bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Grotius, Hugo (1583–1645)
Authors: Neff Stephen C. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Hugh de Groot (commonly Latinized as Hugo Grotius) was by no means the first legal writer to treat war in a systematic manner. John of Legnano had done so in the fourteenth century. More notably, in 1598 the Italian writer Alberico Gentili published a large treatise on the laws of war. But these works had relatively little impact on later writers, in sharp contrast to Grotius. Grotius also differed from these predecessors in carefully explaining the reasons for rules that he expounded, relating them to broader principles of natural law.
Guan Yu (d. 219) and Zhuge Liang (181–234)
Authors: Crespigny Rafe De 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

In the romantic tradition of China, the state of Shu‐Han (220–266
ce
) of the Three Kingdoms is regarded as the true heir of the Han Dynasty (206
bce
–220
ce
). In historical fact, it was the weakest of the rivals, far smaller than the empire of Wei (220–266) founded by Cao Cao (155–220), which dominated the north, and inferior also to the warlord state of Wu (220–280) founded by Sun Quan (182–252), on the lower and middle Yangzi. Shu‐Han controlled present‐day Sichuan and part of Yunnan, just one of the 12 provinces of the Han Dynasty, but its founder Liu Bei (161–223) claimed descent from the old imperial house, and many have accepted his legitimacy.
Guevara, Ernesto (“Che”) (1928–1967)
Authors: Herrera José María 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

An iconic Latin American revolutionary figure. One of the original members of Fidel Castro's successful invasion and rebellion in Cuba, Guevara gained prominence in his own right as a military and ideological leader. By the time of his death in 1967, Guevara had become the
beau idéal
of the revolutionary leader to countless leftist‐oriented youths worldwide.
Gungunhana (Gungunyane) (ca. 1850–1906)
Authors: Vandervort Bruce 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Known as the Lion of Gaza, Gungunhana, ruler of the indigenous Kingdom of Gaza in the Limpopo River Valley in the hinterland of the Portuguese East African colony of Mozambique, was one of the great figures of African resistance to European imperialism. The kingdom had been founded in the 1820s by remnants of the Ndwandwe people, who had lived between the Mkhuze and Black Mfolosi rivers in South Africa, following a crushing defeat in 1819 at the hands of a Zulu army led by Shaka Kasenzangakhona Zulu (ca. 1787–1828). The commander of the defeated army, Gungunhana's grandfather, Soshangane, led the Ndwandwe north on a long trek into the Limpopo valley. The newcomers, who would be known as Gaza Nguni (since they spoke an Nguni language very similar to that of their Zulu conquerors) or Shangane (the Portuguese called them
Vátuas
), quickly brought neighboring Chope, Ronga, and Shona peoples under their sway. Never more than a minority of the population of their new realm, the Gaza Nguni nonetheless constituted its dominant element. While their Ronga subjects became “nguniized” over time and would provide the bulk of the warriors for the army of the Gaza Kingdom, the Chope were restive under Gaza Nguni rule, which gave the Portuguese an opening to pursue a “divide and conquer” strategy in their war against Gungunhana.
Gunpowder
Authors: McLay K. A. J. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractA material which had a profound impact upon the history of warfare, gunpowder was originally developed in China during the first millennium both as the incendiary for fireworks and as propellant for catapult bombs. It arrived in the West and Europe from the mid‐thirteenth century onwards via the Middle East where Arab use had been similar to that of the Chinese. European application was, however, more closely focused on its evolution and harnessing as the principal propellant explosive in firearms and shells. European success in this regard was not exclusive, however. By the mid‐sixteenth century the principal powers of the Far East—the Chinese and the Japanese—and the Ottoman Empire had all developed and perfected the manufacture of gunpowder in weapons technology. Gunpowder's historical significance rests on its geographic diffusion and its relative longevity: its function in weapons technology across the world obtained until the late nineteenth century when it was progressively replaced by cordite.
