bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
On the Occurrence of Thanet Beds and of Crag at Sudbury, Suffolk
Authors: Whitaker William 
Published: October 2009

I. Thanet Beds.
The newer Tertiary deposits of the Eastern Counties have had such a power of fascination over geologists that the older beds have been left almost unnoticed: indeed since the description of a few sections in Mr. Prestwich's essays on the Lower London Tertiaries, which have now been published 20 years and more, I know of but one paper (and this probably known to very few geologists)* that gives us any information about that series in the district in question, whereas the number of papers that treat of Crag and Drift is legion. It has therefore been an agreeable surprise to me to find, in the course of my Geological Survey work, that there are fine sections of the older Tertiary beds in Suffolk and the neighbouring part of Essex; and it was with some astonishment that I saw one of the finest sets of sections in the London Basin round the town of Sudbury, on the border of those two counties.
These sections convinced me that the lowest member of the Lower London Tertiaries, the Thanet Beds, crops out along part of the northern edge of the Tertiary district, an occurrence of which I had a very slight suspicion from other sections near Ipswich.
Mr. Prestwich has, indeed, doubtfully referred some of the sands of the northern outcrop to this division, though without describing any section; but he does not notice the particular part where it is now to be seen in many large and clear pits,
On the Character of the Diamantiferous Rock of South Africa
Authors: Story-Maskelyne N. , Flight W. 
Published: October 2009

The character of the rock in which the diamonds are found in South Africa, in the various diggings of Du Toit's Pan, Bultfontein, (the Old) De Beer's, and the Colesberg Kopje or New Rush, is essentially the same.
In some observations I made to the Society on the occasion of a notice of Mr. Dunn's on the subject of the rocks of the Diamond-fields, I gave a brief account of the minerals of which the particular rock in question appeared to be composed. I had at that time only optical, crystallographic, and pyrognostic features to go upon. Since then these minerals have been carefully selected and separated, and have been analyzed in the Laboratory of the Mineral Department by the careful and accurate hand of my colleague Dr. Flight; and the results that gentleman has obtained confirm in almost every particular the forecast I gave to the Society regarding these minerals.
The specimens of rock examined by us came from various depths— from near the surface down to 180 feet (in the case of one mass from the Colesberg Kopje).
About Polar Glaciation &c.
Authors: Campbell J. F. 
Published: October 2009

Summary
Evaporation and condensation, atmospheric and oceanic circulation are caused by unequal local temperatures. Rivers and land-glaciers alike result from atmospheric circulation, and from local condensation, and they flow for the same reasons at different rates. The existing Arctic current is part of ocean circulation, caused by unequal polar and equatorial temperatures. That current is a conspicuous fact. It is far larger and more powerful than any existing river or ice flow on land. It is more than three thousand miles long, and it is very broad; it moves vast fragments of the largest existing land-glaciers, and great sheets of thick polar sea-ice, at great speed. It lowers the perpetual snow-limit where it flows, and it there modifies climate and all that depends on climate. Within an area equal to that of India, in Greenland it increases local condensation, and snow-flake's, and snow-falls, and ice flows and rivers; and so it increases local denudation on shore while it works on the shallows. Ice rafts in the ocean-stream carry drift southwards; and the water which drags these loaded rafts over shallows and makes them drop boulders, also rolls and packs mud and shingle and builds a delta in the sea. This kind of polar “glaciation” and deposition of “drift,” caused directly and indirectly by one of the northern polar currents, cannot be denied. The agent is a true cause at work; and the work ought to be like that which I saw in Russia in 1873.
Where a sedimentary rock exists there water has been; and the drift-plains of Russia are spread upon sedimentary series little disturbed. That part of the earth's crust has been up and down many times without breaking much. If glacial periods, due to astronomical or other causes, have in fact increased evaporation and condensation, ice-flows, and rivers to any given extent, then polar currents must have gained power during these periods, because movements in air and ocean result from unequal local temperatures, on which also depend the local growth of ice on land.
The Steppes of Siberia
Authors: Belt Thomas 
Published: October 2009

