bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Diaconate
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Greek word diakonos in the New Testament is often translated as “servant,” and according to most exegetes is used as the official title for the office of deacon in only three instances. The term originally designated the person who served at table or took care of others. While every Christian is a servant, special duties may carry the designation “minister,” meaning a leadership function in church and mission work (e.g. 1 Cor. 3:5; 2 Cor. 3:6; Eph. 3:7; Col. 1:23; 1 Tim.). The special office is mentioned in Philippians 1:1 (“to all the saints … with the bishops and deacons”), definite evidence, then, in the New Testament of the office held by deacons alongside the leadership position of the elders and overseers, as also is 1 Timothy 3:8–13, with separate qualifications for the overseers and the deacons.
Didache
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

This is an early Christian document, probably written about
ad
80–90, although some scholars think it is a 2nd century treatise. Originally, this little book (about 40 pages), written in Koinė Greek, did not have a title, but later it received the title of Didache Kyriou Dia Ton Dodeka Apostolon Ethesin (The Teaching of the Lord by the Twelve Apostles to the Gentiles). Although Eusebius mentioned the Didache in his Ecclesiastical History (vol. 3), it was lost until 1873, when it was found by Archbishop Philotheos Bryennios in a Greek convent in Istanbul, Turkey. This copy is now in the library of the Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem.
Dionysius the Areopagite (fl. c.500)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractDionysius the Areopagite is the traditional appellation for the mysterious author of a remarkable set of writings that can rightly be called the key texts of Christian mysticism. These writings (the Corpus Dionysiacum, or CD) first became known in the 6th century, which attributed them to St. Dionysius, who was converted by St. Paul (Acts 17:34), and designated by Eusebius as the first Bishop of Athens. Since then, they have exerted inestimable influence, especially in the Middle Ages. In the east, St. Maximus the Confessor wrote an influential series of scholia on the CD in the 7th century, and throughout the Byzantine era, Dionysius was built upon as a cornerstone of Christian theology. In the west, Dionysius was translated from Greek into Latin by Eriugena in the 9th century; Aquinas quotes him nearly a thousand times; and St. Bonaventure deems him “the Prince of Mystics.” But by the time of the Renaissance, the traditional authorship was being doubted, and today most scholars believe the author to have been a Byzantine monk, perhaps a bishop as well, and possibly living in Syria, during the late 5th or early 6th century. For some time, this pseudonymous authorship was highlighted by signifying the author as “the Pseudo‐Dionysius,” but it is now becoming recognized that this usage is somewhat anachronistic and condescending.
C
hristian Church (Disciples of
C
hrist)
Authors: Brenneman Todd M. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In the 19th century the movements of Alexander Campbell and Barton W. Stone united. This union did not last the century and produced two distinct movements. One of them was the Disciples of Christ. Although an official split was not recognized until the religious census of 1906, the Stone–Campbell movement had been dividing since the American Civil War era as members of the movement (identifying themselves as “Christians” or “Disciples”) began to split over sectional, class, theological, and ecclesiological lines. Those that would eventually form the Disciples of Christ — later renamed Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) — were more often Northern, more upper‐class individuals. They also tended to be more theologically and ecclesiologically liberal compared totheir fellow believers who became part of the Churches of Christ.
Discipleship
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract“Disciple” means “learner” and assumes attachment to a religious teacher. As a Jewish maxim attributed to Joshua b. Perahyah (c.100bc) states, “Provide yourself with a teacher and get yourself a fellow‐disciple” (m. 'Abot 1:6). “Discipleship” refers to a person's life commitment to a body of teaching as exemplified by the teacher himself. In the 1st centuryad, Jewish rabbis were surrounded by disciples and taught them the proper application of the Jewish Law.