Gurkhas
Authors: Peers Douglas M. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Gurkhas (also spelled Gorkha, Goorka, Ghoorka) are Nepalese soldiers who began serving under the British in the early nineteenth century, and following Indian Independence in 1947 continued to be recruited into the British and Indian armies (known as Gorkhas in the latter). More than two hundred thousand Gurkhas have served in the British army since the beginning of the twentieth century. The symbol with which they are most often associated is the
kukri
, as evidenced in their coat of arms. It is an 18‐inch‐long curved knife that is still carried into battle by Gurkhas. Around it has emerged an urban myth that a Gurkha would never sheath his blade without first drawing blood. While
kukris
have certainly been used as weapons, they were, according to Gurkhas, more often used for cooking.
Gwynedd, Owain (r. 1137–1170)
Authors: Brough Gideon , Marsden Richard 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Owain Gwynedd, also called Owain ap Gruffudd ap Cynan, succeeded his father as king of Gwynedd in 1137 and styled himself “King of Wales” from the early 1140s. He was an able military leader and exceptional diplomat who expanded his territories, defied King Henry II of England, built coalitions with other Welsh rulers, and opened diplomatic relations with France.
Hannibal (247–ca. 183 BCE)
Authors: Hoyos Dexter 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Eldest son of Hamilcar “Barca” (Carthage's
de facto
leader from 240 to 229
BCE
), Hannibal aged 9 went with him to Spain, where Carthage conquered its rich southern regions thanks to Hamilcar and then his son‐in‐law Hasdrubal (237–221). These new territories more than offset losing Sicily and Sardinia to Rome after the First Punic War. Hannibal was a born leader, well educated in both Punic and Greek culture. After serving under Hamilcar and Hasdrubal, he in turn became Carthage's chief general, in 221. His rapid conquest of central and northwestern Spain in 221–220 attracted Rome's previously indifferent attention, and an unsubtle Roman attempt followed to rein him in diplomatically. Viewing it as a threat, he challenged Rome by besieging her ally Saguntum on the Mediterranean coast (219).
Harris, Arthur (1892–1984)
Authors: Green Dominic 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
“Bomber” to the public, “Bert” to his friends, and “Butcher” to his crews, Marshal of the RAF Sir Arthur Travers Harris commanded Bomber Command from February 1942 to September 1945. Harris did not devise the policy of “area bombing” the industrial cities of Nazi Germany, but implemented it ruthlessly, dropping nearly a million tons of bombs, losing nearly 57,000 airmen, and killing over 600,000 German civilians. Blunt, aggressive, and utterly loyal to his crews, Harris dismissed ethical qualms as “unctuous rectitude.” Apocryphally, stopped for speeding and warned, “If you drive like that you will kill someone,” he replied, “Young man, I kill hundreds of people every night.”
Henry II, King (of England) (1133–1189)
Authors: Hosler John D. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractHenry II was the first of the Angevin kings of England. The grandson of Henry I (through his mother Matilda) and son of Count Geoffrey Plantagenet of Anjou, Henry II bested King Stephen in war and was named heir to the English throne in the 1153 Treaty of Winchester. Over the course of his 35‐year reign (1154–1189) he transformed the Anglo‐Norman kingdom into a state of tremendous wealth, power, and hitherto unheard‐of extent.
Himmler, Heinrich (1900–1945)
Authors: Ryan Joseph W. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractThe second son of Joseph Gebhard Himmler, a Munich schoolmaster and tutor to a Bavarian prince, and his devout Catholic wife Anna Maria, Heinrich Himmler grew to become a meticulous student, a lover of plants and animals, and the greatest organizer of state oppression and mass murder yet to be seen.
Hoplite warfare (Greece)
Authors: Sage Michael 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Hoplites served as heavy infantry. Their full defensive equipment consisted of a bronze helmet, a cuirass of bronze or other material, greaves, and a large, strongly convex shield three to four feet in diameter. Their main offensive weapon was a heavy thrusting spear about eight feet long with a wooden shaft and a bronze leaf‐shaped head approximately a foot in length. The spear often had a bronze butt‐spike to allow it to be set upright in the ground and for use in combat if the spear shaft shattered. In addition, they carried a short sword about two feet long as a secondary weapon. It has been estimated that the total weight of this equipment was between fifty and sixty pounds (20–27 kg).
