bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Food Sovereignty
Authors: McMichael Philip 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Food sovereignty is a concept with a strategic purpose. Coined in the early 1990s by the emerging international coalition of peasant farmers, La Vía Campesina, “food sovereignty” referred initially to national sovereignty over food policy, as a first political step. Ultimately it refers to a democratic vision of community and regional control of the multifunctional features of agriculture (land preservation, ecological stewardship, food provisioning, rural employment, and cultural sustainability), and has inspired an international food sovereignty movement comprising peasants, the landless, small pastoralists, fisherfolk, and indigenous peoples. It is represented by the International Planning Committee for Food Sovereignty (
www.foodsovereignty.org
).
Football
Authors: Giulianotti Richard 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Association football (also known as soccer, particularly in North America) is widely acknowledged to be the world's most popular single sport. Football's global governing body, the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), has 208 national member associations, while its showcase tournament, the World Cup finals, is played every four years before worldwide television audiences. Giulianotti and Robertson (2004, 2007, and 2009) have explored the complex and increasingly significant interrelationships of globalization and football, with specific reference to their historical, cultural, economic, political, and social dimensions.
Free Trade
Authors: Panagariya Arvind 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Adam Smith (1776) called the system of political economy that dominated Europe between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries the “mercantile system.” According to this system, the wealth of a nation, like that of individuals, was synonymous with its stock of gold. This premise had two immediate implications: a country could get richer by exporting more than it imported since it would then receive the balance in gold; and international trade was a zero‐sum game in which the benefits of the recipient of gold were exactly offset by the losses of the payer.
Games
Authors: Miller Toby 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The principal contributions of games to globalization are military and commercial. Electronic games have sold internationally since the mid 1980s, from arcade play to handheld consoles to online subscriptions; from imaginary spheres of self‐absorption to recruitment devices for the military. The overall market of US$30 billion grew by 16 percent annually between 2006 and 2010. For its part, the US military, which underpins globalization, needs to recruit 80 000 new people a year in order to maintain world dominance. Difficult occupations in Iraq and Afghanistan during the 2001–2007 period jeopardized the steady supply of recruits, imperiling the army's stature as the nation's premier employer of workers aged 17–24. In response, video games interpellated the country's youth by situating their bodies and minds firing the same weapons and facing the same issues as in the real world, with TV commercials depicting soldiers directly addressing gamers and urging them to show their manliness by volunteering for the real thing and serving abroad to secure US power. Daily downloads in the early twenty‐first century were at a rate of between ten and fifty thousand, and just under half of new recruits report having played prior to enlistment.
Genetically Modified Food
Authors: Ejnavarzala Haribabu 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Genetically modified (GM) food is food produced from genetically modified seeds, or food that contains ingredients made from genetically modified plants, animals or microorganisms. Genetic modification of a food crop involves transfer of gene(s) from an organism belonging to one species of a taxonomic group to the food crop that belongs to a species of another taxonomic group. The source of the genes may be a plant species, animal species or a bacterium. Bt corn is an example of a genetically modified food crop in which a gene from a bacterium called Bacillus thureingensis (Bt) has been inserted. The logic underlying the gene transfer is that the foreign gene(s) inserted into the crop plant has/have some properties, for example, production of a toxin, that equip the plant to fight diseases and pest attacks (biotic stress). Alternatively the foreign gene(s) may have the property of enhancing yield, or improving tolerance against drought, or salinity (abiotic stress).
Global Risk Society
Authors: Beck Ulrich 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Why is the concept of “(global) risk society” so important in order to understand the social and political dynamics and transformations at the beginning of the twenty‐first century? It is the accumulation of risks – ecological, financial, military, terrorist, biochemical, and informational – that has an overwhelming presence in our world today. To the extent that risk is experienced as omnipresent, there are only three possible reactions: denial, apathy, and transformation. The first is largely inscribed in modern culture but ignores the political risk of denial; the second gives way to a nihilistic strain in postmodernism; the third marks the issue that the concept “global risk society” raises: how does the anticipation of a multiplicity of manmade futures and its risky consequences affect and transform the perceptions, living conditions and institutions of modern societies?
Global Scapes: the Case of the University
Authors: Powell Jason L. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Appadurai (2006) examined “globalization,” which he interpreted as “worldwide connectedness,” through the idea of “global scapes.” Following Appadurai (2006), we can postulate five dimensions of such global scapes that influence the work of universities (and academics) in the globalized environment:
ethnoscapes, technoscapes, mediascapes, financescapes,
and
ideoscapes.
Group of 77
Authors: Collins Michael 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
The Group of 77 (G77) is a UN‐based bloc of developing countries that was formed in 1964 by India, Ecuador, Nigeria, Iran, and dozens of other nations that believed the international economic system was frustrating their efforts to industrialize. The Group, in its founding document, calls for an era of global economic cooperation to end “the division of the world into areas of affluence and intolerable poverty.” In pursuing this goal, the Group has struggled against often stiff resistance from affluent nations (the “North”) and divergent and even contradictory interests and agendas within its own ranks.
Higher Education
Authors: Bradley Karen 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe history of the university is marked by struggles to maintain institutional autonomy in the face of attempts by states, church, and professionals to extend their influence. The earliest recorded universities were populated by men who lived almost monastic lives, and were visited by scholars from other enclosed universities. These universities brought prestige to their host cities by virtue of the intellectual exchange in which they engaged, but there was no other explicit, tangible contribution to which they were held accountable.
Homogenization
Authors: Ritzer George 
Published: March 2012