Doctors of the Church
Authors: Warner David B. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
At the end of the 13th century, Pope Boniface VIII named four pastors as “outstanding teachers of the Church” (egregii doctores ecclesiae): Ss. Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory the Great. They became known as “The Great Fathers of the Church,” and later, after the parallel naming of four Great Eastern Doctors, they were known as the Four Great Doctors of the Western Church. For their part, the Eastern Orthodox prefer to venerate as a group the “Three Holy Hierarchs” of Ss. Basil, Gregory Nazianzus, and John Chrysostom, while still giving high honor to St. Athanasius.
Doctrines and Dogmas
Authors: Yarnell Malcolm B. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Though often used as synonyms, the terms doctrine and dogma have a distinct usage in describing Christian beliefs in a broader as opposed to an official meaning. “Doctrine,” deriving from the Latin term, doctrina (“instruction”), indicates the teachings of Christians, whether those doctrines are taught by an individual theologian or by an entire community. “Dogma,” deriving from the Greek term, dogma (“governmental decree”), indicates the official teachings of a Christian tradition. Doctrines are subject to challenge by other theologians and churches within a Christian tradition, but dogmas may not generally be challenged without placing the dissenting theologian or church outside its original tradition.
Dogmatic Theology
Authors: Harmon Steven R. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Dogmatic theology designates a species of theology that reflects upon and gives expression to the church's teachings. “Dogmatic” in this sense lacks the more recently acquired connotation of “dogmatic” as “asserting or imposing dogmas or opinions in an authoritative, imperious, or arrogant manner” (Oxford English Dictionary). In the present usage it is rather a synonym of “doctrinal” that is linked etymologically with the early Christian usage of the Greek adjective dogmatikos to refer to that which is “concerned with doctrine.” It recognizes a proper distinction between dogmatic theological reflection that has the teaching of the church as its primary object, beneficiary, and set of parameters, and other sorts of theological reflection that carefully venture beyond these parameters and creatively address other concerns while remaining rooted in the teaching of the church.
D
orner,
I
saak
A
ugust (1809–1884)
Authors: Allen Michael 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born in 1809, the son of a Lutheran pastor, and educated at Tübingen under F. C. Baur, Isaak Dorner influenced German Lutheranism through a series of professorships, extensive writing, and ecclesiastical involvement. He went to Tübingen in 1839 as tutor and then associate professor of Theology, followed by professorships at Königsberg in 1843, at Bonn in 1847, at Göttingen in 1853, and eventually at Berlin in 1862. He founded and edited the Jahrbücher für deutsche Theologie beginning in 1856. During his time in Berlin he also served on the superior church council. He died in 1884.
Dostoevsky,FyodorMikhailovich (1821–1881)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe Russian writer Dostoevsky was born in Moscow on October 30, 1821. His father, Mikhail, was a physician in a hospital for the poor. His mother, Mariya, loved books and music. Fyodor was the second of eight children, one of whom died in infancy. He would become one of the greatest novelists in world literature.
Dunstable (Dunstaple),
J
ohn (
c
.1390–1453)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
English composer, known as the Prince of Music. His surviving works consist chiefly of polyphonic Masses, single Mass movements, Mass‐pairs, and motets. All his surviving 50 compositions are on sacred texts. They include sections of the Mass Ordinary, Latin Motets, mostly on the Virgin Mary, and isorhythmic polytextual motets. The compositions vary from traditional accompanied melody in three voices to complex isorhythmic patterns in three or four voices. His music was characterized by sonority of texture. There is also a feeling for chords and chordal progression. His pieces are airy, singable, and lyrically fresh, as in Salve regina mater mire and Sancta Maria, non est tibi similis. Although his works were not performed after 1500, Dunstable had enormous influence among musical theorists.
D
ürer,
A
lbrecht (1471–1528)
Authors: Buss Reinhard J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Born in Nuremberg, Germany, Dürer is considered to be the greatest artist of the German Renaissance. His innovative creations and vast output place him on a par with such celebrated contemporaries as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. Approximately 1,300 of his works can still be found in art galleries and private collections around the world. Dürer is known for his self‐portraits, portraits, altar paintings, etchings in wood and copper, chronicles, and theoretical writings.