Many writers have described the great steppes or “tundras” of Siberia, and told of their vast extent and monotonous aspect, where the traveller, day after day, sees the nearly level plains extending to the horizon in long low undulations, succeeding each other like the gentle heaving of the surface of an otherwise calm ocean. From the western base of the Ourals they spread right across the northern extremity of Asia, nearly to Kamtschatka, unbroken, excepting where the rivers have cut deep channels, or where some ridges of rock rise through the level expanse of sand and loam.
Last October I journeyed across the south-west corner of these vast plains for more than one thousand miles, from Ekaterinburg, on the eastern slope of the Ourals, to Byanool, a small town 360 miles south-east of Omsk; and although compared with the whole area of the great steppes this part forms but a small portion, I saw enough to impress me with the idea of their enormous extent, and to excite my curiosity to try to discover the cause of this continental expanse of sand and loam. I lost no opportunity of examining natural sections of the ground; and fortunately these were not scarce, as the rivers had everywhere cut deeply into the sandy strata. I propose in the present paper to give a description of the strata composing the steppes, to offer a theory to account for their origin, and to seek to apply it to other parts of the earth's surface.
Geological Notes upon Griqualand West
Authors: Stow George W. , Jones T. Rupert 
Published: October 2009

During the months of March and April of the year 1872, having, in conjunction with F. H. S. Orpen, Esq., Civil Commissioner of Griqualand West, been occupied in making a tour of inspection of the new territory (lately under the rule of the Chief Waterboer) for the information of his Excellency Sir Henry Barkly, I was able to collect a considerable amount of information, which I believe will throw much additional light upon the geological formations of this portion of the African continent. I propose to arrange the notes then made in a series of papers narrating the facts I was able to collect, and the conclusions to which they lead.
I shall first treat of the country from the banks of the Modder river before its junction with the Riet, towards the southern point of the great Campbell-Randt; secondly, of the ancient rocks of the Campbell-Randt and the territory to the west and north-west of that remarkable escarpment; thirdly, of the lower Hart or Kalong valley and such portion of the country to the north of the present diamond-fields as I was able to include in our reconnaisance; and lastly I shall offer such facts and observations as I have been able to collect after a residence of nearly nine months in the neighbourhood of De Beer's New Rush and Du Toit's Pan, in what is termed the “Panne Veldt.”
Giants' Kettles at Christiania
Authors: Brögger W. C. , Reusch H. H. 
Published: October 2009

Amongst the many phenomena which invite attention and consideration in the North are the so-called “giants' kettles.” There are, perhaps, not many lands which possess so large a number of these striking regular holes, often scooped out to a great depth into the rock, as are found in the Scandinavian peninsula. Yet it is not an unusual thing for a tourist to light upon many of these kettles in his wanderings wherever a river dashes wildly through a narrow cleft. Not only beside rivers and waterfalls, but far from both are they to be met with. At one place in Lærdal the old Bergen road to Lærdalsörm goes right through the middle of a monstrous kettle. The saying among the people is that there St. Olaf turned his horse round.
It is not the traveller only who is acquainted with giant's kettles of remarkable size, form, and situation; the common people know them well and have much to tell about them. The graphic power that belongs to hereditary superstition is always fertile in pictures, and in every obscure phenomenon of nature sees a supernatural being personified. So these unusual holes are represented as having been produced by giants.
On a remarkable fossil Orthopterous Insect from the Coal-measures of Scotland
Authors: Woodward Henry 
Published: October 2009

The clay-ironstone of Coalbrook Dale, Shropshire, has already yielded the wing of one most interesting form of fossil locust, the
Gryllacris (Corydalis) Brongniarti
(Pl. IX. fig. 2), figured and described in Mantell's ‘Medals of Creation,’ in Murchison's ‘Siluria’ 4th edition, 1867, p. 300, woodcut 80, and, lastly, in the Geol. Mag. 1874, new series. Dec. ii. vol. i. pl. xiv. fig. 3; whilst the Coal-measures of Saarhruck and of Westphalia have yielded fossil remains of a
Gryllacris
and seven species of
Blattinæ
, or cockroaches, 4
Termites
(white ants), 1
Acridites
, 3 species of the Neuropterous genus
Dictyoneura
; and from those of Grundy co., Illinois, U. S. A., 3 species of the genus
Miamia
, 1 of
Mylacris
, 1 of
Megathentomum
, 3 species of
Euphemerites
, and 1 doubtful species of
Mantis
have been described by Mr. S. H. Scudder, and from the Coal-measures of Cape Breton the genus
Haplophlebium
by the same author.