Humanitarian action and intervention
Authors: Badsey Stephen 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Humanitarian action involves the armed forces of one or more countries entering the territory, air space, or territorial waters of another country, with the primary objective of rendering humanitarian assistance to the inhabitants, either directly or by assisting organizations whose principal role is the delivery of humanitarian assistance. A formal agreement made in Stockholm in 2003, to which many countries that practice humanitarian action were signatories, set out its objectives as “to save lives, alleviate suffering and maintain human dignity during and in the aftermath of man‐made crises and natural disasters, as well as to prevent and strengthen preparedness for the occurrence of such situations,” and its key principles as “humanity, impartiality, neutrality and independence.” Humanitarian action on a small scale is, and has been throughout history, one of the most common activities undertaken by many armed forces, ranging from assistance at sea given by navies of all nationalities, to soldiers helping with building projects. In the decade 2001–2010 the United States, the largest single practitioner of this form of humanitarian assistance, mounted on average more than five hundred military humanitarian actions a year in a hundred different countries. On this scale, humanitarian actions are largely uncontroversial, as an extension of diplomacy and international goodwill.
Hundred Years' War (1337–1453)
Authors: Rogers Clifford J. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
On May 24, 1337, Philip VI, first Valois king of France, declared he was confiscating the duchy of Aquitaine from his cousin Edward, for default of his feudal obligations. Philip knew full well that the duchy would not be tamely surrendered to him. Since Duke Edward was also King Edward III of England (1312–1377), that meant war with a major foreign power, as well as war within his own kingdom. Philip probably expected, however, that the war would be short and successful, like the three similar conflicts of the past four decades. This time was different, though: except for a brief peace that lasted from 1360 to 1369, England and France remained at war from 1337 to 1453, when the English were driven from Bordeaux for a second and final time. Even in 1453 there was no peace treaty, only a suspension of hostilities due to the impracticality of further campaigning. When Edward VI invaded France in 1475, it was in many respects a resumption of the old war, rather than the outbreak of a new one.
Hussite Crusades (1420–1431)
Authors: Fudge Thomas A. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

After the execution of Jan Hus (1415) and the refusal of his followers to submit to the Latin Church, and upon the order of Pope Martin V, a Crusade was proclaimed against the Czech heretics (1420), fulfilling a desire expressed three years earlier. The implementation was assigned to Emperor Sigismund. The imperial initiative met strong resistance. Battles fought inside Bohemia included five separate Crusade advances. These were countered decisively at Prague (1420),
Žatec (1421), Kutná Hora
and the
Sázava River Valley
(1421–1422), Tachov (1427), and Domazžlice (1431). On each occasion the Crusaders were spectacularly defeated by peasant armies commanded by Jan Žižka and later Prokop Holý. Parallels with the anti‐Cathar campaign in the thirteenth century are obvious. The goal of the Crusade was the eradication of heresy and submission to the official church, together with restored social stability and political control in the Czech lands. Crusades against Hussites are part of that medieval chapter of European history wherein the church took aim at enemies within Christendom, especially in southern France and eastern and northern Europe. Fifteenth‐century Hussitism cannot be considered Protestant.
Iphicrates (d. ca. 353
BCE
)
Authors: Krasilnikoff JENS A. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Iphicrates, citizen of Athens and demesman of Rhamnous, served as a successful and innovative general and
condottiere
from the 390s BCE almost until his death in the late 350s BCE. Iphicrates became renowned for reforming the peltast‐type of light‐armed infantry into a well‐trained, disciplined, and operational unit (Diod. 15.44.3). Iphicrates also created the fortified camp, which further improved the efficiency and maneuverability of campaigning (Polyaenus
Strat
. 3.9.17–18).
Irish Revolution (1912–1923)
Authors: Kautt W. H. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractFrom 1912 to 1923 the people of Ireland experienced a traumatic period of political unrest and violence now known as the Irish Revolution. Whilst it was not as overtly violent as others, its effects were as wide‐spread in Ireland as any other revolution. There were three constituent conflicts during this time: the 1916 Easter Rebellion, the War of Independence (1919–1921), and the Civil War (1922–1923). This era ended with the partitioning of Ireland in 1921 andthe creation of the Irish Free State in 1922.