Christianity in the
N
etherlands
Authors: van Eijnatten Joris 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The most characteristic aspect of the religious history of the Netherlands until the 1960s was the variety of Christian traditions that had to be accommodated within a relatively circumscribed geographical space. Defining that space is not a simple matter, for the perimeter of the “Netherlands” changed continuously. Its boundaries were definitively settled only in 1839, with the inclusion of the province of Limburg in the south‐east. Although the latest territorial addition to the Dutch state, Limburg was witness to the earliest manifestation of institutional Christianity when in the 4th century its current capital, Maastricht, began to function as the informal seat of the bishop of Tongeren (now in Belgium). The Franks, who were the dominant political force in the region after the fall of the Roman Empire, undertook initiatives to establish churches further to the north. Dagobert I had a church built in Utrecht around 630 and later commissioned the bishop of Cologne to convert the “Frisians” who occupied the broad swath of land stretching from present‐day Zeeland in the south‐west to Groningen in the north‐east. These early ventures had little effect.
Easter
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

It is not known exactly when Christians began commemorating Christ's bodily resurrection, today called Easter in English. Some evidence exists that they commemorated his resurrection already during the first two centuries, and that they called the commemoration
Pascha
, a Greek term derived from the Hebrew
Pesah
, meaning “Passover.” The church historian Eusebius in the 4th century states that in about
ad
154 Bishop Polycarp from Asia Minor met with Bishop Anicetus of Rome regarding the dispute that existed in the church with respect to when
Pascha
, as they called it, was to be celebrated. But whether
Pascha
in the 2nd century included celebrating Christ's resurrection, or just his passion, cannot be determined definitively. However, by the 4th century the term
Pascha
definitely referred to both the death and resurrection of Christ. In fact, the Council of Arles in 314 and the Council of Carthage in 397 both used the term
Pascha
to commemorate Christ's resurrection.
Ebionites
Authors: Hartog Paul 
Published: January 2012

AbstractAs Origen noted in the 3rd century, the label “Ebionite” is a derivation from the Hebrew word meaning “poor.” Irenaeus is the first witness to the term being applied to a Jewish‐Christian sect (Haer. 1.26.2). According to Irenaeus, the Ebionites observed the Torah, retained circumcision, rejected the apostle Paul as an apostate, used an emended Gospel of Matthew (written in “Hebrew” or Aramaic), and venerated Jerusalem. Patristic heresiologists combated an Ebionite “psilanthropic” doctrine, the belief that Jesus Christ was a “mere man,” although some polemical texts countered an Ebionite angelic christology. According to Irenaeus, the Ebionites excised the infancy narratives from the Gospel of Matthew, thus removing references to a virginal conception. Origen, however, asserted that some Ebionites accepted the virgin birth. Ebionitism correlated well with an Adoptionist christology, since it emphasized God's approval of the Torah‐observant righteousness of Jesus. Epiphanius of Salamis interacted with excerpts from an Ebionite Gospel, and he referred to the Ebionite acceptance of theAnabathmoi JakobouorAscents of James(Haer.30.16‐7‐9). One excerpt from the so‐calledGospel of the Ebionitesdescribes John the Baptist as a vegetarian Nazirite teacher, while another affirms the abolishment of the sacrificial system. Scholars have debated the connections (or overlaps) between theGospel of the Ebionites, theGospel of the Hebrews, and theGospel of the Nazarenes.Scholars also disagree to what extent those polemically branded as “Nazarenes” were “Ebionites,” and whether such labels were sometimes applied interchangeably. Moreover, the exact relationships between early Ebionitism(s), the followers of John the Baptist, the Jerusalem church led by James the Just, and the “Desposyni” (blood relatives of Jesus) are also unclear. Some researchers maintain that some of the sources used in the “Pseudo‐Clementine” literature may have been Ebionite. Symmachus, who composed one of the Greek versions found in Origen'sHexapla, was perhaps the most renowned Ebionite author and commentator. Ebionite groups survived for centuries into the Common Era, and some have even suggested that they endured long enough to influence early Islamic thought.
ecclesiology
Authors: Kärkkäinen Veli‐Matti 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Ecclesiology means the doctrine of the church, her being, ministry, mission, and worship. The sacraments, such as water baptism and the Eucharist, are discussed elsewhere. While Christian theologians have always reflected on the nature and role of the church, as a separate theological topic ecclesiology is a fairly recent development. Ecclesiology did not gain its own place in Christian theology until the time of the Reformation.