Mr. Scudder has likewise described seven genera from more or less fragmentary remains in the Devonian rocks of New Brunswick.

Dr. Anton Dohrn (Director of the Zoological Station at Naples) has described a new and most remarkable Neuropterous insect from the Permian (Todtliegende) of Birkenfeld, which he has named
Eugereon Bœckingii
, and regards as possibly belonging to an extinct order (
Dictyoptera
).

It has been my good fortune during the past year to have placed in my hands, through the kindness of Edward Charlesworth, Esq., F.G.S., a most interesting fossil insect from the Coal-measures of Scotland.
The insect in question
On the Correlation of the Deposits in Cefn and Pont-newydd Caves with the Drifts of the North-west of England and Wales
Authors: Mackintosh D. 
Published: October 2009

I
n
the present state of Posttertiary geology it is of very great importance (as may be inferred from the Presidential address just published, May 1875) that some one should attempt to correlate the deposits in caves with the glacial drifts of the neighbourhood. I therefore venture to bring before the Society a brief statement of the results of observations lately made in and around the Cefn and Pont-newydd Caves, Denbighshire. These caves are situated near to each other in the face of a limestone escarpment, on the north bank of the river Elwy. The Pont-newydd cave has been described by Professor M'Kenny Hughes and the Rev. D. E. Thomas, in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute (vol. iii. p. 387), and by Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., in his work on Cave Hunting. By these writers the cave-deposits are regarded as Postglacial. The best account of Cefn Cave, as it existed before the deposits were nearly all cleared out, is perhaps to be found in Mr. Joshua Trimmer's ‘Practical Geology,’ published in 1841, the following being the order of succession therein stated or implied:—

1.
Sand, silt, and marl, with sea-shells in one or more places (uppermost).

2.

Loam, with angular fragments of limestone and bones, filling the cavern nearly to the roof (
diluvium
of old authors).

3.
Crust of stalagmite.

4.
Loam, with smooth pebbles, bones, teeth, and fragments of wood (lowest).

Mr. Trimmer believed that the lowest of these deposits was introduced, before the glacial submergence, by the adjacent river while flowing
On the Occurrence of the Genus
Astrocrinites
(Austin) in the Scotch Carboniferous Limestone Series; with the Description of a new Species (
A. Benniei
), and Remarks on the Genus
Authors: Etheridge R. 
Published: October 2009

I
ntroduction
.–In a paper entitled “Proposed Arrangement of the Echinodermata” &c., Messrs. Austin referred to a genus which they proposed to establish under the name of
Astracrinites
, in the following words:—“Another genus (
Astracrinites
of our MS.) offers so many affinities to the recent and fossil Echinodermata, that we consider it the most remarkable of all the known genera. By its being lobed it approaches to the
Lobistella
; its ambulacra, spines, and arms mark it as allied to the
Echinites
, while the arrangement of its calcareous plates connects it with the
Lilies
of the ocean. In short, it possesses the lobes of a Starfish, the ambulacra and spines of a Sea-urchin, and the plates of a Crinoid. It is further remarkable by deviating from the quinary type so prevalent in the Echinodermata: the lobes and ambulacra of this new genus are each four in number.”

