestic crimes, while the Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL) was granted jurisdiction only over crimes under Lebanese law. Genuinely international criminal tribunals are often associated with what have sometimes been labeled hybrid courts, such as the War Crimes Chamber in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, the Regulation 64 Panels in Kosovo, and the Serious Crimes Panels in the District Court of Dili (East Timor). These institutions have an international dimension, to the extent that judges and other personnel are designated in part at the international level and in part at the national level, and because they too have jurisdiction over international crimes.
International Monetary Fund
Authors: Lee Susan Hagood 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a multilateral organization that safeguards the stability of the international monetary system, the network of exchange rates that enable countries to buy goods and services from one another. It provides advice to its 186 member states on policies to promote economic growth, reduce poverty, and prevent financial crises. The IMF offers short‐term lending to governments experiencing balance of payments problems with insufficient funds to meet their international obligations. The IMF's member states agree to follow fiscal and monetary policies conducive to international financial stability and to allow IMF supervision of their national policy regimes. IMF membership is a precondition for membership in its sister organization, the World Bank, the world's leading source of development funding, and IMF loans typically open access to bilateral and commercial loans. The IMF thus serves as gatekeeper to the international financial system for developing countries. IMF loans typically carry policy conditions such as reductions in government spending, lower trade barriers, elimination of government subsidies, and high interest rates to curb inflation. Critics have charged that these policies hurt the poor, precipitate financial crises, and protect the interests of Western financial institutions at the expense of impoverished nations.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
Authors: Bhandari Medani 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization and the world's largest and arguably most important conservation network. It was founded in Fontainebleau, France in 1948 and its headquarters is located in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has offices in more than 45 countries and runs hundreds of projects around the world, including a multilateral office located in Washington, DC that serves as a global embassy for IUCN. It plays a critical role in the conservation of nature as a knowledge‐producing organization (IUCN, UNEP & WWF 1980, 1991).
Internet
Authors: Powell Jason L. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The Internet is a global electronic system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve computer users worldwide. It is a “network of networks” that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic and optical networking technologies (Hine 2005). The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the interlinked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web and the infrastructure to support electronic mail. The Internet has accelerated new forms of human interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has increased for both major retail outlets and small artisans and traders. Business‐to‐business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries (Kling 1997).
Interregionalism
Authors: Söderbaum Fredrik 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
In a generic sense, interregionalism can be defined as the interaction between two specified regions (region‐to‐region relations). It is not a new phenomenon. There is, for instance, a long history of loose region‐to‐region relations between the EU and the African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) group of countries, which has been revised and developed under the new Cotonou Agreement and other recent EU–Africa frameworks. The EU's interregional cooperation with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has also been operational over a long period, dating back to the early 1970s. Still, in the context of the regionalist movement on a global scale since the early 1990s, interregional cooperation has been further developed as a key feature of international relations, albeit not consistently.