bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Apologetic Worldviews
Authors: Solganick Harvey E. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Apologetics typically has been called “a defense of the faith,” based upon the passage of Scripture in 1 Peter 3:15: “sanctify Christ as Lord in your hearts, always being ready to make a
defense
to everyone who asks you to give an account for the hope that is in you, yet with gentleness and reverence …” (New American Standard Bible). The word derives from the Greek
apologia
, meaning “to speak away the accusation.” Originally utilized in court defense as a method, the field of apologetics has become more than defending the faith, instead producing an evangelical worldview based upon one's style of witnessing. Plato used the trial of Socrates as a model for Greek judicial apologetics when Socrates was accused of blasphemy toward the gods and corruption of the youth through a response of dialectical reasoning in
The Republic
and in
The Apology
. However, many issues arise concerning the application of apologetics today as underlying theory, pragmatic usage in evangelism, or the rhetorical intention of the apologist. How much is apologetics defending the faith, proving the faith, refuting opposition, or persuasively proposing a view of the faith by the apologist? Is one way of doing apologetics better than another way? Can all the views of apologetics be synthesized into one worldview? For this reason, several worldviews of apologetics have been proposed since the Bible does not specifically outline an apologetic worldview: classical, evidentialist, presuppositional, reformed, and fideist. These worldviews have been established by famous Christian apologists throughout the centuries, including Anselm of Canterbury, Thomas Aquinas, Augustine of Hippo, Athanasius of Alexandria, Joseph Butler, Irenaeus of Lyons, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, C. S. Lewis, Origen, William Paley, Blaise Pascal, and Cornelius Van Til. Contemporary apologists include such theologians as Norman Geisler, Ravi Zacharias, Kenneth Boa, Paul Copan, John Frame, R. C. Sproul, J. P. Morland, Peter Kreeft, Ronald Nash, Josh McDowell, William Lane Craig, Gary Habermas, J. I. Packer, William Dembski, and others.
Apologetics
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The concept of apologetics comes from the Greek
apologia
, meaning the act of defending some postulate or belief. Very early in the life of the Christian church, certain individuals were apologists who defended the veracity of Christianity's teachings. St. Paul saw himself in that light when he said, “I am appointed for the defense [
apologia
] of the gospel” (Phil. 1:17). Similarly, St. Peter wrote to the Christians of his day urging them “always be ready to give a defense [apologia] to everyone who asks you a reason for the hope that is in you …” (1 Pet. 3:15). Following Paul and Peter, other Christians engaged in apologetics, for example, the great apologist Justin in the 2nd century. On account of his strong defense of Christianity, he suffered martyrdom under Emperor Marcus Aurelius when he was executed in
ad
166. For his apologetic posture, historians continue to call him Justin Martyr.
Apophatic Theology
Authors: Gabriel Andrew K. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractApophatic theology derives its name from the Greek wordapophanai, meaning “to say no.” Though regularly contrasted with “kataphatic theology,” which seeks to make positive statements about God, apophatic theology cannot be completely equated with negative theology, as is often done. While negating concepts that might be applied to God, apophatic theology affirms that the truth of who God is lies beyond both affirmations and negations about God. It does not, however, imply theological agnosticism. Rather, it leads one to the attitude of wonder and praise of the transcendent God and to knowledge of God by means of a union with God. Hence, it is understandable that the idea of apophatic theology is often allied with mysticism, which, by means of emptying the mind of ideas of God, seeks an individual experience of God which lies beyond such descriptions.
Apostasy
Authors: Whitlark Jason 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Apostasy, generally stated within a religious context, is a
falling away
from core religious convictions of a community, or
abandonment
of the community altogether. The potential for apostasy in Christianity arises from the notion, common to many early forms of Christianity, that final salvation is still in the future and requires perseverance in one's religious commitments to experience it. Thus early Christians affirmed the necessity of ongoing fidelity, which would have characterized both their religious heritage, one is to have no other gods before Yahweh, and their cultural heritage, the reciprocal bonds of benefactors and beneficiaries were intended to create enduring fidelity to the relationship. Among the early Christians, three general and interrelated categories of apostasy can be identified arising from embracing vices, embracing heresy, and avoiding persecution. A central concern with apostasy among the early Christians who faced waves of persecution in the 2nd and 3rd centuries and thus defections was whether and upon what basis were the lapsed to be readmitted into the church. There was a range of opinions. The early Christian document of Hebrews does not allow for the apostate to repent and supposedly to reenter the community, whereas
The Shepherd of Hermas
allows for a second repentance but no more. Repentance entailed readmittance into the worshiping and sacramental life of the church. Out of the struggle over the readmittance of the lapsed, the penitential system developed in order to provide a way for the baptized Christian to reenter the church and have access to the sacraments. Present‐day conversation about apostasy has been primarily shaped by debates within the Reformed tradition between Arminians and Calvinists as to whether the apostate was ever a genuine believer. Current debates also struggle to understand how to relate statements in the Scriptures that give assurance of one's final salvation with warnings against falling away that lead to eschatological condemnation. Rhetorically, are the warnings against apostasy
real
dangers for true believers or do they merely function to keep authentic members of the community from being presumptuous concerning their status? Ecclesiologically, is the church a mixture of authentic and inauthentic Christians who are not easily distinguished? Pastorally, what is the basis for personal assurance of final salvation? The debates also focus on how to understand such theological concepts as election, God's sovereignty, and anthropological assumptions about human religious ability.
Apostle
Authors: Bertone John A. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractThe wordapostle, from the Greekapostellō, has etymologically a very general sense of meaning. It can refer to anyone who is sent forth, dispatched and entrusted with a purpose. It can also be interpreted more restrictively asdelegate, particularly in the New Testament, that is, one who is sent with a specific mission to proclaim the Gospel message and who represents the duplicate voice of Jesus, the sender.
Aramaic
Authors: Pannell Randall J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Aramaic (ă‐ră‐mā'