Economic Ideas
Authors: Green Bradley G. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Since the beginning of recorded history humanity has organized and distributed various goods and services. God creates man and the world and calls all things “good” (Gen. 1). Our lives have to do with a real, created, and good universe. Because of the doctrine of creation, man can never reject the material world as inherently bad or evil. Thus, with the affirmation of a good, created order, the seed is sown for the development of Christian thinking regarding economic realities where emphasis will be on the proper use and purpose of things — including material things. This universe is sovereignly ruled and provided for by a good, orderly, and gracious God, who provides coherence and stability to the created order through his gracious governance. Man is given a mandate to be “fruitful and multiply and fill the earth and subdue it and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and over every living thing that moves on the earth” (Gen. 1:28). The first man is placed in the garden and told to “cultivate and keep” it (Gen. 2:15). Man and the world — as created realities — are good, and man has to do something with the created order. Man's duties include economic duties and responsibilities.
Ecuadorian
C
hristianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christianity entered Ecuador through Spanish missionaries who followed the earliest conquistadores. The diocese of Quito was established in 1545, 12 years after the founding of the city. The first hospital was built in 1565, the first diocesan synod held in 1594. The evangelization of the Amazon Region began in 1599 and continued for the next 200 years. By the end of Spanish rule in 1822, the church had become a pervasive force in national life. The history of the church has been closely interwoven with that of the country. Monks accompanied every expedition and were charged with conversion and moral education of the Indians. Church involvement in colonial life was not confined to the spiritual. It was the primary agent of Spanish culture and almost all schools and hospitals were run by monks or priests. Indians learned new techniques of agriculture from the missionaries. Quito became known as the city of convents and the building and adornment of churches provided the inspiration for the development of art. Most important of all, the church was the only protector of the Indians against the rapacity of the white settlers. On its part, the church became one of the wealthiest landowners in the Sierra.
World Missionary Conference,
E
dinburgh (1910)
Authors: Welty Kyle 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
The World Missionary Conference, Edinburgh, which met from 13 to 23 June 1910 in Edinburgh, Scotland, represents an important event in both Protestant Christian history and Christian missions. It was not the first international missionary conference, but the three sessions held prior to it are best understood as precursors to Edinburgh. The preparation for Edinburgh, which was begun two years in advance of the conference, and the unprecedented range of participants distinguish it from its predecessors. While the number of denominations represented at Edinburgh is impressive, it was not an authentic ecumenical gathering as neither the Orthodox nor the Roman Catholic Church was represented.
E
l
G
reco (1541–1614)
Authors: Vlavianos Sotirios 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
El Greco (i.e. “The Greek”) was a famous painter, architect and sculptor. His original name was Domenikos Theotokopoulos. He was born in Handakas (Heraklion) in Crete, Greece in 1541 and died in Toledo, Spain in 1614. Until 1567 he worked in Crete as a post‐Byzantine icon painter and then moved to Italy. He stayed in Venice from 1567 to 1570 and in Rome from 1570 to 1576. His works painted in Italy were influenced by the Venetian Renaissance style of the period, with agile, elongated figures reminiscent of Tintoretto, and a chromatic framework that connects him to Titian's workshop, where he was employed. In Italy he was transformed to a western painter, influenced by Bassano, Baroccio, Veronese, and other famous painters of the era.
