bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Túpac AmaruII(1742–1781)
Authors: England Shawn 
Published: November 2011

AbstractTúpac Amaru II (b. March 19, 1742) was the adopted name of José Gabriel Condorcanqui Noguera, a Peruvianmestizoof mixed Quechua–Spanish ancestry. He could trace his lineage back to Túpac Amaru I, the near‐legendary “last Inca” executed by Spanish authorities after the 1572 defeat of his mountainous Vilcabamba stronghold. Two centuries later, in 1780, José Gabriel resurrected his ancestor's name and initiated a widespread rebellion in the central highlands of Peru. Although Túpac Amaru II was captured and executed in 1781, his brother Diego Túpac Amaru continued the insurrection until his own death, and their examples helped inspire similar revolts elsewhere in the Andes.
Turco‐Italian War (1911–1912)
Authors: Vandervort Bruce 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Italian invasion of Ottoman‐ruled Libya, which comprised the provinces of Tripolitania, with its capital at Tripoli, and Cyrenaica, with its capital at Benghazi, in October 1911 was, in the words of Italian historian Angelo del Boca, “a project nurtured for 30 years.” Although Italian designs on Libya can be traced back to the early years of the nineteenth century, actual planning for the conquest of the region only began in earnest in November 1884, when the Italian government came to believe that the French, who had just established a protectorate over Tunisia, were about to seize Morocco, which would have given them control over all of North Africa, save for Egypt and Libya. Rome feared both for Italy's maritime security, as the Mediterranean risked becoming a French lake, and for Italy's future as an imperial power, a future already darkened by the French occupation of Tunisia, where many Italians lived and Italy had played a leading economic role for decades. Some Italians also cast covetous eyes on what they believed, quite erroneously as it turned out, was a rich caravan trade across the desert from sub‐Saharan Africa to the Libyan port of Tripoli and feared its diversion to entrepots in Tunisia or Algeria controlled by France.
Ulster Volunteer Force
Authors: Boyce George 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) was one of the most remarkable organizations in British and Irish military history. Its origins lie in the crisis precipitated by the Liberal government's Home Rule Bill of April 1912, which granted Ireland a measure of devolved government under the sovereignty of the Westminster parliament. Ulster Protestants bitterly opposed this policy, claiming that it placed them under the rule of Roman Catholic Irish Nationalists, the irreconcilable enemies of Protestantism, Great Britain, and the British Empire. When confronted with this possibility in 1886 and 1893, Ulster Unionists had talked of armed resistance, but it was not until 1912 that they began drilling in Orange Lodge halls and Unionist clubs. In January 1913 the Ulster Unionist Council decided that the various volunteering units should be united into a single body, to be known as the Ulster Volunteer Force, with recruitment set at 100,000 men who had signed the “Ulster Covenant” in September 1912 vowing to resist Irish Home Rule by all means available. General Sir George Richardson, a retired officer who had served in India, became commander in chief of the UVF.
Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation or
MK
)
Authors: Stapleton Timothy J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Threatened by black advancement, South Africa's white electorate voted in a National Party government in 1948 that initiated thorough racial segregation called apartheid. During the 1950s the African National Congress (ANC), evolved from moderate elite group to mass movement, embarked on passive resistance. In March 1960 Sharpeville police killed 69 by shooting into a crowd of protesters. For the ANC nonviolent civil disobedience seemed futile against a state responding with deadly force. Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu introduced the armed option to the ANC national executive and in July 1961, after some opposition, they received permission to establish a separate military organization to engage in controlled violence and avoid injury. Named “Umkhonto we Sizwe” (Spear of the Nation or MK), it was led by a high command made up of Mandela, Sisulu, Joe Slovo, and Raymond Mhlaba and regional commands based in Johannesburg, Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, and Durban.
United Nations
Authors: Macqueen Norrie 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The United Nations (UN) was formally established in April 1945 in the last months of World War II when its Charter was opened for signature in San Francisco. Fifty‐one states comprised the founding membership of the organization's General Assembly. By the turn of the twenty‐first century, membership stood at 192. The UN represented the second attempt in the twentieth century to create a global organization that would provide a comprehensive system of collective security. Its predecessor, the League of Nations, had similarly emerged from the trauma of world war, but after some initial promise it had failed to meet the overwhelming security challenges of the international system of the 1930s. The United Nations was therefore designed to succeed where the League had failed. It sought to do so by placing clear and far‐reaching obligations on member states.
Unlawful Combatants
Authors: Kretzmer David 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe term “unlawful” or “unprivileged” combatant does not appear in international conventions on the law of war. It does not denote a recognized status of persons involved in war or armed conflict. Nevertheless, the term is widely used to describe persons who lack combatant status under international law but take an active part in hostilities in an international armed conflict.