k), often designated as “biblical Aramaic” (BA), is one of three primary languages in which significant portions of the Scripture are written. It is the minor of the three. The name “Aramaic” is derived from a Hebrew word,
’ă‐ră‐mî

t

(cf. Ezra 4:7; Dan. 2:4
a
; also 2 Kings 18:26; Isa. 36:11), taken from the name of the Aramean people. BA occurs in five passages in the Old Testament (Masoretic Text): Genesis 31:47; Ezra 4:8–6:18; 7:12–26; Jeremiah 10:11; Daniel 2:4
b
–7:28. Grammarians in the 19th century referred to BA as “Chaldee” or “Chaldean.”
Biblical Archaeology
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Archaeology is the scientific study of the material remains of past ages. The past is reconstructed through the use of the scientific method. The concern of archaeology is to secure knowledge. Seeking to understand native burial mounds, Thomas Jefferson conducted the first scientific excavation in 1784. In the early 1800s, archaeologists began unearthing remains of human activities from the past. Archaeological excavations have revealed an abundance of knowledge about ancient man. Prior to the rise of archaeology, knowledge of the cultural and sociological events of the ancient past was based primarily upon material that had been recorded and transmitted in manuscripts from one generation to the next. Once man began to copy inscriptions on ancient monuments and to dig in search of buried cities of the ancient world, sources for knowledge of ancient times increased exponentially. The finding of material remains can be classified into two parts:
first
, the study of the remains of ancient buildings, monuments, pottery, statues, and other expressions of the cultural and social forms of ancient periods;
second
, the study of inscriptions on monuments, or written accounts in manuscripts, lawsuits, letters, treaties, or other forms of writing recorded in the past and rediscovered in modern times. Although both archaeology and paleontology involve study of the past, the latter differs from the former in that it is the study of life in past geologic ages (i.e., pre‐historic bones). Archaeologists may consider the finds of paleontology if a relationship exists between the objects and the activities of ancient man.
Architecture
Authors: Bigalke Ron J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