Italo‐Abyssinian Wars (1887–1896, 1935–1936)
Authors: Finaldi Giuseppe 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
In 1885 Italy occupied the Red Sea port of Massawa. Partly to make up for the French occupation of Tunis in 1882, which many Italians thought should have been appropriated by Italy, Foreign Minister Pasquale Mancini, encouraged by the British who aimed to limit French expansion in the area, declared that “the keys to the Mediterranean,” in an infamous phrase of the Italian politician's, were to be “found in the Red Sea.” Egyptian power had collapsed along that sea's coast since the Mahdist rebellion in the Sudan and Britain's 1882 intervention in Egypt proper, but there is little doubt that Mancini's decision was made with an eye to Ethiopia, where for more than 20 years Italian missionaries, explorers, and emissaries had been particularly active. The occupation of Massawa, which in fact gave Italy a strip of land running almost the entire length of the territory between the Ethiopian highlands and the sea, was cause for alarm at the court of Ethiopian emperor Johannes IV, who realized an ambitious European power had replaced a decaying Egypt on his kingdom's lowland borders. For the time being Johannes banked on the Hewitt Treaty signed with Britain in 1884 and supposedly guaranteeing Ethiopian territorial invulnerability with the might of the British Empire. Johannes's vassal Menelik (king of Showa to the south and west of Johannes's territories) was more amenable to the Italians, seeking to profit from their presence to strengthen his claim to Johannes's throne. Ensconced on the Red Sea coast, the Italian military sought to make something of the uneasy relationship between emperor and vassal, favoring Menelik with arms, ammunition, and flattering embassies.
Ivan IV (“the Dread,” “the Terrible”) (1530–1584)
Authors: Filjushkin Alexander 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

Ivan the Terrible was grand prince of Moscow from 1533 and Russian tsar from 1547. He set both the absolute and relative record for the number of wars in which Russia participated. Throughout the 51 years of his reign, Russia was at war for 37 years—and nearly all the years of peace (1533–1547) occurred during his childhood. Between 1547 and 1584 Russia was at peace for only three years. Ivan the Terrible was not a famous military leader (he himself took part in some military marches, but as a sovereign, not a commander). He was a great, cruel, bloody statesman and politician. Ivan's foreign policy influenced the establishment of a domestic terrorist regime in Russia in 1565–1572, the so‐called
oprichnina
. Some believe that
oprichnina
was intended to mobilize all human and material resources for continuation of the Livonian War. Terror was the chief tool of this effort. Some operations within the country looked like military campaigns against its own population (e.g., the attack on Greater Novgorod in 1569–1570).
Jackson, Andrew (1767–1845)
Authors: Holden Reid Brian 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The paradoxes of the career of Major General Jackson, seventh president of the United States (1829–1837), are represented in his heroic equestrian statue in New Orleans. Napoleonic and grand, it is not cold and imposing. Jackson's career combined the values of aristocrat and pioneer, regular and volunteer, imperious proconsul and humble servant of the people. The usually disapproving Mrs. Trollope caught sight of him in 1829 and wrote in her Domestic Manners of the Americans (1832) that he looked like a “gentleman and a soldier” but felt appalled by his approachability. Born on March 15, 1767, this “first generation aristocrat” from Waxhaw, South Carolina, was the son of a draper.
Jacobite Rising (1745–1746)
Authors: Marsden Richard 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The rising of 1745–1746 against the Hanoverian government of Britain was the last military manifestation of Jacobitism. This movement supported a Stuart restoration following the “Glorious Revolution” of 1688, in which James II was deposed and replaced by William III. Unsuccessful Jacobite risings and abortive French and Spanish invasion attempts had occurred in 1689–1690, 1715, and 1719. Invasions and rebellions had also been planned but abandoned in 1708 and 1744–1745. Following this last cancellation by the French, Charles Edward Stuart, grandson of James II, decided to win back the throne without foreign support.