AbstractOne of the most controversial issues in the study of globalization is whether or not that process is bringing with it greater global homogenization, especially within the realm of culture. Tending to favor the idea of greater global homogeneity is work on concepts such as Americanization, capitalism, grobalization (Ritzer 2007), McDonaldization (Ritzer 2011), and world culture (Boli & Thomas 1997). At the opposite end of the spectrum is work on concepts such as civilizations (Huntington 1996), creolization (Hannerz 1987), global scapes (Appadurai 1996), glocalization (Robertson 2001), and hybridization (Nederveen Pieterse 2009) which all tend to emphasize the retention, and even the expansion, of heterogeneity. Since all of these concepts are dealt with in this encyclopedia, there is no need to go into each in great detail here. Rather, the goal in this entry is to discuss, at least briefly, the issue of homogenization (and heterogeneization) in more general terms.
Human Rights
Authors: Blau Judith 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Human rights and globalization are usually juxtaposed as being antithetical to one another, and they are so in ways that recall other antithetical oppositions: the right to self‐determination vs. colonial domination; racial equality vs. white supremacy; workers' rights vs. capitalist exploitation; women's rights vs. patriarchy; and the integrity of nature vs. environmental exploitation. Such juxtapositions, even when simplified, have had powerful implications, both practical and conceptual, serving as the point of departure for transformative movements and intellectual insights and analysis, only to cite as examples: W.E.B. Du Bois, Franz Fanon, Paulo Freire, Martin Luther King, Jr, Rosa Luxemburg, Karl Marx, E.P. Thompson, and Mary Wollstonecraft. Human rights and globalization are described here in similar terms – as being in fundamental opposition to inequalities and human freedoms – and this entry moves on to highlight how human rights can temper economic globalization so that globalization benefits the world's peoples.
Humanity
Authors: Stuurman Siep 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

In ordinary speech, the word
humanity
has three meanings: (i) The collectivity of all the human beings on the planet (the human family, the human species), as in “the story of humanity;” (ii) The quality of being human, as in “the humanity of all the peoples of the earth is beyond doubt;” (iii) kindness, benevolence, empathy, or other admirable qualities that are seen to belong to men and women who are “truly human,” as in “the exemplary humanity of Mother Theresa.” The three meanings are metonymically related, but the first two can also be used in a neutrally descriptive manner, as in “the human species is a division of the mammalian vertebrates,” or “the faculty of speech is essential to the humanity of homo sapiens.” The antonym of the second and third meaning is
inhumanity
. The third meaning carries powerful normative overtones, but all three meanings appeal to inclusive feelings of empathy and reciprocity and the awareness that, as human beings, we partake in a common planetary destiny.
Hypercapitalism
Authors: Vujnovic Marina 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
Hypercapitalism is a term used by Marxist scholars, in their continuing critique of political economy, to depict a relatively new form of capitalistic social organization marked by the speed and intensity of global flows that include exchange of both material and immaterial goods, people, and information. Hypercapitalism, sometimes referred to as corporate capitalism, is blamed by critical scholars for causing misbalance and fragmentation of social life by allowing commercial or business interests to penetrate every aspect of human experience. In other words, critical scholars believe that once‐separate spheres of culture and commerce now overlap and, in return, culture and the way of life in a hypercapitalist society becomes subsumed by the commercial sphere. In addition, critical scholars believe that this new type of capitalist system has moved toward an extreme laissez‐faire capitalism that is marked by greed, selfishness, destruction, wars, and exploitation. Harman (2009) explains that, since the 1980s, a push for deregulation has allowed for a free flow of capital with little or no regulation and opportunity for intervention from governments. He believes that this very process of deregulation and expansion of neoliberal economic visions, which is masked as globalization, has led to a deviant form of capitalism that he calls “zombie capitalism.” Hypercapitalism can also be linked to the term “late capitalism,” which was originated by Jameson (1990) who linked particular economic processes to postmodernism. In his work, he linked the cultural shift from modernism to postmodernism to the shift to a capitalist system that is marked by fragmentation and alienation.
Hyperconsumption
Authors: Esposti Piergiorgio Degli 
Published: March 2012