The synagogue and the Temple were the two key institutions of Judaism between 586
bc
until the time of the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in
ad
70. Since the church in Palestine was almost entirely Jewish, the early church still worshipped in the Temple until it was destroyed. Although the synagogue endured as an institution of Judaism, Christians were expelled from the synagogues throughout Palestine and the lands of the dispersion. For nearly three centuries, the church gathered in private homes for fellowship and worship, as opposed to public structures. The Apostle Peter's house in Capernaum is early archaeological evidence of meeting places of the early church.
Argentine Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Argentina is ranked as one of the largest Catholic countries of the world and, superficially at least, gives the appearance of being one of the staun‐chest. Roman Catholicism has always been the official or state religion and the church is subsidized by the state. Even the colors of the national flag are supposedly based on the blue and white of Virgin Mary's gown. Moreover the church is one of the most powerful institutions in Argentine politics.
Arius (
c
.256–336)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Arius lived from c.256 to 336. He was a tall, cultured, handsome ascetic and popular preacher in Alexandria, Egypt, where, according to reports, he especially impressed women. He was born in Libya and studied theology at the exegetical school in Antioch. In 313, he became presbyter in the well‐known district of Baucalis in Alexandria.
Armenian Apostolic Church
Authors: van Lint Theo Maarten 
Published: January 2012

AbstractChristian presence in Armenia predates the establishment of Christianity as the official state religion. The Armenian Apostolic Church claims autocephaly, based on the alleged ministries in Armenia of the apostles Thaddaeus and Bartholomew. Thaddaeus is connected with the early Armenian version of the SyriacDoctrine of Addai, while Bartholomew's cult in Armenia dates from the 7th century. The story of the conversion by Thaddaeus of the late 1st century King Sanatruk, and that of the martyrdom of his daughter Sandukht, probably date from the 4th century.
Ascension Day
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Christians believe that on the third day after Jesus' crucifixion, he rose bodily from the dead. After his physical resurrection, he spent 40 days in the land where he had lived for 33 years. The New Testament records that during those 40 days he appeared to and among people at least a dozen times. St. Paul states that he not only appeared to his disciples but also to some 500 other individuals (1 Cor. 15:6). Luke says that Jesus even ate fish with his disciples (Luke 24:42–43). These appearances and interaction with people were some of the “many proofs” (Acts 1:3) by which he demonstrated that he had indeed risen from the dead. Then, at the end of 40 days, he ascended bodily into heaven.
A
sian Church Music
Authors: Lim Swee Hong 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Asian church music as an indigenous congregational expression in Christian worship was first documented in the pioneering work of two individuals, Daniel T. Niles and I‐To Loh, through their editorial endeavors in two groundbreaking hymnals, the
East Asian Christian Conference Hymnal
(Tokyo, 1963) and
Sound the Bamboo Hymnal
(Hong Kong, 1990, 2000) respectively. It is through Niles' contribution that the world church caught the first glimpse of a distinct repertoire of musical resources. Quite unlike traditional western hymnody, Asian melodies were juxtaposed with a western harmonic treatment. Through this approach, his effort served to present an accessible, unified, and homogenous Asian hymnody. Indeed, this work was well received and led to several reprints until the early 1970s. However, as Asian churches became more receptive to local influences, Loh became the champion for a different approach in Asian hymnody. As a result, the
Sound the Bamboo
Hymnal
contained a wide variety of musical styles within a single hymnal. This time round, Asian church music exhibited a greater sense of diversity unlike the earlier more homogeneous style of
East Asian Christian Conference Hymnal
.
Assumption
Authors: Nichols Larry 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Also called the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (BVM), this doctrine holds that Mary, having completed her life on earth, was in body and soul assumed into heavenly glory. The Latin text for these words is “Immaculatam Deiparam semper Virgínem Mariam, expleto terrestris vitae cursu, fuisse corpore et anima ad caelestem gloriam assumptam.” The doctrine was defined by Pope Pius XII on November 1, 1950, in his apostolic constitution
Munificentissimus Deus.
Pius XII also declared that to deny this doctrine would invoke the very wrath of God because this was to be regarded as divinely revealed dogma.
Assurance
Authors: Neste Ray Van 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
Assurance of faith or salvation refers to the conviction or persuasion of conversion with the promise of a place in heaven. The degree to which such assurance can be obtained has been debated among Christians and it was a key point of debate between the Reformers and Rome. The Catholic position at the Council of Trent stated that this assurance could not be obtained apart from an unusual special revelation. Martin Luther and other Reformers argued that it is possible for an individual to know that he has received salvation. While there has been some debate among Protestants, most agree that a person may be genuinely saved and still lack full assurance (1 John 5:13). The level of subjective assurance can vary, but it is available as the individual believes the gospel and sees the work of the Spirit in his life (Rom. 8:15–17; Gal. 4:6). Arminian theology generally holds that the most an individual might have is assurance at a given moment, since a believer may forfeit salvation in the future. Reformed theology generally affirms that true faith will persevere and grounds assurance in the faithfulness of God.
Athenagoras
Authors: Hartog Paul 
Published: January 2012