Eleventh Century Christianity
Authors: Matus Zachary A. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractIn 1095 at Clermont, Pope Urban II's call for holy war was met with spontaneous cries of “Deus vult!” (God wills it!), or so the chroniclers would have us believe. Whatever the effect on the audience, the call for crusade crystallized a moment of unification of western Christians under a common idea ofChristianitas(Christendom) that transcended national, feudal, and cultural boundaries. That such an eventuality came to pass hardly would have been predictable at the beginning of the 11th century.
E
liot,
T
.
S
. (1888–1965)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Thomas Stearns Eliot was American, naturalized English. He was born in St. Louis, Missouri, the youngest of seven children. His parents were Henry Ware Eliot, the president of a brick company, and Charlotte Champe Stearns. T. S. Eliot refashioned English verse and became the leading poet of the modernist movement.
E
llul,
J
acques (1912–1994)
Authors: Malone David B. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Jacques César Ellul, born January 6, 1912 with a self‐described varied ethnic heritage in Bordeaux, France, was a sociologist, historian, and lay theologian. Dying May 19, 1994, he left a literary legacy that is found in more than fifty books in French, many of which were translated into English and several other languages.
Emerging Church
Authors: Smith R. Scott 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In westernized countries, a missiological conversation has developed amongst Christians about what the church ought to believe, and how it can “reach” western cultures, since western culture is increasingly becoming post‐Christian, and postmodern. The “Emerging Church” is a broad umbrella term for that conversation. On the other hand, “Emergent” is a leadership group that arose initially from a Leadership Network conference in the mid 1990s, and it has included, for example, Doug Pagitt, Brian McLaren, Tony Jones, Andrew Jones, Chris Seay, Dan Kimball, and Mark Driscoll.
Environmental Crisis
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
In 1967 historian Lynn White published a now famous article, “The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis,” in which he concluded that many of the 20th century's environmental problems could be traced to the Christian notion that God gave this earth to humans for their use and specifically directed humans to exercise dominion over the earth. Carl Amery followed with an even weightier accusation in 1972.
Eschatological Movements
Authors: Prosser Peter 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Eschatological movements (Greek
eschatos
, last things) are religious groups down through church history that look for the imminent end of the world. Sometimes they are violent movements which seek to overthrow the existing order. Others are peaceful movements which seek to live by themselves, cutting themselves off from the world around them. They are characterized by a literalist emphasis on the reading of scripture, often seeking to find the exact year and time of Christ's Second Coming, the millennium, and end of the world. They also endeavor to interpret how Bible prophecy found in books like Daniel in the Old Testament and Revelation in the New Testament fit together, since they seem to speak of eschatological events. In the past few years, television preachers such as John Hagee, and the popular video film series
Left Behind
, produced by Tim Lahaye's organization, have emphasized this theme. Most of these preachers rely on a 19th century eschatological belief called dispensationalism, invented by John Nelson Darby and popularized by the Scofield Bible and the best‐selling book
The Late Great Planet Earth
.
Eschatology
Authors: Doak Mary 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Eschatology is the branch of theology devoted to the
eschata
, the last things, and to the
eschaton
, or the end time. In Christian thought, eschatology has been subdivided into individual eschatology, focusing on the ultimate destiny of the person after death, and collective eschatology, concerned with the Second Coming of Christ and the consummation of history. A collective eschatology that expects a sudden and especially violent end of history can also be described as an “apocalyptic” eschatology.
Eternity
Authors: Estes Douglas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Eternity, the concept of divine temporality, is the theological term used to describe the timeframe of God's existence as well as the timeframe of future eschatological existence of believers in Christ. Since eternity is the temporal mode in which God exists, it is an attribute or characteristic of God. Likewise, since eternity is the destined temporal mode in which those who are in Christ will dwell with God, it is also an attribute or characteristic of heaven. As a result, the concept of eternity is significant for understanding the nature of God and the nature of a believer's eschatological future; however, this significance is often thwarted by the great amount of confusion on the subject of eternity.