Vietcong and Vietminh
Authors: Farrell Brian P. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Vietminh and Vietcong are remembered as Vietnamese peasants wearing black pyjamas, waging guerilla warfare to drive first the French and then the Americans out of their country. That is not wrong, but there is much more to their story. Both were political instruments organized and directed by the nation‐wide institution that drove military conflict in Vietnam from 1946 to 1975: the Communist Party.
Vikings
Authors: Hudson Benjamin 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In the history of warfare a special place must be reserved for the Vikings. Better known to their contemporaries as “Northmen” or “pagans,” their name became synonymous with “warrior.” These raiders from Scandinavia revolutionized combat in northern Europe using an improved ship design and developed the amphibious assault, made more lethal by the excellence of their arms and armour. They raided and established colonies from the north Atlantic to the Mediterranean; their settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in Canada is now acknowledged as the earliest European colony in North America.
War and Technology
Authors: Zimmerman David 
Published: November 2011

AbstractKranzberg and Pursell state that “in its simplest terms technology is human beings' effort to cope with the physical environment—both that provided by nature and that created by man's own technological deeds, such as cities—and our attempts to subdue or control that environment by means of our imagination and ingenuity in the use of available resources” (1967, vol. 1: 5). This definition fails to account for the fact that war is one of humanity's main technological activities. McNeill argues that war is the principal macroparasite faced by humanity. Inevitably, a study of this macroparasitism “turns into a study of the organization of armed forces with special attention to changes in the kind of equipment warriors use” (1983: vii). McNeill equates changes in armaments to genetic mutations of microorganisms.
War and Cinema
Authors: Chapman James 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Cinema has been the dominant mass medium of the twentieth century and has played a vital role in shaping popular perceptions of war. Cinema has been employed both as a medium of war propaganda to mobilize popular support for particular conflicts and as a commentary on the “horrors” of war in films such as
All Quiet on the Western Front
(dir. Lewis Milestone, 1930) and
Apocalypse Now
(dir. Francis Ford Coppola, 1979). It has served both as a vehicle for recruitment to the armed services and as a means of showing the “reality” of war to those who have not experienced it at first hand. It has popularized the romantic idea of war as an adventure and has promoted the cult of heroism. But it has also examined the dehumanizing effects of war on combatants and has aided in the social and psychological rehabilitation of ex‐servicemen. It has documented the genocidal conduct of “total war” and has been a key medium for exploring the historical memory of the Holocaust. And, while cinema has done much to influence attitudes toward war, the medium itself has also been shaped by war.
Warfare in pre‐colonialAfrica
Authors: Reid Richard 
Published: November 2011

AbstractWar has been profoundly important in shaping Africa's past; it has been both outcome and driver of broader political, social, and economic change. Throughout the continent's recorded history, organized violence has been the product of the perennial struggle to maximize population—particularly critical in the context of Africa's historical underpopulation. As a relatively land‐rich continent, African political and social development has been characterized by continual fission and reformation, involving migratory movements and regional rivalries that have often been violent by their very nature. A common theme across much of the continent in the pre‐colonial era was the constant creation and recreation of unifying, and often coercive, ideologies aimed at the maximization of productive and reproductive labor. The struggle, moreover, to domesticate hostile physical and climatic environments has been a crucial driver of warfare, leading to the violent quest to control resources (water, arable land, healthy pasture). Environmental and climatic change has both caused and been caused by warfare in certain regions. In terms of external influences, finally, Islam would have an ideological, cultural, and tactical impact, while the slave trades (most dramatically in Atlantic Africa but also on the eastern side of the continent have driven forward warfare, heightening levels of violence and leading to innovation in the organization of violence—in part because of the adoption of new technologies acquired through such trade, notably firearms. Ultimately, the multitude of European invasions of Africa in the late nineteenth century led to widespread violence, as well as ushering in a new phase in the continent's military history.
Wellesley, Arthur, 1st Duke of Wellington (1769–1852)
Authors: Green Dominic 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Called by his officers “The Beau” for his uniforms, by his men “Old Nosey” for his physiognomy, and by the British public the “Iron Duke” for his resistance to opinion, Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (1769–1852), was Napoleon's nemesis at Waterloo, the battle that determined Europe's balance of power for a century. After Waterloo, Wellington entered politics, aiding the restoration of Europe's monarchic order, and twice serving as prime minister. However, his aloofness and anachronistic attitudes ill suited the increasingly democratic tone of British politics. Thus Wellington achieved the singular feat of simultaneously being Britain's most beloved soldier and least popular premier.