AbstractAthenagoras was a late 2nd century Christian apologist. A manuscript ascription line describes him as “Athenagoras the Athenian, philosopher and Christian,” although corroborating evidence of his provenance is lacking. Methodius of Olympus briefly refers to Athenagoras in his discourse on the resurrection (1.7); the 5th century biographical material found in Philip of Side is suspect. Athenagoras' most famous work is entitled aPlea on Behalf of Christians(alternatively known as theSupplicatioorLegatio). This apology was written around 177ceand addressed the three anti‐Christian accusations of atheism, cannibalism (“Thyestean feasts”), and incest (“Oedipean intercourse”). Most of the work is a refutation of the first indictment, and Athenagoras cites materials from pagan philosophers and pagan poets in support of the reasonableness of monotheism. He seems to manifest a rather thorough knowledge of Greek literature, although scholars have debated how many of his citations came from secondaryflorilegia. Athenagoras briefly responds to the remaining accusations by highlighting the irreproachable character (at least ideally) of Christian morality in contrast with pagan morality. The most renowned passages in thePleaare the “incipient” Trinitarian explanations of the Godhead (chapters 10 and 12). The Arethas Codex (914ce), which contains thePlea, also contains a work entitledOn the Resurrection, which it attributes to Athenagoras as well. Some modern scholars have challenged this attribution, although others have defended Athenagoran authorship by highlighting the genre, audience, occasion, and topic of the treatise (thus attempting to explain the vocabulary and conceptual dissimilarities with thePlea).On the Resurrectionargues in a two‐pronged fashion. Beginning with the character of God, the work argues that God desires to resurrect the body and he is able to do so, so the task will certainly be accomplished. The treatise then reasons that since humans act as both body and soul, the body must be resurrected in order that reunified persons may be judged for their present actions performed in the body.
Augsburg Confession
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther nailed his Ninety‐Five Theses to the door of All Saints Church on the campus of Wittenberg University in the small town of Wittenberg. It was a document that questioned the sale of indulgences. Luther declared that indulgences, promoted by the pope, taught Christians a false way of salvation. The Ninety‐Five Theses ignited the Protestant Reformation, and the papacy in Rome did its best to extinguish the flames that Luther had sparked. One year later, in October, 1518, Luther was summoned to meet with Cardinal Cajetan in Augsburg in order to have him recant and reject his criticism of the pope's abuses in the church. Luther did not succumb, and the flames of the Reformation did not abate.
B
acon,
R
oger (
c
.1214–1292)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract
This renowned philosopher scientist was born in about 1214 and died in about 1292. He obtained his higher education at Paris and Oxford. Later, he lectured on Aristotle at Oxford, and between c.1237 and c.1247 he served as an arts lecturer at the University in Paris, then the apex of European universities. Between about 1247 and 1257 he returned Oxford, and from about 1257 (when he became a Franciscan friar) to about 1270 he was in Paris again. From about 1270 to his death, sometime after 1292, he returned to Oxford.
Badarak (Patarag)
Authors: Hovhanessian Vahan 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Badarak
is a classical Armenian word used to define the celebration of the Eucharist or Divine Liturgy in the Armenian Church. The word is a translation of the biblical Hebrew and Greek words that mean “animal sacrifice” and “offerings.” Armenian Church fathers adapted the term in their theological treatises to refer to the voluntary sacrifice of our Lord — through His birth, ministry, suffering, crucifixion and death — for the sake of our salvation. Armenians use the term Badarak as the title of the Eucharistic celebration, emphasizing an essential aspect of this liturgical commemoration — the Lord's redeeming sacrifice (1 Cor. 5:7, Eph. 5:2; Heb. 9:26). Remembering the Lord's sacrifice and giving thanks to him through the public celebration of the Badarak is the Armenian people's response to the Lord's command to “Do this in remembrance of me” (1 Cor. 11:24–25).
Baptism
Authors: Gagnon Robert A. J. 
Published: January 2012