James I of Aragon (Jaime, “the Conqueror”) (1208–1276)
Authors: Smith Damian J. 
Published: November 2011

AbstractOne of the great military leaders of the Spanish Reconquest and the longest‐reigning king of the Middle Ages, James became king at the age of 5 when his father, Peter II (r. 1196–1213), having been drawn into the Albigensian Crusade, was defeated and killed at the Battle of Muret. An orphan, in the hands of his enemies, with his kingdom facing financial collapse and factions forming throughout his land, James survived through the loyalty of some of his barons, the efforts of Pope Innocent III (r. 1198–1216), and through sound administration and fiscal management, where Templars and Jews played a notable part.
Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai‐shek) (1887–1975)
Authors: Reist Katherine 
Published: November 2011

AbstractJiang Jieshi is best known as the leader of the Guomindang party and government from the mid 1920s to his death in 1975. His reputation as a military leader began with his attempts to unify China and reduce or eliminate the provisions of the unequal treaties. The Guomindang was organized initially for one‐party rule, which was to lead to a democratic system. Under Jiang, the one‐party rule continued, indeed became at times the domination of a single individual and his ideas. Such domination was not without challenge by a number of factions within the party, several smaller parties, and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). With foreign advisors Jiang was able to consolidate control of much of China during the warlord era (1916–1927). He led the government through the War of Resistance to Japan (1937–1945) and was recognized as one of the Big Four at the Cairo Conference during the war. Frictions with American advisors and the success of the United States Pacific campaign reduced the importance of the Chinese theater in overall Allied strategy. Post‐war, Jiang had to reoccupy territory lost to the Japanese, arrange the repatriation of Japanese military and civilians, revive a devastated economy, both industrial and agricultural, and prevent the CCP from further expanding their bases of operations. He would later attempt to defeat them militarily in the civil war (1946–1949). He lost prestige and power in the post‐war conflicts, taking many loyal troops and officials to Taiwan where he reestablished the Republic of China, again serving as president until his death.
Jinchuan campaigns (1747–1776)
Authors: Dai Yingcong 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
The two Jinchuan campaigns were fought between the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) of China and the Gyalrong tribes on the north‐western marches of Sichuan province in the mid‐eighteenth century. The first Jinchuan campaign (1747–1749) was inconclusive, although the belligerent chieftain of Great Jinchuan surrendered to the Qing. The second Jinchuan campaign (1770–1776) lasted for nearly six years and ended with the complete Qing conquest of the Jinchuan area. It was the most expensive war that the Qing Dynasty had ever fought in its frontier expansion.
Joan of Arc (1412–1431)
Authors: Fudge Thomas A. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract
Born at Domrémy around 1412, Joan became a famous military leader by age 17. Her career was extraordinary. From age 13 she heard voices, ostensibly Saints Michael, Catherine, and Margaret. This phenomenon continued throughout her life. These alleged spiritual visitations made Joan the recipient of instructions propelling her into major political and military affairs. Joan became convinced she had a divine mandate. The context of her life was shaped by the Hundred Years' War and the protracted papal schism. The former was a complex event fraught with political and military problems, a struggle between the French and English. Her meteoric career helped create a posthumous mythology that has understood Joan as a religious figure, saint, heretic, witch, nationalist, and feminist. Chiefly, she was a military personality.
Joffre, Marshal Joseph (1852–1931)
Authors: Prete Roy A. 
Published: November 2011

Abstract

French World War I general, famous for victory in the Battle of the Marne, September 9, 1914. Joseph Jacques‐Césaire Joffre was born in Rivesaltes, France (near Pau) in 1852, the son of a prosperous barrelmaker of peasant ancestry. Joffre entered the École Polytechnique in Paris in 1869 at age 17. His education was interrupted for a year by the Franco‐Prussian War, for which he was marshaled but did not see action. Upon completion of an additional term at the École Polytechnique in 1871 (his class emerged
non‐breveté
), he served for several years as a military engineer, upgrading and constructing fortresses in northern France. He was promoted to captain in 1876.