AbstractThe term “hyperconsumption” analytically refers to a “new modernity,” which can also be labelled with the term “civilization of desire” (Lipovetsky 2007). It emerged and corresponded to the society that took shape during the second half of the twentieth century. Its main characteristics are intrinsically linked to the capitalist matrix, which actually is its backbone. It involves a continuous stimulation of demand, marketing and an endless multiplication of needs that support and fuel it, thus ultimately leading to the advent of consumer capitalism that has replaced the previous production‐based economic systems. This new era is part of a new scenario characterized by a few specific features, such as the globalization dynamics, including an economic, political and cultural context, in which the universe of hyperconsumption is shaped as is currently known. While on the one hand, the hyperconsumption society enhances well‐being and happiness, on the other hand, it appears to be a hypertrophic and uncontrolled system, a bulimic order that leads to extremes and to chaos, and ultimately to a civilization of paradoxical happiness (Lipovetsky 2005). Although most people who live in the Western world can enjoy extremely high levels of economic well‐being, are able to access many consumer goods, and can enjoy and benefit from the unprecedented progress achieved in the medical and scientific domains, it can also be argued that their psychological satisfaction rate keeps falling.
Hyperreality
Authors: Taylor Paul A. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Hyperreality refers to the paradoxical concept of a reality that is experienced as excessively real – it describes phenomena that are deemed to be more real than the real itself. Linked to other notions frequently associated with postmodernity such as
simulation
, hyperreality is a phrase designed to help make sense of the heavily mediated nature of life within a global village in which representations and direct experience are increasingly difficult to disentangle from each other. Umberto Eco was one of the earliest users and popularizers of the precise term, which appeared in his
Travels in Hyperreality
, (1986) originally published in Italian as
Il costume di casa
(1973).
Ideology
Authors: Steger Manfred B. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract
“Ideology” was coined during the Enlightenment to signify a rationalist method of breaking complex systems of ideas into their basic components. Since the nineteenth century, however, the term has acquired derogatory meanings. Marxists used it to allege the deliberate distortion of material reality that served the ruling classes as a convenient cloak for economic exploitation. Twentieth‐century liberals conflated “ideology” with the new concept of “totalitarianism” linked to Nazism and communism. After the al‐Qaeda attacks of September 11, 2001, this equation of ideology with evil political schemes received a new lease on life in President George W. Bush's characterization of jihadist terrorists as the “heirs of all murderous ideologies of the twentieth century.”
Immigrants, Adaptation
Authors: Lucken Kristen 
Published: March 2012

AbstractImmigrant adaptation refers to the processes by which newcomers adjust and integrate socially, economically, and politically within a new host society. Factors such as ethnicity, race, gender, education level, marketable skills, religious affiliation, and language competency may impact the ease with which immigrants adjust to a new cultural and social system. Host society responses to newcomers, including a nation's willingness and ability to offer citizenship, jobs, education, housing, and political agency, are important aspects of the immigrant integration dynamic. Additionally, the push and pull factors propelling immigration play a role in immigrant adjustment to a new locale. Terms such as assimilation, acculturation, incorporation, and integration have been used to describe differing ways newcomers adjust to and are absorbed within a nation's economy, political system, and social sphere.
Indigenous people, resistance
Authors: Hall Thomas D. , Fenelon James V. 
Published: March 2012