AbstractAlthough water rituals were common in other religions of antiquity, water baptism took on a distinctive prominence in early Christianity as the sole or primary entry rite into the faith. According to Ephesians 4:5, “one baptism” is one of the marks of the unity of the church. Yet, ironically, it has come to symbolize the disunity of the church throughout history, owing to disagreements at several points: meaning (sacrament or symbol), mode (submersion, immersion, pouring, and/or sprinkling), and recipients (whether or not to include infants and very young children). The fact that the practice of water baptism has become a source not just of disagreement but also of division is attributable to the fact that in the church water baptism came to overshadow the reality that it only symbolized and partly mediated; namely, being “baptized in the Holy Spirit.” (As proof of this observation, most readers will expect this entry to be almost entirely about a water ritual.) Although consciousness of being “baptized in the Holy Spirit” made a resurgence in the modern era through the Charismatic and Pentecostal movements, it has been weakened by two misunderstandings: that baptism in the Spirit is an experience distinct from true conversion and that it requires as its almost exclusive manifestation speaking in tongues.
Baptist Theology
Authors: Beck Peter 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Baptist theology has its origins in the four ecumenical councils and the Protestant Reformation that affirm the conclusions of the councils of Nicaea (
ad
325), Constantinople (381), Ephesus (421), and Chalcedon (451). As descendants of the Protestant Reformation, Baptists also draw much of their theology from that tradition. Broadly speaking it can be said that Baptists hold to the five
solas
of the Reformation:
sola Scriptura
,
sola gratia
,
sola fide
,
solus Christus
and
soli deo gloria.
For 400 years Baptists have held these biblical truths as the inviolable basics of their faith.
B
ar‐
H
ebraeus,
G
regory (1226–1286)
Authors: Amar Joseph P. 
Published: January 2012

Abstract

Gregory “Bar‐Hebraeus,” born in Milatia (Meletine), Asia Minor, in 1226, and known in Arabic as Abu'l Faraj, was a prelate of the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch. He is celebrated for his prodigious learning and for encouraging understanding and mutual respect among Christian denominations. The son of the Jewish physician Aaron, hence his title, “Bar‐Hebraeus,” “Son of the Hebrew” (
Bar 'Ebroyo
in Syriac and
Ibn al‐'Ibri
in Arabic), he studied medicine, philosophy, mathematics, and law in Antioch, Tripoli, and Beirut. He converted to Syriac Orthodoxy and entered monastic life, whereupon he took the religious name “Gregorius.”