In the following year Messrs. Austin described this curious and aberrant form under the name of Astracrinites tetragonus. Their description is as follows :”
“Family Astracrinidæ,
“Consisting of the genera Astracrinites and Aporocrinites ;
“Genus Astrocrinites, Austin.
“Def.—Dorso-central plate quadrangular, to which four pairs of elongated plates are attached, imparting a lobed shape to the fossil. In the retiring angles at the base of the four lobes are a like number of ambulacra. Mouth central. Anus lateral.
“A. tetragonus, Austin.
“Def.—The plates of this species agree with the generic definition. Each of the elongated plates has two or three rows of minute tubercles around its outer margin
How Anglesey became an Island
Authors: Ramsay A. C. 
Published: October 2009

T
he
structure of the low ground of Caernarvonshire within three or four miles of the Menai Straits in almost all respects resembles that of Anglesey, both in its geology and physical geography. The Menai Straits divide the two regions; but carboniferous rocks form the larger part of either shore, and the Straits may be considered simply as a long shallow valley, the bottom of which happens to lie beneath the level of the sea. The question thus arises. At what epoch and by what means was Anglesey separated from the mainland?

The whole of Anglesey is low; and only one steep escarpment, a minor one, occurs in the island—that of the Old Red Sandstone overlooking Traeth Dulas, which rises abruptly above the tidal flat of the Traeth to the height of about 250 feet. (See Map and Section Pl. XIV.).
The entire island may, indeed, be looked on as a gently undulating plain, the higher parts of which attain an average elevation of from 200 to 300 feet above the level of the sea; while most of its principal brooks and small rivers run north-east and south-west, in depressions with gently sloping sides; and only one inland valley, with the same trend, is of any marked importance, namely that of Malldraeth Marsh, in which the small coalfied lies. There are, however, a few exceptions to the average levels mentioned above—the summit of Holyhead mountain being 709 feet, and Garn, near Llanfairynghornwy, 558 feet above the sea, while the greatest elevation
Fossiliferous Cambrian Shales near Caernarvon
Authors: Marr J. E. 
Published: October 2009

T
he
shales under consideration extend from about three miles S.W. of Caernarvon to Bangor, being roughly parallel to the Menai Straits. They are faulted against Lower Cambrian to the east, and disappear against a dyke on the west. They are, as a rule, greyish black to bluish black in colour, most commonly tolerably sandy and micaceous; but in places, as where the fossils are found, they are chiefly clayey with hardly any admixture of sand.

The fossils were obtained from three places, all within a mile of Caernarvon and on the banks of the Sciont.
The first place is close to Pont Seiont, on the E. side of the river, where an arrow marks the dip in the Ordnance map. The shales here are bluish black, dipping at about 45° S.E., containing a large amount of iron oxide, from the decomposition of iron pyrites, which is itself found in nests and veins scattered through the mass of shales, but especially towards the top of the section; and the outer surfaces of the rock weather to a rusty or olive-brown hue.
The rock is of a splintery nature; and it is rather difficult to get large pieces. It has a concretionary structure all through, breaking up into lenticular pieces; and it is in the interior of these pieces that most of the fossils occur.
Most of the fossils came from the bottom of the section, and were scattered somewhat capriciously, so that one might work for two or three hours without
On the so-called “Greenstones” of Western Cornwall
Authors: Phillips J. Arthur 
Published: October 2009

I
n
a paper which I had the honour of reading before this Society in March 1874, I described and gave analyses of two varieties of Cornish Greenstone, both of which were characterized as being probably altered hornblendic slatesw. In the present communication it is my intention to give the results of a chemical and microscopical examination of some of the more important of the so-called Greenstones of West Cornwall, reserving for a future occassion an account of those found east of the parish of St. Stephens.

Penzance District
.—The most extensive group of these rocks is probably that situated on the margin Mount's Bay, in the vicinity of Penzance, and extending, with comparatively little interruption, from Penlee Point, about two and a half miles south-west of that town, to a mile east of the village of Gulval. From the latter locality to Marazion there deos not appear to be any extensive exposure of rocks of this class, but they again make their appearance in considerable masses in the sea-cliff extending eastward from Marazion to Cuddan Point.