Abstract“Indigenous Peoples” refers to groups who have lived in an area since it was first populated, or at least for a very long time, and who generally do not have state‐level forms of organization, for example Native Nations in the Americas. This brief definition is sometimes controversial. The most cited and most detailed definition was written in 1986 by José Martinez Cobo for the United Nations. Even that definition has been contested. There are about 5000 different indigenous groups, so general statements are difficult to support. Furthermore, any definition carries political ramifications about which peoples are indigenous. Even so, there are 350 million or so indigenous peoples in the world, about the population of the United States in 2010. This definition suffices for our purposes, but it is only a gloss on a complicated subject.
Information and communication technologies
Authors: Mann Catherine L. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractGlobalization of information and communications technologies (ICT) has a profound impact on economic activity. Use of ICTs encourages innovation and transformation which support growth. ICTs encourage international trade in all types of goods and services, but most important is cross‐border trade in digital products, which represents the cutting edge of globalization. Growing international trade in digital products highlights new trade policy concerns and challenges policy‐maker jurisdiction. There may be tensions between the free flow of information and data across borders, the objectives of domestic policy, and commitments made in international trade negotiations.
Information capitalism
Authors: Ignatow Gabe 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

Information capitalism refers to the increasing importance of information within capitalism under conditions of globalization and rapid technological development. The idea of “information capitalism” is closely related to similar concepts such as
knowledge economy
(Drucker [1969] 1992),
postindustrial society
(Touraine 1971; Bell [1973] 1976),
information society
(Webster 2002), and
network society
(Castells 2000).
Innovation
Authors: Drori Gili S. 
Published: March 2012

AbstractInnovation, defined as the commercialization of a novel idea, product, or process, emerged as the desirable path towards the development of firms and societies alike. Building on the policies of the 1960s that emphasized human capital investment and consequently the upgrade of skills and knowledge (for firms and societies), in the 1980s the emphasis of development policies shifted towards a focus on innovation. This emphasis on innovation, while still recognizing knowledge and skills as important foundations for development, highlights innovation's added advantages of pioneering new sectors, ownership of novel capacity, and seizing of market opportunities. The underlying assumption is that innovation is a tool for social development. Moreover, this assumption is immersed in the logics of market and competition, thus defining innovation is a marketized activity. With the globalization of markets and competition, innovation is now conceived as a global institution and innovation took a central place among the components of the rapidly expanding global knowledge economy. Indeed, much like the evolution of globalization discussions in general – from international to transnational to global frames – current discussions of innovation can be categorized into a focus on interconnected national systems of innovation, transnational innovative firms, and the global innovation divide.
Intercultural education
Authors: Hay Trevor 
Published: March 2012

AbstractSince the 1970s, the need to develop and implement social and educational policies of a “multicultural” nature has been recognized by educational policy‐makers in many societies with substantial migrant and ethnic minority populations. While the term multicultural – and its relationship with the idea of culture itself – has been vigorously debated, it has become clear that multiculturalism connotes a range of policies intended to manage harmonious coexistence of ethnic minorities within a “core‐value” socio‐political framework. This is intended as a normative basis for greater measures of social justice and educational attainment for minority populations who have been underrepresented in measures of educational attainment and access to socioeconomic services and benefits. In ethnically diverse societies as different as Australia, Canada, South Africa, India, and China, the term also refers to the existence of widely divergent distributions of ethnic and cultural groups, from heterogeneous urban populations, as in Australia and the United States, to largely homogeneous minority populations contained within provincial borders in a larger nation‐state, such as China.
International Atomic Energy Agency
Authors: Habib Benjamin 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established as an organ of the United Nations on July 29, 1957. It is headquartered in Vienna, Austria, and reports to the United Nations General Assembly and the United Nations Security Council. The agency is structured into three constituent bodies. The
Board of Governors
formulates most of the policies of the IAEA, meeting five times a year to make recommendations to the
General Conference
, which includes representatives from all member states of the IAEA. The General Conference meets annually to approve policy and budget recommendations passed on by the Board of Governors and to debate current issues within the agency's jurisdiction. The
Secretariat
is the bureaucratic arm of the IAEA, divided into six departments – nuclear energy, nuclear safety and security, nuclear sciences and applications, safeguards, technical cooperation, and management – which oversee and execute the policies approved by the General Conference.
International exhibitions
Authors: Wulf Andrew 
Published: March 2012

Abstract

An international exhibition is a public event staged by participants to showcase the industrial, technological, and artistic achievements of nations, private business interests, and selected nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). The most common of these events is known variously as a world's fair, an
exposition universelle
, or expo. An important by‐product of such events is their globalizing effect by fostering intercultural relations. They are organized to increase tourist activity, promote trade, and propagate symbolically the ideas and values of their participants. Since the Great Exhibition of 1851, similar events have been hosted by a rotation of metropolises around the world. It is in this realm that world's fairs have drawn much scholarly attention in recent decades, particularly around the cultural diplomacy and international gamesmanship that serve as a backdrop to the genteel display of material culture that becomes the central purpose of these events.