Women and war
Authors: Mathers Jennifer Gayle 
Published: November 2011

AbstractWomen have played vital and sometimes pivotal roles in wars throughout recorded history, although societies tend to be selective in their memories of the extent and significance of women's participation in war. Most societies—and many women as well—are comfortable with the notion that women are inherently peace‐loving and that they only come into contact with war either when they oppose it or become its victims. Women's relationships with war are far more complex, however. Women perform a wide range of roles in relation to war, from providing various forms of support for war economies, militaries, and militias to serving as combatants and war leaders. It would not be possible to wage war without the active involvement of women, but women's contributions to war are often viewed as fundamentally different from the wartime actions and responsibilities of men. This is the main reason why women's involvement in war has been relatively neglected by those who study wars and why it tends to be overlooked or downplayed by political leaders, popular culture, and ordinary citizens, especially in times of peace. The home and the family are often regarded as the appropriate and natural sphere of women's activities and the place where they make their contribution to society, through bearing and raising children and supporting their husbands, fathers, brothers, and sons when they go to war. Wars and militaries, in the same way, are usually seen as the places where men demonstrate their masculinity by fighting to protect and defend their homeland and their families. When wars break out, however, societies often undergo a process of rediscovering and recognizing women's past wartime achievements. This serves the dual purpose of identifying those roles that might be appropriate for women to adopt in the current or coming conflict, as well as giving women permission to step outside their everyday activities and take on less conventional roles for the duration of the war.
World War I: Eastern Front
Authors: Dinardo Richard L. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractWorld War I was fought on many fronts, none more enormous than the Eastern Front. The geographic scale alone was mammoth, and the casualties inflicted and losses in equipment were equally immense. In its conduct, the war on the Eastern Front was quite different from the Western Front; while operations on the Western Front assumed a stationary character between the mobile campaigns of 1914 and the return of mobility in 1918, the Eastern Front was different. In the East, the war remained mobile throughout, with large swaths of territory (and the people inhabiting them) changing hands on a regular basis. Finally, in a political sense, the war on the Eastern Front was far more destructive than the Western Front. Of the three political regimes that went to war on the Eastern Front in 1914, none remained by the end of 1918.
World War
II
: Eastern Front
Authors: Glantz David M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The Eastern Front of World War II—called the Great Patriotic War by Russians—refers to the Soviet–German War during which Hitler's Third German Reich attempted to defeat and subjugate Stalin's Soviet Union. The war began on June 22, 1941, when Germany's Wehrmacht (armed forces) invaded the Soviet Union in accordance with Plan Barbarossa, a military operation designed to defeat the Soviet Union's Red Army, overthrow its communist government, and dismember and exploit its territories for the benefit of Germany. The war resulted from political and ideological competition between Nazi Germany and the communist Soviet Union.
World War II: War in
A
sia
Authors: Kuehn John T. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Relations between the United States and the Empire of Japan had been strained for a long time, principally over the issue of Japan's policies in China. At the Washington Naval Conference in 1922 the two nations signed a naval treaty in order to end an incipient arms race that had developed after World War I. This treaty established capital ship ratio between the United States, Great Britain, and Japan as 5–5–3. Japan's “inferior” position with respect to the United States caused considerable resentment by some officers in the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). As the prosperous 1920s gave way to worldwide depression, militant elements inside Japan began to undermine the basis for peace in the Far East. After the signing of a second naval treaty in London in 1930, insubordinate Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) officers stationed in southern Manchuria invaded the rest of that Chinese province and then established a Japanese puppet state (Manchukuo). Japan subsequently withdrew from the League of Nations in 1932. After another armyengineered “incident” in 1937, Japan became involved in open conflict in China against Chiang Kai‐shek's Nationalists and Communist forces under Mao Zedong. Although victorious on the battlefield, Japan found China simply too big to conquer. Incidents such as the Rape of Nanking further alienated Japan from world opinion. War was narrowly averted with the United States after Japanese aircraft sank the
USS Panay
in the Yangtze River. The United States instituted a policy of material support for the Nationalists using the “Burma Road” through the Himalayas. This included the “loan” of officers like Claire Chennault to help establish a Chinese air force.
Zhang Zuolin (Chang Tso‐lin) (1875–1928)
Authors: Waldron Arthur 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Zhang Zuolin, a general traditionally known as the “Old Marshal,” played a pivotal role in the military politics of 1920s China owing to his control of the strategically vital area of Manchuria (today called the “three provinces of the Northeast”), which commands the Chinese capital region and has repeatedly served as a base for the conquest of China. From this power base Zhang twice played a role that shifted China's political trajectory.
Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (Zanla)
Authors: Stapleton Timothy J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes conquered what is now Zimbabwe during the 1890s and a small number of white settlers took most of the best land. With responsible government in 1923, the white minority gained internal political control over the colony of Southern Rhodesia. In the late 1950s and early 1960s a series of banned and then reformed African nationalist organizations staged mass demonstrations against Southern Rhodesia's inclusion in the supposedly multi‐racial but white‐dominated Central African Federation, a union of Southern and Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, and the territory's own white minority ruled state. These groups included the Southern Rhodesian African National Congress (SRANC), National Democratic Party (NDP), and Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), all of which had been led by Joshua Nkomo. In 1963 the federation broke up with the two northern territories of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland becoming the independent African‐ruled states of Zambia and Malawi, respectively. A blatantly white supremacist Rhodesian Front government under Ian Smith came to power in Southern Rhodesia and when refused dominion status by Britain it unilaterally declared independence (UDI) in 1965. As the federation was breaking up, ZAPU leaders split over strategy, with those wishing to mobilize international support against white Rhodesia remaining loyal to Nkomo and the more militant who wanted to lead mass protests at home hiving off to form the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) under Ndabaningi Sithole and later Robert Mugabe. These organizations were banned and African nationalist leaders, including Nkomo, Sithole, and Mugabe, were arrested and imprisoned, and others went underground or fled the country.
Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA)
Authors: Stapleton Timothy J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
What is now Zimbabwe, during the 1890s, was conquered by the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes. Subsequently, a small number of white settlers seized the best land and in 1923 acquired internal control of the colony of Southern Rhodesia. In the late 1950s and early 1960s a series of increasingly radical African nationalist organizations staged street protests against Southern Rhodesia's inclusion in the white‐dominated Central African Federation, which united the territory with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. These groups, which were banned by the state and then reformed, included the Southern Rhodesian African National Congress (SRANC), National Democratic Party (NDP), and Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), all of which had been led by Joshua Nkomo. In 1963 the federation broke up, with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland becoming the independent African‐ruled states of Zambia and Malawi, respectively. At the end of the federal period, ZAPU leaders split over strategy, with those wishing to mobilize international support against white Rhodesia remaining loyal to Nkomo and the more militant who wanted to lead mass protests at home hiving off to form the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU). Subsequently, African nationalist leaders of both ZAPU and ZANU, including Nkomo, were arrested and imprisoned, and others went underground or fled the country. In 1965 Salisbury's Rhodesian Front government under Ian Smith, determined to maintain settler dominance, unilaterally declared independence (UDI) as Britain had refused to grant dominion status without the prospect of future majority rule.
Microwave‐Assisted Synthesis, Hypolipidemic and Hypoglycemic Activity of Some Novel 2‐(4‐(2‐Amino‐6‐(4‐substituted phenyl)‐pyrimidin‐4‐yl)‐phenoxy)‐2‐methyl Propanoic Acid Derivatives
Authors: Mokale Santosh N. , Elgire Rupali D. , Sakle Nikhil S. , Shinde Devanand B. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractA novel series of aminopyrimidines containing the phenoxy isobutyric acid group as a pharmacophore was synthesized using conventional and microwave assisted methods of synthesis. The compounds were synthesized in good yields (70–89%) by the microwave‐assisted one‐pot protocol in much shorter reaction times. The synthesized compounds were evaluated for their hypolipidemic and hypoglycemic activity by high‐fat diet‐induced hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia in male Sprague‐Dawley rats. The present investigation showed significant antihyperlipidemic and antihyperglycemic activity for all compounds of the series when compared with the standard drug. Structure‐activity relationship (SAR) for the series were developed by comparing total lipid profile data of synthesized compounds with fenofibrate as standard drug.
Microfabricated particulate drug‐delivery systems
Authors: Pan Jing , Chan Sui Yung , Lee Won Gu , Kang Lifeng 
Published: November 2011

AbstractMicro‐ and nanoparticulate drug‐delivery systems (DDSs) play a significant role in formulation sciences. Most particulate DDSs are scaffold‐free, although some particles are encapsulated inside other biomaterials for controlled release. Despite rapid progress in recent years, challenges still remain in controlling the homogenicity of micro‐/nanoparticles, especially for two crucial factors in particulate DDSs: the size and shape of the particles. Recent approaches make use of microfabrication techniques to generate micro‐/nanoparticles with highly controllable architectures free of scaffolds. This review presents an overview of a burgeoning field of DDSs, which can potentially overcome some drawbacks of conventional techniques for particle fabrication and offer better control of particulate DDSs.