This district may be regarded as being to a certain extent classic ground, since the rocks which now occupy our attention have frequently been the subject of the investigations and speculations of the earlier geologists.
In a paper read by Prof. Sedgwick before the Cambridge Philosophical Society, March 20th, 1820, he says:—“In the cliffs between Penzance and Mousehole, we found the ordinary varieties of clay-slate, much intersected by contemporaneous veins of quartz. These rocks were
Hæmatite in the Silurians
Authors: Kendall J. D. 
Published: October 2009

I
n
a paper read last session before the Society, I pointed out some of the most important features of the Hæmatite deposits that occur in the Carboniferous Limestone of Cumberland and Lancashire. Amongst other things I showed that the direction of the deposits was invariably parallel to that of the meridional divisional planes by which the rocks are intersected; and as an explanation of that fact I suggested that the hæmatite had probably been deposited in caverns which had been hollowed out by chemical action along the meridional planes, or that the hæmatite had replaced the Limestone along those lines.

The paper also briefly referred to the deposits of hæmatite in the Silurians of the same districts, and went to show that these deposits (which are in the form of veins), like those in the Carboniferous Limestone, were in direction parallel to the divisional planes. There was, however, this difference between these Silurian deposits, and those in the Carboniferous Limestone, that whereas all the deposits in the latter were parallel to one another, and had a direction nearly north and south (that is the same as the meridional divisional planes), those in the Silurian had two directions, some being parallel to one set of divisional planes and some to the other.
Since the delivery of that paper I Have had an opportunity of examining a Silurian deposit which appears to me to be altogether unlike (as regards the relation between the direction of the deposit and the divisional planes) either
On the Occurrence of the Rhætic Beds in Leicestershire
Authors: Harrison Wm. J. 
Published: October 2009

G
ood
inland sections, exhibiting the junction of the Triassic and Liassic beds, are rather scarce in this country. I wish, therefore, to describe an exposure of the Rhætic beds near this town, which is of interest as proving the continuity of that formation and the remarkable persistence of lithological conditions in its strata; whilst the occurrence of some new species of fossils shows that our knowledge of the life of that period is, as yet, very incomplete.

These Rhætic beds are to be seen in three brick-pits situated at the northern extremity of the Spinney Hills, a low range forming the eastern boundary of the town of Leicester and the Soar valley (fig. 2).
The Rhætics form a capping to the hills at this northern end; but southwards, as the ridge rises, they are overlain by a thick covering of drift to the depth of at least 20 or 30 feet.
Eastwards the upper members have been denuded by a little stream, the Willow Brook, although the lowest bed (the Grey Marl) is nearly, but not quite, continuous right across to Crown Hill, where Lower Lias beds (yellow fucoidal limestones) first put in an appearance (see fig. 2).
The floor of the brick-pits just mentioned is about 10 feet deep in red Upper Keuper Marls. Descending sections in neighbouring pits and in the railway-cutting near the station show an alternation of Red, Grey, and Blue Marls to a depth of from 80 to 100 feet. It is noticeable that the
Notes on the Gravels, Sands, and other Superficial Deposits in the Neighbourhood of Newton Abbot, Devonshire>
Authors: Woodward Horace B. 
Published: October 2009

T
he
visitor to Newton Abbot cannot fail to be struck with the number of sand- and gravel-pits, some of great size, which are scattered about the neighbourhood, not only in the valleys, but high up the slopes of the hills, and in several instances on their summits.

On giving some attention to the character and distribution of these deposits of sand and gravel, it will be found:—
first
, that two main divisions may be made in them, namely those of an evidently alluvial character, and those which occupy positions quite unconnected with the present systems of drainage; and,
secondly
, that these latter deposits are nevertheless confined to the Bovey Basin and bordering hills, not descending into any of the other lateral or outlying valleys.

A reference to the geological maps of the country will not serve to throw much light on the correlation or identification of the beds when they are examined in detail. But since the days when De la Beche and Godwin-Austen recorded their observations, many new sections have been opened up. The rapid growth of Torquay and Newton Abbot has been attended by a call for sand, which is largely used in the preparation of “cobb,” a kind of plaster, unfortunately necessary to envelop and keep the damp out of houses for the most part built of marble.
The examination of these sections, together with those dug for the foundations of new villas on Woolborough Hill, has led me to differ from the opinions and eonclusi,ons which have